EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION TRACK

The psychological foundations of education track is housed within the Department of Educational Psychology, which is itself housed in the College of Education and Human Development. Students are admitted to the educational psychology graduate program in the psychological foundations track for either the master of arts (M.A.) or doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) program. Applicants need not hold a master's degree to apply to the doctoral program. The PsyF track is affiliated with the Quantitative methods in education (QME) track within the department of educational psychology. Psychological Foundations focuses on the psychological underpinnings of high-level cognition and learning throughout the lifespan, particularly in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) domains and reading: scientific reasoning, technologies that support learning, mathematical problem solving, reading, and language comprehension. Cognitive, developmental, and social approaches are implemented in diverse settings ranging from the laboratory to the classroom. Graduate training combines coursework that provides a solid disciplinary grounding, advanced seminars, and an apprenticeship model where students and faculty collaborate on novel research projects. The program prepares graduates to take leadership positions as faculty, as research scientists at universities and companies, and in human service organizations, health care units, and government agencies.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Since the founding of the College of Education, the study of psychological and social foundations of education has been integrated into the required coursework for K-12 education majors as such knowledge is an essential and fundamental component of teacher preparation. The current vision of the department is to become a national model for the preparation of culturally sensitive and competent, technologically sophisticated, and multi-talented teachers, researchers, theorists, practitioners and educators, and educational leaders who are able to successfully resolve complex issues faced by individuals, families, and institutions.

Early Organization of the Programs

In 1964, faculty members in the foundation program areas were: Drs. Christian Anderson, Lou Anderson, and Les Tuttle. In 1965, Dean Battle formed the Division of Foundations and Related Areas and appointed 1

Dr. Les Tuttle to serve as the chair. The department included the following programs and coordinators: Guidance, Dr. Bill Bott; Psychological Foundations, Dr. Walter Musgrove; Special Education, Dr. Leonard Lucito; Social Foundations, Dr. Christian Anderson; and Research, Dr. Doug Stone.

Current Organization of the Programs

The current Department of Psychological and Social Foundations consists of five distinct program areas: College Student Affairs, Counselor Education, Educational Psychology, School Psychology and Social Foundations and is committed to the development and support of high quality programs for the preparation of outstanding scholars, teacher practitioners, and leadership professionals for schools, colleges, and other educational and human service institutions. The department values diversity in research methodology and topics, collaboration to enhance research and professional practice, high quality mentoring of students and faculty, and enhancing cultural competence among students, faculty and staff. A major goal of the department is to create a context in which high quality research and scholarship by faculty and students contributes to the solution of practical problems in educational, community and other human service contexts. The 33 faculty members in the department represent many of the finest research extensive universities in North America including Florida State, Harvard, Lehigh, State University of New York at Buffalo, Syracuse, University of Alberta, University of Florida, University of Illinois, University of Minnesota, University of North Carolina, University of Pennsylvania, and the University of Texas at Austin.

Psychological and Social Foundations Programs

The Guidance Program
The Guidance Program in the College of Education was founded in 1964 by Dr. William Bott, the first faculty member hired in the College of Education. The Guidance Program was in the Division of Foundations and Related Areas from 1965 to 1970. Later the Psychological and Social Foundations of Education Department became its permanent home. From 1960 to 1968, the program was able to offer courses in guidance for K-12 teachers in the USF service area, but not a degree. In 1968, the program area was able to offer a masters degree in School Guidance Counseling with the permission by the Florida Board of Control for the USF College of Education to offer masters degree programs. The early faculty members who joined the Guidance Program, in addition to Dr. Bott were: Dr. Coleen Story (1965), Dr. Ray Patouillet (1967), Dr. Ed Panther (1968), Dr. Tom Karns (1967), Dr. Don Ferguson (1969), Dr. Victor Drapela, (1969) and Dr. Sue Street (1975). The above faculty members were the mainstay of the Guidance Program for many years as they prepared teachers for guidance positions for the K-12 programs of Florida. 2

The program was re-named Counselor Education in 1979 and continues to prepare counselors for school settings at the masters, Ed.S., and Ph. D. levels. The current 2006 Counselor Education Program, which evolved from the original Guidance Program, has a multicultural/social justice and advocacy/evidenced-based practices focus and remains the largest producer of school counselors in Florida. The program is CACREP accredited and aligned with NCATE, Florida Department of Education and Florida Department of Health standards. Current enrollment is approximately 151 students, 84% of whom are women, 9% African American, and 9% Latino. The pass rate for Counselor Preparation Comprehensive Examination in 2006 was 100%, and employment for 2006 graduates was also 100%. The program has seven faculty members, two of whom are fluent in English and Spanish. Current faculty members include Dr. Jennifer Baggerly, Dr. Herbert A. Exum (Program Coordinator), Dr. Michelle Mitcham-Smith, Dr. Debora Osborn, Dr. Sue Street, Dr. Marylou Taylor, and Dr. Carlos Zalaquett.

Educational Psychology
In 1968, the Psychological Foundations Program was established and faculty members in the program included: Dr. Christian Anderson, Dr. Louis Anderson, Dr. Wade Burley, Dr. John Follman, Dr. James Dickinson, Dr. Ellen Kimmel, Dr. Joel Macht, Dr. Walter Musgrove, and Dr. Martin Wong. Dr. Donald Lantz served as the coordinator of Psychological Foundations Program at that time. The program has since been named the Educational Psychology Program. The mission of the program is to teach future teachers the application of research findings to the education of young children. A major goal of the program is to help future teachers to understand child development, how children learn, and the importance of using research-based practices in the classroom. The program currently has five faculty members who are recognized by major early childhood professional organizations such as the National Association of the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), Head Start, Even Start, and the North American Reggio Emilia Alliance. During 2005, the program received a five-year research award from the National Institute of Health (NIH) for 2.9 million dollars as well as a $5,000 starter grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). The program also offers a cognate in educational psychology for doctoral students. Dr. Darrel Bostow retired from the program in 2006, and the current remaining faculty members include Dr. Darlene DeMarie (Program Coordinator), Dr. Lisa Lopez, Dr. Kofi Marfo, Dr. Richard Marshall, Dr. Smita Mathur, and Dr. Tony Tan.

College Student Affairs Masters Degree Program

College Student Affairs was established in 1997 through the efforts of Dr. Ellen Kimmel and Dr. Wilma Henry as a collaborative program between the College of Education and the Division of Student Affairs. The mission of the program then and now is preparing entry- and mid-level Student Affairs professionals through a theory-to-practice model. College Student Affairs is a full-time, fully-funded masters program that admits 25 new students each year. Current program enrollment is 46 with 69% women, 17% Latino, and 17% African Americans. In May 2006, 25 students graduated from the program demonstrating a 100% retention rate. The program has enjoyed a 100% job placement rate over the past five years with graduates finding employment at prestigious institutions such as Duke, UNC-Chapel Hill, UC-Berkley, MIT, and Penn State University. Current alumni are employed in universities in approximately 35 states as well around the world. Current faculty members include Dr. Wilma Henry (Coordinator), Dr. Thomas Miller, and Dr. Harold Nixon.

School Psychology Program

The School Psychology Program was initiated in 1968 with Dr. Walter Musgrove as Coordinator and Dr. Glenn Geiger as the second faculty member in the program. Dr. James Barnard with degrees in special education and psychology joined the program in the early 1970s, moving from the Exceptional Child Education Department. The program was enhanced and reorganized in 1977 and has approximately 70 fulltime students. The current program offers the Educational Specialist (Ed.S.) and the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees. Both degrees qualify students for the professional practice of school psychology, and both meet all accreditation standards for the American Psychological Association, the National Association of School Psychologists and NCATE. The School Psychology program has seven faculty members and has brought in over $5 million since 1990 in federal and state grants and is generally considered one of the top school psychology programs in the country. Two faculty members are past-presidents of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), and one is a Fellow of the School Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association.

Social Foundations
The Social Foundations of Education Program faculty has taught a required undergraduate course, Social Foundations of Education, to every College of Education graduate since 1960. Graduate level courses in Social Foundations of Education have also been provided for masters degree, Ed. S. degree, and doctoral candidates in the College since 1960.

Bozidar Muntyan became a faculty member in the Social Foundations Program in 1966 and served as Coordinator from 1968 to 1972. Other early faculty members included: Erwin V. Johanningmeier, George Kincaid, Charles Manker, Roy Mumme, and Wayne Urban. The mission of the current program in Social Foundations is to educate future teachers about schooling rather than teaching. Specifically, the program addresses the social, economic, and political purposes of schooling and how various social, economic and political developments affect how schools function. The seven faculty within the program examine what is expected of schools by the public, how those expectations either complement or hinder education, and how those purposes and expectations affect the teachers and students in schools. They also explore the extra-school education of students, the diverse cultures and family practices, structures, and styles that students bring to the school because the educational configuration will continue to change as the demographic characteristics of the nation continue to change. The program offers an interdisciplinary Ph.D. degree. Current faculty members include Dr. Deirdre CobbRoberts, Dr. Sherman Dorn, Dr. Erwin Johanningmeier (Program Coordinator), Dr. Jerome Leavy, Dr. Lynn McBrien, Dr. Tomas Rodriguez, and Dr. Barbara Shircliffe.

Department Chairs
Chairs of the Psychological and Social Foundations of Education Department have included: Dr. Donald Lantz, Dr. James Dickinson, Dr. John Follman, Dr. James Banard, Dr. Mike Curtis, Dr. Harold Keller, and Dr. Herbert Exum currently serving as Interim Chair.

JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

To possess all the world of knowledge and lose ones own self is as awful a fate in education as in religion. ~John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, (in Cahn, p. 278)

The logically formulated material of a science or branch of learning, of a study, is no substitute for the having of individual experiences. ~John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, (in Cahn, p. 283) what concerns him, as teacher, is the ways in which that subject may become a part of experience; what there is in the childs present that is usable with reference to it; how such elements are to b used; how his own knowledge of the subject-matter may assist in the interpreting the childs needs and doings, and determine the medium in which the child should be placed in order that his growth may be properly directed. ~John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, (in Cahn, p. 284) Somehow and somewhere motive must be appealed to, connection must be established between the mind and its material. ~John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, (in Cahn, p. 286) If the subject-matter of the lessons be such as to have an appropriate place within the expanding consciousness of the child, if it grows out of his own past doings, thinkings, and sufferings, and grows into application in further achievements and receptivities, then no device or trick of method has to be resorted to in order to enlist interest. ~John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, (in Cahn, p. 286) In order to have a large number of values in common, all the members of the group must have an equable opportunity to receive and to take from others. There must be a large variety of shared undertakings and experiences. Otherwise, the influences which educate some into masters, educate others into slaves. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 291) Obviously, a society to which stratification into separate classes would be fatal, must see to it that intellectual opportunities are accessible to all on equable and easy terms. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 293) While [Plato] affirmed with emphasis that the place of the individual in society should not be determined by birth or wealth or any conventional status, but by his own nature as discovered in the process of education, he had no perception of the uniqueness of individuals. For him they fall by nature into classes, and a very small number of classes at that. Consequently the testing and sifting function of education only shows to which one of the three classes an individual belongs. There being no recognition that each individual constitutes his own class, there could be no recognition of the infinite diversity of active tendencies and combinations of tendencies of
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which an individual is capable. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 294) It is not enough to see to it that education is not actively used as an instrument to make easier the exploitation of one class by another. School facilities must be secured of such amplitude and efficiency as will in fact and not simply in name discount the effects of economic inequalities, and secure to all the wards of the nation equality of equipment for their future careers. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 300) A good aim surveys the present state of experience of pupils, and forming a tentative plan of treatment, keeps the plan constantly in view and yet modifies it as conditions develop. The aim, in short, is experimental, and hence constantly growing as it is tested in action. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 305) The vice of externally imposed ends has deep roots. Teachers receive them from superior authorities; these authorities accept them from what is current in the community. The teachers impose them upon children. As a first consequence, the intelligence of the teacher is not free; it is confined to receiving the aims laid down from above. Too rarely is the individual teacher so free from the dictation of authoritative supervisor, textbook on methods, prescribed course of study, etc., that he can let his mind come to close quarters with the pupils mind and the subject matter. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 308) In education, the currency of these externally imposed aims is responsible for the emphasis put upon the notion of preparation of a remote future and for rendering the work of both teacher and pupil mechanical and slavish. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 309) Thinking which is not connected with increase in efficiency in action, and with learning more about ourselves and the world in which we life, has something the mater with it just as thought. . . .And skill obtained apart from thinking is not connected with any sense of the purposes for which it is to be used. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 309) Is there anything but a problem? Does the question naturally suggest itself within some situation of personal experience? . . . Is it the pupils own problem, or is it the teachers or textbooks problem, made a problem for the pupil only because he cannot get the required mark or be promoted to win the teachers approval, unless he deals with it? ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 311)
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A pupil has a problem, but it is the problem of meeting the peculiar requirements set by the teacher. His problem becomes that of finding out what the teacher wants, what will satisfy the teacher in recitation and examination and outward deportment. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 312) Knowledge, in the sense of information, means the working capital, the indispensable resources, of further inquiry; of finding out, or learning, more things. Frequently it is treated as an end itself, and then the goal becomes to heap it up and display it when called for. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 313) In such shared activity, the teacher is learner, and the learner is, without knowing it, a teacherand upon the whole, the les consciousness there is, on either side, of either giving or receiving instruction, the better. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 315) Since the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely inherited traditional matter and with subjects which represent mainly the energy of some influential person or group of persons in behalf of something dear to them, it requires constant inspection, criticism, and revision to make sure it is accomplishing its purpose. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 319) Just because the studies of the curriculum represent standard factors in social life, they are organs of initiation into social values. ~John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (in Cahn, p. 323) It is worth while, accordingly, to say something about the way in which the adult can exercise the wisdom his own wider experience gives him without imposing a merely external control. On one side, it is his business to be on the alert to see what attitudes and habitual tendencies are being created. In this direction he must, if he is an educator, be ale to judge what attitudes are actually conducive to continued growth and what are detrimental. He must, in addition, have that sympathetic understanding of individuals as individuals which gives him an idea of what is actually going on in the minds of those who are learning. ~John Dewey, Experience and Education, (in Cahn, p. 337) The most important attitude that can be formed is that of desire to go on learning. ~John Dewey, Experience and Education, (in Cahn, p. 342)
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The educator more than the member of any other profession is concerned to have a long look ahead. John Dewey, Experience and Education, (in Cahn, p. 355) The way out of scholastic systems that made the past an end in itself is to make acquaintance with the past as a means of understanding the present. John Dewey, Experience and Education, (in Cahn, p. 356) We take that to be true which we should like to have so, and ideas that go contrary to our hopes and wishes have difficulty in getting lodgment. ~John Dewey, How We Think It requires troublesome work to undertake the alteration of old beliefs. Selfconceit often regards it as a sign of weakness to admit that a belief to which we have once committed ourselves is wrong. ~John Dewey, How We Think There is no greater enemy of effective thinking than divided interest. ~John Dewey, How We Think A genuine enthusiasm is an attitude that operates as an intellectual force. A teacher who arouses such an enthusiasm in his pupils has done something that no amount of formalized method, no matter how correct, can accomplish. ~John Dewey, How We Think They tend to become intellectually irresponsible; they do not ask for the meaning of what they learn, in the sense of what difference it makes to the rest of their beliefs and to their actions. ~John Dewey, How We Think Teaching may be compared to selling commodities. No one can sell unless someone buys. We should ridicule a merchant who said that he had sold a great many goods although no one had bought any. But perhaps there are teachers who think that they have done a good days teaching irrespective of what pupils have learned. ~John Dewey, How We Think ARISTOTLE (384-324 B.C.)

kings have no marked superiority over their subjectsit is obviously necessary on many grounds that all the citizens alike should take their turn of governing and being governed. Equality consists in the same treatment of similar persons, and no government can stand which is not founded upon justice. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VII, #14 (in Cahn, p. 143) All these points the statesman should keep in view when he frames his laws; he should consider the parts of the soul and their functions, and above all the better and the end; he should also remember the diversities of human lives and actions. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VII, #14 (in Cahn, p. 135) we always like best whatever comes first. And therefore youth should be kept strangers to all that is bad, and especially to things which suggest vice or hate. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VII, #17 (in Cahn, p. 137) No one will doubt that the legislator should direct his attention above all to the education of youth; for the neglect of education does harm to the constitution. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VIII, #1 (in Cahn, p. 137) And since the whole city has one end, it is manifest that education should be one and the same for all, and that it should be public, and not private not as at present, when everyone looks after his own children separately, and gives them separate instruction of the sort which he thinks best; the training in things which are of common interest should be the same for allIn this particular as in some others the Lacedaemonians are to be praised, for they take the greatest pains about their children, and make education the business of the state. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VIII, #1 (in Cahn, p. 137) Neither is it clear whether education is more concerned with intellectual or moral excellence. The existing practice is perplexing; no one knows on what principle we should proceed should the useful in life, or should excellence, or should the higher knowledge, be the aim of our training? ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VIII, #2 (in Cahn, p. 138) And parents who devote their children to gymnastics while they neglect their necessary education, in reality make them mechanics; for they make them useful to the art of statesmanship in one quality only, and even in this the argument proves them to be inferior to the others. ~Aristotle, Politics, Book VIII, #4 (in Cahn, p. 140) Back to Top of Page JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
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I think I may say, that, of all the men we meet with, nine parts of the ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. It is that which makes the great difference in mankind. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #1 (in Cahn, p. 145) the difference to be found in the manners and abilities of men is owing more to their education than to anything else; we have reason to conclude, that great care is to be had of the forming childrens minds, and given them that seasoning early, which shall influence their lives always after. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #32 (in Cahn, p. 145) I consider them as children, who must be tenderly used, who must play, and have play things. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #39 (in Cahn, p. 146) For I am very apt to think, that great severity of punishment does but very little good; nay, great harm in education: and I believe it will be found, that, those children who have been most chastised, seldom make the best men. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #43 (in Cahn, p. 148) he that has found a way how to keep up a childs spirit, easy, active, and free; and yet, at the same time, to restrain him from many things he has a mid to, and to draw him to things that are uneasy to him; he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these seeming contradictions, has, in my opinion, got the true secret of education. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #46 (in Cahn, p. 148-149) Make but few laws but see they be well observed, when once made. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #65 (in Cahn, p. 152) children are not to be taught by rules, which will be always slipping out of their memories. What you think necessary for them to do, settle in them by an indispensable practice, as often as the occasion returns; and, if it be possible, make occasions. This will beget habits in them, which, being once established, operate of themselves easily and naturally, without the assistance
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of the memory. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #66 (in Cahn, p. 152-153) God has stamped certain characters upon mens minds, which, like their shapes, may perhaps be a little mended; but can hardly be altered and transformed into the contrary. He, therefore, that is about children, should well study their natures and aptitudes. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #66 (in Cahn, p. 153) all that we can do, or should aim at, is, to make the best of what nature has givenEvery ones natural genius should be carried as far as it could ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #66 (in Cahn, p. 153) None of the things they are to learn should ever be made a burden to them, or imposed on them as a task. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #73 (in Cahn, p. 154) Curiosity in childrenis but an appetite after knowledge, and therefore out to be encouraged in themThe ways to encourage it, and keep it active and busy, are I suppose, the following: (1. Not to check or discountenance any inquiries he shall make, nor suffer them to be laughed at; but to answer all this questions, and explain the matters he desires to know, so as to make them as much intelligible to him, as suits the capacity of his age and knowledge. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #118 (in Cahn, p. 155) Wisdom: all that can be done towards it, during this unripe age, is as I have said, to accustom them to a truth and sincerity; to a submission to reason; and, as much as may be, to reflection on their own actions. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #140 (in Cahn, p. 157) Novelty alone takes them; whatever that presents, they are presently eager to have a taste of, and are as soon satiated with it. They quickly grow weary of the same thing, and so have almost their whole delight in change and variety. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #167 (in Cahn, p. 158) It is impossible children should learn anything whilst their thoughts are possessed and disturbed with any passion, especially fear, which makes the strongest impression on their yet tender and weak spirits. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #167 (in Cahn, p. 159) I am apt to think perverseness in the pupils is so often the effect of the forwardness of the tutor. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #167 (in Cahn, p. 160)
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Each mans mind has some peculiarity, as well as his face, that distinguishes him from all others; and there are possible scarce two children, who can be conducted by exactly the same method. ~John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, #216 (in Cahn, p. 160) Back to Top of Page JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

A man left entirely to himself from birth would be the most misshapen of creatures. Prejudices, authority, necessity, example, the social institutions in which we are immersed, would crush out nature in him without putting anything in its place. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book I (in Cahn, p. 163) Plants are fashioned by cultivation, men by education. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book I (in Cahn, p. 163) The education that comes from men is the only one within our control ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book I (in Cahn, p. 163) Your first duty is to be humane. Love childhood. Look with friendly eyes on its games, its pleasures, its amiable dispositions. Which of you does not sometimes look back regretfully on the age when laughter was ever on the lips of the heart free of care? Why steal from the little innocents the enjoyments of a time that passes all too quickly? ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 166) A reasonable man is the masterwork of a good education. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 169) Nature wants children to be children before they are men. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 169) Treat your pupil according to his age. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 169)
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Avoid verbal lessons with your pupil. They only kind of lesson he should get is that of experience. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 169) Remember that before you dare undertake the making of a man you must be a man yourself. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 171) Be virtuous and good yourselves, and the examples you set will impress themselves on your pupils memories, and in due season will enter their hearts ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 173) We would say that at any rate he had enjoyed his childhood and that nothing we had done had deprived him of what nature gave. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book II (in Cahn, p. 174) If he never made mistakes he would never learn properly. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 175) It is not a question of teaching him the sciences, but of giving him a taste for them, and methods of acquiring them when this taste is better developed. This is most certainly a fundamental principle in all good education... ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 175) When children foresee their needs their intelligence has made real progress. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 175) Our real teachers are experience and feeling, and no one ever appreciates what is proper to manhood till he enters into its situations. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 175) You can be sure that he will learn more from an hours work than he would remember after a days explanations. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 178) We have made him an efficient thinking being and nothing further remains for us in the production of a complete man but to make him a loving, sensitive being: in fact, to perfect reason through sentiment. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 179) Emile, who has been compelled to learn for himself and use his reason, has a limited knowledge, but the knowledge he has is his own, none of it halfknown. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book III (in Cahn, p. 180)
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The proper study of a man is that of his relationshipsWhen he comes to consciousness of himself as a moral being he should study himself in his relations with his fellows. This is the occupation of his whole life ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 182) the facts described in history never give an exact picture of what actually happened. They change form in the historians head. They get moulded by his interests and take on the hue of his prejudicesIgnorance or partisanship distorts everything. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 183) Make him fell it for himself, or he will never learn it. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 184) I have taught Emile to live his own life, and more than that to earn his own bread. But that is not enough. To live in a world one must get on with people and know how to get a hold on them. It is necessary also to be able to estimate the action and reaction of individual interests in civil society and so forecast events as to be rarely at fault in ones enterprises. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 185) Let him help poor people with money and with service, and get justice for the oppressed. Active benevolence will lead him to reconcile the quarrels of his comrades and to be concerned about the sufferings of the afflicted. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 185) it is necessary to live in numerous social groups and make many comparisons. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book IV (in Cahn, p. 188) anyone who only knows the people among whom he lives does not know mankind. ~Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Book V (in Cahn, p. 193)

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (May 2010) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (September 2011)

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Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US and Canada as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist." Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.[1]

Social, moral and cognitive development

An abacus provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts. To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.

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For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.[2] Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a nave understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying. Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[3] in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[4] Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.[5]

[edit] Senses of seriousness and of fantasy

A child must learn to develop a sense of seriousness, an ability to distinguish degrees of seriousness as it relates to transgressions and expenditure of time; for example, a child must learn to distinguish between levels of seriousness in admonitions such as between "don't fidget" and "don't forget to look both ways when crossing the street," which have the same linguistic and normative structure, but different levels of seriousness.[6][7]

17

[edit] Individual differences and disabilities

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from predisposition, learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include mental retardation, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.[2] Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence,[8] multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences[9]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC[10] are widely used in economically-developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.[11]

[edit] Learning and cognition

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long-term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery.[12] One study found that university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested ten years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%.[13] There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge 18

acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer occurs.[14] Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of far transfer is scarce,[15][16] while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific domains.[17] Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitive theory, and constructivism. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives.

[edit] Behavioral perspective

Applied behavior analysis, a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[18] For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.[19][20] Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[21] But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.[22][23] Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.

[edit] Cognitive perspective

Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally-related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.[24]

19

Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover[25] demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed). The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education.[26] For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).[25] Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information.[27] Problem solving, regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the students representations of the text are present during working memory. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the readers representations of the working memory they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.
[28]

The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as

supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem solving.

[edit] Developmental perspective

Main article: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students 20

acquire knowledge and develop skills which are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.[29] In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.[30][31] Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis--vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.[31][32] Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.[33][34]

[edit] Social cognitive perspective

Main article: Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist Albert Bandura. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called social learning theory, Bandura emphasized the process of observational learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy, which 21

played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior. An experiment by Schunk and Hanson,[35] that studied grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning subtraction, illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then participated in the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behaviors. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy. Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of self-regulated learning (SRL) and metacognition. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analyzing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners who are better at goalsetting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and self-efficacy;[36] and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement.[37]

[edit] Constructivist perspective

Main article: Constructivism Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.

[edit] Motivation
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and 22

intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner[38] describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance. Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks.[39] Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing. Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and '80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.[40] Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.[41]

[edit] Research methodology

The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both research 23

design and data analysis. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have internal, external and ecological validity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both quantitative and qualitative methods.[40]

[edit] Quantitative methods

Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a normal distribution. Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of factor analysis by Charles Spearman. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many multivariate statistical methods used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores.[42] Over 100 years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology journals. Because educational assessment is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of psychometrics. For example, alpha, the widely used measure of test reliability was developed by educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on classical test theory, item response theory and Rasch models are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses. Meta-analysis, the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative literature review, is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, effect sizes that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best estimate of the effect of 24

treatment.[43] Several decades after Pearson's work with early versions of meta-analysis, Glass[44] published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research. Other quantitative research issues associated with educational psychology include the use of nested research designs (e.g., a student nested within a classroom, which is nested within a school, which is nested within a district, etc.) and the use of longitudinal statistical models to measure change.

[edit] Qualitative methods

Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from anthropology, sociology or sociolinguistics. For example, the anthropological method of ethnography has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a participant observer or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as grounded theory. Triangulation, the practice of crosschecking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research. Case studies are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study,[45] researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured interview with a 20-yearold woman who had a history of suicidal thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audiorecording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, identity formation and social attachment in ending her suicidal thinking. Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, focus groups, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is protocol analysis.[46] In this method the research participant is asked to think aloud while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis[47] does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their mental model or misconceptions (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. Conversation analysis and discourse analysis, sociolinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and 25

student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning.[48] Qualitative methods are also used to analyze information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and concept maps, video-recorded interactions, and computer log records.

[edit] Applications in instructional design and technology

Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain[49] Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues.[49] Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom[50] discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. Gagn, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives[51] connected by prerequisite relations.

Intelligent tutoring system Educational technology John R. Anderson Cognitive tutor Cooperative learning Collaborative learning Problem-based learning Computer-supported collaborative learning William Winn Constructive alignment

26

[edit] Applications in teaching

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families.[52] Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacherstudent and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.[53] Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively-oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education.

Special education Lesson plan

[edit] History
[edit] Before 1890
Modern educational psychologists are not the first to analyze educational processes. Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s. Juan Vives (1492-1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature[54]. He was one of the first to emphasize that the location of the school is important to learning.[55] He suggested that the school should be located away from 27

disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers.[55] Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.[55] He also supported the education of women[54]. Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) emphasized the child rather than the content of the school.[56] He spoke out against the method of rote memorization as the method for learning and suggested direct observation as a better way of learning.[56] He used object teaching, which means when teaching the teacher should proceed gradually from the concrete objects to the abstract and complex material[54]. He believed that the relationship between the teacher and the child was important in providing a basis for the education of the child.[56] He also was interested in the education of poor children. He was the first to establish an elementary school. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1853) is the founder of the kindergarten movement, which combined work and play to teach children responsibility and cooperation.[56] Johann Herbart (1776-1841) is considered the father of educational psychology.[57] He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.[57] He thought that teachers should consider the students existing mental sets, what they already know, when presenting new information or material.[57] Herbart came up with what is now known as the formal steps. They are 5 steps that teachers should use are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Review material that has already been learned by the teacher [57] Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next [57] Present the new material.[57] Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.[57] Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.[57]

[edit] 1890-1920
The period of 1890-1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology where aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840-1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States[54]. This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island[54]. Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.[54] Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that: Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality.[58] 28

James is the father of psychology in America but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, James defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior[58]. He states that teachers should train the pupil to behavior[58] so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.[58] He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas. Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.[54] In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.[54] This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.[54] Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that abnormality could be cured.[54] The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between normal children and those with developmental disabilities.[54] Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.[54] He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.[54] He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.[54] Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.[57] The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.[54] In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.[57] Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.[54] Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect. The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and all the principles of learning apply to all mammals. Thorndikes research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if 29

the subjects are similar.[54] This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.[54] Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus response patterns a person had rather than a general intellectual ability.[54] He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used.[54] The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users maturity level.[54] He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions.[54] Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory. He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence[54]. He developed test that were standardized to measure performance in school related subjects.
[54]

His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a mulitdimensional

approach to intelligence and the first to use a ratio scale.[54] His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning: If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[59] John Dewey (1859-1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.[54] He pushed for the creation of practical class that could be applied outside of a school setting.[54] He also thought that education should be student-oriented not subject-oriented. For Dewey education was social that helped bring together generations of people. He states that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation and problem solving and inquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think he emphasizes that material should be provided in way that is stimulating and interesting to the student and it encourages original thoughts and problem solving.[60] He also stated that material should be relative to the students own experience.[60] "The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"[60] Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed the theory of cognitive development.[54] The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 years old to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 years old to 10 years old, and formal operational stage from 11 years old and up.[54] He also believed that learning was constrained to the childs cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid

30

attention to in education.[54] Most of the research on Piagetian theory was mainly tested and done by American educational psychologists

[edit] 1920-Present
The amount of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 19201960.[54] Because of very little jobs available to the teens coming out of eighth grade there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s .[54] The progressive movement in the United State took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.[54] In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education.[57] From the 1960s to present day educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.[54] Jerome Bruner was the first to apply the cognitive approaches in educational psychology.[54] He was the one who introduced the ideas of Jean Piaget into educational psychology. He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows the student to question, explore and experiment.[54] In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning.[54] He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the students understanding of the subject and it is the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand.[54] In the early 1960s Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to schoolchildren, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man a Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science.[54] The program explored human evolution and social behavior. He also helped with the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.[54] Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago where he worked in the department of education.[54] He believed that all students can learn. He developed taxonomy of educational objectives.[54] The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think.[61] It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex.[61] The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.[61] The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.[61] The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and 31

internalizing values.[61] The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement and coordination and has 7 categories, that also goes from simplest to complex.[61] The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.[61] The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.[54] The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally then in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from training of the teachers to the development of testing material.[54] Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses.[54] Bloom also did research on college students and their problem solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.[54] Nathaniel Gage is important in educational psychology because he did research to improve teaching and understand the processes involved in teaching.[54] In 1963 he was the editor of the Handbook of Research on Teaching, which became an influential book in educational psychology. The handbook helped set up research on teaching and made research on teaching important to educational psychology.[54] He also was influential in the founding of the Stanford Center for Research and Development in teaching, which not only contributed important research on teaching but also influenced the teaching of important educational psychologists.[54]

[edit] Careers in educational psychology

[edit] Education and training
A person may be considered an educational psychologist after completing a graduate degree in educational psychology or a closely-related field. Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in k12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master's and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher 32

consultation, and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students. In the UK, status as a Chartered Educational Psychologist is gained by completing:

an undergraduate degree in psychology permitting registration with the British Psychological Society two or three years experience working with children, young people and their families. a three-year professional doctorate in educational psychology.

The previous requirement to train and work for two years as a teacher has now been abandoned.

[edit] Employment outlook

Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 1826%. One in four psychologists are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.[62] In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.[63] The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%.

[edit] Research journals

There are several peer-reviewed research journals in educational psychology tracked by Journal Citation Reports. The most highly-cited journals related to educational psychology are currently Child Development and Educational Psychologist.

[edit] See also Abnormal psychology

Main article: Abnormal psychology Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to the study unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, including that which can be understood to represent mental disorder. Abnormal psychology is distinct from clinical psychology, an applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand, and treat psychological conditions that are harmful to the individual. However, the field of abnormal psychology provides a backdrop for clinical work. Psychopathology is a term used in abnormal psychology that suggests an underlying pathology. 33

Biological psychology
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, and Cognitive neuroscience Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. Biological psychologists view all behavior as dependent on the nervous system, and study the neural basis for behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. The goal of neuropsychology is to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with brain injury in attempting to understand normal psychological function. Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

Cognitive psychology
Main article: Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology involves the study of cognition, including mental processes underlying perception, learning, problem solving, reasoning, thinking, memory, attention, language, and emotion. Classical cognitive psychology has developed an information processing model of mental function, and has been informed by functionalism and experimental psychology. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary research enterprise that involves cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, artificial intelligence, linguists, humancomputer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience is more concerned with brain activity.

Developmental psychology
Main article: Developmental psychology Developmental psychology is concerned with the development of the human mind and behavior over the life course. Developmental psychologists seek to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. They may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Developmental researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods, including observations in natural settings and the engaging of children directly in experimental tasks. Some experimental tasks resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful. Developmental psychologists have even devised methods to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study the relation of aging to mental processes. 34

Experimental psychology
Main article: Experimental psychology Experimental psychology represents a methodological approach to psychology rather than a content area subject. Experimental psychology lends itself to a variety of fields within psychology, including neuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention, learning, memory, thinking, and language. There is even an experimental social psychology. Experimental psychologists are researchers who employ experimental methods to help discover processes underlying behavior and cognition.

Evolutionary psychology
Main article: Evolutionary psychology A goal of evolutionary psychology is to explain psychological traits and processes such as memory, perception, or language in terms of adaptations that arose in the evolutionary history of humans. Traits and processes are thought to be functional products of random mutations and natural selection. Evolutionary biologists view physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, in similar terms. Evolutionary psychology applies the same thinking to psychology. Evolutionary psychologists advance the view that much of human behavior is the cumulative result of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve problems in human ancestral environments. For example, Steven Pinker hypothesized that humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language, making language acquisition nearly automatic, while inheriting no capacity specifically for reading and writing.

Mathematical psychology
Main article: Mathematical psychology Mathematical psychology represents an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, cognitive, and motoric processes. Mathematical psychology contributes to the establishment of law-like rules that pertain to quantifiable stimulus characteristics and quantifiable behavior. Because the quantification of behavior is fundamental to mathematical psychology, measurement is a central topic in mathematical psychology. Mathematical psychology is closely related to psychometric theory. However, psychometricians are largely concerned with individual differences in mostly static, traitlike variables. By contrast, the focal concern of mathematical psychology is process models in such areas as perception and cognition. Mathematical psychology is intimately involved in the modeling of data obtained from experimental paradigms, making it closely related to experimental psychology and cognitive psychology.

Neuropsychology
Main article: Neuropsychology 35

Neuropsychology involves the study of the structure and function of the brain as it relates to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors. Neuropsychological research includes studies of humans and animals with brain lesions. Neuropsychologists have also studied electrical activity in individual brain cells (or groups of cells) in humans and other primates. Neuropsychology shares much with neuroscience, neurology, cognitive psychology, and cognitive science.

Personality psychology
Main article: Personality psychology A goal of personality psychology is to investigate enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion in individuals. Personality psychologists are especially interested in individual differences. Within the framework of personality psychology, trait theorists attempt to analyze personality in terms of a limited number of key psychological traits. This type of research is highly dependent on statistical methods. The number of proposed traits has varied; however, there is some consensus over an empirically driven theory known as the "Big 5" personality model.

Psychophysics
Main article: Psychophysics Psychophysics is a discipline concerned with the relation between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates, or percepts or sensations. Psychophysics involves a set of methods that can be employed in research on perceptual systems. Modern applications of psychophysics rely heavily on ideal observer analyses and signal detection theory.

Social psychology
Main article: Social psychology (psychology) Social psychology involves the study of social behavior and mental processes that pertain to social behavior. Social psychology is concerned with how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study topics such as social influences on individual behavior (e.g. conformity and persuasion), belief formation, attitudes, and stereotypes. Social cognition integrates social and cognitive psychology in order to help discover how people process, remember, and distort social information. Research on group dynamics is pertinent to understanding the nature of leadership and communication.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION Book Description

From the dawn of civilization, man has been marching in search of wisdom. Various experiments are projected through education, so that humanity, happiness and harmony be
36

wedded together. Education is indispensable for making life and living meaningful and purposive. Its significance cannot be fully appreciated unless it is looked at in proper perspectives philosophical, sociological and psychological. Psychology has a very significant bearing on education because of its influence on the various factors related to learning and teaching. The fundamental principles in psychology have tremendous impact on education and teaching. Without the knowledge of psychology a teacher is at a loss to understand the needs and problems in a child s life. Psychology provides the key to know the individual differences and meets them with appropriate educational programmes. It also helps the teachers to offer guidance and counselling to the pupils. In fact, psychology places education on a scientific basis and brings dignity to education as a discipline. The experimental approach has become feasible because of the contribution of psychology to education. Powers and propensities of mind have been analysed with the help of psychological techniques and measurement of mind has been a reality with the introduction of psychology as an objective science. Besides, it has been possible to mark out the different areas of mental operation. The mental process and the product, its structure and function have been discussed at length in the present book for bringing out the practical value of psychological approach. It is hoped that the present book will prove immensely useful for the students and teachers of both Education and Psychology. Even the general readers will find it highly informative. Contents 1. Introduction 2. Some Basic Factors 3. Individual Differences 4. Intelligence and Its Measurements - A Review 5. Perceiving and Thinking 6. Learning and Its Implications 7. Remembering and Forgetting 8. Attention and Interest 9. Meanings, Imagery and Imagination 10. Personality and Personality Development 11. Exercise and Methods of Learning 12. Transfer of Training 13. Growth, Development and Education 14. Theories of Child Development 15. Group Behaviour 16. Conflict - The Role of the Unconscious
37

Bibliography About the Author(s) Dr. Srinibas Bhattacharya is an established name in the literary world. A humanist with wide experience and deep insight, he is fairly known in India and abroad as a distinguished educationist, author and a psychologist. Dr. Bhattacharya has taught at a number of Universities in India, England and U.S.A. for a number of years and built up reputation for his contribution to various fields of Social Science. He has been nominated for a number of international awards as fellow of the International Biographical Association and former member of the Advisory Committee of the NCERT. His distinction is enviable, no doubt. Dr. Bhattacharya has written quite a number of books, particularly on Psychology and Education. He has also the versatility for producing literary works including books of English poems published in U.S.A. and nominated for Nobel Prize. He happens to be the Founder Editor of New Perspectives a quarterly on Social Science, and Founder President of the Institute of Education, Montessori Teachers Training College at Santiniketan and Prantik Centre for Human Development.

Book Details

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Bharti Sharma, Vohra, 2004, vii, 336 p, ISBN : 8178890526, $44.00 (Includes free airmail shipping)

Contents: Preface. 1. Nature of educational psychology. 2. Education and social change. 3. Achievement and intelligence tests. 4. Exceptional children and education. 5. Mental hygiene and memory. 6. Adjustment and maladjustment. 7. Aspects of motivation in education. 8. Learning theory and techniques. 9. Individual differences and personality. 10. Child behaviour and treatment. "Teaching is an important process of communication for both teacher and taught. This process is needed to know each other well. Without the mutual understanding the bipolar process of teaching cannot be effective. It is, therefore essential that a teacher should know thoroughly his students, their needs, motives and their development. Without this knowledge, a teacher cannot modify the cognitive, conative and affective behaviour patterns of his students. He cannot promote effective learning and develop their personalities positively. This book 'Psychological Foundation of Education' can

38

prove an effective guide to teachers and teacher-trainees for understanding the psychology of students and show the right path in the field of educati

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Srinibas Bhattacharya, Atlantic, 2002, iv, 148 p, ISBN : 817156657X, $17.00 (Includes free airmail shipping)

Contents: Preface. 1. Introduction. 2. Some basic factors. 3. Individual differences. 4. Intelligence and its measurementsa review. 5. Perceiving and thinking. 6. Learning and its implications. 7. Remembering and forgetting. 8. Attention and interest. 9. Meanings, imagery and imagination. 10. Personality and personality development. 11. Exercise and methods of learning. 12. Transfer of training. 13. Growth, development and education. 14. Theories of child development. 15. Group behaviour. 16. Conflictthe role of the unconscious. Bibliography. "Psychology has a very significant bearing on education because of its influence on the various factors related to learning and teaching. The fundamental principles in psychology have tremendous impact on education and teaching. Without the knowledge of psychology a teacher is at a loss to understand the needs and problems in a childs life. Psychology provides the key to know the individual differences and meets them with appropriate educational programmes. It also helps the teachers to offer guidance and counselling to the pupils. In fact, psychology places education on a scientific basis and brings dignity to education as a discipline. The experimental approach has become feasible because of the contribution of psychology to education. Powers and propensities of mind have been analysed with the help of psychological techniques and measurement of mind has been a reality with the introduction of psychology as an objective science. Besides it has been possible to mark out the different areas of mental operation. The mental process and the product, its structure and function have been discussed at length in this section for bringing out the practical value of psychological approach."

Login PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION (5). LEC. 4, LAB. 2. Pr., sophomore standing. The psychological dimensions of the educational process. The processes, conditions and evaluation of learning and related methodologies of teaching. Laboratory experiences and evaluation of the Pre-teaching Field Experience. For description of the Pre-teaching Field Experience Program, see Professional Requirements, Sect. C under College of Education.

39

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Sitaram Sharma, Shri Sai Printographers, 2003, viii, 346 p, ISBN : 8187798106, $44.00 (Includes free airmail shipping)

Contents: Preface. 1. The sociology of education: socialization in schools. 2. A discussion on teaching. 3. The concept of teaching. 4. Learning in sociocultural perspectives. 5. Teaching and problem solving. 6. Cultural pattern of the school. 7. A style of teaching skills. 8. Programming teaching. 9. Evaluation of teaching and learning. 10. Holding a test of teaching. 11. Testing of instruction. References. From the preface: "How teachers react with students, with parents and with administrators, determines to a great extent the quality of teaching in educational institutions. The teachers groups, the family back ground of the teachers and the training of teachers in institutions of various kinds, are all determining factors in the education of students. The social groups involved in the process of education are jointly responsible for the standards of education."

SOCIAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

School: Gettysburg College Professor: Dan W. Butin Course Overview The social foundations of education course is an exploration and analysis of the underlying issues within contemporary educational policies, practices, and theories. It is an attempt to ground the day-to-day realities of the classroom within a larger philosophical, historical, anthropological, political, and sociological context. Such an interdisciplinary perspective will allow students to begin to reflect upon the structures and practices of American education and provide a foundation from which to continue becoming reflective and critical educational practitioners and leaders. It is also an opportunity to investigate the role of schooling and education within a democracy. Through classic and contemporary text,.this class will: explore numerous issues at multiple levels: classroom, school, and school system. Overarching questions of multiculturalism, inequity; identity formation, the role of schooling, and issues of power will be discussed. So will more specific issues, such as tracking, educational reform, dropouts, community,-school relations and affirmative action. Moreover, 40

the class will make use of field observations in schools, service-learning and experiential learning activities to highlight and reinforce the relationship between the theory and practice of education. A fundamental, component of this course is student involvement and debate. To this end, the course will make use of diverse methods to help students grapple with the many issues of our educational system. This course will be run on the principle of a guide on the side rather than a sage on the stage discussions, debates, questions, and silence will be the rule, not the exception. Course Goals

to give students a deeper multidisciplinary perspective from which to interpret, question, reflect upon, and engage with the underlying issues within contemporary educational theory and practice to nurture and promote the art of dialogue (written and oral) inside the classroom and civic responsibility outside of it to link the theory of the texts with the lived reality of students in their schools and communities to make explicit and begin to question the implicit norms of radical individualism and in the process foster students self-reflexivity towards who we are and what we do and subsequent implications upon teaching, leading, and learning in our school?

Course Texts Deborah Meier, The Power of Their Ideas, 2002 Jay Macleod, Aint No Makin lt, 1995 Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory: TheEducation of Richard Rodriguez, 1983 All of the other readings are available as e-reserves on CNAV, through on-line databases or on the Internet. Please refer to the syllabus and the professors website for specific information. Additional books for book critiques:

Theodore Sizer, Horaces Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School, 1992 Vivian Gussin Paley, White Teacher, 2000 Esme Raji Codell, Educating Esme: Diary of a Teacher\s First Year, 2001 Parker Palmer, The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teachers Life, 1998

Course Evaluation Critique Papers 41

Three critique papers will be due. Each should be submitted to the professor (either as an e-mail or in class) and archived on your personal web page. The overarching goal of each critique is to synthesize your thinking on the readings in relation to your experiences outside of class (e.g. service learning, classroom observations) and your own interest in being a teacher. This will be facilitated through a set of guiding questions to be taken up, analyzed, questioned, and expanded on. Each subsequent critique will be worth more points as you come to learn my expectations for writing a critique. Thus the 1st critique will be worth 10 points, the 2nd critique 15 points, and the 3rd critique 20 points. This does not connote that the content of the 3rd critique is more important than the content of the 1st critique; rather, it simply signifies the expectation I that you will be able to write a concise, articulate and thoughtful critique by the end of the term. I expect critiques to be analytical, reflective, critical, and synthesizing. By this I mean that I do not want a description of the texts (I have already read them), nor a negative analysis. A rubric for how I will grade critique papers is attached. Each critique should be between 1,000 2,000 words (approximately 3 6 pages). All critiques are due in class; if there is no Class on that particular day, the paper is due by the time class would have normally started. Each critique should be double-spaced, 12-font, have page numbers, and be stapled. All citations of the texts should be footnoted. Late papers will be downgraded one letter grade (e.g. from an A to a B) for each week late. Any papers not handed in by the due date of the next paper will be given a grade of zero (0). You have the opportunity to hand in a draft of each paper to the professor. The draft must be submitted at least 48 hours before the due date\., The draft should be either e-mailed to the professor or given as a paper copy. I will try to respond with comments as soon as possible. The topics for each paper are attached. As such, you are free to begin thinking about, reading for, and asking questions concerning these issues. Blackboard e-Journals You will be required to maintain an e-journal throughout the semester on Blackboard. The goal of the ejournal is to provide you with an informal opportunity to further articulate, reflect upon, and question your own thoughts and beliefs and those of your d1assmates. I have posted initial questions for each set of ejournals due (see the course schedule below for exact due dates and questions); you are free to answer the question, take the question in a different direction, respond to other postings, or articulate\ a different issue you feel is pressing and relevant. The e-journal entry should be a minimum of 150 words (half a page) and is due by midnight on each Thursday before class (with the exception of days when quizzes or papers are due). You will not be graded 42

on the content; rather, you will be graded on whether or not you completed your entry for each week in a timely and adequate manner. You will receive one point for each e-journal completed on time and of adequate length. Given the non-graded format (for content, at least), you are strongly encouraged to take chances: develop linkages between multiple ideas and themes, engage in self-reflection of personal educational experiences, try out different perspectives, write in a different voice and style, etc. You are also highly encouraged to read and dialogue with other classmates postings. All e-journal submissions should be kept strictly confidentialthey are not to be shared with anyone outside of the Class (either by the professor or by other students); if you feel more comfortable, your entries can be directly e-mailed to the professor rather than posted on Blackboard. Moreover, you may find that after writing some journal entries you may want to keep some or all parts of it completely confidential. You have the right to not submit those parts. A note to that effect should be sent to me for that week. I have the right to question the excessive use of this prerogative and may ask for additional journal entries to be submitted. Quizzes Three quizzes will be given in this course. Each will be worth ten points. They will focus on your ability to clearly and succinctly articulate the main themes of our readings. The final quiz will have one component that will need to be completed during the final exam time. See the schedule below for the exact dates of the quizzes. Book Critique You will be required to read an additional book and present a summary of it to the class (due on December 1st). You may do this on your own or in a group of two or three. I have listed some suggested books (see the course readings above). You may also choose a different book that has been written by one of the authors on the syllabus (e.g. John Taylor Gattos A Different Kind of Teacher, John Deweys Experience and Education, Jonathan Kozels Savage Inequalities, Lisa Delpits Educating Other Peoples Children, E. D. Hirschs Cultural Literacy, Alfie Kohns What To Look For in a Classroom, A. S. Neills Summerhill). While choosing your own book is strongly encouraged, you must consult with me before choosing a book not on the suggested list. The book critique is worth five points. It will be graded on (a) your book summary hand-out, and, (b) your short presentation. The summary should be a one-page summation of the book through bullet points, a concept map, or some other notational method to be handed out at the beginning of the class such that other students can use it as a reference for that book. It should make use of quotes, page references, etc., in 43

order to give a sense of the content and goals of the book. The presentation should be about 5 minutes, in length. This is your opportunity, to directly guide the teaching and learning process in the class. As such, all aspects of the presentation should be thoroughly prepared: e.g. it should be succinct, clear, informative, challenging, and engaging. Additionally, the presentation should have an overarching theme (e.g. what I have learned, the main point of the book, how this book relates to this class. In-Class Engagement In-class engagement implies both personal contributions and thoughtful contemplation of peers points. Although the extremesconstant contributions and complete meditative silenceare obviously discouraged, everything in between is acceptable. Additional Notes & Requirements Classroom Observations The education, department requires that all students in the education minor complete a total of 40 hours of c1assroom observations before they begin their student teaching semester. All students must therefore complete\ a minimum of ten hours of classroom observations during this course. Secondary students must also complete an additional ten hours of observation; this may be done either during or after this semester. A minimum of five hours must be done at a school and with a cooperating teacher to be assigned to you. You have the option of completing these observations at another school and with I another teacher. All other hours may be completed in a variety of ways, such as a classroom assistant, as a tutor in an afterschool program, etc. Your service-learning hours may count towards these hours as well. You will receive a classroom placement in the first weeks of the semester. Make sure to keep track of your hours using the blue cards available in the Educational Department office. You are to turn in a jourl1lal of your classroom observations on the last class of the semester. The journal should consist of your observations with explicit linkages to issues discussed throughout the course. More specific journal guidelines will be passed out and discussed in class. Lack of timely and adequate completion will result in the loss of 5 points. Personal web page All education minors are required to develop a personal web page if you do not already have one. This is the site where you will archive all of your writings and, in later classes, your lesson plans, units, resume, etc. You should therefore think of this web page as the start of your education portfolio. Detailed instructs for the construction and maintenance of this site will be given in class. You will also have full support from Colleges IT department for the construction, maintenance, and trouble-shooting of this site. Your web

44

page is due on November 10th. Lack of timely and adequate completion will result in the loss of 1 point per day until the web page is completed. Text Outline Discussion You will be required to outline one text during the semester. You may do this on your own or with a partner. A text outline should be a one-page summation of a text through bullet points, a concept map, or some other notational method to be handed out at the beginning of the class such that other students: can use it as a reference for the day\s texts. Additionally. You should present a short verbal overview that articulates the main issues in the text, links the text to the guiding questions (see the Course schedule, below), and begins some questioning and analysis of the text. Lack at timely and adequate completion will result in the loss of 5 points. Service Learning Project This course has a service-learning component. Service-learning in this Course is defined as the integration of community-based service and academic classroom work. Some of the primary foundations for servicelearning are reciprocity between the college and community, respect for those being served, and relevance of content both to the teacher education students and to the youth and community, organization, partnered with. This service-learning project has direct linkages to numerous issues we will be studying in the semester (e.g. multicultural education, equity in education, access to higher education, the politics of identity, literacy, second-language learners, affirmative action). Specifically, you will be working with migrant, immigrant, and Iow-income 9th grade students: from Gettysburg High School and other surrounding high schools. This will be run by the Migrant Education program of the Lincoln Intermediate Unit (L1U #12) and will be conducted at Musselman Library on Mondays and Wednesdays from 3:30 4:30 p.m. (alternative arrangements are possible for individuals unable to meet during these specific times. These will be developed individually at the beginning of the semester with the professor). You will be required to do two things: (a) tutor a minimum of 1 hour Mondays and Wednesdays to increase your familiarity with the program and the youth and to provide stable relationship for the youth you are tutoring: If you cannot tutor on both days, you should partner with another classmate (who can be from the other ED 209 section) in order to alternate days. You or your partner are required to be there for every single tutoring session. The social/cultural event should be planned for the end of the semester and is a group undertaking. You will work in groups to provide the youth with an enjoyable and informative event (e.g. ropes Course, college tour, musical event/demonstration, theater collaboration). All activities must be approved by the professor prior to implementation. More specific guidelines and information will be passed out and discussed in class. Additionally, the Center for Public Service will run several orientation sessions to help 45

you prepare for the service-learning experience. Attendance at such events is mandatory. Lack of timely and adequate Completion of the tutoring and event planning/enactment will result in the loss of up to 10 points. Course Schedule Wed Sept. 1 Class Introduction & Overview Fri Sept. 3 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Goals of Education I

A.S. Neill, Summerhill, pp. 3 34 [e-reserve] E.D. Hirsh, Culture Literacy, pp. 1 32 [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: What is the goal of education of Neill? Why are children (as opposed to adults) at Summerhill allowed to make the choice of whether to attend class or not? What is the purpose of the Saturday night meeting at Summerhill? What is the goal of education for Hirsh? What does culture literacy mean? How is culture literacy, for Hirsh, linked to social justice? Blackboard posting # 1 due by Thursday at midnight would you send your child to Summerhill? Why or why not? Wed Sept. 8 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Goals of Education II

John Dewey, Experience and Education, Chapter 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 [website] John Dewey, My Pedagogical Creed [website]

Guiding Questions: How does Dewey overcome the traditional versus progressive opposition? When is experience educative? When is it mis-educative? What does Dewey mean by the term continuity and interaction? How is experience and education linked? Why does Dewey education as a progress of living and not preparation for the future living? How is education the driving force of social progress? What does Dewy mean that the goal of education should be the opportunity for more education? How is education connected to democracy? Fri Sept. 10 Philosophical and Historical Foundations

Professor at conference no class

46

Blackboard posting # 2 due by Thursday at midnight complete the following sentence and explain your answer: education is like Tuesday September 14th or Wednesday, September 15th Center for Public Service Orientation REQUIRED 6:30 Community Partner Fair required for those not working at Musselman Library 7:00 Your rights and expectations 7:30 Diversity 8:20 Liability and professionalism Wed Sept. 15 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Feminist Perspectives

Nel Noddings, Teaching Themes of Care" Phi Delta Kappan, 1995 76, pp. 675-679. [on-line] Nei Noddings, The Care Tradition:\ Beyond \Add Women and Stir\\'\: Theory into Practice, 2001, 40(1), pp. 29-34. [on-line database] Adrienne Rich, Toward a Women-Centered University\;\ pp. 328 -355 [e-reserve] Blythe McVicker CHnchy, On CritiCal Thinking and Connected Krlowing. in Liberal Education, 75, pp. 14 19. 1989. [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: What, according to Noddings, is the care tradition\? How does it differ from previous educational theories studied so far? What does it mean, according to Rich, that our educational institutions are male-centered? What would a women-centered university be like? Fri Sept. 17 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Critical Perspectives

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, pp. 57 -74 [e-reserve] Jules Henry, Culture Against Man, pp:.. 283 293, [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: What according to Freire; is the banking concept of education? What is the problemposing notion of education? What does Henry mean when he says that schools are notset up to encourage creativity? What is the noise in the classroom, according to Henry, and why is it more important than the content? How and why does Haley compare schools to factories? Blackboard posting #3 due by Thursday at midnight Has your education oppressed you? Wed. Sept. 22 Philosophical and Historical Foundations The Hidden Curriculum of School

Phillip Jackson, Life in Classrooms, pp. 3 37 [e-reserve] 47

Larry Cuban & David Tyack, Tinkering Towards Utopia, pp. 85 109. [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: What according to Jackson, is the hidden curriculum? Why, according to Cuban and Tyack, are the fundamental features of schools and classrooms so difficult to change? Why do they refer to this as a grammar of schooling? Quiz #1 handed out Fri. Sept. 24 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Founding Ideals

Thomas Jeffersons letter The Natural Aristocracy (1813) [website] Thomas Mann, Report No. 12 to the Massachusetts School Board (1848) preface, intro, first section [website]

Guiding Questions: What does Jefferson mean by a natural aristocracy? How does this differ from an artificial aristocracy? What was Jeffersons educational vision and how did it relate to his notions of a natural aristocracy? What is, according to Mann, the common school? How will this type of schooling serve as a means of removing poverty and securing abundance? Quiz #1 handed out Wed. Sept. 29 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Founding Problematics

1872 Rules for Teachers [website] 1923 Teachers Contract [website] Nineteenth century\ schedule for a day [website] Plessy versus Ferguson (1896) [website] Margaret Haley, Tile Factory System, 1924 [e-reserve] Agnes de Lima, Any School Morning, 1\924 [e-reserve] Larry Cuban, How Teachers Taught, pp. 23 45. [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: What were the guiding- concepts and structures\ to the school day at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century? What do the rules for teachers and teachers contract imply about the role of teachers in society at that time? How were issues of race, class and authority in schools and society conceived of at that time? Quiz #1 due 48

Fri Oct. 1 Philosophical and Historical Foundations Conclusion

1St Critique Paper Due [Experiential Learning Activity] in-class -> paper]

Wed Oct. 6 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Inequities in US Society

Jonathan Kozol, Savage Inequalities East St. Louis & Chicago, IL [website] NAACP Call For Action in Education [website]; note: do not read the recommendations NCTAF Two-Tiered Educational System executive summary [website]

Guiding Questions: What, according to all of the readings, are some examples of the continued inequities in American education? Why does this continue to happen? Fri Oct. 8 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Issues of Race

Lisa Delpit, Other Peoples Children, pp. 21 47 [e-reserve] John Ogbu, Adaptation to\ Minority. Status and Impact on School Success Theory into Practice, 1992,- 31(4), I, pp. 287-295. [on-line database] Racial Implicit Association Test [website]

Guiding Questions: What, according to Delpit, is the culture of power? What, according to Ogbu, is the difference between involuntary and voluntary minorities? Why does Ogbu create this distinction between minority groups? Blackboard posting #4 due by Thursday at midnight Are you comfortable with the results of your racial implicit association test? Why or why not? Are you racist? Web Oct. 13 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Issues of Multiculturalism

Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory

Guiding Questions: What is Rodriguezs perspective on Affirmative Action? On bilingual education? On assimilation? How and why does Rodriguez believe that education changes you? Why does Rodriguez insist on making the distinction between the public and the private spheres? Fri Oct. 15 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Tracking/Detracking 49

Maureen Hallinan & Jeannie Oakes, Exchange on Tracking, Sociology of Education, 1994. 67(3). Pp. 79 91. [on-line database] Alfie Kohn, Only For My Kid, Phi Delta Kappan, 1998, April, 79(8). Pp. 568 577. [on-line database]

Guiding Questions: What, according to Hallinan and Oakes, are the positive outcomes of tracking? What are the negative outcomes of tracking? What is detracking? Is tracking in and of itself the problem, or are there other structural conditions that cause the majority of the problems associated with tracking? Why does Kohn blame parents for the continuation of tracking? Blackboard posting #5 due\ by Thursday at midnight Did you benefit from the tracking at your high school? Why or why not? Wed Oct. 20 Sociological and Anthropological Foundation Issues of Race and Class

Jay Macleod, Aint No Makin It, Part I

Guiding Questions: What, according to Macleod, is the efficacy of schooling argument? What is the equality of opportunity argument? Why does Macleod argue that one\s socioeconomic status determines one\s educational level rather than the other way around? Fri Oct. 22 Sociological and Anthropological Foundation Issues of Race and Class

Jay Macleod Aint No Makin It, Part II

Blackboard posting #6 due by Thursday at midnight Why were the Hallway Hangers not successful? Wed. Oct. 27 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Issues of Gender

Myra and David Sadker, Failing at Fairness, pp. 1 -14 [e-reserve] Judith Kleinfeld, Student Performance: Males versus Females, The Public Interest 1999, Winter, pp. 3 20. [on-line database]

Guiding Questions: How, according to the Sadkers, is gender discrimination still occurring in classrooms? Why, according to the Sadkers, are girls marginalized in the classroom? Why does Kleinfeld believe that gender discrimination does no longer occur? What statistics does Kleinfeld use to support her argument? 50

Quiz # 2 handed out Fri. Oct. 29 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Questioning Gender

Blythe McVicker Clinchy, On Critical Thinking and Connected Knowing. In Liberal Education, 75, pp. 14 19. 1989. [e-reserve] Dorte Marie Sondergaard, Poststructuralist approaches to empirical analysis. In Qualitative Studies in Education, 15(2), pp. 187 204. [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: Are women different from men in how they think and act? What specifically, are the differences between connected knowers and separate knowers according to Clinchy? What, according to Sondergaard, is the point of the Paper Bag Princess story? Why do the children resist it? Who, according to Sondergaard, is Kim (e.g. a male, a female)? Quiz #2 due Fri. Nov. 5 Sociological and Anthropological Foundations Professor at conference no class 2nd Critique Paper Due Wed. Nov. 10 Political and Legal Foundations Educational Reform * Deborah Meier, The Power of Their Ideas Guiding Questions: Meier argues for the importance of small, self-governing, schools of choice; why are these three things so important? What are Meier\s habits of mind? How does Meier\s school relate to her consistent desire to promote democracy in our society? Web page due Fri. Noy. 12 Political and Legal Foundations Landmark Policy and Legal Cases *Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) [website]

A Nation at Risk (1983) [website] No Child Left Behind (2001) [website]

Blackboard posting #7 due by Thursday at midnight Should schools be used as the primary mechanisms for social change? Wed. Nov. 17 Political and Legal Foundations Teaching as a Political Act 51

James Baldwin, A Talk to Teachers, pp. 131 137 [e-reserve] John Taylor Gatto, A Different Kiind of Teacher, pp. 158 167 [e-reserve] bell hooks, Ecstasy, pp. 201 207 [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: Why does Baldwin claim that education is fundamentally a paradoxical act? What does Baldwin mean when he argues that a label says more about the person doing the labeling than about the person being labeled? What does Gatto mean when he argues that you can only teach who you are? Why is Gatto disparaging of the traditional educational system and the students going through it? What does hooks mean by engaged pedagogy? What does hooks mean that education is about being on the razor\s edge or being pushed off a cliff? Frl. Nov. 19 Political and Legal Foundations Politics of Identity and (Dis)Ability

George D. Spindler, Beth Anne A Case Study of Culturally Defined Adjustment and Teacher Perceptions pp. 111- 126. [e-reserve] Ray McDermott & Herve Varenne,Culture as Disability In Anthropology & Education Quarterly 26(3), pp. 324-348. 1995. [e-reserve]

Guiding Questions: Why do the teachers choose Beth Anne as the representative well adjusted student? Does Spindler consider her well-adjusted? What, according to McDermott and Varenne, are the differences between three models of looking at education: deficit model, difference model, culture as disability model? What does it mean that culture is a disability? Is Adam disabled? What does it mean to have a disability? Blackboard posting #8 due by Thursday at midnight Is Beth Anne successful? Why or why not? Why do her teachers believe her to be well-adjusted? Thanksgiving Break Wed. Dec. 1 Fri. Dec. 3 Wed. Dec. 8 Fri. Dec. 10 Political and Legal Foundations Book critiques Political and Legal Foundations Cross-Cultural Perspectives

G. Victor Sogen Hori, Teaching and Learning in the Ritual Zen Monastery. In. Journal of Japanese Studies, 1994, 20(1), pp. 5- 35 [on-line database] 52

Nancy Ukai, The Kumon Approach to Teaching and Learning: In Journal of Japanese Studies, 1994,20(1), pp.87 -113. [on-line database] IQ test [website]

Guiding Questions: What, according to Hori, are the differences between teaching by teaching and teaching without teaching? What are the assumptions and implications of teaching without teaching? How does teaching without teaching lead, according to Hori, to mystical insight? What is the kumon approach? Why is repetition so important? What is over-learning? Blackboard posting #9 due by Thursday at midnight. Are you intelligent based on your IQ test? What does your IQ test say about you? Political and Legal Foundations Conclusions 3rd Critique Paper Due [Experiential Learning Activity in-class] Blackboard posting #10 due by Thursday at midnight What use is the social foundations of education class? Who cares? So what? Quiz #3 handed out Mon. Dec. 13 Final Exam Final quiz due Critique Paper Questions 1st critique paper. The readings in the philosophical and historical foundations articulate very different philosophies of education, each premised on different visions of the role of schooling in our society. They put forward differing educational goals (e.g. freedom, cultural literacy, lifelong learning) and suggest highly divergent means by which to achieve such goals. What is your own philosophy of education? How does this relate to your vision of the role of schools in society? How should such goals be accomplished in your classroom and/or in society as a whole? What is the historical precedent, if any; for your vision? Use at least two authors from the readings to engage with these issues. You should be able to adequately describe, analyze, and critique the perspectives of the authors you are using (see grading rubric for specifics). 2nd critique paper: The readings in the sociological and anthropological foundations suggest that American education may not be truly equitable; it may not be a place where all children have access to an excellent education. Issues of race, ethnicity., class, language, and gender (among others), are intertwined in complex 53

ways to students\ academic achievement and sense of self. As Jay Macleod would argue, American education may be better understood in terms of structural determinism rather than radical free agency. Or as Richard Rodriguez may suggest, notions of academic success and assimilation are mutually dependent. Analyze one or more of these issues. For example, to what extent do we have free will to pursue our educational aspirations, regardless of our race, gender, or ethnic group? Is education the primary variable in a successful future? Is American education a level playing field? Is assimilation a necessary but not sufficient prerequisite to academic success? Your paper should ideally work on explicating interrelations: (a) between readings (e.g. Delpit, Ogbu, and/or Macleod); (b) between variables (e.g. race, class, and/or gender); or (c) between discourses (e.g. readings, your educational experiences, and/or service-learning project). 3rd critique paper: Choose a topic/issue of your choice and analyze it. You may choose to focus on one or more readings throughout the semester, your own educational experiences, your service-learning project, the experiential learning activities, and/or your classroom observations. Regardless of your focus, your paper must make some direct reference and linkage to class readings and other activities engaged in throughout the semester (e.g. service-learning, classroom observations) Rubric for Grading Critique Papers A critique does not denote a negative analysis. Instead, a critique involves a sensitive and thorough reading of the texts in question. This reading should not be for its own sake; in other words, while an accurate, concise, and well-articulated description of the texts is critical to your paper, such a description should be a first step to deeper analysis, reflection, critique, and synthesizing. By this I mean that the paper should be able to engage one or more of the following: Analytic: What is the purpose of the reading? What is the main argument? How does the author support: his/her position? What are the implications of this argument? How is this argument supported, extended, and/or contradicted by other readings? Reflective: Where do you stand on the author\s position? What aspects of your own experiences as a human being and as a student support and/or contradict this author\s perspective? Why do you believe as you do on these points? What are your assumptions and presuppositions? How has this reading affected your position and/or understanding of this issue? 54

Critical: What are the assumptions of the reading? What is glossed over in the reading? What (or who) is kept silent/silenced in the reading? What are some unintended consequences of the conclusions of the reading? What are some of the limitations of the conclusions of the reading? Do other readings support, extend, and/or contradict this argument? What are the implications if there is major disagreement and/or contradiction in the readings? Synthesizing: How does this reading relate to other course readings? To classroom observations? To the service-learning project? To the experiential learning activities? To your own educational experiences? What implications does this reading have upon your classroom observations, experiences, etc.? What implications does this reading have upon your perspectives concerning the issues brought out? If accurate, how does the reading modify and/or support: your perspectives concerning teaching and learning? To the functioning of a school? To the goals of education for our society? Your paper may take any shape or form, use a formal or informal voice, be first- or third-person, etc. You may want to make use of Gettysburgs writing center. In general, though, your paper should have the following components: Purpose this is where you outline what you are going to, write about and why. Main thesis this is where you state, clearly and succinctly, the main argument/point you are discussing. Note that even if your paper does not reach a firm final conclusion on a specific issue (and many times there are no firm conclusions on the most important and complex issues), you should still be able to articulate the issue on which you cannot reach a conclusion. Elaboration this is where you spend more time articulating your main thesis. You may do so through multiple examples, in relation to, other readings, through different perspectives, etc. Support/evidence this is where you support your thesis by referring to other discourses, be they class readings, personal experiences, etc. Be aware that neither your subjective opinions (I think this ) nor received knowledge (Dewey says this ) are valid support in and of themselves. You must be able to show why your and/or others\ perspectives are helpful to the discussion, what limitations, they may have, etc.

55

Evaluation this is where you take a harder, deeper, and more critical look at your argument and the arguments; of others, you may have put forward. This is also where you begin to make some tentative and/or firm conclusions and implications of such conclusions. Your paper will be graded based on the following rubric: 70% Clear and succinct description of the texts. Able to articulate the position of the author(s) and the main point(s). No analysis. No questioning. No reflection based on personal perspective. No linkage to other readings. No synthesis and extension of reflection, critique, and other readings. 80% Clear and succinct description and analysis of the texts. Able to articulate the position of the author(s) and the main point(s) and able to analyze it and/or reflect upon it. Rudimentary questioning and linkage to other readings. No synthesis and extension of reflection, critique, and other readings. 90% Clear and succinct description, analysis, critique, and linkage of the texts. Able to analyze, reflect, and question the author and the main point(s) based on personal perspective and/or other readings. Rudimentary synthesis and extension of reflection, \critique, and other readings. 100% Clear and succinct description, analysis, critique; linkage and extension of the texts. Able to synthesize readings and personal perspectives in order to effectively argue for ones position. Able to show how the central issue is related to other major issues.

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Srinibas Bhattacharya, Atlantic Pub, 2002, iv, 115 p, ISBN : 8171566553, $14.00 (Includes free airmail shipping)

Contents: Preface. 1. Introduction. 2. What is society? 3. Society and environment. 4. Culture. 5. Social forces and social controls. 6. Social stratification. 7. The concept of social change. 8. The school and the community. 9. The present scene in Indian society. 10. An analysis of some of the problems in India in educational perspectives. 11. New perspectives in education. 12. Education for emancipation of creative consciousness and inner harmony. 13. Education for peace. 14. Education for harmony. 15. Education for survival. 16. Education for international understanding. "The Sociological Foundation of Education has added a new dimension to education as an interdisciplinary approach. Man not only lives in a society, he grows and functions in a social context and various factors contribute to the growth of an individual.

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Sociology which involves the study of society, social process and social change is a growing science. Education can hardly be separated from society and so from sociology. School is a miniature society and what happens in a society also happens in a school situation. The factors which are dealt with in a social context may be classified under human, environmental and organisational factors. Like parents in a family, teachers take important roles in a school. Culture occupies a significant place in a society. A community cannot grow without culture. Similarly, a society cannot survive without culture. As in every dynamic society there are problems, so in every school there are typical situations. Teacher has a distinct role as a social worker and community member. Of all the foundations of education the sociological basis has a more practical bearing on day to day living."

ANTHROPOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF MORAL EDUCATION IN A TECHNOLOGICAL ERA

VINCENT SHEN

THE MEANING OF MORAL EDUCATION IN A TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY The problem of the anthropological foundation of moral education has taken on new urgency due to the rapid development of science and technology in modern society. Technological development has now become universal, not only socially as the main focus of economic and political decisions in all countries, but philosophically as the consciously or unconsciously accepted destiny of contemporary world history. Martin Heidegger is right, especially regarding this scientific and technological era, when he reads Geschichte as Geschick, and says that metaphysics, as the essence of technology, is the necessary destiny of the West and the condition of its domination over the whole world.1 With the universal extension of technological civilization, it has become evident that, not only Western, but non-Western countries have begun to be determined by this common destiny. In occupying themselves with the development of science and technology, they are now carried along by the whirlwind of occidentalization, which sometimes unfortunately is seen as a form of domination by the West. Deeper reflection shows that in reality it is the process of rationalization of the world's history, accelerated by rapid technological development. In this rapid and universal shaping of the world by science and technology, moral education has the essential task of assuring humankind of its own humanity and thereby rendering it capable of being the master rather than the slave of science and technology. The meaning of the term "moral" will be clarified in relation to another term "ethical" below. For now it is sufficient to point out that the term "education" is understood here not 57

merely in its strict sense as an institutionalized process of teaching and learning, but especially in its broad sense as the formation of persons, either by themselves or with the help of others, towards the full realization of their human nature. This is similar to the notion of Bildung in the Hegelian sense of a process toward the universal. Moral education is a kind of practical Bildung or way of promoting the full realization of the universal in oneself, namely, one's humanity. "Promotion to the universal," as Gadamer has said, "is not something that is limited to theoretical Bildung and does not mean only a theoretical attitude in contrast to a practical one, but covers the essential determination of human rationality as a whole. It is the universal nature of human Bildung to constitute itself as a universal rational being."2 Therefore, as the process of realization of universal education it must be based in human nature as well as in the metaphysical structure of reality. As the Confucian classic, the Doctrine of the Mean,3 affirmed, "What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the way (Tao). Cultivating the way is called education." This means that education has also a metaphysical basis, though here our principal concern is only the anthropological foundation of moral education. Let us now distinguish the term "moral" from another relevant term, "ethical." Although both terms sometimes have the same usage,4 their specific meanings are distinguished in both Western and Chinese philosophy. Following Kant, German philosophers have often distinguished Ethik and Moral. For Schelling, the "moral" directs the individual and demands a personal response, whereas "ethics" directs society and protects the person. For Hegel, "moral" is concerned more with subjective intentions, while "ethics" concerns more the Sittlichkeit or objective spirit as manifested in the family, civil society and the state. In Chinese philosophy Tao Te is distinguished from, though related to, Lun Li. Tao Te refers to what The Great Learning calls "making the will sincere," "rectifying the mind" and "cultivating personal lives." On the other hand, Lun Li refers to what the Great Learning calls "regulating the family," "bringing order to the state" and "manifesting clear character to the world."5 Or, Chuang Tzu's terms, the former represents the way to "Sageness within," whereas the latter represents the way to "Kingliness without."6 On the whole, ethics consists in the code of behavior according to which people interact one with another in a certain society; it concerns the interrelation of social actors who must realize themselves socially and historically. Morality concerns rather the subjective intention and how one realizes one's own subjectivity; it is the process by which a person raises his or her own subjectivity to the universal, and the result of this process. In other words, Tao Te designates the process and eventual achievement of the effort of a moral agent to realize his or her human nature. Subjectivity is its central reference, though its realization must take place in the context of ethical relationships. In short, morality concerns the promotion of human nature on the basis of, and in the development of, ethical relationships. It is now evident that both morality and ethics are based on human nature; one concerns its subjective aspect, the other its intersubjective aspect. Anthropologically, human nature has the following characteristics. The human being has its own specificity which the scholastics understood as "rational animal". Because of this specificity Mencius considers the differentiation between the human and the animal to be an important theme in his philosophy which sees it as consisting in moral consciousness. Martin Heidegger tries to avoid theoretical or practical onesidedness in saying that the human is Da-sein, one who quests for and manifests Being. Although these philosophers differ among themselves in underlining the rational, practical, or ontological aspect, all agree that the human has something irreducible to other beings. The human remains related to other beings: to the whole cosmos, even while retaining one's specificity. Confucianism views the cosmos as a living connected whole. In this sense one's self realization is related to the whole cosmic process. Wang Yang-ming's notion of "I Ti Tzi Zen" is the best representation of this universal relativity. 58

Human nature has its own dynamic relation to development. It contains an unfathomable dynamism for developing a fuller realization of its own potentiality. This dynamism could take two directions: the promotion of one's own specificity or Dasein, and the development of relations with other beings. Morality concerns more the code and process of promoting the specificity of human nature--one's autonomy; ethics concerns especially enlarging the relatedness of human nature. The contrast of the two constitutes the structure and the dynamism of human nature.7 Moral education then is a process of formation, either by the moral agent self or with the aid of a teacher's modelling, of the interaction of human autonomy and relativity toward the highest human realization. But what is the moral and ethical situation of the modern person under the impact impact of rapid technological development; what contents must be added to moral education in such an era? Ultimately these questions concern anthropological foundations, but before tackling these, we must look at the moral and ethical situation of man under the worldwide influence of science and technology. THE IMPACT OF RAPID TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE MORAL AND ETHICAL SITUATION The development of science and technology has brought about an overall change in social structure, that is, in the manner in which persons interact one with another. This, in turn, modifies their ethical relationship, and thence the situation of moral praxis. Thus, the modern person's moral praxis is changed under the impact of science and technology by means of the changes these have brought about in ethical relations. People often neglect the double sense of ethical relation. In fact, an ethical relation has both a social and a moral sense. Socially speaking, it represents the social structure in which the members of a society interact one with another. But in its moral sense, an ethical relation means the norm of social interaction under which a person has to realize moral values. As objects of social sciences, social structure and its change are not our present concern. Moral philosophy studies only the moral aspect of ethical relations and the person's moral praxis. Due to the impact of rapid technological development, the moral-ethical situation of modern man has the following prominent characteristics. Human Interrelation Technological development has reinforced the interconnection and multiplied the interaction between persons and with other beings, thus rendering the ethical relation more complicated and rigorous. Science and technology are now united in a systematic whole which mediates between persons, nature and society. As a result, they are so interdependent upon each other and interact with each other to such a degree that pulling one hair might move the whole body. First, through the mediation of science and technology, the interaction between persons and nature becomes more frequent, and is accompanied by various forms of exploitation and manipulation. Nature no longer is considered as a mass of passive matter, but as the possibility for new combinations and novel transformations. Nature becomes an invitation to human creativity and a field for its realizations. But the ultra-exploitation and abuse of nature has provoked urgent environmental problems, even to the point of depriving mankind of the biological space in which it lives. Because this results from free decisions, it has created a new domain of ethics, namely, environmental ethics. Second, the development of science and technology has rendered more detailed and more complicated the division of work in modern society. It has created also quick and easy transportation so that people can interact 59

one with another more frequently: more people have contact with more different people in a shorter period of time. This can make what originally were personal and effective relations more impersonal and institutional. Relations of contract, competition and--even worse--domination and violence have replaced the personal and affective ones. Professional ethics has outweighed person-to-person and family ethics. More seriously, in everyday life more and more we meet "strangers of acquaintance." The feeling of alienation is everywhere. Third, one interacts increasingly with scientific and technological objects and, through their mediation, with nature and society. Mankind now lives among signs and machines; its life-world has become a world of techn rather than of phusis, a world of organization rather than of organism.8 Science and technology become the synonyms of rationality. The human essence is defined in terms of its rationality, which in turn is reduced to what Max Weber calls the "instrumentally rational" (zweckrational). Value rationality (Wertrationalitt)9 appears pale and weak. Having been reduced to instrumental rationality, the rational is defined in terms of its efficacy as an instrument to attain calculable ends. Other persons, reduced to the status of instruments, lose their dignity and values in themselves. The meaning of reflection and action also is impoverished. Reflection, deprived of its character as self-understanding, is reduced to mere scientific theorization; action, deprived in turn of its character as moral praxis, is reduced to mere technical application of scientific theories. This strengthened nexus of the person with nature, with society and with technical systems constitutes a novel context for moral praxis. Just as in the case of language, the more complex and rigorous its syntactical structure, the more precise and determinate its semantic meaning becomes. In moral philosophy, the more complicated and rigorous ethical relations become under the influence of technological development, the more precise and determinate must be that which gives meaning to this relation--the moral action. This situation requires of modern man a higher moral creativity and more psychological flexibility, thus making people tend to moral indifference or social apathy. Freedom and Responsibility The development of science and technology also has raised the degree of human freedom, the capacity for autonomy and thereby for moral responsibility. These characteristics contrast with those above. The development of science and technology, by knitting the world into a systematic whole, increases each individual's freedom and autonomy. This is true principally because the domain under the control of free choice is greatly enlarged. But moral responsibility is also enlarged; only when one can foresee the consequence of one's action and control it effectively is one responsible for one's action. Morally responsible action is known and chosen. If things impose upon us without our knowledge and control, that is, in spite of our free choice, they are beyond our responsibility. Even when we can act freely, but lose control, this uncontrollable process is outside of our real responsibility. The development of science helps us to know better those things which concern our life; with the progress of technology we are equipped with effective instruments to control areas of reality which thusfar had been unattainable. The natural sciences and technology help us to know more about the regularities of nature, to control natural phenomena and to override partial natural determinism. Social sciences and techniques help us know more about social patterns and improve social institutions to the point of increasing social freedom. In short, scientific knowledge and technical know-how increase our freedom and efficacy. The more we are free and efficacious in our action, the greater is our moral responsibility. Thus, the development of science and technology entails the enlargement of man's moral responsibility, not its diminution. The development of science and technology also creates new moral values since it enables us freely and consciously to initiate a process of action, to control it and to evaluate its consequence. This self-conscious and self-determining control renders scientific knowledge and technical activity morally relevant. Thus, the professional actions of doctors, engineers, businessmen, etc., supported by their scientific knowledge and technical capabilities become moral actions. Natural and social laws, when internalized as concrete norms of 60

action by a free and rational person, become moral norms. Just as our free will effectively transforms originally scientific or technologically constringent norms of action into norms of moral action it can transform new scientific and technical discoveries into new moral values. RESTORATION OF THE HUMAN PERSON AS THE FOCUS OF MORAL EDUCATION The above contrast between the development of both autonomy and relativity leads us to a new understanding of human nature. In re-thinking the Kantian problem, "What is man?" in this epoque of science and technology, we must avoid the one-sidedness of either defining man through his autonomous subjectivity, as do modern Western philosophers since Descartes, or of underlinining only his relativity to other beings as do some Chinese philosophers. We must take into consideration the structural and dynamic contrast of autonomy and relativity in human nature. This requirement makes possible a re-appreciation of the richness and wisdom of the notion of person in Scholastic philosophy. Boethius's definition of person is famous: an individual substance of rational nature (rationalis naturae individua substantia). This definition contains the elements of autonomy (individual substance) and universality (rational). In assuming this definition St. Thomas seems to have had a deep insight into the interplay between autonomy and relativity in the human person. First, Thomas seemed to have understood human autonomy in referring to the person as a self-controlled agent. He writes: In a more special and perfect way the particular and the individual are found in the rational substances who control their actions--they are not merely acted upon as others are, but act autonomously. For it is proper to individuals or singular substances to act. So a special name is given among all other substances to individual beings having a rational nature, and this name is `person'.10 Second, St. Thomas seemed to situate personal relativity in one's rationality--not merely as intellectual, but as comprising intellect and will, knowledge and love. For St. Thomas, intellect and will possess a certain "transcendental capacity" to include the whole realm of being in their object. In that sense, intellect and will are potentially everything and related to everything. Note that when analyzing the relation between intellect and will, knowledge and love, St. Thomas seemed to have remarked the contrasting character between autonomy and relativity as the ultimate constitution and dynamism of properly human nature. He said: In all things there is a twofold perfection: one by which the thing subsists in itself, the other by which it is related to other things. . . . In both ways, however, immaterial things have a certain infinity because they are somehow all things insofar as the essence of the immaterial thing is the exemplar and likeness of all things either by act or by potentiality, . . . in this way they have knowledge. Likewise they also have an inclination and order to all things, and in this way they have will, by which all things are pleasing or displeasing by act or potency. . . . It is therefore evident that knowledge pertains to the perfection of the knower by which in himself he is perfected; however, the will pertains to a thing's perfection by its relation to other things. And likewise the object of the knowing power is the true, which is in the soul. . . . The object of the tending power, however, is the good, which is in things.11 This somewhat phenomenological description of St. Thomas distinguishes two universalizing dynamisms in human nature which nonetheless form an ontological unity in the human person. They differ in their unity and unite in their difference. A person is therefore constituted and moves by contrast. 61

In the new light derived from the impact of science and technology on the modern person's moral praxis as analyzed in the above section, we must re-define the human person as constituted and moved by the contrast of autonomy and relatedness, for only such an understanding of man could retain the wholeness of the person and its innermost dynamism. This could avoid the one-sidedness of such other philosophies as the Cartesian cogito as thinking substance, or the Kantian transcendental apperception as mere condition of possibility of our positive knowledge, or the Kantian freedom of the soul as mere postulate of moral actions, or the Contemporary Neo-Confucian moral subjectivity as autonomous and even infinite--all of which philosophies look upon the human person only from the aspect of autonomy. On the other hand, Classical Confucianism, which formed the basis of traditional Chinese moral education, seemed to underline only the relatedness of the person with nature, with society and with heaven. Avoiding these one-sided philosophies, we understand the person as constituted and moved by the contrast of his or her autonomy and relatedness with other beings. These two constituents of the person interplay in a dialectical manner toward the full realization of humanity. This represents the logic of human self-realization. One has to realize oneself through a kind of rhythmic movement of two interplaying moments: one of distanciation and the other of co-belongingness. To keep oneself autonomous, one has to distance oneself from (epoch, in phenomenological sense) all the heterogeneous constraints and external limitations coming from nature, society, and even from transcendent beings. One must be able to disengage oneself from all external determinism and to act according to one's own free decision. Autonomy means the promulgation of laws of action by the actor himself. The person's free will cannot set up norms of action against the realization of one's own self; on the contrary, one cannot but search to realize one's own self to the highest degree. In this sense, we can accept the Kantian and contemporary NeoConfucian autonomous subjectivity, not as a mere condition of possibility or as a formal postulate, nor as an allencompassing subjectivity negating any transcendent dimension, but as autonomous persons tending towards the full realization of their own potentiality and determining the meaning of existence in their own specific manner. Heidegger's criticism of a Cartesian philosophy of subjectivity has the merit of revealing the person as Dasein, as the manifestation of Being. But we cannot thereby pass over the person's autonomous subjectivity in the making, which in turn is relative to other beings: man is relatively free and relationally autonomous. The human person even in searching for his or her autonomy, still belongs to the same realm of existence in which other beings participate. Contemporary thinkers in psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc., seem to have re-discovered this relative dimension of man. For example, the French psychoanalyst J. Lacan has reinterpreted the Freudian desire as an unconscious signifying dynamism, directed towards other men and other things: in Lacan's words, desire is the language of the other (le langage de l'autre).12 Desire is this constitutive element of our personality which reveals the existential interconnection between a person and other persons or other beings. The structural and dynamic contrast of the relatedness and autonomy of human person is thus the anthropological foundation of moral education. The impact of science and technology upon this is quite ambiguous. Positively, the development of science and technology has promoted human freedom and enlarged the system of relatedness. But it also has had a negative effect in that it has encouraged the abuse of free will through the blind acceptance and passive determination of social and technical systems. In this context, if we want to be the master and not the slave of science and technology, we must restore the human person as the center of moral education. The problem is not that science and technology could undermine the autonomy and the relativity of human person, but to look at the development of science and technology as deriving from the desire of human persons to promote their autonomy and to enlarge their relations with other beings. First, we must look upon the autonomy of the scientifico-technological sectors as a symbol or concrete image of the kind of autonomy mankind wants to realize through its moral, social and historical actions. Seen from this side, science and technology could prepare the ground for realizing moral autonomy. With the help of science 62

and technology, people could liberate themselves from external determinism, avoid pure chance and establish a known and controllable world submissive to the demand of the human person and concurring in its concrete realization. Second, we must look upon the systematic character of scientifico-technological sectors as symbolizing the interconnection between man, nature and society and as articulating this in an eloquent manner. The autocomplexification of science and technology, in differentiating itself into ever more detailed sub-systems while grouping more and more sub-systems into larger systems, eventually could prepare a rational field for the concrete realization of the human person's relatedness to other beings. In short, the restoration of human person as the focus of moral education in technological society means the formation and realization of the human person's autonomy and relatedness as prior to, and productive of, the autonomy and relatedness in science and technology. This is the way for mankind to be the master of science and technology. ESSENTIAL CONTENT OF MORAL EDUCATION Moral education consists in the interiorization of essential moral norms and the formation of moral characters. But all these finally have to be derived from the requirements and dynamism of human nature. Moral norms make explicit the manner in which a person needs to conduct his action in a certain concrete situation in order to realize the autonomy of his person and to develop his relations to other beings. They function, therefore, as a kind of mediation through which a person can affirm his autonomy in concrete situations of action and realize his existential interconnection with the external world. In this sense, our moral norms must be derived from the constitution and the dynamism of the human person as analyzed above. From the person's desire for autonomy, freedom and self-realization it is possible to derive the moral norm of justice. Although the concept of justice has many definitions, it designates principally the moral norm that the desire and the right of every person to realize his or her own subjectivity must be respected by other persons. What John Rawls calls "distributional justice" is secondary in the sense that distributional justice is morally significant only when it contributes to the self-realization of the persons in question. The justice of revenge is derivative, in turn, from moral and distributional justice because often an offense against these forms of justice causes the retribution of other persons. Justice as a moral norm is concerned essentially with the right of everyone to realize his or herself as an autonomous and free person. From the moral norm of justice, we could derive other relevant norms, such as respect for human rights, which could be made concrete in a bill of human rights, the contents of which might vary from one country to another. From the human person's interrelatedness with other beings we could derive the norm of love. This norm is condensed in the words of Jesus: "You should love one another." Love is tender care for the good of others in a way that reveals and purifies one's existential innerconnections with other beings. In love, only the realization of the good of other person's could contribute to the good of the subject. From the norm of love we could derive the norm of respect for life which is quite universal in all civilizations. This norm is expressed negatively as the prohibition of hurting or killing any living being, and positively as the imperative to save and improve the lives of others. Besides the interiorization of these moral norms, moral education has another task: that of forming essential moral character. The contemporary world implemented by science and technology needs people with a spirit of criticism and of commitment. On the one hand, justice demands from us a spirit of criticism. This does not mean a Kantian search for the conditions of possibility of the object in question, nor does it mean an Hegelian 63

Aufhebung, often operating negatively. It means a special regard for the just degree of freedom and autonomy proportionate to the self-realization of each person in this complicated and rapidly changing society. On the other hand, love demands from us a spirit of commitment. This does not mean blind engagement in action without knowing the cause. It is rather a self-conscious participation in the active realization of beingtogetherness. Just as criticism plays the role of distancing in order to make justice possible, commitment plays the role of co-belonging to reinforce our interconnection with other beings. Criticism and commitment are thus two moments of the same dynamic movement towards the full realization of our subjectivity and intersubjectivity. To realize the criticism that is justice and the commitment that is love, we must carry forward a life of action and reflection. These are important in moral education as a teaching-learning process. Criticism demands a moment of reflection, not as theorizing or referring to any natural or social science theory for judging a phenomenon, but as a mental distancing in order to circumscribe the situation of justice and criticize it in referring to the ideal. Commitment demands a moment of action, not as a mere application of scientific theories to the manipulation of natural or social phenomena,13 but as a creative intervention in the flux of events caused by the relativity of the world. CONCLUSION In this epoch of rapid technological development, it is very important to appreciate properly the function of moral education and to understand well its anthropological foundation. The function of moral education today is to assure the person of his or her humanity and thereby to render human beings capable of being master, rather than slave, of science and technology. The human person as constituted structurally and dynamically by the contrast of autonomy and relatedness is the anthropological foundation of all moral education. In turn, the autonomous and systematic character of science and technology is derived from this profound structure and dynamism of human nature. This way of understanding science and technology enables them to be related to the human project towards the total realization of one's potentialities. Moreover, in forming our own personality and in training students in moral education, we must set up a model of the human person capable of both action and reflection: reflection with a view to attaining justice through criticism, and action with a view to fulfilling love through commitment. The logic of contrast between action and reflection, commitment and criticism, love and justice, leads finally to the fullest realization of our subjectivity and intersubjectivity. All these have their anthropological foundation in the human nature, namely, the autonomous and related person. The whole schema can be expressed as follows.

Educational anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is widely associated with the pioneering work of George Spindler. As the name would suggest, the focus of educational anthropology is obviously on education, although an anthropological approach to education tends to focus on the cultural aspects of education, including informal as well as formal education. As education involves understandings of who we are, it is not surprising that the single most recognized dictum of educational anthropology is that the 64

field is centrally concerned with cultural transmission.[1] Cultural transmission involves the transfer of a sense of identity between generations, sometimes known as enculturation[2] and also transfer of identity between cultures, sometimes known as acculturation.[3] Accordingly thus it is also not surprising that educational anthropology has become increasingly focussed on ethnic identity and ethnic change.[4][5]

Historical Foundations of Education and Philosophical Foundations of Education courses. Structured around major movements in world history, the lives of leading educators, and the philosophies and ideologies that resulted from their ideas, this unique text provides a clear interdisciplinary exploration of the development of educational ideas. The author takes a global perspective on the history and philosophy of education, capturing the essence of educational evolution through the biographies of 23 theorists, philosophers, and educators. This biographical focus, combined with an introductory presentation of the inherent connections between education's major movements and its primary movers, helps students better understand the social and historical conditions that have informed today's educational arena.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN EDUCATION CHAPTER I OUR HOMERIC ANCESTOR AND THEIR CULTURE The Hellenic invasion. -- It is generally held among historians that the first appearance of our cultural ancestors upon the soil of Western Europe occurred about 2000 B.C. At that time a group of tribes, admitting kinship and common origin, came down out of the grasslands of central Asia and overran the peninsula which is now comprised within modern Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Some groups even conquered for themselves footholds on the western coast of Asia Minor. They were on a low culture stage, probably the pastoral, in which they were still to be found for the most part when Homer pictures contemporary civilization among the Greeks about the thirteenth or eleventh century B.C. These barbarian invaders found the land which was to become their home occupied by a race possessing a relatively high cultural development as indicated by archeological remains. But the Greeks were evidently so inferior in their culture that they were unable to appropriate or adapt 65

egeans. The Greeks in the Age of Homer. -- The earliest historical record of our Greek forbears is found in the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer. The first of these epic poems deals with a great ethnic warfare between the Greeks and the Trojans, and the second with the journey of Odysseus in his effort to reach his home on the island of Ithaca upon the conclusion of the campaign against Troy. It is probable that there was a great bard named Homer who arranged old materials of myth and legend in the undying epics named above and whose name has always continued to be associated with the works upon which his genius put a lasting stamp. Homer is thought to have lived about the year 1200 or 1000 B.C., and it is further thought that the commonplace incident and the description of persons, places, customs, and occupations to be found in the epics represent contemporary conditions of existence among the Greeks of his day. Thus while the stories about the gods and the heroes were ancient myth and legend, what he had to say about the occupations and the institutions of the Greeks were those which he knew out of his own experience. Consequently, Homer may be regarded as a fairly authentic source for notions of the culture and the education of the Greeks at about 1000 B.C. Economic conditions in Homer's time. -- The Homeric Greeks were in a cultural stage intermediate between the pastoral and the agricultural. They lived in villages, cultivated the surrounding fields,

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