Professional Documents
Culture Documents
255
256 The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
language in the school milieu compensates for the predominant use of the
native language in the family milieu and socioinstitutional milieu.
Concepts of bicultural competence and additive bilingualism based on
these models challenge assimilative ideologies that depict an uncompromis-
ingly subtractive adaptation process and oppose views of the ethnic commu-
nity as a negative force opposing adaptation. Models which posit only a
subtractive outcome assume that the more an individual affiliates with,
participates in and depends on the ethnic community, the less likely it is that
the s/he will adapt to the host culture. An example of this perspective may be
found in Kim’s (1988, 2001) widely cited communication model of cross-
cultural adaptation, which offers a comprehensive representation of the
interplay of individual disposition, host environment, competence in host
communication and the individual’s resultant intercultural transformation.
Among these components, host communication competence is presented as
the ‘engine’ that triggers the adaptation process. It includes three elements: (a)
host mass and interpersonal communication, (b) ethnic mass and interperso-
nal communication, and (c) personal communication. Opportunities for host
mass and interpersonal communication are presumed to promote host
communication competence, but opportunities for ethnic mass and interper-
sonal communication are negatively associated with competence in the host
culture. Although she allows that in initial stages engaging in ethnic
communication facilitates the process of adaptation by providing social
support, Kim believes that long-term ethnic communication ‘delays or
interferes with the acquisition of host communication competence and active
participation in host communication channels’ (Kim, 1988: 127). The ethnic
community becomes a crutch for the individual, and diverts the individual
from engaging the host environment.
Some empirical studies have provided at least partial support for this
subtractive position. For example, persons with little ethnic community
support tend to have more favourable attitudes toward the host culture than
do those who are deeply integrated in ethnic organisations (Inglis &
Gudykunst, 1982), and high solidarity ethnic communities have indeed been
shown in some cases to deter their members from adopting host languages
(Milroy, 1980). Ethnic language use and preference have been similarly
associated with low assimilation (Berry et al ., 1989).
In contrast, pluralistic perspectives assert the possibility that an individual
may choose components of both cultures through additive acculturation
(Rumbaut, 1991). For example, strong ethnic communities have been found to
promote academic (Bankston, 1996; Gibson, 1988) and occupational success
(Min & Kim, 1999). Moreover, proficiency in a heritage language provides the
cognitive benefit of transferring language skills and serves as a source of social
capital (Bankston & Zhou, 1995). For immigrants who are immersed in
American society throughout the week, heritage language schools are ‘an
environment for cultural adjustment, identity confirmation, and social
acceptance, which is essential to their psychological well-being and quality
of life’ (Lu, 2001: 203), and therefore contribute positively to adjustment.
Role of a Vietnamese Heritage Language School 259
Research questions
The overall purpose of the present study is to examine how a heritage
language school contributes to the cross-cultural adaptation process of its
students, both in terms of development of bicultural competence and creation
of an integrated cultural identity. Although we recognise that culturally
competent communication involves both nonverbal and verbal elements, this
study specifically investigates additive bilingualism as representative of
overall bicultural competence. It investigates the following research questions
with respect to students’ bilingualism: (1a) how can students’ bilingualism be
characterised? (1b) How do demographic factors relate to development of
students’ bilingualism? (1c) Most centrally, how do students’ heritage
language school experiences relate to development of students’ bilingualism?
With respect to students’ integrated cultural identities the study examines
the following questions: (2a) how can students’ integrated cultural identities
be characterised? (2b) How do demographic factors relate to the development
of the students’ integrated cultural identities? (2c) How do students’ heritage
language school experiences relate to the development of their integrated
cultural identities?
Method
This investigation is a case study of one heritage language school at one
point in time. To determine the role of this Vietnamese heritage language
school, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected and the study
was organised into two phases: (1) uncovering the school goals and (2)
identifying the contribution of the school in the development of students’
additive bilingualism and integrated cultural identities. This report presents
results of phase 2 only. (See Maloof, 1998 for the full study from which the
portion reported here is drawn.)
Role of a Vietnamese Heritage Language School 261
Instruments
A student questionnaire was developed to measure bicultural competencies
and integrated cultural identity in addition to obtaining demographic
information and data related to class participation, length of attendance and
pattern of attendance. The questionnaire was written entirely in English;
translators were used as needed.
Additive bilingualism
Following Landry and Allard (1991a, 1991b, 1992), additive bilingualism
was defined as: (a) demonstrating a high level of proficiency in both
communicative and cognitive-academic domains of both ethnic and host
languages, (b) maintaining positive attitudes towards both languages, and (c)
having the opportunity to use the first language in more than isolated
situations or social roles. Collectively, these three criteria constitute a more
stringent standard for bilingualism than is common among some conceptua-
lisations that focus only on basic interpersonal communication skills in the
second culture (Cummins, 2003). Rather, these criteria are consistent with a
notion of cognitive-academic language proficiency associated with success in
the host culture public schools. The questionnaire included items that
pertained to each of the three criteria.
262 The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
statement. The reliability levels for English and Vietnamese value scales were
0.73 and 0.77 respectively.
Students responded to the attitude component of integrated cultural identity
through nine-interval Likert scales (1 /strongly disagree; 9 /strongly agree),
on which they rated the extent to which they agreed with statements regarding
the value of the culture, pride in the culture and the importance of
participating in the culture (e.g. ‘I feel proud to be Vietnamese’ and ‘It is
important to take part in American culture’). Statements were modified from
Bosher’s (1995) study. The reliability level for both English and Vietnamese
attitude identity scales was 0.78.
The belongingness component used nine-interval Likert scales (1 /strongly
disagree; 9/strongly agree) to assess student affiliation with each culture (e.g.
‘When I think of my values, I consider myself Vietnamese . . .’ and ‘I think I
will marry someone who is American’). The statements in this section were
adopted from Landry and Allard’s (1991a, 1991b, 1992) questionnaire on
beliefs as an element in ethnolinguistic vitality. The reliability levels for
English and Vietnamese belongingness identity scales were 0.74 and 0.64,
respectively.
Additional variables
An additional scale based on the counterbalance model developed by
Landry and Allard (1991a, 1991b, 1992) addressed family milieu . Based on nine-
interval Likert scales (1 /never; 9 /always), students rated the extent to
which Vietnamese language and culture were cultivated in their homes by
four mechanisms: (a) ethnic newspaper, (b) dinner conversation, (c) proverbs
and folk tales, and (d) other language use in the home. Statements were
primarily adapted from Sridhar’s (1985) measure. Reliability for this scale was
0.57, which is poor.
Outreach centre instructors assessed the classroom participation of students
based on the Student Participation Questionnaire (Finn et al ., 1991). This was
deemed an important variable, as it might reflect the intensity of students’
heritage language school experiences. Prior to administration, student
participation questionnaire items were discussed with the instructors and
adapted to the specific participation expectations of the school. A total of 10
statements were adapted (e.g. ‘This student participates in class discussions’
and ‘This student raises hand to volunteer information or answer questions’).
Reliability for this scale was 0.69, which is weak. Teachers also provided
information on the students’ length of attendance (the initial date of
registration) and attendance patterns (how many Saturdays a month the
student attended). Teachers also rated students’ Vietnamese and English
proficiency levels based on a single-item nine-interval scale. Because instruc-
tors were reluctant to rate the English proficiency level of the students, only
their ratings of the students’ Vietnamese proficiency were used in the data
analysis.
264 The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
Results
Results are presented in two sections: the contribution of the heritage
language school to (1) students’ additive bilingualism and (2) students’
integrated cultural identities.
combination with low (n /7), moderate (n /3) and high (n /8) scores for the
other culture.
Discussion
From the perspective of theory, the most interesting conclusion warranted
by this study is that the relationship between ethnic language maintenance
and cultural identity among these students was a complex one (Eastman, 1984;
Edwards, 1985). A strong ethnic identity was positively correlated not only to
competence in the ethnic language, but unexpectedly to competence in the
English language as well. Furthermore, the bivariate distribution matrices
revealed generally monolingual language competencies for this group of
students, yet accompanied by more integrated bicultural identities. Although
proponents of heritage language schools assert that language is central to
transmitting culture (Fishman, 1966, 1989), the discrepancy between the
students’ language competencies and integrated cultural identities in this
study suggests it is possible that several of the students identified strongly
with the Vietnamese community despite their lack of functional Vietnamese
language competencies. Results of this study at least offer the possibility that
an integrative cultural identity, with its appreciation for values of both cultures
and dual sense of belonging, is a feasible outcome of acculturation, even when
additive bilingualism is not present.
Proponents of pluralistic approaches to multicultural education ought to
take particular inspiration from the finding in this study regarding the
salubrious impact of attitudes toward the ethnic culture. Students who held
particularly positive attitudes toward Vietnamese culture also tended to hold
especially positive attitudes toward English language use, and reported
especially frequent use of English. Apparently positive esteem toward their
home cultures enabled students to embrace the host culture language
enthusiastically.
On the other hand, the fact that 12 of the 33 students were identified as low
in one language competence and high in the other none were high in both
indicates a lack of additive bilingualism, if indeed it is not evidence for
subtractive bilingualism. Further support for this assessment is provided by
the finding that the younger the student’s age at arrival in the USA, or the
longer the length of residence in the dominant host culture, the more likely the
ethnic language was to be disposed of in favour of the host language. When
students arrive in the USA, young students are bombarded with English as the
language of instruction in the public schools and as the language in society.
With limited opportunities to use their ethnic languages anywhere but in their
own households, their competence in their ethnic language erodes. Students
born in the USA may never become culturally competent in their heritage
language.
The impact of the family context in the present study corroborates Landry
and Allard’s counterbalance model (1991a, 1991b), which asserts that for low-
vitality groups in high-vitality contexts such as the Vietnamese community
Role of a Vietnamese Heritage Language School 269
in the USA institutional and family support provide the opportunities for
heritage language use that are crucial in counteracting the predominant host
language.
Most disturbing is lack of compelling evidence for a role of the language
school itself in the development of additive bilingualism. In fact, this finding is
not inconsistent with patterns found among many afternoon Jewish religious
schools, which generally achieve appalling results in imparting Hebrew
language proficiency, yet manage to inculcate or maintain a keen sense of
ethnic cultural identification (Schoen, 1989). It is unclear whether the positive
relation found in the present study between regularity of attendance and
frequency of Vietnamese language use indicates that the language school
actually increased this element of ethnic competence. Instead, it may be that
attending the heritage language school provided more opportunities to
interact with and communicate with other Vietnamese children in Vietnamese.
That is, frequency of use of the ethnic language may simply be an alias for the
amount of time spent in the ethnic school. However, it is also possible that
students who already used Vietnamese frequently may have been more
interested in attending the heritage language school, or may have been more
encouraged by parents to attend.
Conversely, the negative relationship between length of attendance at the
school and sense of American belongingness could lend support to the
perspective that extensive heritage culture involvement is counterproductive
to the adaptation process, much as envisioned by Kim’s (2001) communicative
theory of adaptation. Why this is so is not clear, although it is possible that by
fully participating at the heritage language school, a student may have less
time to or be less motivated to engage in host culture youth activities.
Alternatively, those who have a strong sense of affinity to US culture may
simply have other, more American-associated, activities in which they choose
to engage, rather than attending language school. In other words, investing
afternoons and Saturdays attending the ethnic heritage school affects the
economy of discretionary time available to young people for engaging in host
culture events.
Though the results related to additive bilingualism are less than optimal, the
findings must be viewed in light of stringent criteria imposed by the term we
used bicultural competence. The negative assessment we draw from the
impact of the language school on bicultural competence should be tempered
by the criteria that included academic proficiency (Cummins, 2003) a rather
high standard for a Saturday programme to meet. However, we deliberately
chose this construct because to do otherwise would predestine the heritage
language training to less than full literacy. The efforts invested by students and
parents to attend the ethnic heritage school ought to yield the desired
dividends related to cross-cultural adaptation. Furthermore, the results in
this study pertaining to language proficiency were mainly based on self-report
measures. Although a few production items were included (recite a proverb in
Vietnamese), and teacher impressions of proficiency were also solicited, these
findings should be regarded as reflecting for the most part students’ own
perceptions of their language use and competence. As no systematic observa-
tions of use were conducted, nor any direct tests of proficiency, the accuracy of
270 The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
References
Bankston, C. (1996) Education and ethnicity in an urban Vietnamese Village: The role of
ethnic community involvement in academic achievement. In M. Seller and L. Weis
(eds) Beyond Black and White: New Faces and Voices in U.S. Schools (pp. 207230). New
York: State University of New York Press.
Bankston, C.L. and Zhou, M. (1995) Effects of minority-language literacy on the
academic achievement of Vietnamese youths in New Orleans. Sociology of Education
68 (1), 117.
Barnes, J.S. and Bennett, C.E. (2002) The Asian Population: Census 2000 Brief. Washington,
DC: US Census Bureau.
Role of a Vietnamese Heritage Language School 271
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J.C. (1986) The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In W.
Austin and S. Worchel (eds) Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 724). Chicago:
Nelson-Hall.
Takaki, R. (1989) Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans . Boston:
Little Brown.
Tatalovich, R. (1995) Nativism Reborn: The Official English Language Movement and the
American States . Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.
Veltman, C. (1983) Language shift in the United States . Berlin: Mouton.
Ward, C. (2001) The A, B, C’s of acculturation. In D. Matsumoto (ed.) The Handbook of
Culture and Psychology (pp. 411445). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wong-Fillmore, L. (1991) When learning a second language means losing the first. Early
Childhood Research Quarterly 6, 323346.
Yagmur, K., de Bot, K. and Korzillius, H. (1999) Language attrition, language shift and
ethnolinguistic vitality of Turkish in Australia. Journal of Multilingual and Multi-
cultural Development 20, 5169.
Zhou, M. (1996) Social capital in Chinatown: The role of community-based organiza-
tions and families in the adaptation of the younger generation. In M. Seller and L.
Weis (eds) Beyond Black and White: New Faces and Voices in U.S. Schools (pp. 181205).
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Zhou, M. and Bankston, C.L. (2000) The biculturation of the Vietnamese students.
ERIC/CUE Digest no. 152. New York: ERIC.