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Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology
Course Description
This web-based course teaches the fundamentals of Ethernet networking. It contains eleven
modules, which can be selected individually. Each module contains a number of lessons that
discuss Ethernet concepts, generic implementation types, definitions and basic processes.
The course does not include hands-on lab exercises, nor 'how to' directions for specific Intel
products.
This course begins with a brief overview about what Ethernet is and, also, describes the
historical setting in which Ethernet was developed and delineates the reasons for the
tremendous success of Ethernet products in the marketplace. The second module of the
course serves as a comprehensive introduction to basic methods used by Ethernet to facilitate
communication between computers.
Following the high-level overviews of Ethernet that comprise the first two modules, the
remaining modules of the course each focus on a specific aspect of Ethernet technology
ranging from Ethernet's collision detection system and data transfer methods to specific types
of Ethernet, including 10Base-T, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. General configuration
guidelines for each Ethernet type are also discussed.
Recommended Prerequisites
Knowledge of networking fundamentals
Course Goal
After completing this self-study course, students should understand the fundamentals of
Ethernet technology. Subsequent Intel certification courses are based on the assumption that
students understand the basic concepts covered in this course. Certification courses will not
attempt to cover these topics. This will minimize the amount of time students will spend outside
of their work environment in advanced technical/sales training.
Course Objectives
● Identify the characteristics of the layers in the OSI layering model for data
communications, with particular emphasis on the functionality included in OSI layers
one (physical layer) and two (data link layer)
● Identify the communication process that Ethernet standards define
● Identify common terminology used in the IEEE set of Ethernet standards
● Identify the role of the Ethernet bus and the concept of collision domains
● Identify the function and characteristics of Ethernet NICs, hubs, repeaters, bridges and
switches
● Identify the operation of the CSMA/CD algorithm
● Identify each field in an Ethernet frame and its purpose, as well as the construction of
specific Ethernet frame types
● Identify the similarities of and differences between Ethernet running at 10Mbps and
100Mbps
● Identify the basic specifications for Gigabit Ethernet and the basic configuration
guidelines for 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps Ethernet
● Identify the basic operation and characteristics of Ethernet over copper media and
optical fiber media, as well as the differences between the Cat 3, 4 and 5 UTP cabling
certifications
● Identify the concepts of half-duplex and full-duplex Ethernet operation, auto-negotiation
of speed and duplex operation
● Identify Ethernet's relationship to other networking technologies
Duration
The course consists of an introduction and eleven separate course modules. Estimated time of
completion is six hours, depending on your reading speed and the level of detail you desire.
Welcome!
Welcome to the Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology course!
Before you begin the course, please take a moment to review
the following information. Before you get
started
If you have never
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go through the web-
information about the system requirements, including web
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Module Description
In addition to providing a high-level overview of the role Ethernet plays in network computing,
this module also provides an historical perspective on the development of Ethernet. Lesson
1.1 defines Ethernet's relationship to upper-layer network protocols and introduces some of the
basic components of an Ethernet network. Lesson 1.2 focuses on the historical development
of Ethernet, and concludes by identifying the reasons for Ethernet's success in the
marketplace.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objectives
Ethernet Defined
Ethernet is a highly popular and internationally standardized networking technology that
enables computers to communicate with each other. Ethernet's role in the landscape of
network communication is limited, however, to the hardware-level transfer of data from one
point to another.
Ethernet equipment is manufactured by a wide variety of vendors. Today, nearly every brand
of modern computer can be equipped to communicate on an Ethernet network. Ethernet
technology can provide network speeds from 10Mbps (10 megabits per second) to 1Gbps (1
gigabit per second), which makes Ethernet equally suitable for both small and large networks.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
What is Ethernet? (Continued)
Course Introduction
The basic concepts of Ethernet are very easy to understand. Like all inventions, Ethernet
originates from a series of innovations on older technologies. The basic concepts of Ethernet
evolve directly from the basic concepts behind telegraph, telephone and radio technology. As
you work through the modules of this course, you will learn that just like the communication
technologies that have come before it, Ethernet is nothing more than a practical solution to
practical problems.
The basic components of an Ethernet network include cabling, network interface cards (NICs),
clients, servers, hubs and switches. The figure on the previous page shows you these basic
components of an Ethernet network and how they fit together. By the end of this course, you
will understand how each of these components works and how the Ethernet standard as a
whole works to make communication between computers, printers and other office devices
possible.
Lesson Objectives
Overview
Understanding a little about the history of Ethernet is important for two reasons:
1. It gives you a foundation for understanding the practical and technical computing
problems that Ethernet addresses.
2. It gives you the cultural background you need to feel competent when discussing
network technology with advanced systems administrators and engineers.
As an alternative to the mainframe-centric world of the 1970's, the search for a decentralized,
distributed and multivendor approach to data processing, now known as Open Systems,
becomes the driving force behind the development and adoption of Ethernet, as well as other
LAN technologies.
In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published the first
internationally approved set of Ethernet standards under the somewhat obscure title IEEE
802.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and
Physical Layer Specifications. Shortly thereafter, this standard was adopted by the
International Standards Organization (ISO), which effectively positioned Ethernet technology in
a way that enabled it to become the most widely used method for connecting Local Area
Networks (LANs).
The widespread adoption of distributed computing and Open Systems (the concept of a
modular, vendor-independent set of "open" interoperability standards) offers companies an
economical way to purchase additional computing power in the form of file servers and PC
workstations on an as needed basis, and from whatever vendor they believe will deliver the
best value for their money. Open communications technologies like Ethernet provide the basis
for a modular solution that:
Somewhere along the line, the name Alto Aloha (derived from the FM radio-based ALOHA
Network System built at the University of Hawaii) was dropped in favor of the slightly more
mystical sounding, Ethernet. The ether of Ethernet is a reference to the hypothetical element,
"lumeniferous ether," which from the 18th century up until Einstein's theory of relativity, many
physicists believe to permeate the entire universe, holding it together and providing a medium
for electromagnetic (light) waves. The abstract concept of an Ethernet is, then, of a network of
wires that can serve as a binding medium across which all the different parts of the computer
universe can communicate.
Ethernet Today
Today, Ethernet technology has achieved commodity status and is available from a wide range
of manufacturers and distributors, generally leaving consumers free to pick and choose from a
variety of alternatives.
Since the first Ethernet components appeared on the market in the beginning of the 1980's,
Ethernet has gone on to become the most successful LAN technology in the marketplace. As
the figure above shows, Ethernet dominates the market today and is likely to continue to do so
for the foreseeable future. There are several reasons why:
● Ethernet interfaces are available for almost any type of computer, from laptops to
mainframes.
● Ethernet devices are relatively easy to design and manufacture, and as a result,
relatively inexpensive.
● Ethernet is easy to install, maintain and troubleshoot, keeping the cost of ownership
down.
● Ethernet has proved capable of meeting demands for higher LAN speeds in a cost-
effective manner. 100Mbps Fast Ethernet, only recently introduced, has been highly
successful, and an IEEE standard for Gigabit Ethernet is expected to be finalized by the
end of 1998.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
ETHERNET BASICS
Module Description
This module describes details of Ethernet operation and is the largest module of the course.
Lesson 2.1 introduces the Ethernet Bus wire, and describes the roles that network interface
cards (NICs) and data frames play in Ethernet communications. Lesson 2.1 also describes
Ethernet's method for controlling access to the shared broadcast medium by drawing an
analogy between Ethernet and two-way radio. Lesson 2.1 also introduces and explains the
CSMA/CD algorithm, and illustrates the importance of configuration guidelines. Lesson 2.2
describes the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI reference model, and identifies the basic
network services that Ethernet provides. Lesson 2.3 describes in general terms Ethernet
cabling schemes, and explains the difference between physical and logical topologies. Lesson
2.4 identifies the role of the MAC sublayer and the Ethernet operations that take place at the
MAC sublayer. Lesson 2.5 concludes Module 2 with an explanation of repeaters, switches and
bridges.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objectives
In the hypothetical small office environment shown in the figure below, the Ethernet bus winds
through the entire office, passing closely by each computer. Each computer's physical
connection to the network is composed of a network interface card (NIC), a short drop line and
a connector that taps directly into the bus-wire.
Bus-type, coaxial cabling scheme for a small office.
Furthermore, like postal envelopes, Ethernet frames can transport only a certain amount of
data at a time. (For a standard frame, the maximum size of the data field is 1500 bytes.) Like
sending a large letter in a series of envelopes, Ethernet transports larger amounts of data in
multiple frames. Upon receiving each frame, the receiving computer discards the routing data
and puts the original data back in order.
Unlike postal envelopes, however, which arrive all at once, an Ethernet frame arrives one bit at
a time. Each Ethernet frame contains a structured series of data fields that identify:
Immediately following this information, the Ethernet frame includes the original data, or the
"content" of the frame. The frame ends with a mathematical value (called a cyclic redundancy
check, or CRC) that the receiving NIC uses to verify the frame has been received correctly.
The figure below illustrates the structure of a standard Ethernet frame.
A taxicab operator becomes accustomed, however, to overhearing all of the messages on his
or her radio, yet paying close attention, or "processing," only those messages specifically
addressed his or her taxicab. Computers on an Ethernet network function essentially the same
way.
Like the two-way radio network of taxicab drivers, all computers connected to the Ethernet bus
hear all broadcasts. Whenever one computer sends a frame (or message) to another
computer, the frame is broadcast over the entire length of the bus-cable, which all computers
share. As the frame arrives at each computer, the network interface card (NIC) checks the
frame's address information. If the destination address of the frame matches the NIC's
address, the NIC processes the frame by checking the data packet's integrity and removing
the routing information. If the frame's destination address does not match the NIC's address,
the NIC does not process any of the information and waits for the next frame to arrive. Just like
a taxicab driver, each NIC "listens" to all messages, but only processes those messages
specifically addressed to it.
Collisions
On the taxicabs' radio network, if no one is currently speaking, all operators are free to contend
for the open channel. Because only one radio operator can be heard at a time, if one driver is
already speaking, every other driver must wait until that person finishes before broadcasting a
message of his or her own. If two operators begin to speak at the same time, both messages
are garbled, and each operator must stop speaking and wait until the channel is free. One of
the operators may not realize that his or her message was garbled; in which case, a third
operator will ask him or her to restate the message. Once again, Ethernet communication
takes place in essentially this same way.
When a computer's NIC has a frame ready to send, it first listens to the network for any frames
from other computers already being broadcast. If there is a frame already being transmitted on
the bus, the NIC waits until that frame is completed and the bus is free. It is possible, however,
that two or more computers with frames to send will listen to the network at the same time and
thinking that the bus is free, broadcast their frames simultaneously. The resulting garbled
transmission is called a collision. The first NIC to detect the garbled transmission, sends out
what is called a jam signal that informs all the computers on the network that a collision has
occurred. The computers whose frames collided must then wait for a random time before
trying again to resend their frames. Because the time to wait is randomly chosen, one
computer's wait time will likely be shorter than the other. The computer with the shorter wait
time will gain access to the open bus first, and the second computer will then wait until the first
computer's broadcast is completed.
Collisions are a normal part of Ethernet operations. The set of rules by which Ethernet handles
collisions is called the CSMA/CD algorithm. CSMA/CD stands for "carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection," which simply is a technical way to refer to the sense-to-see-if-
the-line-is-free-before-you-send method that the multiple computers on an Ethernet network
use to share access to the broadcast channel. The collision detection part of the CSMA/CD
algorithm defines many of the physical limitations of Ethernet and directly affects how Ethernet
networks must be configured.
Once a sending station completes its frame transmission, without having been interrupted by a
jam signal, it assumes that the frame has been received intact and that it has been processed
correctly.
If a jam signal is received by a sending station after it has completed its transmission, the
sending station will assume that the collision belongs to a set of stations elsewhere on the
network. The importance of Ethernet stations being able to detect collisions before the
completion of each frame transmission cannot be understated. If the jam signal that results
from a collision is not detected by the sending station before the sending station completes its
transmission, the sending station has no way of knowing that it must retransmit its frame.
Properly configured Ethernet networks ensure that the distance between the two stations
farthest apart on the network is short enough that when a collision occurs neither of these two
stations will have had time enough to finish its transmission before being interrupted by the
jam signal.
Lesson Objectives
Though Ethernet plays a critical role in network communications, this role is limited to a
specific set of services that combine with upper-layer networking services to produce practical
benefits such as network management, data security, file transfer, remote access and
messaging.
Let's say, for example, you have created a document in a word processor, and you would now
like to save this document to a file in a directory on your workgroup's server before you attach
it to an e-mail message. When you give the command to save your file, in addition to the
actual transfer of data from your word processor to the hard disk on the server, a variety of
communications takes place between your computer and the server, including requests for
directory information, access rights and file creation. Though all of these communications are
broadcast by Ethernet over the Ethernet bus, Ethernet neither initiates these kinds of network
communications nor controls them in a substantive way.
Network services like file transfer, network management, remote terminal access and network
security are all facilitated by what are called upper-layer protocols. Technically, Ethernet is
merely a taxi service for these upper layer protocols, which employ Ethernet to help
accomplish their work. According to Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards, in the
hierarchy of network services, Ethernet works at the bottom as a servant to all the layers
above it.
The OSI model does not define a specific technology for each layer. The OSI model requires
only that every technology be able to accept data from the immediate layer below it and deliver
data to the immediate layer above it using universally accepted methods. Though most
networking solutions today do not strictly conform to the boundaries of the OSI model, the OSI
model still provides a solid framework for understanding how networking technologies
interoperate.
Layer Function
Layer Presentation This layer describes how data should be formatted when presented
6 to applications. It can also provide services like encryption and
compression.
Layer Session This layer establishes, manages and ends connections between
5 users and resources.
Layer Network This layer is responsible for routing packets between end stations in
3 a network.
Layer Data Link This layer can provide error handling, flow control and arbitrates
2 medium access.
Layer Physical This layer defines the electrical, optical and mechanical
1 characteristics of a network connection.
1. Ethernet connects computers together physically with cabling and network interface
cards.
2. Ethernet transports data packets from the network layer service on one computer to the
network layer service of either one or a number of other computers. As an Open
Systems technology, Ethernet does not specifically exclude any particular network layer
technology. For example, when Ethernet receives a TCP/IP packet from the network
layer, it treats the TCP/IP packet exactly the same as it would a NetBEUI or IPX/SPX
packet. Like a taxicab, Ethernet simply transports the fare; it does not ask for names,
only the destination.
Lesson Objectives
At the physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, Ethernet specifications
cover details about the cabling requirements for Ethernet, including the use of coaxial cable,
twisted-pair wire, optical fiber and connectors. Physical layer specifications also define data
rates, as well as the electrical, mechanical and signaling characteristics of the physical
medium. Physical layer specifications describe how Ethernet represents data as either
electrical signals sent over a wire or as light pulses sent through a fiber optic cable. Physical
layer specifications also describe how Ethernet activates and deactivates connections.
Today, a variety of specific cabling schemes can be used in the design of Ethernet networks.
The advantages, disadvantages and limitations of each are discussed in more detail in
Modules 7 through 9, which cover operations, guidelines and specifications for Ethernet
running at 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps.
In general, the physical configuration of an Ethernet network conforms to one of two basic
network topologies: bus or star.
In the star configuration shown in the figure above, the hub forms a central wiring closet that
physically takes the place of the long, coaxial Ethernet bus. Even though the star topology
shown in the figure above looks radically different from the bus topology shown in the figure
before it, the basic operations of Ethernet are the same for both. The evolution from bus to star
topologies is perhaps best understood as simply a dramatic shortening of the Ethernet bus and
an equally dramatic elongation of the drop lines that connect individual computers to the
shared broadcast medium.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
The Physical Layer (Continued)
The figure below shows the same office space shown in Lesson 2.1, this time cabled using
a star topology.
Lesson Objective
The IEEE 802 series of network standards divides the second layer of the OSI reference
model, the data link layer, into two sublayers called the medium access control (MAC) layer
and the logical link control (LLC) layer. The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet specification covers the
physical layer and the MAC sublayer, but not the LLC sublayer. The LLC sublayer uses the
MAC sublayer to provide medium-independent link functions to the network layer above it.
MAC sublayer
When a computer transmits a frame, Ethernet operations at the MAC sublayer assemble the
destination and source addresses for each Ethernet frame and calculate the frame's CRC
checksum. At the receiving end, Ethernet operations at the MAC sublayer process the
destination address and verify the integrity of the frame using the CRC checksum. Ethernet's
collision detection and handling protocol, the CSMA/CD algorithm also operates at the MAC
sublayer.
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the roles that repeaters, switches and bridges play in Ethernet networking
Repeaters, switches and bridges are physical networking components that will be discussed in
some detail later in the course. They are introduced here, however, to provide a complete
overview of the basic components of Ethernet networking.
Repeaters
Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a repeater because it regenerates the strength of all
incoming signals and repeats them individually to each port. Because collisions on an Ethernet
network must be detected before a station completes the transmission of its frame (IEEE 802.3
standards actually limit the minimum collision detection time to 512 bits), the maximum
allowable distance between any two stations on an Ethernet network operating at 10Mbps is
2500 m (meters). Over a distance much less than this, however, electrical signals transmitted
from an NIC lose their clarity and strength due to a natural weakening called attenuation.
10Mbps signals over twisted-pair wire, for example, become undecipherable at a distance of a
little over 100 m. For thick coaxial cable, this distance is 500 m. Network hubs and repeaters
work at the physical level to regenerate the strength of electrical signals so that distant
segments of a network can share the same broadcast medium.
Switches
Ethernet switches operate like intelligent hubs that repeat incoming frames only to the
computer (or computers) to which each frame is addressed. Thus, on a switched network with
four computers (A, B, C and D), computer A can broadcast to computer B, and computer C
can broadcast to computer D simultaneously, without a collision. In this simple example,
Ethernet switching effectively doubles total throughput of the network by allowing computers A
and C to broadcast at full network speed without having to wait for the first computer's
broadcast to finish. As a result of their ability to significantly increase overall network
throughput, switches are becoming an increasingly popular replacement for Ethernet hubs.
Bridges
Bridges operate at both the physical layer and the MAC sublayer and connect otherwise
completely separate Ethernet networks. Bridges sit between each network and repeat only
those frames that are specifically addressed to computers on the other side. By designing
separate network domains connected with bridges, network traffic can be isolated without
sacrificing system-wide connectivity. Bridges can also connect networks running at different
speeds with different topologies or communication protocols.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
ETHERNET OPERATIONS
Module Description
This module describes the details of data transmission and access control on Ethernet
networks. Lesson 3.1 covers the CSMA/CD algorithm and focuses particularly on the process
of collision detection. Lesson 3.2 explains the reason for Ethernet's maximum distance
specifications and, also, explains in general how maximum distances are calculated. Lesson
3.3 defines the exponential backoff algorithm, and discusses the role it plays in collision
detection and retransmission process. Lesson 3.4 discusses the effect of collisions and
excessive collisions on performance. Lesson 3.5 concludes Module 3 by illustrating a number
of ways that Ethernet networks can be configured to reduce collisions and increase
performance.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objectives
Module 2 briefly introduced the CSMA/CD algorithm and how it works to control access to
Ethernet's shared, physical medium. The CSMA/CD algorithm defines when stations are
allowed to transmit and for how long, as well as how to manage situations in which two or
more stations attempt to transmit at the same time. The following two flow charts illustrate the
decision making processes that an Ethernet NIC completes when sending and receiving
frames.
Flow chart for Ethernet frame transmissions.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
The CSMA/CD Algorithm (Continued)
Because an Ethernet network uses a shared broadcast medium, network stations must take
turns transmitting data across the medium. If more than one station transmits data at the same
time, the transmissions collide and the signal becomes undecipherable as a result.
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Detection. "Carrier Sense"
means that network stations with data to transmit should first listen to determine if another
station is sending data. "Multiple Access" means that Ethernet provides a number of stations
the opportunity to transmit on the single cable. "Collision Detection" refers to the process by
which stations detect simultaneous transmissions.
Even though data signals travel near the speed of light, they still take time to travel over the
network medium. As illustrated by the series of figures below, collisions can occur even though
each station must check first to see if the medium is free. As a result, stations must continue to
monitor for collisions even after gaining access to the medium.
Station A transmitting
The figure above shows two stations connected to an Ethernet bus and 500 m apart (about
1,640 ft [feet]). After station A begins to transmit, the signal travels away from station A in both
directions. The speed of signal propagation through the cable varies slightly, depending on the
cable type used. (Propagation is a technical term for the process by which signals, or waves,
travel across a medium, such as wire, water or atmosphere.) Generally, signal propagation
speed through copper and fiber cable is 2/3c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Hence, it will take the transmitted signal about 2.5 µs (microseconds) to travel 500 m. On a
10Mbps Ethernet network, this means that station A will have transmitted 25 bits (2.5 µs
multiplied by (x) 10,000,000 bits/second) by the time the first of the bits reaches station B.
Now, assume that station B decides to begin a transmission immediately before the first bit
from A's transmission has traveled the 500 m distance between the two stations. Because
station B believes that the cable is free, it will begin to transmit. Consequently, the two signals
collide on the wire immediately afterwards, as shown in the figure below.
Collision
Station B discovers the collision right away and transmits a jam pattern to ensure that all
stations on the network detect the collision. A jam pattern is a sequence of bits that is put
together in such a way that the signal cannot be mistaken for a valid transmission.
It takes another 2.5 µs before the jam signal has traveled 500 m from station B to station A. By
the time station A discovers the collision and stops the transmission, 5 µs have elapsed and,
station A has already transmitted 50 bits.
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the reasons there is a limit to the distance between stations on an Ethernet
network
● Identify Ethernet's distance limitation in bit times
If the distance between station A and station B increases, station A will transmit more and
more bits without discovering a collision. If the stations are placed too far apart, station A will
complete its transmission before the collision is discovered. If this happens, when station A
receives the jam signal, it will not assume that its transmission was involved in the collision.
Station A will, instead, assume that the collision belongs to some other set of computers. One
of the significant assumptions of Ethernet operations is that once an Ethernet station is able to
finish its transmission without being interrupted by either a jam signal or a collision, that station
assumes that its transmission has been received successfully.
Usually, the upper-layer protocol responsible for the frame's data packet expects a response
from the same upper-layer protocol on the receiving station. When the expected reply is not
received within a specified time unique to each protocol, the upper-layer protocol on the
sending station will use Ethernet to resend the original data. These kinds of retransmissions,
however, not only result in unacceptable delays and network inefficiency, but they are also
unnecessary.
The Ethernet standard contains several specifications that ensure collisions will be detected
before a station finishes its transmission. First, the standard limits that the maximum distance
between two stations in such a way that a station will not have transmitted more than 512 bits
before a collision is discovered. On a 10Mbps Ethernet network, the maximum distance
between two stations cannot exceed 2,500 m (about 8,200 ft). On a 100Mbps Ethernet
network, the maximum distance is much shorter because data is transmitted ten times faster;
thus, stations have less time to discover collisions. Second, the standard specifies that an
Ethernet frame must always be at least 512 bits (64 bytes) long. Third, Ethernet standards
require transmitting stations to monitor the cable for collisions throughout the first 512 bits of
every transmission. After that, stations are free to assume that a collision will not occur.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
The round-trip propagation delay at 2,500 m is about 25 µs or only 250-bit times at 10Mbps.
(Propagation is a technical term for the process by which signals, or waves, travel across a
medium, such as wire, water or atmosphere. The phrase "round trip propagation delay" refers
specifically to the time it takes for a single Ethernet transmission to travel the length of the wire
twice. The first signal is assumed to be a data transmission and the second a jam signal.)
What about the remaining 262-bit times? Some of it is there to allow a small delay in
electronics circuits such as repeaters and network interface cards; the rest is a safety margin.
The maximum allowable distance between any two stations on an Ethernet network operating
at 10Mbps is 2500 m. Over a distances much less than this, however, electrical signals
transmitted lose their clarity and strength due to a natural weakening called attenuation. Thus,
repeaters are used to regenerate the strength of electrical signals so that distant segments of
a network can share the same broadcast medium. (Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a
repeater because it regenerates the strength of all incoming signals and repeats them
individually to each port.)
Lesson Objective
● Identify the operation and purpose of the backoff algorithm used to control
retransmissions on an Ethernet
After checking the broadcast medium and finding it is free, the sending station assumes that
no other station has frames to send, and so begins to transmit. After a collision has occurred,
however, there are always at least two stations on the network with frames to send. If after a
collision, the affected stations were to simply retransmit their frames immediately after the jam
signal has finished, the exact same collision will occur again.
To avoid repeated collisions, Ethernet uses an exponential backoff algorithm that requires
each station affected by a collision to wait a randomly selected amount of time before
retransmitting. The station which randomly chooses the shortest backoff time will, then, be
able to transmit its frame without interference from the station that contributed to the prior
collision. Once the transmission from the station which randomly chose the shortest backoff
time has been recognized by all other stations on the network, all stations must then wait until
the transmission is completed before once again contending for access to the network.
According to Ethernet's exponential backoff algorithm, once a collision occurs, all stations
involved in the collision will wait for an amount of time, called a slot time, before transmitting
again. The slot time depends on the transmission speed. On 10Mbps Ethernet networks, it is
51.2 µs. On Fast Ethernet networks, it is only 5.12 µs.
If two stations both wait for the same number of slot times, the transmissions will collide again.
Thus, there is a range of slot times from which stations must randomly choose after each
unsuccessful transmission. Specified ranges for slot times are shown in Table 3-3 below. Each
time the station tries to retransmit and encounters a collision, the maximum waiting time is
doubled. If a first transmission attempt fails due to a collision, all stations involved in the
collision will wait between 0 and 2 slot times before attempting to transmit the frame a second
time. On 10Mbps Ethernet, this means that the waiting time will be either 0x51.2 µs, 1x51.2 µs
or 2x51.2 µs. On the third attempt to transmit the frame, the waiting time will be between 0 and
4 slot times, on the fourth attempt between 0 and 8 slot times and so on. After eleven
successive collisions, maximum number of slot times stays at 1,023.
An Ethernet station will attempt to transmit the same frame up to 16 times. After that, if the
transmission has not been successfully completed, it will give up and discard the frame.
Lesson Objective
The definition of "acceptable limits" is, of course, subjective. In some cases, users and
management may be willing to accept a poorer quality of service from the network, and in
other situations, a 95 percent average availability may not be sufficient.
The following is brief description of the most common errors on Ethernet networks and their
most likely causes. Error statistics can be obtained from several different sources, such as
dedicated troubleshooting equipment like network monitors and probes as well as from
network equipment such as bridges, switches and routers.
Short frames can be caused by noisy connections, cable faults and faults in network hardware.
If they occur often, remedial action should be taken. Correcting the problem usually means
replacing defective cables or equipment.
A CRC error is registered when the 4-byte checksum is invalid, that is the CRC information in
the FCS field does not match the CRC value computed by the receiving station.
Frames with CRC errors are discarded by the receiving hardware. CRC errors are usually
caused by cable faults and other faults in the network. Correcting the problem usually means
replacing defective cables or equipment.
Alignment Error. Frames with alignment errors are frames that are longer than 64 bytes, have
a bad CRC and are not an integral number of bytes in length; that is, the number of bits in the
frame is not divisible by 8.
Frames with alignment errors are discarded by the receiving station because they have an
invalid CRC. Alignment errors are usually caused by cable faults or problems with network
interface cards. Correcting the problem usually means replacing defective cables or network
interface cards
Long. A frame that is longer than the legal maximum length of 1518 bytes but shorter than
6000 bytes.
Longs can have a negative impact on general network performance and may result in users
being disconnected. The station transmitting the oversized frames has a hardware or software
error. It should be found and removed from the network.
Giant. A frame that is longer than 6,000 bytes. The station transmitting the oversized frames
has a hardware or software error. It should be found and removed from the network.
Jabber. A long frame with a CRC or alignment error. "Jabbers" are usually caused by a
malfunctioning network interface card or external transceiver. The faulty equipment should be
replaced.
Late Collision. Occurs after the first 512 bits have been transmitted by the sending station.
Late collisions should never occur in a healthy Ethernet network or segment.
A late collision can cause severe performance degradation because it cannot be detected by
the sending station. Late collisions are typically caused by misconfiguration, such as having
too long cable distances or by having more than 4 repeaters between one or more network
stations in a 10Mbps environment. The problem must be solved by changing the network
configuration so it complies with the guidelines.
The figure below shows an example of how collision statistics might look on an Ethernet
segment that is performing well. Notice that most transmissions succeed after only two
successive collisions. The number of transmissions that experience more than six successive
collisions is too small to be visible on the chart.
An Ethernet segment that is performing well. The total of all blue bars
in the graph represents the total number of collisions on the network.
By contrast, following figure shows collision statistics on a heavily loaded Ethernet segment.
Note that more of the transmissions experience multiple collisions on this segment.
A heavily loaded Ethernet segment. The total of all blue bars in the graph
represents the total number of collisions on the network. Most of the retransmissions
on this network experience two or more successive collisions. Network congestion
is so great that some transmissions reach the excessive collision limit
and are dropped by the sending station's NIC.
Lesson Objective
● Identify some of the ways Ethernet networks can be segmented to reduce collisions
Network managers can decrease the total number of collisions on a network in several ways.
Network managers can:
The figure below shows a segmented network configuration that includes multiple collision
domains.
In the figure above, a bridge is used to connect segments. The bridge functions as a selective
repeater that retransmits the frames it receives only when they are specifically addressed to
devices on the other side. As a general rule, network engineers try to keep at least 80% of all
traffic generated by a collision domain within that same domain.
Module Description
This module discusses the composition of the Ethernet frame. Lesson 4.1 gives a general
overview of the contents of the Ethernet frame. Lessons 4.2 through 4.7 each discuss in detail
the content and purpose of each of the Ethernet frame's six fields.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objective
The Ethernet frame can, perhaps, best be thought of as a container for safely and efficiently
transporting data packets from one station to another. The general format of an Ethernet frame
is shown in the figure below.
Ethernet frames contain six fields in total. Each field, with the exception of the data field, is
precisely defined both in length and content.
Announcing the arrival of each frame, a 7-byte preamble serves to synchronize the sending
station's and the receiving stations' clocks, ensuring that each frame is received at the same
speed it was sent. Following the preamble a 1-byte start-of-frame delimiter signals to the
receiving station that the substantive portion of the frame is about to start.
The destination address, source address and typeIlength fields together form what is
commonly referred to as the Ethernet header. The Ethernet header contains control
information used by Ethernet to identify the source, destination, size and protocol of the upper-
layer data packet contained in the data field. The data field immediately follows the header
fields and varies in length between 46 and 1500 bytes. All other fields in the frame have fixed
lengths.
A frame check sequence field marks the end of the Ethernet frame and contains a checksum
value that can be used to verify the frame has not been corrupted in transit. The checksum is
the result of a calculation of bit values derived from of all other fields in the frame.
Since the original Ethernet standard was published in 1980, a number of variant Ethernet
frame types have been developed and are now in common use. All of them, however, follow
the basic structure shown in the figure above. Lessons 4.2 through 4.6 describe in detail the
six basic fields of an Ethernet frame.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Preamble/SFD
Lesson Objective
Timing
Ethernet is sometimes described as a bit-serial, synchronous transmission facility. Bit-serial
means that frames are transmitted and received one bit at a time across the medium. The
phrase synchronous transmission refers to the fact that the clocks in both the sender and
receiver must be synchronized in order for each bit to be correctly detected. Clock
synchronization is important because Ethernet uses precisely timed changes in signal strength
to create recognizable high-to-low and low-to-high patterns that, upon receipt, are interpreted
as digital 0's or 1's. An unsynchronized clock will time the signal incorrectly and will either not
be able to interpret the signal at all or will misinterpret the signal by reading high-to-low
sequences as low-to-high sequences, and vice versa. In such instances, the frame is said to
be misaligned.
Synchronization
The Ethernet frame enables the receiving station to synchronize its clock with the sending
station by using a 7-byte (56-bit) series of alternating 1's and 0's, called a preamble. The
steady alteration of 1's and 0's in the preamble constitutes a simple way to encode clocking
information in the signal itself. Like a drum roll used to synchronize the feet of soldiers in a
very fast march, the preamble's 56-bits of alternating 1's and 0's allow the receiving station to
adjust its clock until the steady alterations of the preamble are timed correctly.
At a first glance, the SFD appears unnecessary, because it may seem that the receiver could
simply count bits until 8 bytes (64 bits) have been received and then start copying the frame to
memory. However, the sender and receiver clocks may be so far out of synchronization that
the receiver will not be able to synchronize on the signal immediately, thus allowing an
indeterminable portion of the preamble to pass by unrecognized.
Lesson Objectives
Technical manuals usually record the bytes of the MAC address using hexadecimal notation,
as opposed to writing out the binary digits. In an example MAC address such as "00-A0-C9-
CE-20-03," the first three bytes, 00-A0-C9, represent the manufacturer ID (Intel), the second
three bytes, CE-20-03, represent the NIC ID. Using this same example, the first two bytes
written using binary notation would read 00000000-10100000. (Although, to make things
somewhat interesting, Ethernet actually reverses the bit-ordering of each byte when it is
transmitted. So, the same two bytes would actually be transmitted as 00000000-00000101.)
Destination Address
The MAC address is, of course, each station's unique destination address (DA). When a
station recognizes its own MAC address in the destination address field of an Ethernet frame,
the station copies the rest of the frame to memory for further processing by the CPU. When a
station recognizes that the destination address is not its own, that station simply disregards the
rest of the frame.
Source Address
The source address (SA) field contains the MAC address of the sending station. The source
address field gives a receiving station the opportunity to respond to the originating station
either by confirming receipt of the frame, requesting the frame be resent or answering a
particular request.
Unicast Addresses. The unicast address for a particular destination is simply another name
for an NIC's unique MAC address. An Ethernet frame sent to a unicast address is intended for
one station only. Unicast transmissions are used by clients requesting application or file
services from a particular sever, and by servers responding to client-specific requests.
Broadcast Addresses. Each network has only one broadcast address. The broadcast
address, as it appears in the destination address field, is composed entirely of binary 1's. All
stations on the network are expected to copy Ethernet frames sent to the broadcast address
and pass them to the CPU for further processing.
Ethernet LAN services such as address resolution and service advertisements that rely on
recurrent transmissions to all stations frequently send packets to the broadcast address.
Specific examples include, the services provided by Address Resolution Protocol (ARP [a
component of the TCP/IP suite]) and NetWare* SAPs.
Multicast and broadcast addresses can appear only in the destination address field, never in
the source address field. A frame can be intended for a group of stations, but it will always be
sent from a specific station on the network.
Lesson Objective
Ethernet frames come in slightly different variants, with the main difference being the type of
information that is placed in the 2-byte field following the source address field. Generally
speaking, this portion of the frame is used to designate either the size of the data field or the
upper-layer protocol to which the contents of the data field should be delivered (i.e., IPX, IP,
DECnet, AppleTalk, etc.). The contents and purpose of the type/length field are discussed in
detail in Module 5, which discusses four of the most common Ethernet frame types.
Lesson Objective
Frames received that are less than 64 bytes long are usually the byproducts of collisions and
are called runts. Switches and bridges, which examine an entire frame before forwarding it,
immediately discard all runts, preventing them from propagating throughout the rest of the
network. NICs, as well, immediately discard all frames that do not meet the 64-byte minimum
length requirement.
Striking a Balance
If Ethernet were to allow the transmission of very large frames, of say, 65,536 bytes or more,
Ethernet's 18-byte overhead for each frame becomes comparatively insignificant to the data-
packet portion of the frame. It would take, however, approximately 52 ms to transmit a frame of
this size at 10Mbps. By computer standards 52 ms is a long time and could lead to
unacceptably long wait times for other stations.
Though smaller upperlimits on frame size can substantially decrease wait times for access to
the network, they unfortunately increase the overall amount of overhead on the wire, and thus
decrease the total amount of data throughput that the network can provide. Using Ethernet's
minimum 64-byte frame size, with a minimum 46 bytes for data packets, overhead for small
packets is 28% of the total transmission. For maximum-sized, 1518-byte Ethernet frames,
overhead falls to 11% of the total transmission. While it is true that certain applications would
benefit from a larger maximum Ethernet frame size, many other applications would benefit
equally as well from a smaller frame size. As Ethernet speeds continue to increase, however,
from 10Mbps to 100Mbps, and now 1000Mbps, the relative efficiency or inefficiency of
Ethernet compared to other possible networking schemes continues to diminish in importance.
Lesson Objective
The frame check sequence (FCS) field contains a checksum called a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) that can be used to verify that the frame has not corrupted in transit. The frame check
sequence is simply the result of a complex division problem applied to the contents of the
frame. The transmitting station calculates the CRC value as the frame is transmitted and
places the result in the FCS field. When the frame is received, the receiving station performs
the same calculation and compares the resulting CRC value with the one found in the FCS
field. If the two values match, the receiving station accepts the frame. If the two values do not
match, the receiving station assumes the frame has been corrupted, and consequently
discards it.
Note that the FCS field does not constitute a security mechanism. A sophisticated user with
malicious intentions and the appropriate tools could change the frame, recalculate the CRC
value and place it in the FCS field. The receiver would then be unable to detect that the frame
has been tampered with. The FCS is intended only to protect against errors caused by noise
on the transmission medium or by malfunctioning network equipment.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Interframe Gap
Lesson Objective
After a frame has been successfully transmitted and received, Ethernet specifications require
that an interframe gap of at least 96 bit-times pass before any station on the network can
transmit the next frame. At 10Mbps, 96 bit-times translates to 9.6 µs. The reason for the 9.6 µs
interframe gap is to allow enough time for station that last transmitted to cycle its circuitry from
transmit mode to receive mode. Without the interframe gap, it is possible for a station that has
just completed a transmission to miss a frame destined for it because it has not yet cycled
back into receive mode. Even though modern Ethernet devices are capable of cycling from
send mode to receive mode in a shorter time than the 9.6 µs allowed, the 96 bit-time
interframe gap specification is still a part of the official standard, and is included in the
specifications for Fast Ethernet as well. At Fast Ethernet speeds, however, 96 bit-times
translates to 960 ns (nanoseconds), one-tenth of the time for 10Mbps Ethernet.
Some Ethernet manufacturers currently market NICs (and Ethernet switches, as well) that use
an interframe gap that is smaller than 96 bit-times specified by IEEE 802.3 standards. By
shortening the interframe gap, manufacturers can claim an increased overall network
throughput compared to their competitors. Network administrators must be cautious, however,
when devices that meet the 9.6 µs specification are combined with devices that use a shorter
interframe spacing. Mixing devices that use different interframe gap times increases the
potential for 'dropped' packets, which in turn results in upper-layer protocol initiated
retransmissions. Dropped packets can significantly reduce overall network performance, and,
in certain instances, cause client stations to lose their connection to the network.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an Ethernet Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of frame fields and sizes.
Module Description
Since the publication of the original DIX Ethernet standard in 1980, a variety of Ethernet frame
types have been developed. This module identifies these variant frame types and in what
situations they are most commonly used.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objectives
From the point of view of a network-layer protocol, everything in an Ethernet frame, excluding
the data field, must be considered overhead. Generally speaking, the amount of overhead a
frame uses is directly related to the sophistication of the services it can support. Each of the
frame types covered in this module attempts to strike a useful balance between efficiency and
sophistication.
The Ethernet II frame, for example, includes only 26 bytes of overhead information (counting
the preamble) for each data packet. The Ethernet SNAP frame, on the other hand, includes 34
bytes of overhead information (counting the preamble) for each data packet. Though the
Ethernet II frame provides a more efficient use of network bandwidth, the Ethernet SNAP
frame is able to support a broader range of upper-layer protocols, including AppleTalk.
Many networks support several frame types at the same time. A network using TCP/IP, IPX
and AppleTalk, for example, may support up to three different frame types: Ethernet II for TCP/
IP, Novell 802.3 for IPX, and Ethernet SNAP for AppleTalk support. The purpose of this
module is to describe the overhead information unique to each Ethernet frame type, and
reasons why particular information is included in some frames and excluded in others.
Lesson Objectives
The original Ethernet standard published by Digital, Intel and Xerox defines the format for the
Ethernet II frame. (What might be called the Ethernet I frame was used only in the
developmental stages of Ethernet and was not published as part of the jointly developed
standard.) As illustrated in the figure below, the Ethernet II frame includes a 2-byte type field
that immediately follows the source address.
Ethernet II Frame
The type field is used to contain a value called an EtherType that identifies the type of data in
the data field. By assigning a unique value to each upper-layer protocol, the type field indicates
to the receiving station which protocol (i.e., IPX, IP, DECnet, AppleTalk, etc.) should handle
the contents of the data field. If the data field contains IP data, for example, the EtherType
value is set to 0x0800. If the data field contains IPX data, the EtherType value is set to
0x8137, and for AppleTalk the value is 0x809B. All EtherType values are equal to decimal
numbers greater than 1500, which serves to distinguish Ethernet II frames from IEEE 802.3
frames, which replace the type field with a size field (which is always less than 1500).
Generally speaking, the Ethernet II frame is the most commonly used frame-type. TCP/IP-
based networks use the Ethernet II frame almost exclusively, as does DECnet. Many Novell
networks, as well, are configured to use Ethernet II frames.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an Ethernet II Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to
apply your knowledge of frame fields.
Lesson Objectives
Most networks can be configured to use either Ethernet II or IEEE 802.3 frames, and
sometimes both. For example, Novell networks now use the IEEE 802.3 frame by default for
IPX/SPX packets and the Ethernet II frame for TCP/IP packets, though some network
administrators prefer to use the Ethernet II frame for both. A network administrator's decision
to support the Ethernet II frame but not the IEEE 802.3 frame, or vice versa, is highly
dependent upon the particular circumstances and is often a matter of mere preference.
Generally speaking, even though the IEEE 802.3 frame is the officially recognized international
standard, the Ethernet II frame is still the most widely implemented and widely supported
frame type.
The IEEE 802.3 frame replaces Ethernet II's 2-byte type field with a 2-byte length field and
adds a 3-byte LLC (logical link control) header to the data field. The figure below illustrates the
format of the IEEE 802.3 frame.
Length Field
The length field identifies the combined length of the LLC and data fields in number of bytes.
The value of the length field will always be equal to a number between 46 – 1500. Since
EtherType values always equal a number greater than 1500, and 802.3 length values always
equal a number 1500 or less, it is possible for most network hardware and software to
distinguish between Ethernet II and IEEE frame types, and thus support both types of frames
running on the same network.
The SSAP (source service access point) field identifies the upper-layer protocol that sent the
data packet. Because the source protocol and the destination protocol are typically the same
for each data field, the corresponding values for the SSAP and DSAP fields are, also, typically
the same.
Ctrl Field
The ctrl field's value distinguishes between different types of LLC headers. The operation of
the LLC layer is not, however, specified by Ethernet standards.
SNAP frame IEEE 802.3 frame with 802.2 header and Sub-Network Access
Protocol encapsulation
Novell 802.3 frame A frame type that uses the structure of the IEEE 802.3 frame without
802.3 raw the 802.2 header. It is used only on Novell networks.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header!
This interactive exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of frame fields.
**This exercise requires the Macromedia Shockwave* plugin.
Lesson Objectives
Driven largely by the TCP/IP community, the addition of sub-network access protocol (SNAP)
to the IEEE 802.3 frame was designed to expand the number of upper protocols that Ethernet
can support. Manufacturers have not, however, implemented SNAP on even a modest scale.
Today, the Ethernet SNAP frame is most commonly used to support Ethernet Macintosh*
clients running AppleTalk.
On networks that support multiple frame types, Ethernet SNAP frames are recognized by the
content of the DSAP, SSAP and ctrl fields. For Ethernet SNAP frames, the hexadecimal value
of both the DSAP and SSAP fields equals 0xAA, and the value for the ctrl field equals 0x03.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation! This interactive
exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of frame fields.
Lesson Objectives
Like the IEEE 802.3 frame, the Novell 802.3 frame differs from the Ethernet II frame by using a
length field in the place Ethernet II's type field. The Novell 802.3 frame is used exclusively on
Novell networks. The Novell 802.3 frame is often called "802.3 raw" because it does not use
the 802.2 LLC header in the data field.
Because the Novell 802.3 frame does not provide a "type" or "DSAP" field for encoding
protocol information, the Novell 802.3 frame cannot support upper-layer protocols of different
types, and is used for Novell IPX data only. As the figure above shows, the Novell 802.3 frame
contains less overhead than either the IEEE 802.3 frame or the SNAP frame and the same
amount of overhead as the Ethernet II frame. Because of its low overhead, the Novell 802.3
frame is extremely efficient. Its lack of sophistication, however, has caused even many Novell
network administrators to resist its use.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of a Novell 802.3 Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to
apply your knowledge of frame fields.
Module Description
This module explains how full-duplex Ethernet works, where it is commonly implemented and
what its benefits are. Lesson 6.1 compares full-duplex and half-duplex operation by using
analogies that include telephone and two-way radio communication models. Lesson 6.2
explains how full-duplex links can be used to increase overall network throughput, and Lesson
6.3 explains how distance limitations are affected by full-duplex operation. Lesson 6.4
concludes the module by briefly identifying the role full-duplex plays in the use of Gigabit
Ethernet.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objective
Modern telephones, on the other hand, operate in full-duplex mode using two broadcast
channels simultaneously. Full-duplex mode allows one person's transmission channel to
function exclusively as the other person's receive channel, and vice versa. Using full-duplex
communication, both parties can speak and listen at the same time without encountering
garbled transmissions that would otherwise result from simultaneous broadcasts.
Lesson Objectives
Using twisted-pair, twinax, or fiber optic cabling and full-duplex compatible NICs, full-duplex
Ethernet allows two stations to transmit and receive data simultaneously.
Full-duplex Ethernet operation. In this case, two computers are directly connected
using a medium type that has two separate channels. Full-duplex operation
allows Station A to transmit on Station B's receive channel
at the same time Station B is transmitting on Station A's receive channel.
Full-duplex links not only double potential throughput, but also eliminate collisions, as well as
the need for each station to wait until the other station finishes transmitting. If reads and writes
on a full-duplex link are symmetric, data throughput can be doubled. In actual usage, however,
bandwidth improvements are more modest. Full-duplex Ethernet and Fast Ethernet links are
particularly useful for server-to-server, server-to-switch and switch-to-switch connections.
On a switch equipped with a full-duplex port, a packet arriving at a half-duplex port can be
relayed on the full-duplex port, as soon as it has determined that the incoming packet on the
half-duplex port has not been damaged by a collision. Additionally, packets arriving from a full-
duplex port can be forwarded as soon as the destination is determined, since there are no
collisions on a full-duplex link.
With both Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, full-duplex segments are, however, limited to a single
connection between two devices (for example, between a server and a switch). For three or
more devices attached to the same segment, only half-duplex operation is possible.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Full-duplex and Distance Limitations
Lesson Objective
Because full-duplex operation eliminates the need to detect collisions, distances between
devices can be extended to the full length that the medium is able to transmit a recognizable
data signal. For example, with Fast Ethernet running on multimode fiber the maximum
distance between devices is extended from about 400 m to approximately 2000 m. Due to
UTP cable's higher rate of attenuation, the maximum distance between devices for UTP cable
is 100 m, the same as for half-duplex.
Lesson Objective
Gigabit Ethernet has been developed to use full-duplex mode almost exclusively. Running at
Gigabit Ethernet speeds a switch-like device called a buffered distributor will connect multiple
full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet devices. Initially, all Gigabit Ethernet devices manufactured will
support full-duplex operation.
Module Description
The IEEE 802.3 specification designates Ethernet implementation types according to the
cabling used and the speed of data transfer. This module covers the specifications for Ethernet
operating at 10Mbps over coaxial, unshielded twisted-pair and fiber optic cabling. Lesson 7.1
covers Ethernet designations 10Base-5 and 10Base-2, which specify the use of coaxial and
thin coaxial cable. Lesson 7.2 covers the designation 10Base-T, which specifies the use of
unshielded twisted-pair cabling, the most widely used medium for new Ethernet
implementations. Lesson 7.3 covers the designation 10Base-FL, which specifies the use of
fiber optic cabling. Lastly, Lesson 7.4 reviews a number of configuration guidelines for 10Mbps
Ethernet implementations.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objectives
The 10Base-5 designation was the first Ethernet implementation type to be defined by
Ethernet standards. 10Base-5 designates a network that is implemented at 10Mbps, uses
baseband transmission, and can carry a signal a maximum distance of 500 m without the use
of a repeater.
Unfortunately, cabling used for 10Base-5 is rigid, difficult to work with and expensive to install.
10Base-2 was, however, intended to be easier to use. Because it is thinner, 10Base-2 cable is
cheaper to buy and to install than 10Base-5. 10Base-2 cable segments can only be 185 m
(about 600 ft) long.
Both 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks use a physical bus topology. On 10Base-5 networks,
workstations attach to the bus cable using drop cables over distances up to 40 m (about 130
ft) long. On 10Base-2 networks, a computer’s network interface card attaches directly to the
bus, using a T-connector. Both types of coaxial bus cables require terminating resistors placed
at each end of the cable. Without terminators, signals are reflected back into the medium from
the end of the bus cable, causing each transmission to collide with itself.
The figure below shows how computers are attached to the bus cable on 10Base-5 and
10Base-2 networks.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 bus
Because the 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 specifications require networks to use the physical bus
topology, these implementations present a number of limitations, including the following:
● A cable or connection problem anywhere on the network’s bus is likely to cause problems for
all users. For instance, if a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks the bus by removing
his or her workstation’s T-connector, the users on that cable segment lose access to the
network, as shown in the animation below.
● There is no central location from where users can be added to or removed from the bus
without disrupting the entire network. Adding a new user to a 10Base-2 cable requires that the
cable be cut to insert a new T-connector. If a workstation on a 10Base-5 network must be
moved more than 40 m from the cable, the bus cable must be moved to accommodate that
workstation.
If a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks the bus by removing his or her workstation’s T-connector, the users on
that cable segment lose access to the network.
Lesson Objectives
The IEEE addressed the implementation and maintenance difficulties of Ethernet bus
topologies with specifications for Ethernet 10Base-T. The 10Base-T designation not only
includes the use of inexpensive, unshielded twisted-pair cabling (which is similar to telephone
wire), but it also specifies the use of a star topology which makes both the implementation and
maintenance of Ethernet 10Base-T networks significantly easier compared to 10Base-2 and
10Base-5. In addition, because 10Base-T uses two wire pairs, one for transmitting data and
one for receiving data, 10Base-T makes full-duplex operation possible. 10Base-2 and 10Base-
5, on the other hand, allow only half-duplex operation. The definitive advantages of 10Base-T
over coaxial-based networks have made it the most widely implemented Ethernet standard.
10Base-T networks use Category 3, or higher, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable. UTP
cabling categories are defined in the Electronic Industry Association and Telecommunications
Industry Association (EIA/TIA) 568 cabling standards, which currently include 5 categories for
UTP cable. Categories are distinguished by the quality of the cable, or the speed at which
reliable communication can take place. In appearance, all UTP cables look similar to
telephone wire. The figure below shows a Category 5 UTP cable.
The table below lists all five UTP cabling categories and their associated performance
standards:
Category 4 (cat 4) Rated to 20MHz Used for 10Base-T and Token Ring.
On 10Base-T networks each computer is attached to a central hub using UTP cables over
distances up to 100 m (328 ft) long. When the maximum 100 m distance is used, the cable
running from the wall plate to the cable closet should be no longer than 90 m, leaving 10 m for
the connection between the computer and the wall plate and for the patch cables used in the
wiring closet. Computers are attached to the UTP cable by an RJ-45 style connector, shown in
the figure below.
The hubs at the center of a 10Base-T network are actually multiport repeaters. A signal from
one station enters the hub on one port and is repeated on all the other hub ports as illustrated
in the figure below.
Because 10Base-T networks use a star topology with hubs at the center, 10Base-T networks
provide several advantages over 10Base-5 and 10Base-2.
1. The hubs repeat only valid signals, so if there is a problem on a cable, it affects only the
workstation directly attached to the cable, as shown in the animation below.
2. With a hub, administrators can add or remove computers from the network without
disrupting other computers.
3. On 10Base-T networks, both hubs and NICs show whether a connection is active or not
by using green LEDs that give users live feedback about the status of the connection.
This makes troubleshooting a 10Base-T network much simpler than troubleshooting
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
10Base-FL
Lesson Objective
The main difference between 10Base-T and 10Base-FL is 10Base-FL's use of optical fiber
cable instead of UTP. Fiber optic cabling is most commonly used to connect hubs to other
hubs. The fiber used is multimode 62.5/125 fiber. Each fiber connects to
networking equipment using a bayonet-type connector known as an ST connector.
Optical fiber cable (specifically, the transmitters and receivers designed to work with fiber) is
more expensive than UTP cable. However, optical fiber cable can span much greater
distances than UTP cable. Thus, on 10Base-FL networks, full-duplex links between hubs can
be up to 2,000 m (about 6,560 ft). Moreover, optical fiber cable can potentially support future
data transmission rates of several hundreds of megabits per second.
Lesson Objectives
In addition to the Ethernet specifications described in the previous lessons, there are a number
of general guidelines that must be followed when implementing a 10Mbps Ethernet LAN.
As Ethernet signals travel across the wire, they diminish in strength until they are no longer
recognizable as valid data transmissions. Attenuation is the technical term
used to describe this natural degradation in signal quality as signals travel across the network
medium. Even fiber optic transmissions are affected by attenuation. Repeaters serve to restore
data signals to their original strength so that they may be heard at distances that would
otherwise not be possible. The two following figures (on this page and the next) illustrate the
diminutive effect of attenuation, as well as the restorative effect of Ethernet repeaters.
On 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks, repeaters are inserted between the individual cable
segments, chaining the cables together. The resulting topology is shown in the figure below.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 Ethernet segments that are connected using repeaters form a single
collision domain. Inside a collision domain, all stations must contend for access to the shared
medium. Collision domains are bounded by switches and routers. For networks that have a
router or a switch, each of the network segments that connect to a switch or router port belong
to their own collision domain.
Inside a single collision domain, the following simple configuration rules apply:
● There cannot be more than five cable segments and four repeaters between any two
stations in a collision domain.
● Only three of these segments can be multistation segments (e.g., 10Base-2 or 10Base-
5). The last two segments must connect only a station to a hub or a hub to a hub.
The same rules apply to 10Base-T networks; there can be no more than four 10Base-T
repeater hubs between any two stations on the network. A typical configuration is shown in the
figure below. All the servers and workstations in this figure are in the same collision domain,
sharing the same half-duplex transmission medium.
Even though there are six hubs in the network in the figure above, the 5-4-3 rule is not violated
because there are no paths between stations in the network that involve more than three
repeater hops.
10Base-FL-Specific Rules
In addition to following the 5-4-3 rule described above, 10Base-FL networks must be built
according to the rules listed below:
● With four repeaters and five cable segments, 10Base-FL segments must not exceed
500 m (1,640 ft).
● With three repeaters and four cable segments, 10Base-FL segments must not exceed
1,000 m (3,280 ft).
● With two repeaters and three cable segments, 10Base-FL segments can be up to 2,000
m (6,561ft).
Module Description
Fast Ethernet operates at a data transfer speed of 100Mbps. Lesson 8.1 explains that because
of upward trends in network growth, Fast Ethernet will soon surpass 10Mbps Ethernet in sales.
Lesson 8.2 discusses some of the basic differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast
Ethernet operations. Lessons 8.2 and 8.3 cover Ethernet types 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX.
Lesson 8.4 includes a comprehensive discussion of Fast Ethernet implementation guidelines,
and Lesson 8.5 concludes this module by describing how Fast Ethernet's auto-negotiation
feature enables 10/100Mbps devices to automatically configure themselves for either 10Mbps
or 100Mbps operation.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objective
In the early 1990s, it is clear that 10Mbps Ethernet implementations are not fast enough for
many larger networks. Network backbones, in particular, are becoming clogged with traffic.
While other high-speed LAN technologies, such as FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
exist, they represent, for most companies, a significant challenge to implement and maintain,
and, for many companies, technologies such as FDDI and ATM are simply too expensive. In
1995, however, with the IEEE publication of the 100Mbps Fast Ethernet specification,
companies soon had a relatively inexpensive way to significantly increase the speed of their
high-traffic links.
With Fast Ethernet, organizations can install high-speed LAN segments at a very reasonable
cost. And because it uses the same basic technology as 10Mbps Ethernet, Fast Ethernet
equipment is easy to install and manage.
As shown in the figure below, Fast Ethernet will soon become the most widely used Ethernet
implementation, with sales of 100Mbps network interface cards expected to surpass sales of
10Mbps cards in 1998. Many network interface cards already support both 10Mbps and
100Mbps transmission rates and the prices of Fast Ethernet hub and switch ports are dropping
rapidly.
IDC World-wide adapter market forecast. Source: IDC
Lesson Objective
● Identify the similarities and differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
In almost all respects, Fast Ethernet is simply Ethernet scaled by a factor of ten. Like Ethernet,
Fast Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD algorithm to control access to a shared broadcast medium.
Ethernet frame types are also the same 10Mbps and Fast Ethernet networks. With Fast
Ethernet, the interframe gap is still 96 bit times, but because transmission speeds are
multiplied by ten, the interframe gap is only 960 ns instead of 9.6 µs.
The major difference between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet is that the maximum
diameter of Fast Ethernet networks is smaller than the maximum diameter of 10Mbps Ethernet
networks. On Fast Ethernet networks, stations must still be able to detect collisions within the
first 512 bits transmitted, yet since the data transmission rate is ten times as fast, stations on
an Ethernet network must be ten times as close in order to detect collisions within the same
number of bit times as for 10Mbps. 10Mbps maximum distance of 2500 m between stations is
reduced to 250 m for Fast Ethernet. Another difference between the two technologies is that
on Fast Ethernet networks, there can be only one or possibly two repeaters or hubs between
transmitting stations.
Lesson Objective
Like 10Base-T, 100Base-TX provides separate transmit and receive channels, so full-duplex
operation is possible. Servers and other high-performance network stations attached using
100Base-TX can transmit at 100Mbps and receive at 100Mbps at the same time, effectively
boosting the bandwidth on the link to 200Mbps. However, 100Base-TX requires Category 5
cable, so if an organization wants to upgrade a 10Mbps Ethernet network
using Category 3 cable to Fast Ethernet, it must either recable or implement a 100Base-T4
network. A 100Base-T4 network enables an organization to run Fast Ethernet over Category 3
or 4 cables; however, all four wire pairs are required. 100Base-T4 supports only half-duplex
operation, and 100Base-T4 equipment is much less common than 100Base-TX equipment.
Lesson Objective
The specification for Fast Ethernet over optical fiber cable is known as 100Base-FX. Like
10Base-FL, 100Base-FX uses two strands of multimode 62.5/125 fiber. The connectors can be
ST connectors, which are also used on 10Base-FL networks, but more commonly, the cheaper
SC connector is used. The SC connector is keyed to reduce the risk of accidentally swapping
the transmit and receive fibers.
1. Optical fiber cable spans greater distances than UTP cable, up to 2,000 m (6,561 ft) is
possible on full-duplex links.
2. Optical fiber cable can support much higher bandwidths than UTP cable, so if an
organization anticipates upgrading to an even faster LAN technology in the future, it
might install optical fiber cable.
Lesson Objectives
At 100Mbps, collisions must be detected within 5.12 µs. If stations are too far apart or have too
many repeaters between them, the timing requirements cannot be met. Both simple and
advanced configuration rules can be used to verify that a particular Fast Ethernet network
meets configuration requirements.
Because Class II hubs are faster, two Class II hubs are allowed between stations in a single
collision domain, but only one Class I hub is permitted.
● With a Class I hub, you can have a maximum distance between any two stations on the
repeated segment of 200 m using UTP cable and of 272 m using fiber optic cable. If
you combine UTP cable and fiber optic cable, you can have 100 m of UTP and 160 m
of fiber.
● With one Class II hub, the maximum distance using UTP is unchanged since no UTP
segment can exceed 100 m. The maximum distance increases to 320 m when fiber is
used because the Class II hub adds less latency than the Class I hub.
● With two Class II hubs, you can have 205 m of UTP cable (e.g., two 100 m segments
and a 5 m segment between the hubs). The maximum distance using fiber is 228 m.
The maximum distance using fiber and UTP is 216 m (two UTP segments of 100 m and
5 m, plus one 111 m fiber segment).
The advanced configuration rules rely on calculating the exact delay between any two stations
in the network, based on the exact specifications for network interface cards, network cables
and hubs. The delay between two stations in a network can be calculated using the following
formula:
To enable a station at one end of the network to detect a collision with a station at the other
end, the following inequality must hold true:
To comply with the Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines, you must ensure that this
requirement is fulfilled between any two stations in the network. To perform this calculation, fill
in the delay values in the center column in Table 8-2 with the actual values that apply to your
network. Sample values are given in the right column.
While performing the exact calculation of round-trip delays using the exact specifications of
network adapters, cable and hubs used in the network may in some instances allow you to go
beyond the distances specified in the simple configuration rules, this approach cannot in
general be recommended because it adds a significant extra administrative burden to network
maintenance. Every time a network component or cable is exchanged for another, you must
repeat the calculations above to verify that the maximum delay is still within the specified limits.
Lesson Objective
The Fast Ethernet specification defines a process called auto-negotiation that enables
Ethernet devices to exchange information about their capabilities, such as the speed and
duplex mode at which they operate. Auto-negotiation also provides a method that enables
network administrators to:
Perhaps the most significant benefit of auto-negotiation is that it allows network administrators
the ability to incrementally upgrade their network hardware easily, without having to perform
manual configurations for each device. For example, a company that cannot afford to upgrade
their entire network all at once can pursue an incremental migration by purchasing 10/100
NICs for all new machines, and perhaps a 10/100 hub or switch as well, and then upgrading
the NICs of older machines over a period of time. Using auto-negotiation, the 10/100 hub will
automatically configure itself to achieve the highest possible performance for the devices
attached to it.
Auto-negotiation advertises a device's abilities by encoding a 16-bit data packet, called a link
code word (LCW), within a burst of 17 to 33 link pulses, called a fast link pulse (FLP) burst.
FLP bursts have an approximate duration of 2 µs and are transmitted in 16.8 µs intervals (the
same interval as for the normal link pulses used by 10Base-T and 10Base-FL). The link code
word contains two fields (called the selector field and the technology ability field), which
together serve to identify a device's capabilities.
It may seem that because the fast link pulse and the normal link pulse use the same interval at
the same frequency, older devices may not be compatible with auto-negotiation. This is,
however, not the case. For example, a 10Base-T device that does not have auto-negotiation
capabilities sees fast link pulse bursts simply as a link test signal. A 10Base-T device will
respond to the fast link pulse burst with its usual normal link pulse signal. At the other end of
the link, a 10/100-capable device will recognize normal link pulse and choose 10Mbps mode
operation.
Auto-negotiation attempts to find the greatest common denominator for the two devices on the
link in the following order of preference:
1. 100Base-TX full-duplex
2. 100Base-T4
3. 100Base-TX
4. 10Base-T full-duplex
5. 10Base-T half-duplex
Once the greatest common denominator of settings is determined, each device equipped with
auto-negotiation will configure itself automatically. In certain cases where automatic
configurations are not desired, auto-negotiation provides a way for these settings to be
overridden manually.
Module Description
The first two lessons in this module identify the basic operations of Gigabit Ethernet and some
of the reasons that Gigabit Ethernet is needed in the marketplace. Lesson 9.3 covers Gigabit
Ethernet implementation strategies, and also introduces a device new to Ethernet technology,
the buffered distributor. Lesson 9.4 discusses Gigabit Ethernet's use of the CSMA/CD
algorithm, and Lesson 9.5 concludes the module by identifying certain issues that network
administrators must consider when implementing first-generation Gigabit Ethernet equipment.
Module Objectives
Lesson Objective
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fast Ethernet
is driven by several factors.
Compared to the alternative solutions for high speed networking, such as ATM and FDDI,
Gigabit Ethernet offers the advantage of using protocols directly compatible with currently
implemented Ethernet standards, making lower-cost, incremental migrations from Ethernet
and Fast Ethernet possible.
Lesson Objectives
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fast Ethernet
is driven by several factors.
● The transmission speed for Gigabit Ethernet is 1,000Mbps – 100 times that of Ethernet.
● The IEEE specification for Gigabit Ethernet will be IEEE 802.3z.
● Gigabit Ethernet uses the 802.3 Ethernet frame format.
● Gigabit Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method with support for one repeater per
collision domain.
● At the MAC layer, Gigabit Ethernet is equivalent to Fast Ethernet scaled by a factor of
ten.
● The upcoming IEEE 802.3z standard is expected to define Gigabit Ethernet running
over multimode fiber and, over short distances, on shielded copper wire.
● A separate standards effort (IEEE working group 802.3ab) will specify Gigabit Ethernet
operation for Cat 5 UTP cabling over distances up to 100 m.
Because Fast Ethernet's success can be attributed largely to its compatibility with 10Mbps
Ethernet, leaving unchanged as much of the original Ethernet specification as possible is a
core strategy for making Gigabit Ethernet successful as well.
The IEEE Standards Board expects to achieve final ratification of the 802.3z standard in either
June or September 1998. However, since many vendors are developing products concurrently
with the standardization effort, many Gigabit Ethernet products are currently available.
International Data Corporation (IDC), a commonly referenced research firm, expects the value
of the market for Gigabit Ethernet products to exceed USD 1 billion by the year 2000.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Gigabit Ethernet Defined (Continued)
1000Base-CX
1000Base-CX designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over twinax, a 150-Ohm balanced,
shielded, specialty cable. 1000Base-CX's distance limitation of up to only 25 m makes
1000Base-CX best suited for interconnecting switching closets, server farms and power
workgroups. 1000Base-CX supports two kinds of connectors: standard 9-pin D connectors
(below) and HSSC (High Speed Serial Card) connectors, also referred to as 8-pin Fibre
Channel Type 2 connectors (also below).
HSSC/8-pin Fibre Channel Type 2 Connector
1000Base-T
1000Base-T designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over Category 5 UTP cable. Under the
IEEE 802.3ab standard, 1000Base-T connections can run up to 100 m. The standard for
1000Base-T comprises the second phase of the Gigabit Ethernet standards process and falls
under the purview of the IEEE 802.3ab task force. 1000Base-T will be designed to take
advantage of existing UTP cable already widely deployed for Ethernet and Fast Ethernet.
The IEEE Standards Board does not expect to ratify the 1000Base-T standard until early 1999.
To accommodate the use of cost-effective UTP cabling, IEEE 802.3z, which is designed
primarily for fiber cabling, will specify a way to use encoding schemes other than the Fiber
Channel encoding scheme used by 1000Base-SX, -LX, and -CX.
The table below summarizes Gigabit Ethernet media types and their distance limitations.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of Gigabit Ethernet specifications.
Lesson Objectives
For the most part, Gigabit Ethernet implementation scenarios will mirror those for Fast
Ethernet. As the general availability of Gigabit Ethernet products increases, the most likely
targets for Gigabit Ethernet implementation will be links between routers, switches, hubs,
repeaters and servers. Early implementations of Gigabit Ethernet may, however, include
lesser-risk, non-mission-critical targets such as the server-to-router and server-to-switch
connections of power workgroups.
Due to the inherent risk of any first generation technology, rather than jeopardizing mission-
critical applications, many network managers will initially implement Gigabit Ethernet in lower-
risk segments of the network, where, at the same time, they will be able to clearly measure a
return on investment. Once companies have been able to deploy Gigabit Ethernet successfully
on a limited scale, expanding the implementation of Gigabit Ethernet to mission-critical
backbones, server links and wiring closets will become more natural.
The buffered distributor is a full-duplex, multiport, hub-like device that interconnects two or
more Ethernet links operating at 1000Mbps. Like a standard repeater, the buffered distributor
forwards all incoming packets to all connected links (except the original incoming link) creating
a shared broadcast domain, comparable to an Ethernet collision domain. Unlike a standard
repeater, the buffered distributor is permitted to buffer one or more incoming frames on each
link before forwarding them, thus avoiding collisions.
Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interactive exercise allows you to apply
your knowledge of migration and rollout strategies.
Lesson Objectives
Depending upon the market success of the buffered distributor, half-duplex Gigabit Ethernet
devices may not ever be manufactured. Even so, the Gigabit Ethernet standard has preserved
the CSMA/CD algorithm so that Gigabit Ethernet half-duplex operation is at least possible.
Gigabit Ethernet, in order to support a distance limitation comparable to Fast Ethernet (100 m
from a repeating hub to each device), extends the minimum CSMA/CD carrier event time from
64 bytes to 512 bytes. For packets shorter than 512 bytes, Gigabit Ethernet adds a non-data
carrier extension to the end of the packet transmission, allowing stations to occupy the wire
long enough to detect collisions without modifying the 802.3 frame structure. The minimum
Ethernet frame length of 64 bytes remains the same.
Packet Bursting
For small packets, extending minimum carrier event time decreases the ratio of data to non-
data by as much as eight. For example, a 64-byte frame would need to be extended with a
448-byte-size non-data carrier signal. To offset the inefficiency of transmitting small packets
individually, Gigabit Ethernet will allow servers, switches and other devices to use a method
called packet bursting to send multiple small packets in a single transmission event. By
replacing non-data carrier extensions with additional packets, packet bursting increases the
ratio of data to non-data for each transmission, effectively increasing the overall speed of the
network by utilizing bandwidth more efficiently.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Considerations for Early Adoption
Lesson Objective
Compatibility
Some vendors are already shipping Gigabit Ethernet devices even though the 802.3z standard
is not yet finalized. Despite the fact that exhibits at the Fall 1997 Networld+Interop in Atlanta
demonstrated interoperability between Gigabit Ethernet equipment from different vendors,
early adopters of Gigabit Ethernet technology run a slight risk that the equipment they buy may
not conform to the final standard.
Pricing
Pricing for first generation Gigabit Ethernet devices may present a barrier to entry for many
companies. Currently, it is possible to purchase Fast Ethernet NICs, for example, for under
USD 100, and Fast Ethernet switches for under USD 200 per port. Initially, Gigabit Ethernet
NICs may be priced as high as USD 1700, and Gigabit Ethernet switches will likely be priced
between USD 2000 and USD 4000 per port. Over the past two years, however, Fast Ethernet
switches have decreased in price approximately 36%. Gigabit Ethernet components are
expected to follow a similar trend.
Module Description
This section describes Ethernet's relationship to major networking technologies, such as
Token Ring, FDDI and ATM, that either provide alternatives to or work in conjunction with
Ethernet.
Module Objectives
● Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies such as
Token Ring, ATM and FDDI
● Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison to these technologies
Lesson Objective
As an Open Systems technology, Ethernet helps to illustrate the basic concepts of modularity
and hierarchy from which the OSI reference model was born. The purpose of this module, and
Module 11, is to deepen your understanding of the place Ethernet occupies in the overall
landscape of computer networking. Having a clear understanding of the relationship between
Ethernet and other popular technologies will help you to more quickly understand what your
customers are saying, more intelligently address their concerns and more competently provide
solutions to their problems.
If you were told that Company X has already implemented FDDI and ATM, and has decided
against using Frame Relay, does that mean Company X has also decided against using
Ethernet? Or to use a slightly different situation, if you know that Company Y uses Token Ring
in their order processing center, and they ask you about upgrading the engineering
department's network to accommodate a new document imaging and workflow application, is it
reasonable that they should consider using Ethernet? (Specific answers for each of these
questions appear in Lesson 10.3.)
Lesson Objectives
● Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies such as
Token Ring, ATM and FDDI
● Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison to these technologies
Token Ring
IBM first adopted Token Ring technology as a core networking strategy in the early 1980s.
Today, many IBM-based, distributed networking solutions are implemented on Token Ring
networks. Compared to Ethernet's approximately 85% market share, only 10% of total network
components sold in 1997 were Token Ring. Compared to Token Ring, the reasons for
Ethernet's success include:
1. Ethernet networking is less complex than Token Ring and easier to troubleshoot.
2. Ethernet components are simpler relatively and, thus, less expensive to manufacture.
3. Even though token passing uses bandwidth more efficiently than the contention method
used by Ethernet, overall Ethernet performance has generally kept pace with Token
Ring and, with the introduction of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, has outpaced
Token Ring.
Token Ring controls access to the physical medium by passing a control frame from one
computer to the next. Only the computer possessing the control frame has the right to send
data. Token Ring generally works best for networks with a large number of workstations that
must constantly exchange data with a centrally located resource such as a distributed
database or mainframe application.
In contrast, Ethernet's contention method works best on networks that transmit large amounts
of data intermittently. Such situations would include engineering groups using CAD/CAM
applications and three-dimensional modeling tools, or a customer service department that
uses workflow and document imaging to process customer complaints and access customer
account information.
Companies do not, however, always have to choose to implement only Token Ring or only
Ethernet throughout the enterprise. As is often the case, Ethernet segments can be connected
to existing Token Ring networks (as shown in the figure below) using a router that serves to
bridge the two networks together.
Token Ring network connected to an Ethernet network using a router.
In the future, Token Ring's market share will likely continue to decrease. Ethernet's recent
advances in speed have made the slim performance advantages of Token Ring over 10Mbps
Ethernet virtually disappear.
FDDI
Companies usually implement FDDI as a high-speed, shared backbone connecting servers,
switches, bridges and routers. FDDI operates at 100Mbps and uses a token passing access
control method on fiber optic cabling configured as a dual ring (the second ring serves a
backup in case the primary ring is broken). An Ethernet hub or switch, equipped with one or
more FDDI interfaces, connects Ethernet workstations to the FDDI backbone. The figure below
illustrates a typical FDDI configuration.
FDDI is one of the most expensive networking solutions to implement. Consequently, with the
introduction of Ethernet switches, 100Base-T and 100VG AnyLAN, most network managers
consider 100Mbps Ethernet backbones viable and economical alternatives to FDDI. In general,
the economic advantages of 100Mbps Ethernet over FDDI are two-fold:
For companies interested in migrating to fiber optic cable for either security or future bandwidth
needs, Ethernet 100Base-FX and Gigabit Ethernet also provide cost-effective solutions
compared to FDDI. The figure below shows the same basic network configuration used in the
figure above, but uses switched Ethernet instead of FDDI on the backbone.
Network configuration using switched Fast Ethernet in place of the FDDI ring shown in the previous figure.
Network engineers should keep in mind that it takes only ten 10Mbps Ethernet clients
transmitting files at the same time to reach FDDI's 100Mbps maximum throughput on a shared
ring. Switched Ethernet configurations, however, can provide multiple 100Mbps pipelines by
routing each packet only to the station addressed, thus allowing multiple stations to transmit
and receive simultaneously. Though switched FDDI solutions are available, in general FDDI
switches have proven less efficient than Ethernet switches, and on average cost up to eight
times more per port.
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is both a LAN and a WAN technology. Much of the
original lure of ATM was its potential to become a single, widely supported protocol for wide
area networking, backbone connectivity and workstation connectivity as well. Recently,
however, even ardent supporters of ATM have given up hope for success against Ethernet at
the workstation. In general, ATM has failed to achieve widespread adoption for three reasons:
1. Lack of standards
2. High price
3. Complexity
ATM uses fixed-sized packets (53 bytes) called cells and provides data transfer rates from
25Mbps to 2400Mbps (OC-3 = 155Mbps and OC-12 = 622Mbps). Using standard-sized cells
enables ATM to provide constant, high-speed data streams that audio, video and imaging
applications require. ATM can be used with a variety of transmission media including twisted-
pair and fiber optic cable. The figure below depicts a network configuration that uses ATM on
the backbone.
Network configuration using ATM for both backbone and WAN connectivity.
Most Ethernet component manufacturers will market Gigabit Ethernet as an alternative to ATM
backbones. In the past, network managers have looked to ATM as the only reliable way to
achieve Quality-of-Service (QoS) grade connectivity for applications such as real-time
databases, medical imaging and video conferencing. Gigabit Ethernet will provide QoS
connectivity by working in combination with upper-layer QoS protocols such as RSVP and
802.1Q. QoS protocols enable individual packets to be prioritized so that high-priority, time-
sensitive data streams, like those required for real-time video, are not interrupted by lower-
priority, non-time-sensitive applications, such as e-mail.
If Gigabit Ethernet becomes successful as quickly as Fast Ethernet has, the future of ATM will
likely remain at the WAN level of connectivity. Compared to ATM, Gigabit Ethernet promises to
be simpler to implement, more cost-effective and more compatible with existing LANs.
Summary
For workstation-level interconnectivity, Ethernet and Token Ring should generally be thought
of as competitors. FDDI and ATM, on the other hand, have in the past filled particular needs
that Ethernet running at 10Mbps could not. With the advent of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit
Ethernet, however, Ethernet technology can now meet the bandwidth needs of high-traffic
backbones and in many instances compete directly with FDDI and ATM solutions. Currently,
Ethernet is not often thought of as a WAN technology. Though Ethernet-based satellite
communications systems have been researched, solutions like Frame Relay and ATM running
over public, telecommunications networks will continue for some time to be the WAN
technologies of choice for linking local, Ethernet-based networks.
Lesson Objective
In reference to the questions posed at the end of Lesson 10.1, Company X who has chosen to
implement ATM as opposed to Frame Relay for wide area connectivity, and who has
implemented FDDI on their backbone, must still choose a physical-layer technology to link
individual workstations to the backbone. More often than not, their preferred workstation-level
connection strategy will be Ethernet. Later on, as Company X grows and its backbone
becomes saturated with traffic, extending Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet solutions to the
backbone, as opposed to implementing ATM or a new switched FDDI solution, will likely be the
most cost-effective strategy for Company X to adopt.
Module Description
This section explains Ethernet's practical relationship to the technologies it serves. Lesson
11.1 returns to a consideration of the OSI layer and Ethernet's role in the OSI reference model.
Lesson 11.2 completes the course with a consideration of Ethernet as an Open Systems
technology.
Module Objectives
● Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and indirectly
● Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specific and popular
network protocols
Lesson Objective
● Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and indirectly
Module 10 focused on Ethernet's relationship to technologies that operate at OSI layers 1 and
2, the same layers at which Ethernet operates. This module focuses on Ethernet's relationship
to network technologies that operate at OSI layers 3 and above. The table below reproduces
the OSI model and categorizes a number of example technologies according to the OSI layer
services they provide. Clarifying Ethernet's relationship to upper-layer protocols will help you to
quickly understand many practical, real-world situations.
2 – Data Link Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring, ATM
Lesson Objective
● Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specific popular network
protocols
At the network layer, however, it is not only possible, but in many cases advantageous, to
implement multiple protocols and run them at the same time. For example, most Novell
NetWare* networks use a protocol called IPX/SPX at the network layer and above. Microsoft
networks, on the other hand use TCP/IP and/or NetBEUI. Often times, Windows 95*
workstations are configured to handle both Novell IPX/SPX packets and Microsoft TCP/IP
packets. This allows individual Windows 95* stations to establish client-server connections
with NetWare* servers (over IPX/SPX) and peer-to-peer connections to other Windows 95*
workstations (over TCP/IP) at the same time.
Of course, the answer is yes. In the example above, the terms Novell network and Microsoft
network refer only to layer 3 networking services and higher. Ethernet, in relationship to each
networking protocol, works only at layers 1 and 2 to provide the physical transportation of data
packets from one network client to another. At layer 3, the software programs Client for Novell
Networks and Client for Microsoft Networks run simultaneously on each computer and accept
data packets from the data link layer and processes packets according to the rules of the layer
3 protocol the client supports. When the data field of the Ethernet frame includes a TCP/IP
packet, the TCP/IP packet is handled by the Microsoft client software. When the data field of
the Ethernet frame includes an IPX/SPX packet, the IPX/SPX packet is handled by the Novell
client software.
Upper-layer protocols are covered in more detail in other courses. This lesson attempts merely
to reinforce the fact that by limiting Ethernet operations to a clearly defined network space,
Ethernet is capable of supporting a wide range of specific networking technologies. Ethernet
can not only support networks running both Novell and Microsoft networking protocols
simultaneously, but also other combinations of network layer protocols as well.