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I.

nh ngha ngoi tc:

1. Khi nim
Trong thc t, c rt nhiu trng hp cc hot ng kinh t ngoi vic em li li ch hay thit hi trc tip cho nhng ngi sn xut, s dng sn phm, m n cn gy cc tc ng bn ngoi, gy thit hi hoc em li li ch mt cch ngu nhin (khng ch ) cho nhng ngi khng tham gia vo cc qu trnh hot ng kinh t .V cc thit hi hay li ch ny u khng c th hin trong gi c th trng, khng c tnh n trong cc quyt nh sn xut hay tiu dng. Khi s xut hin yu t ngoi tc. Vy ngoi tc l khi hnh ng ca mt i tng (c th l c nhn hoc hng) c nh hng trc tip n phc li ca mt i tng khc nhng nhng nh hng li khng c phn nh trong gi c th trng. Ngoi tc c th xut hin gia: ngi sn xut ngi sn xut; ngi tiu dng ngi tiu dng hoc gia ngi sn xut ngi tiu dng.

2. Phn loi:
Ty thuc vo hot ng gy nh hng c li hay hi m ta chia ra 2 loi: ngoi tc tiu cc, ngoi tc tch cc.
a. Ngoi tc tiu cc ( Ngoi tc m):

Ngoi tc tiu cc l ngoi tc m hnh vi ca thnh vin bn ny em li thit hi v chi ph cho thnh vin bn kia m khng c phn nh trc tip thng qua gi c th trng, l s chnh lch v chi ph gia chi ph c nhn v chi ph x hi, khng h c s n b hay thanh ton no c thc hin bi thnh vin gy nh hng.

+ + + + + + +

MSB: li ch bin ca x hi, cng chnh l ng cu Qd MC: chi ph bin ca doanh nghip MEC: chi ph bin gy nhim phi tr cho x hi MSC: chi ph bin thc t ca doanh nghip sau khi tr cho x hi khon gy hi Q,P: sn lng v gi c thc t Q* & P*: sn lng v gi c tim nng i vi x hi, doanh nghip nn sn xut Tam gic mu l tn tht ca x hi khi doanh nghip sn xut qu nhiu.

Ngoi tc tiu cc : MC < MSC => QTT > Q*, ngha l chi ph bin ca doanh nghip thp hn so vi chi ph bin m x hi phi chu nn doanh nghip sn xut nhiu hn s lng x hi mong i, gy tn tht cho x hi. V d: - Kh thi t xe c l ngoi tc tiu cc v n to ra khi v ngi khc c th b ht phi. y ngi gy nhim l ngi s dng phng tin giao thng nhng h khng phi tr hay chu mt chi ph bi thng no v vn ny. i hi chnh quyn phi can thip bng cch t ra tiu chun pht thi , nh thu xng du. - Nh my sn xut giy thi nc thi xung sng m khng ph chu mt chi ph no, mc d vic thi nc ny gy nn nhng tn tht cho cc sinh vt thu sinh, lm gim thu nhp ca ng dn; gy bnh tt do s dng nc b nhim,
b. Ngoi tc tch cc ( Ngoi tc dng):

Ngoi tc tch cc l ngoi tc m hnh vi ca thnh vin bn ny em li li ch cho thnh vin bn kia m khng c phn nh trc tip qua gi c th trng, l s chnh lch v li ch gia li ch c nhn v li ch x hi

+ + +

MB: ng li ch bin ca doanh nghip MEB: ng li ch bin mang li cho i tng khc MSB: li ch bin ca x hi, cng chnh l ng cu Qd, ng doanh thu bin MR ca x hi MSC: chi ph bin ca x hi phi tr Q,P: sn lng v gi c thc t Q*, P*: sn lng v gi c tim nng i vi x hi, doanh nghip nn sn xut Tam gic mu xanh l tn tht x hi khi doanh nghip sn xut qu t

+ + + +

Ngoi tc tch cc: MB < MSB => QTT < Q*, ngha l li ch bin ca doanh nghip nh hn li ch bin ca x hi nn sn lng c sn xut thc t t hn sn lng mong i, gy tn tht cho x hi.

V d: - Mt h gia nh trng cy xanh, cy cnh trn t ca gia nh mnh nhng li lm p cho c khu ph. Cc gia nh trong ph c hng nhng li ch tt p ny m khng phi tr mt khon no, ch nhn ca ngi nh cng khng c nhn mt khon no - Nghin cu cng ngh mi: l ngoi tc tch cc v n to ra kin thc m mi ngi c th s dng. Nhng li ch ca tc gi hay nh pht minh th rt nh. i hi chnh quyn phi can thip bng cch t ra quyn s hu, quyn tc gi, cp bng pht minh, sng ch.

II.Nguyn nhn:
1. Quyn s hu:
Cc ngun lc chung khng c xc nh mt cch r rng l nguyn nhn chnh dn n ngoi tc. Ngun lc chung ny nh nc, khng kh, khong sn, t, Tt c mi ngi u c t do tip cn v c kh nng b s dng qu mc V d: cc phng tin giao thng x kh thi vo khng kh. V khng kh l ngun lc chung ca x hi, ta khng xc nh r rng c quyn s hu ca bt k ai i vi khng kh. Nn vic gy nhim bu kh quyn l li ca ngi i ng v vic nhim ny gy n nhng tc ngoi tc tiu cc cho ngi khc. Nhng ta khng th qui trch nhim cho bt k ai c.

2. Khoa hc k thut:
Vic nghin cu pht trin khoa hc k thut l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn gin tip gy ra ngoi tc (c tiu cc ln tch cc) V d: my mc cng hin i th ngoi tc tiu cc c khuynh hng cng gim.

II. Phn tch ngoi tc tiu cc v tnh phi hiu qu: 1.Trong sn xut:
Trong sn xut, ngoi tc tiu cc s lm cho sn lng thc t sn xut ra cao hn mc sn lng ti u ca x hi ( MSC > MB tc mt hng ny c xu hng sn xut qu nhiu) v mc gi sn xut thc t s thp hn mc gi ti u x hi.

Tuy nhin ti mc gi v sn lng ny, chi ph sn xut x hi cao hn gi tr i vi ngi tiu dng dn n tnh phi hiu qu kinh t.

Hnh nh minh ha cho ngoi tc tiu cc thng qua v d Vedan thi nc cha qua x l vo sng Th Vi gy thit hi ln cho ngi dn Trc honh ca thi cho bit sn lng m nh my sn xut.Trc tung o lng chi ph v li ch m hot ng ny to ra, tnh bng tin. ng MB cho bit li ch bin m Vedan thu c ng vi tng mc sn lng. ng MPC th hin chi ph t nhn bin, tc l mi khon chi ph m nh my thc phi chi ra sn xut thm mt n v sn lng, th d nh chi ph nhn cng, nguyn vt liu, my mc, thit b.. ng trn quan im x hi, ng chi ph bin i vi x hi (MSC) s gm c hai b phn cu thanh: th nht l chi ph mua sm u vo ca nh my m gi tr ca chng c phn nh trn ng MPC; th hai l chi ph thit hi m HTX phi gnh chu c th hin bng ng MEC. V th MSC s bng MPC cng vi MEC. Nu Vedan l ngi ti a ha li nhun th h s sn xut hiu qu nht ti im MB = MC. Nhng v MC m nh my quan tm l MPC nn h s sn xut ti im B, ti MB = MPC. im ny cn gi l mc sn lng ti u th

trng.Tri li, cng theo nguyn tc bin v hiu qu, nhng v quan tm n chi ph ca c x hi nn mc sn lng ti u theo quan im x hi phi t ti A, khi MB = MSC. Nh vy, Vedan gy ngoi tc tiu cc sn xut qu nhiu so vi mc ti u x hi. Nu chnh ph khng c bin php buc Vedan ct gim sn lng th thit hi gy ra cho x hi s l bao nhiu? C th thy ngay tng tn tht phc li rng ca x hi l tam gic ABC. iu ny c th c gii thch rng: V li ch rng (hay li nhun) m Vedan thu c khi sn xut thm mt n v sn lng l khong cch dc gia ng MB v MPC nn tng li nhun tng thm khi nh y duy tr mc sn lng t Qo n Q1 l tam gic ABE. Trong khi , ngi dn khu vc sng Th Vi s b thit hi do nhim nh my thi ra. Vi mi n v sn lng do nh my sn xut, ngi dn s chu thit mt khon bng MEC. V th, khi sn lng tng t Qo n Q1 th tng thit hi gy ra cho ngi dn s l hnh thang abQ1Qo. V hnh thang ny c din tch ng bng hnh thang ACBE nn sau khi b p phn li nhun tng thm ca nh my Vedan, x hi vn b thit tam gic ABC. Nu x hi c th buc nh my ct gim sn lng t Q1 xung Qo th s tit kim c khon tn tht phc li x hi ni trn. Nh vy, c th thy rng, mc sn lng hiu qu x hi khng c ngha l mt mc sn lng khng gy nhim bi l yu cu l phi tm mt mc nhim chp nhn c, theo ngha li ch ca sn xut mang li phi b p nhng chi ph m x hi phi gnh chu khi tin hnh sn xut, trong tnh c chi ph nhim. 2. Trong tiu dng: Mt vi ngoi tc tiu cc lin quan n tiu dng s lm cho mc sn lng thc t cao hn mc sn lng sn xut ti u x hi, v mc gi thc t cao hn mc gi ti u x hi. Khi ngi c xu hng xi nhiu hng ha ni th cng s lm cho sn lng, v gi thc t ln hn mc sn lng ti u ca x hi gy ra cc ngoi tc tiu c. V d: Chng hn nh nng cn s to ra ngoi tc tiu cc trong tiu dng trong tiu dng nu vic tiu dng n c nh hng n sc khe ca ngi khc. Chng hn bia-ru trong trng hp ny, gi tr x hi nh hn so vi gi tr ca c nhn v sn lng ti u ca x hi nh hn so vi sn lng c xc nh bi th trng c nhn.

P MSB Pm Po E

MB MC O

0 Qo Qm Q

Trong trng hp ny, ta thng thy chnh ph nh thu cao i vi cc mt hng bia ru, tp trung vo cc loi thu nh thu tiu th c bit, thu nhp khu, Ngoi tc tiu cc trong tiu dng lm cho gi tr x hi (li ch x hi bin) nh hn gi tr c nhn (li ch c nhn bin) v sn lng ti u ca x hi ( Q0 ) nh hn so vi sn lng c xc nh bi th trng c nhn ( Qm )

3. Tm li:
Ngoi tc tiu cc trong sn xut hay tiu dng u lm cho th trng sn xut ra mt s lng ln hn sn lng m ton x hi mong mun gy ra tn tht cho x hi. (Sn lng thc t> sn lng ti u). Nhng trong sn xut, ngoi tc tiu cc lm cho gi c thc t gim so vi gi c ti u x hi cn trong tiu dng th ngoi tc tiu cc lm tng gi c thc t so vi gi c ti u x hi.

IV. Bin php khc phc ngoi tc: A. Bin php mnh lnh kim sot IA. Tiu chun mi trng:

1/nh ngha: Tiu chun mi trng (ES) c nh ngha l khi lng th hin di dng cc thng s c th no , nng hoc mc pht thi khng c vt qu gii hn trong sut mt hoc cc chu k thi gian. Nu cc hng vi phm vt qu mc chun mc ny s b pht tin, thm ch cn b truy cu trch nhim hnh s. i vi vn mi trng c 3 loi tiu chun chnh: - Tiu chun mi trng xung quanh (Ambient Standards) - Tiu chun pht thi (Emission Standards) - Tiu chun cng ngh (Technology Standards) a. Tiu chun mi trng xung quanh: xc nh mc nhim ca mi trng xung quanh khng c php vt qu. V d : Cht lng mi trng khng kh xung quanh cho SO 2 c 2 tiu ch l bnh qun hng nm ti a l 23 phn t ppb v bnh qun 24h ti a l 115 ppb b. Tiu chun pht thi: l lng cht thi m ngun gy nhim khng bao gi c vt qu.
P MAC2 MAC1 P

100

40

50

100

Khi p dng tiu chun ng b, ta c mc pht thi ca 2 doanh nghip bng nhau: MAC1=MAC2=50 TAC= S1+S2+S3+S4

Khi p dng tiu chun ring l, ta c MAC1=40, MAC2=60 TAC=S1+S2+S4

Mt s dng tiu chun pht thi: - Tc pht thi (v d kg/gi) - Hm lng pht thi (phn triu nhu cu oxy sinh hc,hay BOD trong nc) - Tng lng cht thi (tc pht thi*nng *thi gian) - Lng cht thi/n v sn lng (SO2/kWh) - Lng cht thi /n v nhp lng (Sulphur/tn than) - Phn trm cht gy nhim c loi b (v d 60% lng cht thi c loi b trc khi thi ra) c. Tiu chun cng ngh: l nhng tiu chun quy nh v cng ngh k thut hoc hot ng m ch th gy nhim phi p dng.
MAC1 MAC2

MSC

5 4 1 E* E 2 3

Mc thi

Nu doanh nghip vn gi nguyn mc pht thi ban u l E th khon li TAC thu c l S3

Nu doanh nghip gim mc pht thi ban u t E xung E* th khon li TAC ca doanh nghip l S3+S4+S5 Tiu chun cng ngh bao gm: - Tiu chun thit k hoc k thut - Tiu chun sn phm,tiu chun nhp lng - TSB thng quy nh ch th gy nhim s dng cng ngh tt nht hin c (BAT), cng ngh tt nht c th p dng (BPT) hoc cng ngh tt nht sn c kh thi v mt kinh t (BATEA)

IIA. Giy php thi khng th chuyn nhng:


1.nh ngha: Giy php khng th chuyn nhng l loi giy php do c quan qun l mi trng ban hnh. Cc ch th gy nhim s c cp giy php thi khi tha mn cc iu kin sau: - Cc a im xy dng x nghip c th ti thiu ha cc nh hng bt li v kinh t, x hi v mi trng.

- Khi cc c s sn xut gy nhim phi lp t thit b x l nhim

- Cc x nghip phi c cc bin php bo v mi trng khc, c cc phng n n b cho ngi b thit hi, thit lp nn cc qu mi trng h tr hot ng ci thin mi trng.

- Giy php nhim thng gn lin vi tiu chun mi trng quy nh v ch c gi tr i vi nhng ngi c cp giy php,khng c chuyn nhng, cho mn hay cho vay. 2. u im v hn ch ca bin php giy php pht thi khng th chuyn nhng:

-u im: + Cng c ny c tnh php l cao. + C phm vi p dng rng, nhiu lnh vc khc nhau, nhiu ngnh sn xut khc nhau - Hn ch: + Trong thc t c quan qun l mi trng khng bit c hm MEC v hm MAC ca tng doanh nghip. Do 1mt chun mc mi trng c xc nh ng b cho ngnh. Do vy phng php ny khng t c v mt x hi v kh pht huy v hiu lc. + Cng c ny i hi chi ph gim st, kim tra, cng ch, thc thi cng c cao. Nn kh p dng cho cc nc ang pht trin. + Cng c ny khuyn khch thp vic ci tin cng ngh trong khng ch cht thi.

B.Bin php khuyn khch kinh t IB. Thu,ph pht thi:bao gm thu pht thi (ph) v thu tnh trn n v sn phm (thu pigou)
1/nh ngha: Thu pht thi (ph pht thi) l khon ph m ngi gy nhim phi tr cho mi n v nhim m h gy ra Thu pigou l khon thu m ngi gy nhim phi tr tnh trn n v sn phm.

Biu : nh thu i vi ngoi ng tiu cc Lp lun trn c s l thuyt: Khi chu thu ny ng MPC ca nh my s dch chuyn song song ln thnh MPC + t. ti a ha li nhun nh my s t MB = MPC + t, tc l gim sn lng sn xut. MEC ti mc sn lng ti u x hi chnh l on aQ0, hay cng l on AE. khng c tn tht x hi th thu nh ti a l t = MEC. Khi chnh ph s thu thm c mt khon thu l t.Q0, khon thu ny s c chnh ph s dng n b cho ngi nng dn 2. u im v nhc im ca bin php thu, ph pht thi: - u im:

+ Doanh nghip khi chu thu ny s buc phi gim sn lng xung Q0. iu ny s trit tiu c mt khng x hi hi do ngoi ng gy ra. ng thi khi doanh nghip ct gim sn lng th khi lng x thi cc cht gy nhim cho mi trng s gim xung. + S tin n b c chuyn n tay ngi dn, c ngha c chuyn n i tng chu hu qu s gip cho h sm c th n nh cuc sng. - Nhc im: + Cc yu t xc nh mc thu sao cho ph hp rt kh. Bi v vic xc nh MB, MEC, MPC, MSC rt kh khn. T vic xc nh Q0 v Q* l v cng kh khn. Mt khc chng ta khng c iu kin, nhn lc, vt lc xc nh chnh xc c. V l thu t nh nc nh vo doanh nghip kh c th lm hi lng c hai pha: doanh nghip v nh nc.

P MAC

MSC

nthu, phphtth i

Chi phgimth i

E*

E0

3. V d +TI THY IN Vic nh thu pht thi kh Surphur ti th in cng em li nhng kt qu kh quan trong vic kim sot nhim, c tnh c tc ng lm gim 30% lng pht thi trong thi gian t nm 1989 n nm 1995. +TI BA LAN Ba Lan p dng kt hp cc cng c kt gim lng nhim v h tr ti chnh cho cng tc x l nhim. thu pht thi i vi surphur ca Ba Lan trong thi gian 1990 n nm 1996 dao ng trong khong t 60 n 100 usd/tn SO2. vic p dng cng c pht thi Ba Lan thnh cng trong vic khuyn khch cc c s sn xut, kinh doanh gim nhim ng thi to ngun thu cho ngn sch nhm u t x l nhim mi trng +TI INDONEXIA Nm 1980, chnh ph Indonexia bt u nh thu ph ti trng rng vi mc thu l 4 usd/1m3 i vi hot ng n g. n nm 1989, mc ph ny tng ln 7 usd/1m3 v 22 usd/1m3 vo nm 1997. Vi tin ph thu c, qu s dng ti trng rng v thc y cc hot ng bo v rng

Nghin cu v h thng thu ph nc thi ti Cng ha Lin bang c

1.c im ca h thng ph nc thi ti CHLB c H thng ph nc thi ca c c p dng kt hp vi cc quy nh v th tc cp giy php. Cc doanh nghip thuc nhm i tng np ph trc ht phi c giy php x thi do chnh quyn Bang cp. Trong giy php ny, tt c cc thng tin cn thit tnh ton ph nc thi u c ghi r. Cc cht nhim phi tr ph l COD, SS v mt s kim loi nng nh cadimi, thy ngn v cc cht c hi cho c. Giy php cng quy nh r lng nc thi ti a cho php hng nm, gi l gii hn x thi cho php. Cc bang c trch nhim thu ph, cn quy tc tnh ph, mc ph, v cc thng s n v gy hi do chnh quyn Lin bang quyt nh. Do vy, mc ph l thng nht chung trn ton quc da theo mt n v tnh khc ring bit ca nc ny gi l n v gy hi c xc nh da theo lng v loi cht nhim (xem bng 3.1 bn di).Vic tnh ph v vy theo cch thc c chng l, da trn lng thi c cho php trong giy php ch khng phi theo lng thi thc t. Nu vt qua gii hn cho php, mc ph s c tng ln tng ng. Trong trng hp ngc li, nu nh ngi gy nhim thng bo trc rng mc thi s thp hn mc ghi trong giy php t nht l 20% trong thi gian ti thiu l 3 thng, mc ph s c xem xt v tnh ton li theo lng thi gim bt nh d kin.T khi p dng, mc ph c iu chnh tng dn t 12 DM cho mt n v nhim ln 70 DM nm 1997 v gi mc ny cho n nay. S tng tc gia gia ph x thi v quy nh c th hin trong quy nh v mc ph xem xt gim ca Lut Ph x thi. Ph phi np c th c xem xt gim theo mt s cch. i vi nhng c s gy nhim tun th theo tiu chun thi ti thiu ca lin bang, c th l s dng tiu chun cng ngh tt nht hin c (BAT) i vi cht nhim gy nguy hi v tiu chun cng ngh c tha nhn chung i vi cc cht phi kim loi, mt mc ph min gim khong so vi mc ph thng thng s c p dng. Trong trng hp cc Bang c ban hnh cc tiu chun nghim ngt hn so vi tiu chun Lin bang, th c s gy nhim phi t tiu chun ca Bang th mi c hng mc ph u i ny.

Tiu ch

n v o lng n v gy Lng thi/nm hi tnh trn mt n v o lng 1.0

Cc cht n nh c cha thnh phn hu c trn 1 mt khi thi 10% Cc cht n nh cha thnh phn hu c di 10% Cc cht c kh nng oxy ha o bi COD Thy ngn v cc hp cht Cadmium v cc hp cht c tnh i vi c

1 mt khi thi 100kg 100g Hg 100g Cd 1000 thi m3

0.1 2.2 5.0 1.0

nc 0.3 GF *

Bng 3.1: Tiu chun nh gi mc gy hi ca dng thi trong h thng ph x thi quc gia ca CHLB c Trong trng hp ngi gy nhim u t xy dng h thng x l nc thi ci thin v mc nhim trong dng thi, tin np ph s c cn i li vi chi ph u t, vi iu kin l c s mi u t phi gim c lng nhim t nht 20%. Nu h thng x l cha c hon thnh v a vo vn hnh theo ng k hoch, c s s phi hon tr li lng ph c gim. i vi chnh quyn a phng khi m rng c s x l nc thi th c hng ch min tr ph trong 3 nm,vi iu kin l nh my mi s m bo x l nc thi t tiu chun quy nh, nu khng ton b tin ph s phi ng tr li. Mc d cc khon tr cp nh vy h tr cho vic thc y c s gy nhim u t xy dng nhng mt khc lm nh hng ti chc nng gim thiu nhim ca

ph nc thi, theo phn tch ca mt s nh nghin cu (Oka, 2002). Ngun thu t ph nc thi s do chnh quyn cc Bang s dng, trong dnh 15% chi ph cho qun l cc chng trnh lin quan n cht lng nc v h tr cho cc nh my x l nc thi ca a phng. Ngun thu t ph nc thi cng c xem nh mt ngun khng th hin tr cp cho cc u t vo h thng x l nc thi ca cc c s cng nghip thng qua s b p nh i gia mc tin ph phi np v chi ph u t x l nhim (Brown and Johnson, 1984 v Oka, 2002). Cch thc tnh ton b p cng c s khc bit gia cc Bang. 3.2. nh gi v tc ng ca ph i vi ci thin mi trng nc Tnh trng nhim nc c c ci thin ng k sau khi h thng thu ph nc thi c p dng.Lng nc thi gim ng k qua cc nm trong khi sn lng sn xut cng nghip lin tc gia tng. Trong thi k 1977 1987 l mt v d, lng nc thi cng nghip bao gm thi trc tip ra mi trng v thi vo h thng cng gim 14% trong khi sn lng cng nghip tng 14%. Lng nc thi t c s sn xut cng nghip gim 31% trong thi gian t 1981 n 1995. Tuy nhin, cc nghin cu cng ch ra rng ph x thi to c nhng khuyn khch gim thiu nhim nhng cng rt kh ch ra c c th mc tc ng ny l bao nhiu. V dng nh vic gim thiu nhim l nh cc quy nh ngy mt nghim ngt hn, ng thi h thng thu ph nc thi ng vai tr ca mt cng c h tr cho cch tip cn mnh lnh kim sot.Nghin cu ca Brown v Johnson (1984) v Morotomi (2002) cho thy mc ph 70 DM cho mt n v thit hi khng to khuyn khch cho vic tm kim cc phng cch x l nhim c chi ph thp nh cp trong l thuyt. Tuy nhin, cc hc gi ny cng u c kin thng nht l h thng ph nhim ca c c tc ng mnh i vi vi cc c s sn xut khng tun th theo tiu chun ti thiu ca quc gia, v hu nh l khng to c khuyn khch gim thiu nhim i vi nhng c s c dng thi ph hp vi tiu chun. Ph x thi v vy nhm

thc y doanh nghip tun th theo tiu chun quy nh hn l to ra khuyn khch gim thiu nhim tt c cc mc thu c hiu lc. c bit, t l tun th theo tiu chun ca cc nh my x l nc thi ca a phng t kh cao k t sau khi p dng h thng ph x thi. Nghin cu ca Morotomi (2002) cng dn ra mt kho st cho thy i vi nhng nh my tun th vi cc tiu chun theo cng ngh tt nht hin thi (BAT) chi ph cho ph thi ch chim khong 2% so vi tng chi ph vn hnh, nhng vi nhng c s khng tun th th t l ny ln ti 10%.Trong giai on u sau khi ban hnh h thng ph x thi, 1981 1986, tng thu hng nm t ph t hn rt nhiu so vi d kin v mc tng hng nm cng rt khim tn (Andersen, 1994). Trong giai on tip theo, ngun thu ny gim t 496 triu DM trong nm 1987 cn 284 triu trong nm 1992 mc d mc ph iu chnh tng 25% trong thi k ny (xem bng 3.5 bn di). iu ny cho thy l cc cng ty khng tun th theo tiu chun thi c phn ng kh tch cc vi ph bng cch c gng gim ti lng nc thi. C mt s doanh nghip ci thin bng cch p dng sn xut sch hn hoc ci thin vic s dng nc trong qu trnh sn xut v chi ph cho vic ny thp hn so vi chi ph u t hoc m rng h thng x l nc thi h ang c. 4. Kt lun p dng cng c thu v ph trong cng tc qun l mi trng bt u c trin khai ti Vit Nam, v c th l trong kim sot nhim nc vi vic thu ph bo v mi trng i vi nc thi. Xy dng mt chin lc thch hp trin khai thc hin chng trnh thu ph l vn thit yu i vi cc nh qun l. Vi nhng kinh nghim c kt c qua nghin cu phn tch h thng thu ph nc thi ca Cng ha Lin bang c, c mt s im lu mang tnh thc tin c xut vic p dng thu v ph mi trng t c hiu qu cao hn trong iu kin ca Vit Nam, c th l:

Do quy m ca cc n v sn xut cng nghip cc tnh thnh hin nay c s khng ng nht, nn vn xy dng cc nh my x l nc thi hay cc c s x l nc thi tp trung cho cc khu th ri t s p dng thu ph nc thi i vi ngi s dng h thng ny, s mang li hiu qu kinh t cao hn, c bit i vi x l nc thi t cc c s cng nghip quy m nh. C s tnh ph nn c xc nh da trn cc cht nhim quan trng xp theo th t u tin. Thu ph x thi nn nhm vo mt s ngun thi trc tip trng yu nht. M hnh kt hp gi c - tiu chun do Baumol and Oates (1988) xng c khuyn ngh l m hnh thch hp nht cho vic xy dng ph x thi ti cc nc ang pht trin. Theo cch tip cn ny, mc ph nn t mt mc thp trong thi gian u, sau s tip tc tng ln cho ti khi mc nhim gim ti im kim sot mc tiu. Vic thc hin chng trnh thu ph nn c phn quyn cho a phng cp tnh thnh, v cho php a phng quyt nh mc thu ph khc nhau tu theo hin trng v mc tiu ci thin mi trng ca mi a phng, iu ny slm tng hiu qu ca ph nhim.Nhng xut trn y cng s gp phn to ra mt nn tng vng chc cho cc chnh sch thu ph bo v mi trng i vi kh thi, ting n v lut thu bo v mi trng d kin s sm trin khai trong thi gian ti.

IIB. Giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c: 1. nh ngha:


Giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c l quyn gy nhim ca cc doanh nghip c ghi nhn bng cc giy php thi v tng giy php thi do c quan qun l mi trng ban hnh bng tng mc thi mong mun ca x hi v

cho php cc doanh nghip mua bn, chuyn nhng giy php trn th trng

Nguyn tc mua bn c bn nh sau:Nh my s gim thi n mt mc no v bn lng giy php tha khi gi giy php trn th trng ln hn hoc bng MAC ti mc pht thi ny.Nh vy c th xem MAC l ng cu ca nh my i vi giy php(nu mua) v l ng cung (nu bn).Nu cnh tranh,th trng giy php s hot ng nh bt k th trng no khc.Gi v lng cn bng c xc nh bi cung v cu. Nh my no se mua v nh my no s bn? Vi MAC khc nhau,s c mua bn v nh my c MAC thp hn s bn giy php cn nh my c MAC cao s mua.Trong hnh trn,vi mc phn b giy php ban u,nh my A c MAC thp hn MAC ca nh my B (30$ v 50$).Ngha l c kh nng nh my A s tng cng kim sot nhim,d ra mt s giy php v bn cho nh my B nu tin thu c t vic bn giy php c th b p chi ph gim nhim tng thm.Nh

my B mun mua s giy php ny nu tng s tin b ra nh hn chi ph kim sot lng nhim ny.Khi s c s mua bn giy php gia A v B.Mc gi trn th trng s mc 75$

IIIB. Cng c h thng t cc v hon tr


- Cng c ny quy nh ngi tiu dung sn phm c kh nng gy nhim MT phi tr thm 1 khon tin t cc khi mua hang,nhm cam kt bo v MT.Sau khi tiu dung phn cn ca sn phm ngi tiu dung mang li tr cho a phng ,im thu gom th s c nhn li khon tin t cc. - Mc ch :nhm khuyn khch ti s dng li rc thi,ti ch rc thi hoc x l rc thi 1 cch an ton i vi mi trng. -u im v nhc im ca cng c ny: +u im: + Cng c ny khuyn khch ti s dng rc thi,ti ch cc ch phm an ton i vi mi trng. + Cng c ny linh hot hn so vi cc cng c khc S tin hon tr ph thuc vo kt qu thu gom. +C th s dng ngay a im bn hng lm im thu gom v vn chuyn cc cht ph thi n ni quy nh. + Cng c ny khng cn s gim st ca c quan qun l MT. +Hn ch:

Cng c ny ch pht huy khi cng tc t chc vic ti s dng rc thi hot ng tt.

C. Chnh sch phi tp trung IC. Cc quy nh ca chnh ph


Chnh ph c th ra cc qui nh nhm ngn cm cc hnh vi gy ra ngoi tc tiu cc. V d: Trong lut bo v mi trng, iu 7 quy nh: nghim cm thi cht thi cha c x l t tiu chun mi trng; cc cht c, cht phng x v cht nguy hi khc vo t, ngun nc. Thi khi, bi, kh c cht hoc mi c hi vo khng kh; pht tn bc x, phng x, cc cht ion ho vt qu tiu chun mi trng cho php. bo v mi trng, trong thi gian qua nh nc khng ch ban hnh lut bo v mi trng m cn c cc o lut quan trng khc nh lut ti nguyn nc, lut thy sn, lut bo v v pht trin rng, lut nng lng nguyn t Chnh ph s dng bin php ny khi cho rng ngoi tc tiu cc ln hn rt nhiu so vi li ch ca ngi gy ra ngoi tc.Tuy nhin vic ngn cm l khng h n gin trn thc t. D cho mc ch ca chnh quyn l bo v mi trng, th h cng khng c kh nng ngn chn hon ton hot ng gy nhim.Chng hn, khng th ngn cm cc phng tin giao thng mc d tt c chng u gy nhim. Do vy, thay v c gng loi tr hon ton nhim, x hi s cn nhc gia chi ph v li ch quyt nh lng nhim no cho php.

IIC. Quy nh quyn s hu ti sn (nh Coase)


Trong trng hp khng c chi ph giao dch, mc nhim ti u s t c nu quyn s hu ban u c xc nh cho ngi gy nhim hoc ngi chu nhim. Vi nh l ny, Coase cho rng trong mt mi trng c chi ph giao dch thp, cc bn s t tha thun vi nhau phn chia ca ci sao cho c hiu qu nht m khng cn mt nh thng thi no can thip . Ni cch khc, ct li ca nh Coase l vic xc nh quyn s hu cho bt k bn no khng nh hng g ti mc nhim ti u

Ta xem xt v d sau:
$ 800 480 420 300 MAC MDC

100 0 50 70 80 Cht thi (tn/thng)

Ti sn c nhc n y l dng sng. Hai bn lin quan n quyn s hu ti sn ny l nh my ha cht v ngnh thy sn. Nh my ha cht c hm chi ph gim thi bin: MAC = 800 10E X hi c hm thit hi bin: MDC = 6E Ta xt hai trng hp: 1.Trng hp nh my ha cht (ch th gy nhim) c quyn s hu dng sng: Bt u ti mc pht thi 80 Nh my ha cht khng phi bi thng thit hi nhim cho ngnh thy sn v x thi ton b 80 tn ha cht/thng. Ngnh thy sn s b tng thit hi l 19200$/thng. Mun gim lng cht thi ny, ngnh thy sn phi tr tin nh my ha cht c th gim thi. Qa trnh mc c tip tc din ra cho mi n v bin chng no thit hi bin cn ln hn chi ph bin v s dng li khi MAC=MDC, tc ti mc pht thi 50 tn/thng (mc hiu qu x hi)

Phn tch li ch hai bn: + Nh my ha cht: Chi ra 0,5* (80-50)* 300 = $4500 x l 30 tn/thng. Nhn vo (80-50)* 300 = $9000 t ngnh thy sn. =>li ch rng ca nh my ha cht: 9000- 4500 = $45000/thng + Ngnh thy sn: Chi ra: (80-50)* 300 = $9000 /thng. Gim thit hi: 0,5*80*148- 0,5* 50*300 = 19200 7500 = $ 11700/thng. =>li ch rng ca ngnh thy sn: 11700-9000 = $2700/thng 2. Trng hp ngnh thy sn c quyn s hu dng sng Bt u ti mc pht thi 0 Nh my ha cht khng c php pht thi xung dng sng v phi tm cch khc x l c cht thi 80 tn/thng vi tng chi ph l 0,5*80*800 = 32000 $/thng Mun x thi xung dng sng, nh my phi tr tin cho ngnh thy sn. Qa trnh mc c tip tc din ra cho mi n v bin chng no chi ph x l bin ln hn thit hi bin v s dng li khi MAC = MDC, tc l ti mc pht thi 50 tn/thng. Phn tch li ch hai bn: + Nh my ha cht: Chi ra 50*300 = $15500 cho ngnh thy sn/thng Tit kim c $27500/thng => Li ch rng ca nh my ha cht : $12000/thng + Ngnh thy sn: Thit ha $7500/thng Nhn c $15500/thng => Li ch rng ca ngnh thy sn : $8000 iu kin s dng nh Coase: - Quyn s hu phi c xc nh r rng, c hiu lc v c th chuyn nhng - Phi c mt h thng cnh tranh tng i hiu qu cc bn lin quan gp v thng lng v quyn s hu s c s dng nh th no.

- Phi c tp hp th trng hon chnh ch s hu nhn c tt c cc gi tr x hi lin quan n vic s dng ti sn (mi trng)

IIIC. Sp nhp

Bin php sp nhp ch hn ch ngoi ng tiu cc ch khng gii quyt dt im ngoi ng ny v 2 bn thc hin sp nhp c quan h li ch vi nhau. Sn lng ti u m lin doanh ny dng li chnh l mc em li li ch ln nht cho x hi. V d 1: mt nh my nhm x cht thi xung sng v gy tn hi cho mt n v khai thc c. Hai n v ny c th sp nhp vi nhau. Khi , lin doanh ny s sn xut t nhm hn v phi cn nhc n li ch ca c hai hot ng. V d 2: Tr li vi v d Vedan, nu ngi nng dn v cng ty Vedan lin kt li vi nhau th li nhun ca lin doanh gia 2 bn s cao hn tng mc li nhun n l ca tng bn khi cha lin kt. Khi , lin doanh s phi cn nhc li ch ca c 2 hot ng v dng li mc sn lng ti u x hi v cng l im m loi nhun ca lin doanh l ln nht.Ngi nng dn v cng ty Vedan c th lin kt li bng cch l cc nng, thy phm ca ngi nng ng dn l nguyn liu ch bin sn phm ca Vedan. Vedan nn a dng ha cc loi hnh sn phm ca mnh c th tn dng c nguyn liu thu mua t ngi dn

IVC. Dng d lun x hi:

Trong nhiu trng hp, d lun x hi c th buc cc doanh nghip phi quan tm n cc ngoi ng m mnh gy ra. Cc t chc bo v mi trng c th cng khai cng b mc nhim, dng sc p d lun buc cc doanh nghip phi ch trng n vic s dng cng ngh sch nh bng cch vn ng ngi tiu dng ty chay sn phm ca cc n v gy nhim. Ngy nay, bin php ny t ra kh hu hiu, gp phn ci thin mi trng sinh thi V d: trong trng hp ca Vedan th sc mnh ca d lun x hi pht huy y tc dng ca n. Bng chng l mi ngi dn Vit Nam vi t cch l cc cp chnh quyn, gii truyn thng, cc lut s cho n ngi tiu dng u ng v pha ngi nng dn. Gii truyn thng lin tc ng ti cc thng tin v din bin v vic nhim ny, cc cp chnh quyn tm cch a ra chng c a ra khung hnh

pht cao nht i vi Vedan, cc lut s th t vn cho ngui dn khi kin Vedan, ngi tiu dng th ty chay sn phm ca Vedan. Khi , Vedan buc phi chp nhn cc khung hnh pht v chp nhn bi thng 100% cho ngi dn.

VC. Thuyt phc o c.


Cc chng trnh thuyt phc li cun ngi ta thc v cc gi tr o c hay trch nhim cng dn nhm nng cao thc t nguyn kim ch cc cc hnh ng s gy suy thoi mi trng. Bin php thuyt phc o c thng hu ch khi khng th o lng s pht thi t cc ngun c th ( ngi vi phm thng phn tn ). Ngy nay, chng ta ang hng n cc chng trnh mi trng ( nh ti ch) mang tnh bt buc nhng vn cn da rt nhiu vo cc chng trnh thuyt phc o c t cc mc tun th cao hn. V d: - Hi tho bo v mi trng v trch nhim ca chng ta , l trao 100 cp Thng hiu Xanh... do Trung tm Nghin cu Gio dc Mi trng v Pht trin (CERED),Vin Khoa hc v Cng ngh Phng Nam v Tp ch Thng hiu Vit t chc. - Hi tho quc t - Bo v mi trng pht trin bn vng V L trao gii Thng hiu Xanh do Lin hip cc hi khoa hc v k thut Vit Nam t chc u im v hn ch ca bin php thuyt phc o c: - u im: C cc tc ng lan truyn rt rng v nhanh( k c tc ng sang cc lnh vc nhim khc)

- Nhc im:

Vn n theo, nh hng ngc li trong di hn v kh nh gi y ng gp ci thin mi trng ca cc chin dch, cc chng trnh thuyt phc.

VIC. Hng ha xanh


Mi khi quyn s hu c xc lp r rng, ngha l chng hn ch lng nhim hoc inh r c mc cht lng mi trng, th trng mi s xut hin cung cp lng hng ha cht lng mi trng. ngi tiu dng c th sn lng tr cho hng ha em li cho h cng mt mc hi lng nh nhau nhng t gy thit hi mi trng trong qu trnh sn xut hoc s dng nu nh my co th sn xut c nhng hng ha nh vy th th trng hng ho xanh c th xut hin. V d: Canada hin nay mt s hng ha xanh ang c bn. Chng bao gm hng gia dng nh: bt git khng c pht pht, c quy khng c thy ngn, giy c sn xut t nguyn liu ti ch v cc thit b nh t lnh, l si tit kim nng lng

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