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How does waterproof breathable (WP/B) technology as used in outdoor apparel really work? The standard answer is often a simple one: "little tiny pores in the fabric are too small to allow liquid moisture (rain) to pass through, but are large enough to allow perspiration vapor (sweat) escape." Are you aware that this is not how Gore-Tex and most polyurethane coatings really work? This myth has been propagated for so many years it has now become cliche. Herein, we discuss how WP/B technology really works and which membranes actually do allow for the diffusion of vapor molecules. Herein, we'll address:
How various waterproof breathable technologies function Performance differences between waterproof breathable technologies Gore-Tex laminate fabric performance Polyurethane hydrophilic monolithic laminate fabric performance eVENT fabric performance 3M Propore fabric performance Entrant G2 -XT fabric performance Test methods for measuring breathability Relevance of this technical information to practical field application (summary) Rain shell usage and selection guidelines
Definitions
Breathability Breathability, or water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), is the ability of a fabric to transport water vapor from one side of the fabric to the other. Nominally, the greater the WVTR, the faster water vapor moves from the inside of your garment to the outside, and the less moisture youll accumulate while exercising. But the tests mentioned in this article measure the WVTR of only a small sample of fabric in a flat configuration under controlled laboratory conditions. The results from these tests should only be used as a tool for comparing breathability between fabrics, and should not be construed as predictors of field performance of garments. Note: many breathability tests are not limited to evaluating WP/B fabrics. They can also be used to assess the performance of uncoated fabrics such as those used in soft shells and wind shirts. Thermal Resistance Sometimes called dry thermal resistance, this is the insulating value of a shell. Even a thin layer of fabric has some insulating value which can contribute to the wearers comfort or discomfort. On a warm day even a very thin microfiber wind shirt can make you uncomfortable: try running on an 80 degree day in a windshirt layered over your normal T-shirt and compare it to just the cotton T-shirt you normally wear! Since sweating is a response to heat, youll sweat more, which makes garment breathability even more important. Air Permeability This is a measure of a how much air can pass through a fabric at a given pressure. It is a significant factor in garment comfort at high exertion levels. Air permeability is usually measured in cubic feet per minute. WP/B garments have very little or no air permeability and this contributes to user perception of clamminess and the buildup of interior moisture in the clothing system. Garments such as thin uncoated nylon wind shirts or stretchwoven soft shell jackets can have significant air permeability. The convective air and vapor flow through the air permeable soft shell fabric is a major reason why soft shells are so comfortable - they can transport water vapor at much higher rates than any WP/B garment. Conversely, lack of air permeability is the primary reason why WP/B fabrics are not so comfortable during high exertion. Most lab breathability tests do not account for moisture transport and cooling resulting from the air permeability of the fabric. Therefore, even though eVENT and Schoeller Drysking Extreme may have the same MVTR in a particular test (see Figure 1), field performance will be dramatically different - the more air permeable Schoeller fabric will result in significantly less moisture accumulation in the clothing system.
eVENT
What if you could use the original expanded PTFE membrane and not have to cover it with a PU membrane? Youd have a waterproof breathable membrane that would move moisture approximately 30% to 200% faster than Gore-Tex XCR*. BHA Technologies has developed such a membrane, branded as eVENT. Sounds like first generation Gore-Tex, doesn't it? Here's the difference: BHA engineered the PTFE membrane to be oleophobic, and thus, highly resistant to contaminant fouling. The eVENT PTFE membrane repels most of the common oily contaminates that originally plagued the first generation Gore-Tex membrane. Thus, eVENT does not need a breathability-inhibiting PU membrane to protect it from contaminants. * Results from independent testing: US ARMY Natick Labs, Dynamic Moisture Permeation Cell (DMPC), ASTM F2298 approved June 2003.
Figure 1 - Breathability performance of some common outdoor fabrics. Higher values indicate better performance: Test results from US Armys Soldier Systems Center, Natick, MA using a Dynamic Moisture Permeation Cell (DMPC), ASTM F2298. Courtesy of Phillip W. Gibson.
With unimpeded spaces between fibers (a micro-porous membrane), eVENTs moisture transmission behavior is more like an uncoated woven or knit fabric. From Figure 1, you can see how closely eVENT matches the performance of Schoellers Dryskin Extreme, a stretch woven fabric that has no WP/B membrane (note that the air permeability effects of a fabric on moisture transport are eliminated in this test; if air permeability is considered, much higher moisture transmission rates would be measured for Schoeller Dryskin Extreme). eVENTs membrane structure is important in two ways. First, molecules in their gaseous state (including perspiration vapor) can pass through the pore channels between the membranes fibers, a process that is capable of moving significantly higher fluxes of moisture than what is possible for by a solid layer of PU (as in Gore-Tex). Second, and more important, eVENT passes moisture equally well at both low and high humidity levels, evidenced by the independence of eVENTs moisture transmission rate on the humidity level (see Figure 1). At a 70% mean humidity level, eVENT transports moisture about 30% faster than XCR and about 70% faster than standard Gore-Tex and the best PU membranes. But at a 30% mean humidity level, eVENT transports moisture about 200% faster than XCR and about 250% faster than standard Gore-Tex and the best PU membranes.
Venting a Garment
Of course, any discussion of breathability must also consider garment ventilation features. Previously, we've addressed the relationship of ventilation and breathability in The Science of Breathability and Its Impact on Raingear Selection and Use and High Exertion Moisture Accumulation in Rain and Wind Shells. While shell fabric breathability contributes to moisture transport, shell ventilation design features are also important for controlling moisture accumulation in your clothing system. Further, how you use your shell and its ventilation options is vital. A vented jacket with a reasonably breathable shell used properly may still outperform a poorly vented jacket with a more breathable shell fabric. eVENTs breathability helps level the playing field some, and allows for more efficient designs with less ventilation features, resulting in a shell that is simpler to use and lighter in weight. As of press time, the only eVENT jacket on the market that employed pit zips was the Gill Adrenaline, a hoodless cycling jacket. A newcomer to the US market is the 66 North Glymer jacket - which uses mesh-backed front pockets to aid ventilation. None of the other eVENT jackets on the market employ pit zips, core vents, or mesh-backed pockets for ventilation, instead relying on eVENTs inherent breathability to move moisture out of the clothing system. At high exertion levels, it isnt difficult to overload the breathability capacity (moisture transport flux) of the more breathable WP/B fabrics like Gore-Tex, high performance PU membranes, and even microfiber windshirts made with uncoated woven fabrics. eVENT is no exception. In our field testing of un-vented eVENT jackets at very high aerobic levels (>80% max heart rate) in windy and dry conditions at 40 F (4 C) our base layer (the only clothing worn under the jacket) was fairly wet after an hour. This is not to say that eVENT performed poorly on the contrary, we feel that eVENT has excellent breathability and jackets made with eVENT are among the most breathable weve tested. This is just reminder to readers that even the most breathable of WP/B fabrics can be overwhelmed during sustained periods of high exertion. As activity intensity and duration increases, the benefit of more air permeable fabrics, such as Schoeller Dryskin and other soft shell stretchwovens, or garments with ventilating features such as pit zips, becomes more beneficial.
There is another material in use for rainwear that exhibits breathability performance similar to eVENT: 3M Propore, a microporous polypropylene fabric. Propore uses a WP/B microporous polypropylene membrane laminated to a nonwoven polypropylene fabric (the yellow 2-layer fabric used in the Rainshield's O2 Rainwear product lines) or a WP/B microporous polypropylene membrane laminated between two nonwoven polypropylene fabrics (the blue 3-layer fabric used in Rainshield's Sporting product lines). Propore breathes equally well at low and high humidity levels. Propore is another extremely breathable fabric with DMPC water vapor transmission rates (breathability) that exceed Gore-Tex XCR (Figure 2). Unlike eVENT and Gore-Tex XCR, the polypropylene based technology used in Propore is very inexpensive and the fabric is very light. It is even lighter and less expensive that PU WP/B garments. The hooded Rainshield Propore jacket weighs 4.7 oz (133 g) and costs only $30! Its no wonder that Propore is a favorite cult choice of long distance hikers.
Figure 2 - Breathability performance 3M Propore fabric vs Gore-Tex fabrics and a reference PTFE membrane. Higher values indicate better performance: Test results from US Armys Soldier Systems Center, Natick, MA using a Dynamic Moisture Permeation Cell (DMPC), ASTM F2298. Courtesy of Phillip W. Gibson.
The major disadvantage of Propore is that it is not a durable fabric and is especially prone to punctures and tears. For most users it is limited to trail use and more benign environments. It is ill-suited to serious bushwhacking, scrambling or climbing. Some members of the BackpackingLight.com review staff have quite a lot of off-trail (alpine hiking) experience with Propore garments. With care, theyve found them to be quite serviceable, even for some crosscountry travel and light mountaineering. Propore garments as manufactured by Rainshield are done so to achieve a price point. Consequently, they offer few features, poor fit and styling, and they lack the manufacturing quality of higher end outdoor specialty soft goods. There is certainly room and demand for a well-designed Propore rain jacket that is better suited for extended use. 3M Propore is not the only polypropylene-based fabric on the market. Similar to three-layer Propore in construction (with a membrane sandwiched between two layers of nonwoven polypropylene), the fabric used in Frogg Toggs is not as breathable, based on both field observations and laboratory testing (ASTM E96) performed by BackpackingLight.com (see M Raingear Roundup). Frogg Toggs have achieved a cult following among the lightweight backpacking community, and have penetrated that market more deeply than Rainshield, owing to more style options, higher construction quality, and better fit.
systems and subjected to blowing wind are more accurate indicators of clothing performance, but still fall short of predicting actual field performance on human subjects. Mannequin tests are also expensive, difficult to execute, and provide data that can be interpreted with great latitude. Consequently, they are not likely to gain favor in breathability standardization anytime soon, and will remain primarily as a research tool. Even if testing were performed on human subjects, many variables must be taken into account: individual metabolic variability, individual perspiration level, personal fitness, activity level, what garments are worn under the shell, shell venting characteristics (e.g. pit-zips), garment fit, whether or not the shell pumps air (which is governed by fit, ventilation, and body motion), the type of activity performed, wind speed and direction, outside temperature, precipitation levels, etc. This list could go on! Clearly, there is no standard method or measure that can be used to predict the comfort level of rainwear garments on a human subject in realistic field conditions. There are simply too many variables. The following table summarizes the test results from some of the standard fabric breathability tests used by researchers and industry. Tests were performed at Kansas State Universitys Institute for Environmental Research.
Table 1. Results from Different Water Vapor Transmission/Resistance Tests Performed on WR/B & WP/B Shell Fabrics
ASTM E 96 B ASTM E 96 BW JIS L 1099 ASTM F 1868 ASTM F 2298 Upright Cup Inverted Cup Desiccant Sweating Hot DMPC Diffusion Method Method Inverted Cup Plate Method Test Method 2 2 2 2 2 (g/24hrs/m ) (g/24hrs/m ) (g/24hrs/m ) (m Pa/W) (g/24hrs/m )
High Density Woven Fabrics with DWR Finish Clima F.I.T.R Epic Hyper D-WR 892.4 800.8 801.6 4788.0 3113.6 3302.4 13,420.8 6,852.0 6,824.8 10.4 14.9 14.6 4775.1 3238.5 3743.6
Trade Name
Fabrics with Microporous Coating or Laminate Entrant G2TM -XT (Type C) eVent (Nylon Fabric) eVent (Polyester Fabric) Helly-Tech Extreme Omni-Tech Dry Omni-Tech Mini-Faille Proof Ace (Type M) Triple Point Ceramic 926.0 984.8 942.8 785.2 913.6 742.4 690.8 776.8 5084.8 7265.6 6201.6 3056.8 5317.2 4360.0 3012.8 2972.0 21,272.8 27,825.6 20,716.0 6,696.0 16,728.8 7,788.0 6,050.4 5,305.6 5.5 5.9 6.5 13.1 6.6 12.3 14.9 13.3 5742 6162.5 6039.2 3353.5 5098.5 2499.4 2199.0 3094.2
Fabrics with Monolithic Coating or Laminate Dermizax Diaplex (Rip Stop Weave) Diaplex (Plain Weave) Gelanots (Rip Stop Weave) Gelanots (Plain Weave) Marmot Membrain Pertextion Sympatex Xalt 700.0 742.4 715.2 624.4 724.4 618.8 446.4 783.2 566.4 6608.4 6180.4 7285.6 5801.2 7634.4 4368.0 4510.0 5876.0 5992.8 12,357.6 14,508.0 12,052.8 11,676.8 12,707.2 8,728.8 6,672.8 11,669.6 8,220.8 11.4 7.0 11.7 8.3 8.8 13.5 21.5 6.8 12.6 2245.5 2654.2 2441.8 2052.4 2424.5 1962.2 1174.5 2960.1 1692.1
Fabrics with Bicomponent Treatments Eclipse Twin Sensor (Rip Stop Weave) 811.6 5441.6 14,998.4 7.7 3840.7
Eclipse Twin Sensor (Plain Weave) Gore-Tex XCR Gore-Tex Marmot Dry Touch Storm F.I.T.R Mean of All Fabrics
Table provided from Elizabeth A McCullough Myoungsook Kwon and Huensup Shim "A comparison of standard methods for measuring water vapour permeability of fabrics," Institute Of Physics Publishing, Meas. Sci. Technol. 14 (2003) 1402-1408 (Used with Author's Permission).
One could write thousands of pages on tests that measure fabric breathability. One quickly gets lost in abstruse physics and experimental procedures. Even a fairly simple explanation of the standard fabric breathability tests is beyond the scope of this article. For now, well focus on just two tests, the Sweating Hot Plate (SHP) or Skin Model, and the Dynamic Moisture Permeation Cell (DMPC) tests. There are at least four other tests in common use and many variations of test conditions. Needless to say it is extremely difficult to compare results from one type of test to another since they do not always use the same units or give comparable numeric results. One should even be careful in comparing the results of the same test between labs since the apparatus and test conditions can vary. Finally, one must consider the inherent variability (scatter) in data between tests, even at the same lab using the same test setup.
The bottom line: You should view fabric breathability performance numbers quoted by a garment manufacturer with some skepticism. The design of a garment and how you use it will likely have more impact on its field performance than the lab measured breathability of its WP/B fabric. The most reliable breathability data can be interpreted by comparing results using the same test method on different fabrics from an independent laboratory, such as those quoted in Figures 1 and 2 and Table 1 herein.
PU fabrics perform best with high humidity levels on the inside of the fabric. By comparison, some WP/B fabrics like eVENT and Propore maintain a high level of breathability even at low humidity levels. As pointed out earlier in this article, there are reasons why improved breathability at lower humidity might be important for garment performance. Gibson says, I would agree that for clothing use, that the rankings down on the humid end are probably most appropriate if you had to pick one condition. But I think that the less humid end of the curve is also important for the period before you start sweating, and for the situation where you are trying to dry your clothing, boots, or gloves. As mentioned earlier, another advantage of the DMPC test is that it can measure the air permeability (the opposite of windproofness) of the test fabric. While air permeability is not a characteristic of WP/B membranes (most are nearly or completely impermeable to air), air permeability is the primary reason why soft shell garments are so comfortable. The air permeability of a nylon wind shirt or stretchwoven jacket is why they are more pleasant to wear than WP/B garments in anything short of a sustained rain. Note the high breathability ratings of Schoellers Dryskin Extreme on the DMPC tests (Figure 1). The more air permeable Schoeller Dynamic would be off the charts in the same test. An active outdoorsman, Dr. Gibson uses soft shell garments as outer shells for almost all of his endeavors. Glenn W. Crowther, of W. L. Gore contends that the disadvantage of some of the newer tests like the Dynamic Moisture Permeation Cell (DMPC) as per ASTM F2298 is that they have not been correlated to the performance of waterproof breathable garments on an exercising human body. For Gore, it is unclear if the results from the DMPC test mean anything about real world or in field performance of a garment. Crowther says Gore favors the SHP test. They believe that the SHP test best replicates the performance of a fabric covering a sweating human body. They point out that Hohenstein labs in Germany has correlated SHP test results to human subject testing or in field use. Gore also favors the SHP test because it has been adopted as an international standard and it has been in use for some time. It was developed in collaboration with independent labs, including the Armys Natick labs in the U.S. and Hohenstein labs in Germany. Anyone can send samples to these labs for unbiased testing of breathability. Discerning the extent to which a test design remains free of manufacturer influence is very difficult. The scientific committees responsible for developing, refining, validating, and approving such test methods are collaborative efforts of individuals from both industry and academia. A reliable source, and committee participant, who prefers to remain anonymous, states, conflict of interest is nearly impossible to remove from the test method approval process. Committees for the most part behave respectably, but individual members, especially those represent the major financial interests of for-profit corporations, certainly have their own agenda, and exercise tremendous influence on the adoption of test methods. Suspicion of such agenda-(and profit)-driven tainting of the test method approval process appears to be prevalent in other industries as well, including and especially, test methods used to evaluate the efficacy of pharmaceuticals, biomedical devices, and chemical coatings - three industries with potentially huge profit margins on products brought to market and endorsed by an internationally-adopted test method. Does this mean the test methods are not valuable? Of course not. But buyer beware: test results alone will not tell the whole story, and may be skewed to unfairly favor a particular manufacturer's technology. Ranking of Fabric Field Performance Using the SHP Test Gore and Hohenstein labs have developed a ranking system based on a fabrics Ret performance in the SHP test:
Ret 0 to 60 = "extremely breathable" (e.g., Gore-Tex XCR, PacLite III, eVENT) Ret 60 to 130 "very breathable" (e.g., Gore-Tex Classic, most PU laminates) Ret 130 to 200 "breathable" Ret 200 to 300 "slightly breathable" Ret >300 "not breathable"
Note: a Ret is a measure of resistance to moisture transport. A lower Ret means a fabric has less resistance or is more breathable, i.e., lower Ret values indicate more breathable fabrics. According to Gore, Hohenstein labs found no perceivable differences in breathability performance (comfort as reported by human testers of rainwear) within the category of "extremely breathable", even though different laminates have different test values. By comparison, Classic (second generation) Gore-Tex and many PUs fall into the "very breathable" category, with Ret values between 60 and 130. Hohenstein and other labs have found perceivable differences between these two categories of breathability. The Gore-Hohenstein summary position on this is that there are perceivable differences in field use between the categories but not within categories. This is all well and good for Gore, because it allows them to (1) include their latest technologies in the category for most breathable fabrics, and (2) it discounts the technology edge of more breathable technologies from competitors such as eVENT and Propore. Gibson thinks that the Hohenstein cutoff Ret of 60 is probably too high and that a lower number is more appropriate for the "extremely breathable" designation. This might drop the rankings of some of the fabrics now lumped into the extremely breathable category - including some Gore fabrics - to the lower "very breathable" category. Gore - and Hohenstein - must recognize that it is also possible - in fact, probable - that DMPC test results can be correlated to perceived human comfort and that another raking of fabrics might result with further differentiation between fabrics that are recognized as "extremely breathable" by Hohenstein. Gibson suggests that, based on DMPC tests, fabrics like eVENT and Propore break out into an even more breathable category - perhaps ultra breathable - which might leave current Gore fabrics "out of the medal round", so to speak. Gibson does agree that "for materials having no air permeability (i.e., most WP/B fabrics), Gores statement about the difficulty of distinguishing (field performance or comfort) between materials with Ret << 60 is pretty fair. Thats because the fabric resistance starts to become very small compared to the overall resistance due to the air spaces under the clothing, any intermediate (clothing) layers, and the boundary layer resistance due to air flow over your body. For materials with measurable levels of air permeability (e.g., soft shell fabrics) Gibson says, then you will see differences in comfort because you get convective air (and vapor) flow through the fabric. This is just another way of saying that the reason that soft shells are so comfortable is because they let air pass through the fabric. The short story: if you dont need complete rain protection, a soft shell garment is a great choice.
Summary
1. 2. 3. View laboratory-based fabric breathability test numbers as reported by manufacturers with caution. They may not have all that much to do with how you feel wearing a garment made from that fabric, anyway, and manufacturers may have selected the test method - and test conditions - to favor their fabric. There are a lot of good WP/B fabrics out there. For less breathable fabrics, garment design (including ventilation features) and how you use the garment increase in importance for maintaining comfort during active conditions. Polyurethane only fabrics and bicomponent PTFE fabrics (i.e., those with a hydrophilic PU membrane like Gore-Tex) breathe better at higher humidity levels. In other words, they transport moisture better when its warm and moist inside your garment.
4.
5. 6.
There is a new class of WP/B breathable fabrics with hydrophobic micro-porous membranes like eVENT, Propore and Entrant G2 XT that breathe better at all humidity levels than the best Gore-Tex fabrics. These new fabrics are extremely breathable even at low humidity levels, unlike Gore-Tex. They start venting before it gets warm and clammy inside your garment. According to some researchers, the enhanced breathability of these fabrics may increase your comfort over conventional Polyurethane and PU/PTFE fabrics like Gore-Tex. Fabric air permeability plays a significant role in garment comfort at high exertion levels. Most WP/B fabrics are not air permeable and this contributes to them being too warm and clammy at moderate to high exertion levels. This includes newer fabrics like Propore and eVENT. Garments made with air permeable fabrics, such as wind shirts and stretchwoven soft shell garments, give you more breathability and temperature regulation than fully waterproof garments. Use one in conditions where you dont need the full protection of a waterproof garment.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Smart use of your shell reduces moisture accumulation. Use the vents, regulate your exertion level, and adjust your insulation layers to prevent the accumulation of moisture in your clothing system. Even a good shell will get you wet if you dont use it properly.
2. 3. 4. 5.