346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO.

1, FEBRUARY 2005

Recent Philosophies of Automatic Generation Control

Strategies in Power Systems
Ibraheem, Prabhat Kumar, and Dwarka P. Kothari, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—An attempt is made in this paper to present critical lit- NERC North American Electric Reliability Control
erature review and an up-to-date and exhaustive bibliography on NNs Neural Networks
the AGC of power systems. Various control aspects concerning the NRPS Northern Region Power System
AGC problem have been highlighted. AGC schemes based on pa-
rameters, such as linear and nonlinear power system models, clas- OPF Optimal Power Flow
sical and optimal control, and centralized, decentralized, and mul- PI Proportional plus Integral
tilevel control, are discussed. AGC strategies based on digital, self- PID Proportional, Integral, and Derivative
tuning control, adaptive, VSS systems, and intelligent/soft com- PLCC Power Line Carrier Communication
puting control have been included. Finally, the investigations on PV Photovoltaic
AGC systems incorporating BES/SMES, wind turbines, FACTS
devices, and PV systems have also been discussed. RF Redox Flow
RTOPF Real-Time Optimal Power Flow
Index Terms—AC/DC transmission links, automatic generation
SA Simulated Annealing
control, deregulated power systems, load frequency control, mul-
tilevel control. SMES Super conducting Magnetic Energy Storage
STC Self Tuning Control
SVC Static Var Compensator
NOMENCLATURE UHVAC Ultra-High-Voltage Alternating Current
ACE Area Control Error VSC Variable Structure Controller
AFC Automatic Frequency Control VSS Variable Structure System
AFRC Automatic Frequency Ratio Control
AGC Automatic Generation Control I. INTRODUCTION
AI Artificial Intelligence
ANN
AVR
Artificial Neural Network
Automatic Voltage Regulator
T HE successful operation of interconnected power systems
requires the matching of total generation with total load
demand and associated system losses. With time, the operating
BES Battery Energy Storage point of a power system changes, and hence, these systems may
CES Capacitive Energy Storage experience deviations in nominal system frequency and sched-
CPS Control Performance Standard uled power exchanges to other areas, which may yield undesir-
DCS Disturbance Control Standard able effects [1].
DPM DISCO Participation Matrix There are two variables of interest, namely, frequency and
DTS Dispatcher Training Simulator tie-line power exchanges. Their variations are weighted together
EACC Error Adaptive Control Computer by a linear combination to a single variable called the ACE. The
EDC Economic Dispatch Controller AGC problem has been augmented with the valuable research
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System contributions from time to time, like AGC regulator designs in-
GAs Genetic Algorithms corporating parameter variations/uncertainties, load character-
GENCOs Generation Companies istics, excitation control, and parallel ac/dc transmission links.
GRC Generation Rate Constraint The microprocessor-based AGC regulator, self-tuning regulator,
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor and adaptive AGC regulator designs have also been presented.
ISE Integral Square Error The most recent advancement in this area is the application of
LFC Load Frequency Control concepts like neural networks, fuzzy logic, and genetic algo-
LQI Linear Quadratic Integral rithms to tackle the difficulties associated with the design of
LQR Linear Quadratic Regulator AGC regulators for the power systems with nonlinear models
MES Magnetic Energy Storage and/or insufficient knowledge about the system required for its
accurate modeling. Apart from advances in control concepts,
Manuscript received July 10, 2004. Paper no. TPWRS-00272-2003. there have been many changes during the last decade or more,
Ibraheem is with Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of En- such as deregulation of power industry and use of SMES, wind
gineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
(e-mail: ibraheem_2k@yahoo.com). turbines, and PV cells as other sources of electrical energy to
P. Kumar is with Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engi- the system. Due to these, the control philosophies associated
neering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India. with AGC have changed to accommodate their dynamics and ef-
D. P. Kothari is with Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology, New Delhi 110016, India. fects on overall system dynamic performance. The present study
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2004.840438 covers the critical review of a wide range of methodologies of
0885-8950/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS
AGC regulator designs of power systems with their salient fea-
tures.
II. OVERVIEW OF AGC SCHEMES
The first attempt in the area of AGC has been to control the
frequency of a power system via the flywheel governor of the
synchronous machine. This technique was subsequently found
to be insufficient, and a supplementary control was included to
the governor with the help of a signal directly proportional to
the frequency deviation plus its integral. This scheme consti-
tutes the classical approach to the AGC of power systems. Very
early works in this important area of AGC have been by Cohn
et al. [2]–[6]. These works were based on tie-line bias control
strategy. Quazza [7] illustrated noninteractive control consid-
ering i) noninteraction between frequency and tie-line powers
controls and ii) each control area taking care of its own load vari-
ations. The investigations with large signal dynamics of LFC
systems were reported by Aggarwal and Bergseth [8]. The rev-
olutionary optimal control concept for AGC regulator designs
of interconnected power systems was initiated by Elgerd [9]. A
technique based on coordinated system-wide correction of time
error and inadvertent interchange was incorporated in an AGC
study by Cohn [10]. Supplementary controllers were designed
to regulate the ACEs to zero effectively. Later on, energy source
dynamics were incorporated in AGC regulator design [11].
The standard definitions of the terms associated with the AGC
of power systems were finalized in [12]. Following that, sugges-
tions for dynamic modeling for LFC are discussed thoroughly
in [13]–[15]. Based on the experiences with actual implemen-
tation of AGC schemes, modifications to the definition of ACE
are suggested from time to time to cope with the changed power
system environment [16]–[19]. Since many presently regulated
markets are likely to evolve into a hybrid scheme, and some
deregulated markets are already of this type (e.g., Norway), the
effects of deregulation of the power industry on LFC have been
addressed through [20].
A. Types of Power System Models
The AGC problem has been dealt with extensively for more
than three decades. The major part of the work reported so
far has been performed by considering linearized models of
two/multiarea power systems [3], [4], [7], [9], [21], [22]. Later
on, the effect of GRC was included in these types of studies,
considering both continuous and discrete power system models
[11], [22]. Incorporating the dynamics of the energy source in
AGC regulator design, Kwatny et al. [11] have proposed an
optimal tracking approach to AGC, considering load to be the
output of the dynamic system.
The small signal analysis is justified for studying the system
response for small perturbations. However, the implementation
of AGC strategy based on a linearized model on an essentially
nonlinear system does not necessarily ensure the stability of the
system. Considerable attention has been paid by researchers
to consider the system nonlinearities [24]–[27]. Tripathy [27]
demonstrated the destabilizing effect of governor dead-band
nonlinearity on conventional the AGC system. It is shown that
governor dead-band nonlinearity tends to produce continuous
347
oscillations in the area frequency and tie-line power transient
response.
B. Control Techniques
The pioneering work by a number of control engineers,
namely Bode, Nyquist, and Black, has established links be-
tween the frequency response of a control system and its
closed-loop transient performance in the time domain. The
investigations carried out using classical control approaches
reveal that it will result in relatively large overshoots and tran-
sient frequency deviation [9], [28], [29]. Moreover, the settling
time of the system frequency deviation is comparatively long
and is of the order of 10–20 s.
The AGC regulator design techniques using modern optimal
control theory enable the power engineers to design an optimal
control system with respect to given performance criterion.
Fosha and Elgerd [30] were the first to present their pioneering
work on optimal AGC regulator design using this concept. A
two-area interconnected power system consisting of two iden-
tical power plants of nonreheat thermal turbines was considered
for investigations. A new formulation for optimal AGC strategy
has been witnessed in [31].
The feasibility of an optimal AGC scheme requires the avail-
ability of all state variables for feedback. However, these efforts
seem unrealistic, since it is difficult to achieve this. Then, the
problem is to reconstruct the unavailable states from the avail-
able outputs and controls using an observer. Considering state
reconstruction, many significant contributions have been made
[32]–[37]. Bohn and Miniesy [32] have studied the optimum
LFC of a two-area interconnected power system by making the
use of i) differential approximation and ii) a Luenberger ob-
server and by introducing an adaptive observer for identification
of unmeasured states and unknown deterministic demands, re-
spectively. Exploiting the fact that the nonlinearity of the power
system model, namely, the tie-line power flow, is measurable,
the observer has been designed to give zero asymptotic error,
even for the nonlinear model.
AGC schemes based on an optimal observer, which is a
state estimator with decaying error at a desired speed, using a
nonlinear transformation [33] and reduced-order models with a
local observer [34] have appeared in the literature. A simplified
generating unit model oriented toward LFC and the method
for its transfer function identification based on a two-stage
procedure indirectly reducing both noise effects and transfer
function order is presented in [37].
Due to practical limitations in the implementation of regula-
tors based on feedback of all state variables, suboptimal AGC
regulator designs were considered [38]–[40]. A suboptimal and
near-optimal LFC concept using modern control theory is pre-
sented by Moorthy and Aggarwal [38].
Apart from optimal/suboptimal control concepts, modal con-
trol theory has also been used to design AGC regulators for
power systems. The design method employing modal and sin-
gular perturbation techniques to affect decoupling of the in-
terconnection into its subsystem components has appeared in
[41]. In the method, after achieving the decoupling, local con-
trollers for each subsystem are designed individually to place the
348
closed-loop poles of each subsystem in some prespecified loca-
tions in the complex plane, and then, the resulting controllers
are used to generate local control inputs, using local informa-
tions only. The AGC regulator design using Lyapunov’s second
method and utilizing minimum settling time theory has been
proposed by Shirai [42]. The importance of the dominant time
constant of the closed-loop systems in designing the regula-
tors has been emphasized. The author has reported a bang-bang
AGC policy based on this method.
C. Control Strategies
In the early days, the AGC problem of power systems was
dealt with using control strategies based on centralized con-
trol strategy [7], [9], [30], [40]. Many control strategies have
been proposed on the basis of classes of disturbances [7]. Elgerd
and Fosha [9] suggested a feedback and loop gain to eliminate
the disturbance, and they also suggested a different feedback
form to develop optimal controllers [30] for an electrical energy
system. They assumed the load disturbances to be deterministic.
They proposed a proportional controller, disregarding the steady
state requirements and compensation of load disturbances. The
main limitation of the works presented on AGC considering
centralized control strategy is the need to exchange information
from control areas spread over distantly connected geographical
territories along with their increased computational and storage
complexities.
The decentralized AGC concept appeared in the power
system control scenario to deal with such problems very ef-
fectively, and consequently, many research papers using this
concept with continuous and discrete time system models have
appeared in the literature [43]–[50]. In [46], the authors have
examined the structural properties of observability and control-
lability for a class of interconnected power system models. The
proposed scheme provides for the complete decentralization
of a global state feedback control policy in the sense that the
area control feedback loops are completely decoupled. Again, a
class of systematic distributed control design methods based on
i) distributed implementations of centralized control systems,
ii) model reduction of dynamical systems, and iii) modeling
of the interactions between the subsystems comprising the
global control system is presented in [77]. The beauty of the
design is to achieve almost identical results as obtained with
the centralized one. The design of decentralized load frequency
controllers based on structured singular values is discussed in
[78].
Various AGC schemes based on two-level [81] and multi-
level [82]–[84] control concepts have been reported in the lit-
erature. A two-level suboptimal controller has been suggested
by Miniesy and Bohn [81]. However, this approach does not en-
sure zero steady state error, and hence, a multilevel finite time
optimal controller design ensuring zero steady-state error has
been reported in [82]. The advantage of hierarchical structure is
reflected in the fact that even if one of the control levels fails,
the system remains in operation.
A global controller, which also exploits the possible benefi-
cial aspects of interconnections, has been applied for the LFC
problem [84], and favorable results have been achieved. The re-
duction of control efforts required in the AGC of interconnected
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2005
power systems is sought with the help of a singular perturbation
approach. This can be achieved by decomposing the system into
slow and fast subsystems and designing controllers separately
for each of the subsystems, and the controllers are combined to
yield a composite controller. Using this approach, the investi-
gations on the AGC of large power systems are available in the
literature [87], [88]. The separate controllers were designed for
slow and fast subsystems and were combined in such a way that
the slow subsystem always interacts with only one of the fast
subsystems at a time [88]. The study also involves the effect of
parameter variation and GRC.
D. Excitation Control and Load Characteristics
In most of the AGC studies, it is assumed that there is no inter-
action between the power/frequency and reactive-power/voltage
control loops. It may be permissible only when the speed of the
excitation systems is much faster than that of the LFC system,
but in practical systems, during dynamic perturbations, there
does exist some interaction between these two control chan-
nels [27]. Some papers consider this aspect [83], [89]–[93]. A
literature survey [90] shows that Durick [89] is probably the
first to investigate the damping effects of voltage control in a
two-area LFC system, assuming that i) reactive-power/voltage
control loop has a much faster response than power/frequency
control loop and, thus, taking the area voltage perturbation to
be directly available as a control variable, and ii) area voltage
perturbation does not have any effect on the area load. Consid-
ering these assumptions unrealistic, a realistic LFC model was
developed by including the excitation control in one area and
voltage-perturbation as the input in the other [90]. The change
in load demand due to voltage perturbation is considered in both
areas.
Considerable research work has been carried out for the AGC
of interconnected power systems incorporating the load charac-
teristics [49], [94], [95], [98], [99]. A method to obtain the re-
sponse of a large power system to cyclic load variations by mod-
eling the power system by a set of first-order, linear differential
equations and the load variation as a Fourier series pattern was
demonstrated by Van Ness [94]. The solution of the problem of
optimum load frequency sampled data control with either un-
known deterministic load or randomly varying system distur-
bances is discussed in [49]. Introducing an adaptive observer
treated the random load demands and random disturbances.
The study has also been carried out with exciter and speed
governor control loops for voltage-dependent load character-
istics on stabilizing intersystem oscillations [62]. The AGC
problem has been investigated using disturbance-accommoda-
tion control. It was shown that the optimal accommodation of
load disturbances could lead to significantly better performance
than that of conventional controllers. It was further shown
that the complete cancellation of all disturbance effects in the
class of power systems considered is impossible. Nevertheless,
the disturbance effects in system frequency can be cancelled
completely.
E. Digital AGC Schemes
Since digital control is more accurate and reliable, compact
in size, less sensitive to noise and drift, and more flexible, the re-
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS
searchers have focused their attention on proposing digital AGC
control schemes [64]–[71]. Ross [64] was probably the first to
present a comprehensive direct digital LFC regulator for power
systems. Later, the control philosophy and design techniques of
a digital LFC incorporating dynamic control criteria for perfor-
mance evaluation of digital control system based on field test
results was outlined by Ross and Green in [65]. As the ACE
representing generation mismatch in an area can be derived in
discrete mode by sampling the tie-line power and system fre-
quency deviation and then transferring over the telemetering
links and unlike in continuous-time system, the control vector
in the discrete mode is constrained to remain constant between
the sampling instants. Based on this fact, Bohn and Miniesy
[32] have analyzed the effect of the sampling period on the
system’s dynamic behavior using a discrete model of a single
area power system. An informative work on digital AGC mod-
eling, including the criterion for evaluation of system dynamic
performance with the help of indices that measure the effec-
tiveness of control relative to control efforts, is discussed by
Demello and Mills [66].
Kothari and coworkers [23], [70] have studied the AGC in dis-
crete mode. The investigations were carried out with more real-
istic modeling of AGC strategy, i.e., considering that the system
is operating in continuous mode and the controller is operating
in discrete mode [23]. In [70], discrete mode AGC of an inter-
connected power system with reheat thermal plants considering
a new ACE is described. The new ACE is derived from tie-line
power deviation, frequency deviation, time error, and inadver-
tent interchanges. Optimum integral and proportional integral
controllers using the concept of stability margin and the ISE
technique have been obtained with conventional and new ACEs,
and their dynamic performance was compared for a step-load
disturbance.
F. Sensitivity Features
An optimal AGC regulator design based on nominal system
parameter values may not really be optimal for the system with
parametric variations/uncertainties due to various system oper-
ating and environmental conditions, and therefore, the imple-
mentation of these regulators on the system may be inadequate
to provide the desired system functioning. This could result in
a degraded system dynamic performance and sometimes also in
the loss of system stability. Therefore, considerable work has
also been presented on AGC that considers sensitivities of the
system parameter variations [72]–[84].
In the late 1960s, a sensitivity study was included in an opti-
mization analysis to determine optimal parameter values of con-
ventional AGC systems by Van Ness [72]. The VSS controllers
have an advantage over the controllers based on the linear op-
timal control theory in selecting the values of the parameters
in many different ways of a VSS controller. Insensitivity to pa-
rameter variation can be achieved by designing variable struc-
ture AGC regulators. Erschler et al. [76] are probably the first
to investigate the AGC of hydropower systems using the VSS
technique.
It may be noted that the VSS controllers have improved tran-
sient response due to load disturbances in the power system.
By properly selecting the parameters of the controller, the fre-
349
quency deviations and tie-line powers effectively can be con-
trolled. The research publications regarding the design of load
frequency controllers for interconnected power systems incor-
porating the system parametric uncertainties are reported in the
literature [80]–[85]. A control technique based on the applica-
tion of linear feedback infinity robust controllers in the
power system model to control the frequency deviations was
proposed by Ismail [80]. This approach suggests that the con-
troller response should be fast enough to offset the frequency
errors due to load variations.
A robust controller based on the Riccati equation approach
has been proposed for the power system by Wang and coworkers
[81], [82]. Later, based on a combination of the robust control
approach and an adaptive control technique, a design procedure
of a new robust adaptive controller was proposed for power
system load-frequency control with system parametric uncer-
tainties. The motivation of combining the robust control with
an adaptive control was to use the robust control approach to
deal with the small parametric uncertainties [82]. The other re-
search contributions on decentralized robust LFC based on the
Riccati equation approach have appeared in [84]. The design
of decentralized robust LFC applying structured singular values
is proposed by Yang et al. [85]. It has been demonstrated that
when the frequency response-based diagonal dominance cannot
be achieved, the structured singular values can be applied to de-
sign decentralized LFC to achieve the desired system dynamic
performance [85].
G. Adaptive and Self-Tuning AGC Schemes
Apart from various AGC schemes, adaptive control has been
a topic of research for more than a quarter of a century. Ba-
sically, the adaptive control systems can be classified into two
categories, namely, the self-tuning regulators and the model ref-
erence control systems. The task of adaptive control is to make
the process under control less sensitive to changes in process
parameters and to unmodeled process dynamics. A number of
articles have been reported on adaptive AGC schemes [86]–[91]
and STC schemes [92]–[96] for AGC of power systems.
In 1966, Ross [86] described control criteria in LFC and the
related practical difficulties encountered in trying to achieve
these criteria. The implementation and analysis of an adaptive
LFC system on the Hungarian power system has been done by
Vajk et al. [88]. An adaptive controller using a proportional in-
tegral adaptation to meet the hyperstability condition require-
ments to take care of the parameter changes of the system was
presented by Pan and Liaw [89]. A multiarea adaptive LFC
scheme for AGC of power systems [90] and a reduced-order
adaptive LFC for interconnected hydrothermal power system
[91] are reported in the literature. A multivariable self-tuning
controller has been derived by defining a cost function with a
term representing the constraints on the control effort and then
minimizing that with respect to the control vector. Later on, a
self-tuning algorithm for AGC of interconnected power systems
was presented by Lee [95].
H. Concepts of AI Techniques: NN, FL, and GA
In practice, many nonlinear processes are approximated by
reduced-order models, possibly linear, that are clearly related to
350
the underlying process characteristics. However, these models
may be valid only within certain specific operating ranges, and
a different model may be required in the wake of changed op-
erating conditions, or the control system should adopt the new
system model parameters. The advent of AI techniques, such
as neural networks, has solved this problem to a great extent.
The neural technology offers many more benefits in the area
of nonlinear control problems, particularly when the system is
operating over the nonlinear operating range. The applications
of neural networks in power system control are witnessed in
[97]–[102].
A new AGC scheme to incorporate the nonconforming load
problem was presented by Douglas et al. [98], in which an ef-
fort had been undertaken to develop algorithms capable of dis-
criminating between noncontrollable short-term excursions and
controllable long-term excursions. Out of the two techniques de-
scribed, one was developed using a neural network algorithm for
pattern recognition of controllable signals, and the other tech-
nique was based on the detection of the controllable signal in the
presence of a noisy random load using a random signal proba-
bility model. Test results reveal that neural network-based AGC
implementation had a significant improvement over the modern
AGC implementation. LFC system performance was evaluated
with a nonlinear neural network controller using a generalized
neural structure to yield better system dynamic performance
than the individual neurons [99].
Recently, a four-area interconnected power system model
with reheat nonlinearity effect of the steam turbine and upper
and lower constraints for generation rate nonlinearity of hydro
turbine was considered for the investigation in [101]. It has
been shown in [102] that the AGC problem can be viewed as
a stochastic multistage decision-making problem or a Markov
Chain control problem and have presented algorithms for
designing AGC based on a reinforcement learning approach.
The fuzzy logic control concept departs significantly from
traditional control theory, which is essentially based on math-
ematical models of the controlled process. Instead of deriving
a controller via modeling the controlled process quantitatively
and mathematically, the fuzzy control methodology tries to es-
tablish the controller directly from domain experts or operators
who are controlling the process manually and successfully. Re-
cently, many studies exploiting the fuzzy logic concept in AGC
regulator design dealing with various system aspects have ap-
peared in the literature [103]–[105].
More recent contributions considering the problem of de-
composition of multivariable systems for the purpose of dis-
tributed fuzzy control was reported by Gegov [104]. The pro-
posed decomposition method has reduced the number of inter-
active fuzzy relations among subsystems. The concept and de-
velopment of AGC using ANN and fuzzy set theory to utilize
the novel aspects of both in single hybrid AGC system design
for power systems has also been mooted [106].
These days, GA is the most popular and widely used algo-
rithm of all the intelligent algorithms. GAs have been widely
applied to solve complex nonlinear optimization problems in a
number of engineering disciplines in general and in the area of
AGC of power systems in particular [106]–[113]. In [107], op-
timum adjustment of the classical AGC parameters using GAs
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2005
is investigated. An array of performance indices based on var-
ious functions of error and time is considered for the study.
A reinforced GA has been proposed as an appropriate op-
timization method to tune the membership functions and rule
sets for fuzzy gain scheduling of load frequency controllers of
multiarea power systems to improve the dynamic performance
[108]. The proposed control scheme incorporates dead-band and
generation-rate constraints also. Later, contrary to the trial-and-
error selection of the variable structure feedback gains, a genetic
algorithm-based selection of feedback gains has been advocated
for load frequency variable structure controller in [109]. The se-
lection scheme provides an optimal feedback gains selection in
the VSC, and the test results show that not only the dynamic
performance has been improved, but also, the control effort is
dramatically reduced. Karnavas et al. [106] have presented a
comprehensive study on AGC of an autonomous power system
using combined intelligent techniques.
A higher order robust dynamic performance is achieved
with LFC designs based on GA and linear matrix inequalities
[112]. The desired control parameters have been obtained by
coordinating GA with linear matrix inequalitie control toolbox
optimization. In [113], a new GA/GA-SA-based fuzzy AGC
scheme of a multiarea thermal generating system is developed.
The scheme is capable of evaluating the fitness of GA/hybrid
GA-SA optimization by selecting a function like “figure of
merit,” which directly depends on transient performance char-
acteristics like settling times, undershoots, overshoots, and time
derivative of frequency. The hybrid GA-SA technique yields
more optimal gain values than the GA method.
I. Types of Inter-Ties
The HVDC transmission has emerged on a power scenario,
due to its numerous technical and economic advantages, for a
large chunk of power transfer over large distances. Besides other
applications, the commissioning of an HVDC link in parallel
with existing ac links has shown beneficial effects from the point
of view of stabilization of the system.
Considerable attention has been paid to consider the damping
effect of the dc system as an area interconnection between ac
systems. As far as the system frequency control of power sys-
tems interconnected via a dc link is concerned, very few pub-
lications have appeared on this topic [114]–[116]. An AFRC
system on an HVDC transmission utilizing the high-speed con-
trol features of a dc system, cooperating with automatic fre-
quency control on interconnected ac systems, is developed by
Yoshida et al. [114]. Later, the effects of an AFRC system on
an HVDC transmission to the AFC on ac systems when AFRC
is applied to a random load disturbance in a steady state. The
frequency improving and reduction effects of the output power
of regulating power stations by AFRC are analyzed by a digital
computer [115]. A new dc AFC system, which applies a mul-
tivariable control to the dc system-based frequency control and
capable of controlling the frequencies of the two ac systems op-
timally while maintaining their stability, is developed by Sanpei
et al. [116].
Considerable research work on the LFC of interconnected
power systems incorporating ac and dc links is contained in
[117]–[121]. Investigations on decentralized robust LFC of a
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS
multiarea interconnected power system with ac as well as fre-
quency-controllable HVDC links are reported in [118]. A com-
prehensive research work has been carried out by proposing op-
timal AGC regulators for two-area power systems with parallel
ac/dc links by Kumar and Ibraheem [119]–[121]. The intercon-
nected power systems were investigated with the implementa-
tion of designed optimal regulators by considering the incre-
mental dc link power flow as an additional state as well as con-
trol variable. The investigations reveal that the system dynamic
system performance has improved appreciably with the inclu-
sion of incremental dc link power flow as an additional state
variable as compared to that obtained when system intercon-
nection is through the ac link only.
J. AGC Incorporating BES, SMES, SVC, Wind Turbine, and
PV Systems
Most of the solutions proposed so far for AGC have not been
implemented practically due to system operational constraints
associated with thermal power plants. The main reason is the
nonavailability of required power other than the stored energy
in the generator rotors, which can improve the performance of
the system, in the wake of sudden increased load demands. A
fast-acting BES can effectively dampen electromechanical os-
cillations in a power system, because they provide storage ca-
pacity in addition to the kinetic energy of the generator rotor,
which can share the sudden changes in the power requirement.
An attempt to use battery energy storage to improve the LFC
dynamics of West Berlin Electric Supply System has appeared
in the literature [122]. In [123], it has been revealed that BES is
helpful in meeting sudden requirements of real power load and
is effective in reducing the peak deviations of frequency and
tie-line power and also reduces the steady-state values of time
error and inadvertent interchange accumulations.
The problems like low discharge rate, increased time required
for power-flow reversal, and the maintenance requirement have
led to the evolution of SMESs for their application as load fre-
quency stabilizers [124]–[131]. In [126], the study of effects of
SMES on AGC has been done considering governor dead-band
nonlinearity, steam reheat constraints, and boiler dynamics. The
digital computer model was developed, and parameter optimiza-
tion of the controller was carried out by the second method of
Lyapunov, which ensures the stability of the system. From the
study, it was observed that the use of ACE for the control of
SMES units substantially reduces the tie-line power deviation,
and the action of SMES is localized with diminished contribu-
tion for load disturbances in the other interconnected area, as
compared to using frequency deviation as the control signal. The
performance of the adaptive-controlled SMES is compared with
that of nonadaptive SMES, keeping the supplementary control
as the conventional one with the integral controller in [125]. It
has been observed that when the SMES control is adaptive, the
performance is almost insensitive to controller gain parameter
variation.
The effect of governor dead-band nonlinearity and generation
rate constraints, along with the effect of BES system on LFC,
was studied by Lu et al. [127]. Later, the feasibility of using
an IGBT converter instead of a thyristor converter as a power
351
conditioning system with the SMES is studied, and an improved
system transient response with SMES has been achieved [128].
Rechargeable batteries such as RF, which are not aged by fre-
quent charging and discharging and have a quick response that is
equivalent to SMES and outstanding function during overload,
are gaining momentum in research and development activities
[132].
Presently, small wind turbines are among the candidate sys-
tems envisioned to operate in parallel with the utilities’ gen-
erators. The combined effect of the customers’ load demand
and the wind turbine fluctuating power output will develop a
new load-diversity curve for the utility system. As a result, the
regulation or LFC requirements could differ significantly from
present ones. Therefore, studies relating to AGC of power sys-
tems incorporating the dynamics of such systems are reported in
the literature [133]–[135]. A method to analyze the effects that
small wind turbines may have on the utility’s LFC process has
been developed by Curtice et al. [133]. Wind turbine output sce-
narios, varying in frequency and magnitude, are combined with
system load variations to test the effectiveness of present AGC
control strategies. The change in the system performance from
the base case is assessed using ACE values, time between zero
crossings, inadvertent accumulation, and control pulses sent to
regulating units.
An AGC scheme for a wind farm in the north of Spain with
37 variable speed wind turbines is developed in [134]. The
control scheme is based on two control levels: A supervisory
system controls active and reactive power of the wind farm
by sending out set points to all wind turbines, and a machine
control system ensures that set points at the wind turbine level
are reached. The advancements in wind-turbine and microhydro
technology have made it possible to introduce decentralized
hybrid electric power systems. A variable structure LFC of
isolated wind–diesel–microhydro hybrid power systems was
developed, and dynamic performance has been investigated by
Bhatti and Kothari [135].
The static VAR compensation systems also have been found
to aid in the damping of oscillations of power system dynamic
response. A new technique of AGC regulator design, based on
SVC, has been suggested in [136]. A feedback signal composed
of frequency deviation and reactive power variation has been
used to stabilize the electrical power system. The coefficient of
these deviations is a function of system and controller param-
eters. The influence of a PV system on LFC has also been de-
scribed in [137]. Besides the other observations, it has been re-
vealed that an electrical power system containing a 10% contri-
bution from PV stations would require a 2.5% increase in LFC
capacity over a conventional system. Besides BES, SMES, and
CES units, a favorable effect of integrating a fuel cell into the
power system dynamic model on power system dynamic perfor-
mance has also been evident [138].
K. AGC in a Deregulated Power System Environment
The classical LFC based on ACE is difficult to implement in
a deregulated power system environment. In recent years, sev-
eral control scenarios based on robust and optimal approaches
have been proposed for the AGC system in deregulated power
systems. Some research is contained in [20] and [139]–[148].
352
In a deregulated power system environment, the independent
contract administrator receives contracts with GENCOs to pro-
vide area regulation. This is required due to unscheduled gen-
eration and load changes and inconsistent frequency bias ex-
isting in the system [139]. The load change in the area causes
frequency change, and all governors respond to this change in-
stantaneously, whether or not they are selected for AGC. The
governor response is defined as area regulation contracts, and
the cost of area regulation is allocated among the players by the
ratio of their participation. Besides addressing the operational
structures likely to result from deregulation, the possible ap-
proaches to LFC, and associated technical issues, i.e., standards
and algorithms, were described by Christie and Bose [20], and
later, they reported a LFC scheme for hybrid electric power mar-
kets in [140].
Two alternative approaches to AGC of interconnected power
systems of Norway and Sweden are introduced by Bakken
and Grande [142] in a deregulated power system environment.
The approaches resulted in favorable effects in handling the
increased strain of the system operator caused by the deregu-
lated environment. In most of the reported strategies, attempts
have been made to adapt well-tested classical AGC schemes
to the changing environment of power system operation under
deregulation [141], [146]. A comprehensive study on simula-
tion and optimization in an AGC system after deregulation has
been carried out by Donde and Pai [145]. The concept of DPM
is proposed that helps the visualization and implementation of
the contracts.
One of the recent developments after deregulation of the
power industry is the necessity of a communication infrastruc-
ture to support an increasing variety of ancillary services for
effective implementation of AGC schemes. An article focusing
on the communication network requirements for a third-party
LFC service in an interconnected power system was written by
Bhowmik et al. [147]. Data communication models based on
queuing theory have been proposed in the study.
L. Other AGC Schemes
One of the objectives of optimal AGC is to share generation
in the most economic fashion. To meet this objective with other
objectives of an AGC system, economic load dispatch has to be
carried out in conjunction with AGC, subject to some system
constraints. However, ELD has been differentiated from AGC
function on the basis of time span, exhibited by ELD and AGC
in their implementations. A variety of research papers dealing
with the AGC problem in conjunction with ED/ELD are well
documented in the literature [148]–[152]. Mukai and his team
[149], [150] at Washington University built up an AGC project
that is probably the most comprehensive. The control system is
area-wise decentralized. It integrates the AGC, economic dis-
patch, and dynamic dispatch in a consistent manner and is dedi-
cated to performing many functions with various time horizons.
The system offers the improved transient responses and solves
the AGC–ELD interface problem, as exhibited with traditional
optimal control proposals.
A two-stage RTOPF concept in which classical ED is re-
placed in AGC by a RTOPF has been envisioned [151]. The
first stage consists of a full OPF initialized from state estimator
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2005
and external estimator results, while in the second stage of the
RTOPF concept, the constrained ED controls the generating
units in conjunction with AGC in an optimal way. The RTOPF
concept has been tested successfully in an offline simulation
using a 685-bus network and the IEEE 118-bus network without
any convergence problem from the algorithm. In addition, the
execution time is of the same order of magnitude as that of a
classical approach. In absorption of the load fluctuations occur-
ring on power systems, both EDC and LFC systems were con-
sidered separately. The simulation study has been performed for
a three-area power system.
A flexible AGC algorithm for a Hellenic interconnected
system is given by Vournas et al. [152]. In the algorithm, LFC
stability margins are calculated for the case of slow-acting
flat-frequency control, and an approximate economic dispatch
algorithm is developed that makes the use of a predetermined
table of the economic loading of units. The simulation results
have demonstrated a satisfying operation of the AGC system.
Due to obvious reasons, when large load fluctuations arise,
the effective way is to combine LFC with the very short-term
load prediction. Generally, AGC periodically updates the set-
point power for key “swing” generators using samples of the
system load and electrical frequency; in typical systems, the
control sample rate ranges from 1 to 10 min. To improve perfor-
mance, emerging AGC strategies employ a look-ahead control
algorithm that requires real-time estimates of the system’s load
for typically 30 to 120 min into the future at a sample rate of 1
to 10 min [153]. To align with electric utility industry nomen-
clature, this prediction on such a horizon is “very short-term.”
Some of the earlier attempts illustrating theoretical AGC de-
signs are highlighted in [17], [154], and [155], and online imple-
mentation of AGC schemes are described in [156]–[160]. Based
on online experiences with AGC, a set of procedures and algo-
rithms for AGC of generating units that are jointly owned by
two or more utilities are developed by Podmore et al. [156].
The essential hardware and software modifications required
in AGC and the automatic voltage control program to meet new
operational and control challenges of the GURI Hydroelectric
Power Plant (Venezuela) are suggested in [157]. It is recom-
mended that redundant signals and RTU pairs be included in
new power plant computer control systems or considered as an
upgrade feature in existing systems.
Apart from proposing effective and efficient AGC strategies,
real-time pricing of electricity has been used as an effective
means to achieve improved system dynamic operation. Berger
and Schweppe [161] have demonstrated that real-time pricing in
the presence of system dynamics can aid in LFC. It was demon-
strated, for a single-area power system, that prices determined
by a PI feedback control law of frequency deviations could as-
sist in LFC. A report dealing with various cost aspects associ-
ated with AGC, inadvertent energy, and time error is presented
in [162]. A real-time adaptive pricing for LFC in an intercon-
nected power system, taking into account the system dynamics
and giving the importing area a signal in terms of increased price
for any increment in the drawal from its scheduled value, was
suggested in this study.
Over the decades, the LFC performance of a power system
area has been assessed by the widely adopted A1 and A2 criteria.
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS
These criteria, based on engineering judgment, had no analyt-
ical basis. A pioneering work resulted in the adoption of new and
more sophisticated criteria, namely, CPS1 and CPS2. These cri-
teria were still lacking in analytic basis but have been providing
good results in [163] and [165]. An analytical framework for
the formulation and evaluation of control performance criteria
in LFC, incorporating explicitly the uncertainty in the measured
variables in LFC, was reported in [166]. The criteria reported
provide an analytic rationale for the NERC control performance
criteria. A new AGC is designed to work under NERC’s new
CPS and DCS with improved effectiveness efficiency in [164].
Texas Utilities Electric Company, in a joint effort with the Uni-
versity of Texas at Arlington, is in the process of its implemen-
tation. The feasibility of decomposition of ACE to identify the
impact of selected loads on CPS1 and CPS2 under this new
NERC’s criteria [167] and its possible practical implementation
[168] are addressed in the literature. Later, the work has been ex-
tended, incorporating the estimation of the area’s frequency re-
sponse characteristic for adaptive frequency bias setting in LFC
to ensure the reliability and the responsibility of frequency sup-
port [169]. The field tests were carried out with AGC strategy
that was developed with the refinements of ACE to improve the
accuracy and its use in decomposing the 1-min average of ACE
of a control area to identify the regulation burden associated
with certain widely varying loads [170].
A comparative analysis of stiff and elastic tie-line models
used to simulate LFC of two-area as well as multiarea power
systems is demonstrated in [171]. One of the objectives that
AGC must satisfy may be the system safety requirement, re-
quiring lengthy calculations, large computing system memory
space, etc. A new approach to solve the AGC problem of hy-
dropower plants stage by stage, using different methods of op-
erations research, has been developed in [172].
Louis et al. [173] have developed software for the AGC
system and investigated various aspects of power system dy-
namic models. The implementation of an island AGC function
in a large-scale power system to assist in system emergency
and restoration situations is reported in [174]. It is the first
time that the conventional AGC function was enhanced to be
utilized, rather than to be suspended, under such circumstances.
The island AGC function has to be implemented in both the
real-time and the DTS environments.
The uncovered subject material on AGC is available in books
[175]–[178], tutorials [179], reviews [180]–[183], and state-of-
the-art lectures [184].
III. CONCLUSION
The paper presents a critical review of the recent philosophies
in the area of AGC. Due attention has also been paid to recent
developments, such as AGC schemes based on the concepts of
neural networks and fuzzy logic and the incorporation of par-
allel AC/HVDC links in the designs of AGC regulators. Em-
phasis has been given to categorizing various AGC strategies
reported in the literature that highlights their salient features.
Although the authors have sincerely attempted to present the
most comprehensive set of references on AGC, they would like
to apologize for exclusion of many good papers due to space
353
constraints and hope that additional references will be advanced
as discussion to this publication. It is envisaged that this paper
will serve as a valuable resource to any future worker in this
important area of research.
REFERENCES
[1] D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, 3rd ed,
Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
[2] C. Concordia and L. K. Kirchmayer, “Tie line power and frequency con-
trol of electric power systems,” Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. Trans., pt. II, vol.
72, pp. 562–572, Jun. 1953.
[3] L. K. Kirchmayer, Economic Control of Interconnected Systems. New
York: Wiley, 1959.
[4] N. Cohn, “Some aspects of tie-line bias control on interconnected power
systems,” Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. Trans., vol. 75, pp. 1415–1436, Feb.
1957.
[5] , “Considerations in the regulation of interconnected area,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., vol. PAS-86, pp. 1527–1538, Dec. 1967.
[6] J. E. Van Ness, “Root loci of load frequency control systems,” IEEE
Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-82, no. 5, pp. 712–726, 1963.
[7] G. Quazza, “Noninteracting controls of interconnected electric power
systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-85, no. 7, pp.
727–741, Jul. 1966.
[8] R. P. Aggarwal and F. R. Bergseth, “Large signal dynamics of load-fre-
quency control systems and their optimization using nonlinear program-
ming: I & II,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-87, no. 2, pp.
527–538, Feb. 1968.
[9] O. I. Elgerd and C. Fosha, “Optimum megawatt frequency control of
multi-area electric energy systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-89, no. 4, pp. 556–563, Apr. 1970.
[10] N. Cohn, “Techniques for improving the control of bulk power transfers
on interconnected systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-90,
no. 6, pp. 2409–2419, Nov./Dec. 1971.
[11] H. G. Kwatny, K. C. Kalnitsky, and A. Bhatt, “An optimal tracking ap-
proach to load frequency control,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-94, no. 5, pp. 1635–1643, Sep./Oct. 1975.
[12] IEEE Committee Report, “IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,”, vol. PAS-89,
Jul./Aug. 1970. Standard definitions of terms for automatic generation
control on electric power systems.
[13] IEEE PES Committee Report, “IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,”, vol.
PAS-92, Nov. 1973. Dynamic models for steam and hydro-turbines in
power system studies.
[14] IEEE PES Working Group, “Hydraulic turbine and turbine control
models for system dynamic,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. PWRS-7,
no. 1, pp. 167–174, Feb. 1992.
[15] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1994.
[16] IEEE PES Committee Report, “IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,”, vol.
PAS-98, Jan./Feb. 1979. Current operating problems associated with au-
tomatic generation control.
[17] N. Jaleeli, L. S. Vanslyck, D. N. Ewart, L. H. Fink, and A. G. Hoffmann,
“Understanding automatic generation control,” IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-7, no. 3, pp. 1106–1122, Aug. 1992.
[18] R. K. Green, “Transformed automatic generation control,” IEEE Trans.
Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 1799–1804, Nov. 1996.
[19] A. M. Stankovic, G. Tadmor, and T. A. Sakharuk, “On robust control
analysis and design for load frequency regulation,” IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 449–455, May 1998.
[20] R. D. Christie and A. Bose, “Load frequency control issues in power
system operations after deregulation,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11,
no. 3, pp. 1191–1200, Aug. 1996.
[21] E. C. Tacker, T. W. Reddoch, O. T. Pan, and T. D. Linton, “Automatic
generation control of electric energy systems—A simulation study,”
IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern., vol. SMC-3, no. 4, pp. 403–5, Jul.
1973.
[22] O. I. Elgerd, Electric Energy System Theory: An Introduction, 2nd
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
[23] L. Hari, M. L. Kothari, and J. Nanda, “Optimum selection of speed regu-
lation parameters for automatic generation control in discrete mode con-
sidering generation rate constraints,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 138,
no. 5, pp. 401–406, Sep. 1991.
[24] C. Concordia, L. K. Kirchmayer, and E. A. Szymanski, “Effect of
speed governor dead-band on tie-line power and frequency control
performance,” Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. Trans., vol. 76, pp. 429–435,
Aug. 1957.
354
[25] F. F. Wu and V. S. Dea, “Describing-function analysis of automatic gen-
eration control system with governor deadband,” Elect. Power Syst. Res.,
vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 113–116, Apr. 1978.
[26] B. Oni, H. Graham, and L. Walker, “Investigation of nonlinear tie-line
bias control of interconnected power systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-100, no. 5, pp. 2350–2356, May 1981.
[27] S. C. Tripathy, T. S. Bhatti, C. S. Jha, O. P. Malik, and G. S. Hope,
“Sampled data automatic generation control analysis with reheat steam
turbines and governor dead band effects,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,
vol. PAS-103, no. 5, pp. 1045–1051, May 1984.
[28] T. E. Bechert and N. Chen, “Area automatic generation control by
multi-pass dynamic programming,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-96, no. 5, pp. 1460–1468, Sep./Oct. 1977.
[29] D. Das, J. Nanda, M. L. Kothari, and D. P. Kothari, “Automatic genera-
tion control of hydrothermal system with new area control error consid-
ering generation rate constraint,” Elect. Mach. Power Syst., vol. 18, no.
6, pp. 461–471, Nov./Dec. 1990.
[30] C. E. Fosha and O. I. Elgerd, “The megawatt frequency control problem:
A new approach via optimal control theory,” IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-89, no. 4, pp. 563–577, Apr. 1970.
[31] E. C. Tacker, C. C. Lee, T. W. Reddoch, T. O. Tan, and P. M. Julich,
“Optimal control of interconnected electric energy systems: A new for-
mulation,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 60, no. 10, pp. 1239–1241, 1972.
[32] E. V. Bohn and S. M. Miniesy, “Optimum load frequency sample data
control with randomly varying system disturbances,” IEEE Trans. Power
App. Syst., vol. PAS-91, no. 5, pp. 1916–1923, Sep./Oct. 1972.
[33] K. Yamashita and T. Taniguchi, “Optimal observer design for load fre-
quency control,” Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 8, no. 2, pp.
93–100, Apr. 1986.
[34] A. Feliachi, “Load frequency control using reduced order models and
local observers,” Int. J. Energy Syst., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 72–75, 1987.
[35] A. Rubaai and V. Udo, “An adaptive control scheme for LFC of multi-
area power systems. Part I: Identification and functional design, Part-II:
Implementation and test results by simulation,” Elect. Power Syst. Res.,
vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 183–197, Sep. 1992.
[36] S. Velusami and K. Ramar, “Design of observer-based decentralized
load-frequency controllers for interconnected power systems,” Int. J.
Power Energy Syst., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 152–160, 1997.
[37] Y. Hain, R. Kulessky, and G. Nudelman, “Identification-based power
unit model for load-frequency control purposes,” IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 1313–1321, Nov. 2000.
[38] V. R. Moorthi and R. P. Aggarawal, “Suboptimal and near optimal con-
trol of a load frequency control system,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 119,
pp. 1653–1660, Nov. 1972.
[39] S. S. Choi, H. K. Sim, and K. S. Tan, “Load frequency control via con-
stant limited-state feedback,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 4, no. 4, pp.
265–269, Oct. 1981.
[40] M. Aldeen and H. Trinh, “Load frequency control of interconnected
power systems via constrained feedback control schemes,” Int. J.
Comput. Elect. Eng., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 71–88, Jan. 1994.
[41] , “Combined modal and singular perturbation approach to decen-
tralized control,” Int. J. Syst. Sci., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 741–764, May 1992.
[42] G. Shirai, “Load frequency control using Liapunov’s second method:
Bang-bang control of speed changer position,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 67, no.
10, pp. 1458–1459, Oct. 1979.
[43] H. Kawabata and M. Kido, “A decentralized scheme of load frequency
control power system,” Elect. Eng. Japan, vol. 102, no. 4, pp. 100–106,
Jul.–Aug. 1982.
[44] Y. M. Park and K. Y. Lee, “Optimal decentralized load frequency con-
trol,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 279–288, Sep. 1984.
[45] M. S. Calovic, “Automatic generation control: Decentralized area-wise
optimal solution,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 115–139,
Apr. 1984.
[46] M. Aldeen and J. F. Marsh, “Observability, controllability and decen-
tralized control of interconnected power systems,” Int. J. Comput. Elect.
Eng., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 207–220, 1990.
[47] , “Decentralized proportional-plus-integral control design method
for interconnected power systems,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 138, no.
4, pp. 263–274, Jul. 1991.
[48] M. Aldeen, “Interaction modeling approach to distributed control
with application to power systems,” Int. J. Contr., vol. 53, no. 5, pp.
1035–1054, 1991.
[49] T. C. Yang, H. Cimen, and Q. M. Zhu, “Decentralised load-frequency
controller design based on structured singular values,” Proc. Inst. Elect.
Eng. C, vol. 145, no. 1, pp. 7–14, Jan. 1998.
[50] T. C. Yang, Z. T. Ding, and H. Yu, “Decentralised power system load
frequency control beyond the limit of diagonal dominance,” Int. J. Elect.
Power Energy Syst., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 173–184, Mar. 2002.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2005
[51] S. M. Miniesy and E. V. Bohn, “Two level control of interconnected
power plants,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-90, pp.
2742–2748, Jun. 1971.
[52] N. N. Bengiamin and W. C. Chan, “Multilevel load frequency control of
interconnected power system,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 125, no. 6,
pp. 521–526, Jun. 1978.
[53] G. Shirai, “Load frequency control using generator and voltage controls
via a new approach,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 66, no. 10, pp. 1293–1295, Oct.
1978.
[54] N. Premakumaran, K. Parthasarathy, H. P. Khincha, and M. R. Chi-
dambara, “Some aspects of multi-level load frequency control of a power
system,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 129, no. 5, pp. 290–294, Nov.
1982.
[55] H. K. Khalil and P. V. Kokotovic, “Control strategies for decision makers
using different models of the same system,” IEEE Trans. Autom. Contr.,
vol. AC-23, no. 3, pp. 289–297, Apr. 1978.
[56] U. Ozguner, “Near optimal control of composite systems: The multi-
time scale approach,” IEEE Trans. Autom. Contr., vol. AC-4, no. 4, pp.
652–665, Aug. 1979.
[57] H. C. Durick, “Voltage control to damp tie-line power oscillations,” in
Proc. 2nd Winter Inst. Elect. Energy Eng.. Gainsville, FL, 1969.
[58] V. R. Moorthi and R. P. Aggarwal, “Damping effects of excitation con-
trol in load frequency control system,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 121,
no. 11, pp. 1409–1416, Nov. 1974.
[59] K. Y. Lee and M. Belbachir, “A decentralized plant controller for auto-
matic generation and voltage regulation,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 5,
no. 1, pp. 41–51, Mar. 1982.
[60] J. E. Van Ness, “Response of large power systems to cyclic load varia-
tions,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-85, no. 7, pp. 723–727,
Jul. 1966.
[61] N. D. Rao and S. C. Tripathy, “Effect of load characteristics and voltage
regulator speed stabilizing signal on power systems dynamic stability,”
Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 124, no. 7, pp. 613–618, Jul. 1977.
[62] S. C. Tripathy, N. D. Rao, and L. Roy, “Optimization of exciter and speed
governor control parameters in stabilizing intersystem oscillations with
voltage dependent load characteristics,” Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst.,
vol. 3, pp. 127–133, Jul. 1981.
[63] R. R. Shoults, P. Kelm, and D. Maratukulam, “Improved system AGC
performance with arc furnace steel mill loads,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 630–635, May 1998.
[64] C. W. Ross, “A comprehensive direct digital load frequency controller,”
in Proc. IEEE, PICA Conf., Pittsburgh, PA, 1967, pp. 231–238.
[65] C. W. Ross and T. A. Green, “Dynamic performance evaluation of a
computer controlled electric power system,” IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-91, pp. 1156–1165, May–Jun. 1972.
[66] F. P. Demello, R. J. Mills, and W. F. B’Rells, “Automatic generation
control, part I—Process modeling,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-92, pp. 710–715, Mar.–Apr. 1973.
[67] L. M. Smith, L. H. Fink, and R. P. Schulz, “Use of computer model
of interconnected power system to assess generation control strategies,”
IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 94, no. 5, 1975.
[68] C. W. Taylor and R. L. Cresap, “Real-time power system simulations
for automatic generation control,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-95, pp. 375–384, 1976.
[69] A. Kumar, “Discrete load frequency control of interconnected power
system,” Int. J. Energy Syst., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 73–77, 1989.
[70] M. L. Kothari, J. Nanda, D. P. Kothari, and D. Das, “Discrete mode
automatic generation control of a two area reheat thermal system with
new area control error,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 4, no. 2, pp.
730–738, May 1989.
[71] D. C. H. Prowse, “Improvements to a standard automatic generation
control filter algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 3, pp.
1204–1210, Aug. 1993.
[72] J. E. Van Ness et al., “Sensitivities of large multi-loop control systems,”
IEEE Trans. Autom Contr., vol. AC-10, p. 306, 1965.
[73] N. G. Malek, O. T. Tan, P. J. Mulich, and E. C. Tacker, “Trajectory sen-
sitivity design of load frequency control systems,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 120,
p. 173, 1973.
[74] J. Erschler, F. Roubeliat, and J. P. Vernhes, “Automation of a hydroelec-
tric power station using variable-structure control systems,” Automatica,
no. 10, pp. 31–36, 1974.
[75] W. C. Chan and Y. Y. Hsu, “Automatic generation control of intercon-
nected power systems using variable-structure controller,” Proc. Inst.
Elect. Eng. C, vol. 128, no. 5, pp. 269–279, 1981.
[76] A. Y. Sivaramkrishna et al., “Design of variable structure load frequency
controller using pole assignment technique,” Int. J. Contr., vol. 40, no.
3, pp. 487–498, 1984.
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS
[77] A. Kumar, O. P. Malik, and G. S. Hope, “Variable-structure-system con-
trol applied to AGC of an interconnected power system,” Proc. Inst.
Elect. Eng. C, vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 1985.
[78] , “Discrete variable-structure controller for load frequency control
of multi-area interconnected power system,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C,
vol. 134, no. 2, pp. 116–122, 1987.
[79] D. Das, M. L. Kothari, D. P. Kothari, and J. Nanda, “Variable structure
control strategy to automatic generation control of interconnected reheat
thermal systems,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Contr. Theory App., vol. 138,
no. 6, pp. 579–585, Nov. 1991.
[80] A. Ismail, “Robust load frequency control,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Contr.
App., vol. 2, New York, Dayton, OH, Sep. 1992, pp. 634–5.
[81] Y. Wang, R. Zhou, and C. Wen, “Robust load-frequency controller de-
sign for power systems,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 140, no. 1, pp.
111–116, Jan. 1993.
[82] , “New robust adaptive load frequency control with system param-
eter uncertainties,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 141, no. 3, pp. 184–190,
May 1994.
[83] K. Jhou, J. C. Doyle, and K. Glover, Robust and Optimal Control. En-
glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[84] G. Ray and C. S. Rani, “Stabilizing decentralized robust controllers of
interconnected uncertain power systems based on the Hessenberg form:
Simulated results,” Int. J. Syst. Sci., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 387–399, 2001.
[85] T. C. Yang, Z. T. Ding, and H. Yu, “Decentralised power system load
frequency control beyond the limit of diagonal dominance,” Int. J. Elect.
Power Energy Syst., vol. 24, pp. 173–184, 2002.
[86] C. W. Ross, “Error adaptive control computer for interconnected power
system,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-85, p. 749, 1966.
[87] J. Kanniah, S. C. Tripathy, and O. P. Malik, “Microprocessor based adap-
tive load frequency control,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 131, no. 4,
pp. 121–128, 1984.
[88] I. Vajk, M. Vajta, and L. Keviczky, “Adaptive load frequency control
of Hungarian power system,” Automatica, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 129–137,
1985.
[89] C. T. Pan and C. M. Liaw, “An adaptive controller for power system
and load frequency control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 4, no. 1, pp.
122–128, Feb. 1989.
[90] R. R. Shoults and J. A. J. Ibarra, “Multi-area adaptive LFC developed for
a comprehensive AGC simulator,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 541–547, Mar. 1993.
[91] C. M. Liaw, “Design of a reduced-order adaptive LFC for an intercon-
nected hydrothermal power system,” Int. J. Contr., vol. 60, no. 6, pp.
1051–1063, Dec. 1994.
[92] M. A. Sheirah and M. M. Abid-Ei-Fattah, “Improved load frequency
self-tuning regulator,” Int. J. Contr., vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 143–158, Jan.
1984.
[93] M. A. Sheirah, O. P. Malik, and G. S. Hope, “Minimum variance strategy
for load frequency control,” Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 8, no.
2, pp. 120–126, Apr. 1986.
[94] K. Yamashita and H. Miyagi, “Load-frequency self-tuning regulator for
interconnected power systems with unknown deterministic load distur-
bances,” Int. J. Contr., vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 1556–1568, May 1989.
[95] K. A. Lee, H. Yee, and C. Y. Teo, “Self-tuning algorithm for automatic
generation control in an interconnected power system,” Elect. Power
Syst. Res., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 157–165, Feb. 1991.
[96] A. Rubaai and V. Udo, “Self-tuning LFC: Multilevel adaptive approach,”
Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Generation, Transmission, Distrib., vol. 141, no.
4, pp. 285–290, Jul. 1994.
[97] B. Franoise, Y. Magid, and W. Bernard, “Application of neural networks
to load-frequency control in power systems,” Neural Netw., vol. 7, no.
1, pp. 183–194, 1994.
[98] L. D. Douglas, T. A. Green, and R. A. Kramer, “New approaches to the
AGC nonconforming load problem,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 9,
no. 2, pp. 619–628, May 1994.
[99] D. K. Chaturvedi, P. S. Satsangi, and P. K. Kalra, “Load frequency con-
trol: A generalized neural network approach,” Elect. Power Energy Syst.,
vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 405–415, Aug. 1999.
[100] A. Demiroren, N. S. Sengor, and H. L. Zeynelgil, “Automatic generation
control by using ANN technique,” Elect. Power Compon. Syst., vol. 29,
no. 10, pp. 883–896, Oct. 2001.
[101] H. L. Zeynelgil, A. Demiroren, and N. S. Sengor, “The application of
ANN technique to automatic generation control for multi-area power
system,” Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 345–354, Jun.
2002.
[102] T. P. I. Ahamed, P. S. N. Rao, and P. S. Sastry, “A reinforcement learning
approach to automatic generation control,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol.
63, pp. 9–26, Aug. 2002.
355
[103] C. S. Indulkar and B. Raj, “Application of fuzzy controller to automatic
generation control,” Elect. Machines Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp.
209–220, Mar.–Apr. 1995.
[104] A. E. Gegov and P. M. Frank, “Decomposition of multivariable systems
for distributed fuzzy control [power system load frequency control],”
Fuzzy Sets Syst., vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 329–340, Aug. 1995.
[105] J. Talaq and F. Al-Basri, “Adaptive fuzzy gain scheduling for load-fre-
quency control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 145–150,
Feb. 1999.
[106] Y. L. Karnavas and D. P. Papadopoulos, “AGC for autonomous power
system using combined intelligent techniques,” Elect. Power Syst. Res.,
vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 225–239, Jul. 2002.
[107] Y. L. Abdel-Magid and M. M. Dawoud, “Optimal AGC tuning with ge-
netic algorithms,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 231–238,
Sep. 1996.
[108] C. S. Chang, W. Fu, and F. Wen, “Load frequency control using ge-
netic-algorithm based fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers,” Elect.
Machines Power Syst., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 39–52, Jan. 1998.
[109] Z. M. Al-Hamouz and H. N. Al-Duwaish, “A new load frequency vari-
able structure controller using genetic algorithms,” Elect. Power Syst.
Res., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 1–6, Jul. 2000.
[110] A. Abdennour, “Adaptive optimal gain scheduling for the load frequency
control problem,” Elect. Power Compon. Syst., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 45–56,
Jan. 2002.
[111] S. K. Aditya and D. Das, “Design of load frequency controllers using ge-
netic algorithm for two area interconnected hydro power system,” Elect.
Power Compon. Syst., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 81–94, Jan. 2003.
[112] D. Rerkpreedapong, A. Hasanovic, and A. Feliachi, “Robust load fre-
quency control using genetic algorithms and linear matrix inequalities,”
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 855–861, May 2003.
[113] S. P. Ghoshal, “Application of GA/GA-SA based fuzzy automatic gen-
eration control of a multi-area thermal generating system,” Elect. Power
Syst. Res., vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 115–127, Jul. 2004.
[114] Y. Yoshida, T. Machida, and H. Nakamura, “A method of automatic fre-
quency ratio control by DC system,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
PAS-86, no. 7, pp. 263–267, Jul. 1967.
[115] Y. Yoshida and T. Machida, “Study of the effect of the DC link on fre-
quency control in interconnected AC systems,” IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. PAS-88, no. 7, pp. 1036–1042, Jul. 1969.
[116] M. Sanpei, A. Kakehi, and H. Takeda, “Application of multi-variable
control for automatic frequency controller of HVDC transmission
system,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 1063–1068, Apr.
1994.
[117] N. Rostamkolai, C. A. Wengner, R. J. Piwko, H. Elahi, M. A. Eitzmann,
G. Garzi, and P. Taetz, “Control design of Santo Tome back-to back
HVDC link,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1250–1256,
Aug. 1993.
[118] K. Y. Lim, Y. Wang, and R. Zhou, “Decentralised robust load-frequency
control in coordination with frequency-controllable HVDC links,” Int.
J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 19, no. 7, pp. 423–431, Oct. 1997.
[119] P. Kumar and Ibraheem, “Dynamic performance evaluation of 2-area
interconnected power systems: A comparative study,” J. Inst. Eng., vol.
78, pp. 199–208, 1998.
[120] Ibraheem and P. Kumar, “Dynamic performance enhancement of hydro-
power systems with asynchronous tie-lines,” J. Elect. Power Compon.
Syst., vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 605–626, 2003.
[121] , “A novel approach to the matrix Riccati equation solution: An ap-
plication to optimal control of interconnected power systems,” J. Elect.
Power Compon. Syst., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 33–52, Jan. 2004.
[122] H. J. Kunish, K. G. Kramer, and H. Dominik, “Battery energy
storage—Another option for load-frequency control and instantaneous
reserve,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. EC-1, no. 3, pp. 46–51,
Sep. 1986.
[123] S. K. Aditya and D. Das, “Battery energy storage for load frequency
control of an interconnected power system,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol.
58, no. 3, pp. 179–185, Jul. 2001.
[124] S. Banerjee, J. K. Chatterjee, and S. C. Tripathy, “Application of mag-
netic energy storage unit as load frequency stabilizer,” IEEE Trans. En-
ergy Convers., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 46–51, Mar. 1990.
[125] S. C. Tripathy, R. Balasubramanian, and P. S. C. Nair, “Adaptive
automatic generation control with superconducting magnetic energy
storage in power systems,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 7, no. 3,
pp. 434–441, Sep. 1992.
[126] , “Effect of superconducting magnetic energy storage on auto-
matic generation control considering governor deadband and boiler
dynamics,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1266–1273, Aug.
1992.
356
[127] C. F. Lu and C. C. Liu, “Effect of battery energy storage system on load
frequency control considering governor deadband and generation rate
constraint,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 555–561,
Sep. 1995.
[128] S. C. Tripathy and K. P. Juengst, “Sampled data automatic generation
control with superconducting magnetic energy storage in power sys-
tems,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 187–192, Jun.
1997.
[129] I. Ngamroo, Y. Mitani, and K. Tsuji, “Application of SMES coordinated
with solid-state shifter to load frequency control,” IEEE Trans. Appl.
Supercond., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 322–325, Jun. 1999.
[130] A. Demiroren, “Automatic generation control using ANN technique for
multi-area power system with SMES units,” Elect. Power Compon. Syst.,
vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 193–213, May 2004.
[131] A. Demiroren and E. Yesil, “Automatic generation control with fuzzy
logic controllers in the power system including SMES units,” Int. J.
Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 291–305, May 2004.
[132] T. Sasaki, T. Kadoya, and K. Enomoto, “Study on load frequency control
using Redox flow batteries,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 19, no. 1, pp.
660–667, Feb. 2004.
[133] D. H. Curtice and T. W. Reddoch, “An assessment of load frequency con-
trol impacts caused by small wind turbines,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. PAS-102, no. 1, pp. 162–170, Feb. 1983.
[134] J. L. R. Amenedo, S. Arnalte, and J. C. Burgos, “Automatic generation
control of a wind farm with variable speed wind turbines,” IEEE Trans.
Energy Convers., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 279–284, Jun. 2002.
[135] T. S. Bhatti and D. P. Kothari, “Variable structure load-frequency control
of isolated wind-diesel-microhydro hybrid power systems,” J. Inst. Eng.,
vol. 83, pp. 52–56, 2002.
[136] A. A. El-Emary and M. A. El-Shibina, “Application of static VAR com-
pensation for load frequency control,” Elect. Machines Power Syst., vol.
25, no. 9, pp. 1009–1022, Nov. 1997.
[137] H. Asano, K. Yajima, and Y. Kaya, “Influence of photovoltaic power
generation on required capacity for load frequency control,” IEEE Trans.
Energy Convers., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 188–193, Mar. 1996.
[138] A. Paradkar, A. Davari, A. Feliachi, and T. Biswas, “Integration of a
fuel cell into the power system using an optimal controller based on
disturbance accommodation control theory,” J. Power Sources, vol. 128,
no. 2, pp. 218–230, Apr. 2004.
[139] L. Vanslyck, N. Jaleeli, and W. R. Kelley, “Implications of frequency
bias settings on interconnected system operation and inadvertent energy
accounting,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 712–723, May
1989.
[140] R. D. Christie and A. Bose, “Load frequency control in hybrid electric
power markets,” in Proc. IEEE, Int. Conf. Contr. App., vol. 11, Dearborn,
MI, Aug. 1996, pp. 432–436.
[141] J. Kumar, K. H. Ng, and G. Sheble, “AGC simulator for price-based
operation-part II: Case study results,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 12,
no. 2, pp. 533–538, May 1997.
[142] B. H. Bakken and O. S. Grande, “Automatic generation control in a
deregulated power system,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 13, no. 4, pp.
1401–1406, Nov. 1998.
[143] H. Singh and A. Papalexopoulos, “Competitive procurement of ancillary
services by an independent system operator,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 498–504, May 1999.
[144] K. W. Cheung, P. Shamsollahi, D. Sun, J. Milligan, and M. Potishanak,
“Energy and ancillary service dispatch for the interim ISO New England
electricity market,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 968–974,
Aug. 2000.
[145] V. Donde, M. A. Pai, and I. A. Hiskens, “Simulation and optimization
in an AGC system after deregulation,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 16,
no. 3, pp. 481–489, Aug. 2001.
[146] B. Delfino, F. Fornari, and S. Massucco, “Load-frequency control and
inadvertent interchange evaluation in restructured power systems,” Proc.
Inst. Elect. Eng. Generation, Transmission, Distrib., vol. 149, no. 5, pp.
607–614, Sep. 2002.
[147] S. Bhowmik, K. Tomsovic, and A. Bose, “Communication models for
third party load frequency control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 19,
no. 1, pp. 543–548, Feb. 2004.
[148] X. S. Zhao, F. S. Wen, D. Q. Gan, M. X. Huang, C. W. Yu, and C. Y.
Chung, “Determination of AGC capacity requirement and dispatch con-
sidering performance penalties,” Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 70, no. 2,
pp. 93–98, Jul. 2004.
[149] H. Mukai, J. Singh, J. H. Spare, and J. A. Zaborszky, “A reevaluation of
the normal state control of the power system using computer control and
system theory, Part-III: Tracking the dispatch targets with unit control,”
IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-100, no. 1, pp. 309–317, Jan.
1981.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2005
[150] P. Kambale, H. Mukai, J. Spare, and J. Zaborszky, “A reevaluation of
the nominal operating state control (AGC) of the power system using
computer control and system theory, Part III, tracking the dispatch tar-
gets with unit control,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-102, no.
6, pp. 1903–1912, Jun. 1983.
[151] R. Bacher and H. P. Van Meeteren, “Real-time optimal power flow in
automatic generation control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 3, no. 4,
pp. 1518–1529, Nov. 1988.
[152] C. D. Vournas et al., “A flexible AGC algorithm for the Hellenic inter-
connected system,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 61–68,
Feb. 1989.
[153] R. P. Schulte, “An automatic generation control modification for present
demands on interconnected power systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1286–1294, Aug. 1996.
[154] G. Quazza, “Large scale control problems in electric power systems,”
Automatica, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 579–593, Nov. 1977.
[155] A. Bose and I. Atiyyah, “Regulation error in load frequency control,”
IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-99, no. 2, pp. 650–657,
Mar.–Apr. 1980.
[156] R. Podmore, M. J. Gibbard, and D. W. Ross, “Automatic generation con-
trol of jointly-owned generating units,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,
vol. PAS-98, no. 1, pp. 207–214, Jan.–Feb. 1979.
[157] B. M. Speckman and K. J. Wells, “Juggling power control [automatic
generation control],” IEEE Potentials, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 8–11, May 1988.
[158] F. Castro, M. Pescina, and G. Llort, “Reliability improvements of the
GURI hydroelectric power plant computer control system AGC and
AVC,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 447–452, Sep.
1992.
[159] X. Yu and Q. Zhou, “Practical implementation of the
+
SCADA AGC/ED system of the Hunan power pool in the
central China power network,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 9,
no. 2, pp. 250–255, Jun. 1994.
[160] B. Stojkovic, “An original approach for load-frequency control—The
winning solution in the second UCTE synchronous zone,” Elect. Power
Syst. Res., vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 59–68, Apr. 2004.
[161] W. Berger and F. C. Schweppe, “Real-time pricing to assist in load fre-
quency control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 920–926,
Aug. 1989.
[162] P. D. Henderson, H. Klairnan, J. Ginnetti, T. Snodgrass, N. Cohn, S.
Bloor, and L. S. Van Slyck, “Cost aspects of AGC, inadvertent energy
and time error,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 111–118, Feb.
1990.
[163] N. Jaleeli and L. S. Van Slyck, “NERC’s new control performance stan-
dards,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 1092–1099, Aug.
1999.
[164] M. Yao, R. R. Shoults, and R. Kelm, “AGC logic based on NERC’s new
control performance standard and disturbance control standard,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 852–857, May 2000.
[165] N. Jaleeli, L. S. VanSlyck, M. M. Yao, R. R. Shoults, and R. Kelm,
“Discussion of “AGC logic based on NERC’s new control performance
standard and disturbance control standard,” [and reply],” IEEE Trans.
Power Syst., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 1455–1456, Nov. 2000.
[166] G. Gross and J. W. Lee, “Analysis of load frequency control perfor-
mance assessment criteria,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 16, no. 3, pp.
520–525, Aug. 2001.
[167] N. B. Hoonchareon, C. M. Ong, and R. A. Kramer, “Feasibility of de-
composing ACE to identify the impact of selected loads on CPS1 AND
CPS2,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 752–756, Aug. 2002.
[168] H. Naeb-Boon, O. Chee-Mun, and R. A. Kramer, “Implementation of
 
an A C E /sub 1/decomposition method,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 757–761, Aug. 2002.
[169] L. R. Chang-Chien, H. Naeb-Boon, O. Chee-Mun, and R. A. Kramer,
“Estimation of/spl beta/for adaptive frequency bias setting in load fre-
quency control,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 904–911,
May 2003.
[170] L. R. Chang-Chien, O. Chee-Mun, and R. A. Kramer, “Field tests and
refinements of an ACE model,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18, no. 2,
pp. 898–903, May 2003.
[171] L. Basañez, J. Riera, and J. Ayza, “Modeling and simulation of mul-
tiarea power system load-frequency control,” Mathemat. Comput. Sim-
ulat., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 54–62, 1984.
[172] D. Wang, Y. Wu, and C. Zhou, “Application of operations research in au-
tomatic generation control of hydropower plants,” IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 375–381, Sep. 1989.
[173] S. Louis, L. S. Vanslyck, and N. Jaleeli, “A comprehensive shakedown
of an automatic generation control process,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 771–781, May 1989.
IBRAHEEM et al.: RECENT PHILOSOPHIES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STRATEGIES IN POWER SYSTEMS 357

[174] B. R. Herman, N. Zhu, J. Giri, and B. Kindel, “An AGC implementa- Prabhat Kumar is presently Professor of electrical
tion for system islanding and restoration conditions,” IEEE Trans. Power engineering at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
Syst., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1399–1410, Aug. 1994. India, with over 35 years of teaching experience at
[175] A. K. Mahalanabis, D. P. Kothari, and S. I. Ahson, Computer Aided undergraduate and post-graduate levels. He visited
Power System Analysis and Control. New Delhi, India: McGraw-Hill, the USA in 1975 on a Study Exchange Tour.
1988. Dr. Kumar received a Gold Medal and a Khosla
[176] P. S. R. Murty, Power System Operation and Control. New Delhi, Award from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee,
India: McGraw-Hill, 1984. India, and a Best Paper Award and a High Quality
[177] A. J. Wood and B. F. Wollenberg, Power Generation, Operation, and Presentation Award from the Systems Society of
Control, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1994. India. He received a Union Ministry of Energy
[178] G. Quazza and E. Ferrari, “Role of power system control in overall Department of Power Medal from the Institution
system operation,” in Real Time Control of Electric Power Systems, of Engineers (India). He had been Secretary for the System Society of India,
E. Handschin, Ed. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 1972, pp. Aligarh, and is a member and national executive of SSI and the Boards of
215–257. Studies of various universities and selection committees. He is a reviewer of
[179] F. P. Demello and J. M. Undrill, “Automatic generation control,” IEEE technical papers at the Institution of Engineers (India) and has chaired and
Tutorial Course Energy Contr. Centre Design, pp. 17–27, 1977. cochaired technical sessions at various conferences.
[180] IEEE Bibliography, “Automatic generation control and boiler-turbine-
governor controls,” IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., pt. 1, vol. PWR-2,
pp. 1–21, 1971.
[181] H. Glavitsch and J. Stoffel, “Automatic generation control: A survey,”
Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 21–28, 1980.
Dwarka P. Kothari (SM’03) is Professor, Centre for
[182] J. A. Momoh, X. W. Ma, and K. Tomsovic, “Overview and literature
Energy Studies, and Deputy Director (Admn.), In-
survey of fuzzy set theory in power systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
dian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India. He
vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1676–1690, Aug. 1995.
has guided 25 Ph.D. scholars and has contributed ex-
[183] P. Kumar and Ibraheem, “AGC strategies: A comprehensive review,” Int.
tensively in these areas, as evidenced by the 450 re-
J. Power Energy Syst., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 371–376, 1996.
[184] C. C. Liu and T. S. Dillon, “State of the art,” in Expert System Applica- search papers authored by him that have been pub-
tions in Power Systems, T. S. Dillon and M. A. Laughton, Eds, Hertford- lished in various national and international journals
shire, U.K.: Prentice-Hall, 1990, pp. 383–408. and conferences. He has also authored 18 books on
power systems. He was Principal of Visvesvaryaya
Regional Engineering College, Nagpur, India, from
1997 to 1998.
Prof. Kothari has received several best paper awards and gold medals for his
Ibraheem was born in Giraura of District Etah, Uttar work.
Pradesh, India, on December 1, 1959. He received the
B.Sc. Engg.(Hons.), M.Sc. Engg., and Ph.D. degrees
in electrical engineering from Aligarh Muslim Uni-
versity, Aligarh, India.
Since January 1988, he has been with the De-
partment of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia
(Central University), New Delhi, India, where he is
currently a Professor of electrical engineering. Also,
he has been Head of the Department of Electrical
Engineering since 2001. He has published a number of research papers in
national/international journals and has been continuously engaged in guiding
research activities at graduate/post-graduate and Ph.D. levels.
Dr. Ibraheem received a Gold Medal from the Union Ministry of Power and
Energy (India) in 1998 for one of his research articles.