Nuclear icebreakers and submarines

The most significant non-power plant applications of nuclear reactors are nuclear icebreakers and submarines. These nuclear powered vehicles can take a long journey without stopping for refuelling.

Nuclear icebreakers and aircraft carriers

Icebreaker ships play an important role in the commerce of northern countries (Russia, Canada, etc.) since the transport routes can be made much shorter via the polar seas. The first nuclear icebreaker was the Russian Lenin, which was manufactured in 1957 and served until 1989. This ship had three PWRs, each of 90 MW thermal power. The fuel was 5% enriched uranium and had to be replaced every two years. The power control takes effect by 24 boroncarbid rods in each reactor.

The Russian Jamal nuclear icebreaker, which carries tourists to the North pole in the summer

The newer icebreakers usually have two PWRs, which have very small cores: the diameter is about 1 m, while the height is around 1.5 m. They are fuelled with 30-40% enriched uranium, which has to be replaced every three or four years. Their typical speed through ice of 2 or 2.5 m thickness can be as high as 18 km/h and in water is 40 km/h.

The Russian icebreakers in order of their commission are: Lenin (1959), Arktika (1975), Szibir (1977), Rosszija (1985), Tajmir (1989), Szovjetszkij Szojuz (1990), Vajgah (1990), Jamal (1993). The Arktika was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole in1977. Besides nuclear icebreakers there are only a few civil nuclear powered ships. The first of these was an American cargo and passenger ship, NS Savannah. Germany also had a ship (Otto Hahn) and Japan built an experimental one in 1991. Among navy water-craft, nuclear reactors are utilized for submarines and aircraft carriers. For aircraft carriers the enormous size and the long patrols are reasons for the use of nuclear powering. The first nuclear aircraft carrier in the world was USS Enterprise, launched in 1960 (with eight PWRs on board), while the largest is USS Theodore Roosevelt. (USS stands for United States Ship.)

Nuclear submarines
The main reason why we deal with reactors of military purposes is that the total number of reactors used by navies of different nations is approximately equal to the number of operating power plant units. Conventional submarines practically lost their significance after World War II because of their very limited speed and time they could spend deep under water, due to the oxygen requirements of the diesel engines. The development of nuclear submarines started in 1949. First, the prototype of a reactor that could be applied in a submarine had to be constructed. The first experimental pressurized water reactor was built within 10 months in Idaho, while the first nuclear submarine (Nautilus) was launched in 1954 (she served until 1983). It should be mentioned here that the PWR type was actually developed for this purpose and was only later applied in civil power plants. In 1949, Admiral Nimitz signed the order for the development of nuclear submarines. For this purpose, they had to develop a nuclear reactor, which could be placed into a submarine. They completed this project in 10 months by building Mark-I, an experimental pressurized water reactor. In July 1952, the submarine Nautilus started to be constructed in Groton. It wa completed in 1954. Its first commander was Captain Wilkinson, who sent his telegram: Underway on Nuclear Power on 17 January 1955.

Nautilus SSN-571, the first nuclear submarine

These submarines could reach a speed of 40 km/h and remain under water for as long as 30 days. The USS Triton sailed around the Earth in 1960, cruising under water all the way. The modern nuclear submarines can go round the Earth 16 times without stopping for fresh fuel.

Nuclear submarines were the first water-crafts to conquer the North pole. The Nautilus passed through the pole in 1958 cruising under water, while another submarine called Skate rose to the surface by breaking the ice at the North pole in 1959.

So far, the Unite States (about 75), Russia (50), France (10), the United Kingdom (15) and China have built nuclear powered submarines. Most submarines use PWRs as well, whose sizes are smaller than that of power reactors. In principle, there are two constructions: in one type the secondary steam directly rotates the propeller, while in the other type electricity is generated using a generator and the propeller is rotated by an electromotor. Electric energy is in both cases produced and used for air-

conditioning and distilling fresh water from sea water. In this way the submarine can remain under water for several months.