Page i

0U7RPSNLQVLVEDFN
The mild-mannered bank clerk with the short attention span and vivid
imagination has inspired, charmed and inIormed young and old alike since the
publication oI Mr Tompkins in Paperback (by George Gamow) in 1965. He
is now back in a new set oI adventures exploring the extreme edges oI the
universe the smallest, the largest, the Iastest, the Iarthest. Through his
experiences and his dreams, you are there at Mr Tompkins's shoulder
watching and taking part in the merry dance oI cosmic mysteries: Einstein's
relativity and bizarre eIIects near the speed oI light, the birth and death oI the
universe, black holes, quarks, space warps and antimatter, the Iuzzy world oI
the quantum, the ultimate demolition derby oI atom smashers, and that ultimate
cosmic mystery oI all . . . love.
II you read it Ior the physics, you'll Iind a charming tale oI adventure and
romance. II you read it Ior the story, you'll Iind the hottest, latest, weirdest and
most wonderIul bits oI physics as a backdrop all explained in the clearest
possible way. Whichever way you approach it, you are in Ior an eye-opening
treat.
RUSSELL STANNARD has established a reputation as one oI the most giIted
popularisers oI science through numerous media appearances and projects,
and in particular Ior his Uncle Albert Trilogy (The Time ana Space of Uncle
Albert, Black Holes ana Uncle Albert, and Uncle Albert ana the Quantum
Quest), which covers the work oI Albert Einstein and quantum theory in a way
that is accessible to children oI 11. These books have enjoyed much success
and critical acclaim, being translated into 15 languages, shortlisted Ior the
RhonePoulenc non-Iiction Book Prizes, the Whitbread Children's Novel oI
the Year, and the American Science Writing Award.
GEORGE GAMOW (1904 to 1968) was not only one oI the most inIluential
physicists oI the twentieth century (one oI the Iounders oI the Big Bang theory)
but was also a master at science popularisation. OI his many popular books,
the best known is Mr Tompkins in Paperback (1965).

Page iii
7KH1(::RUOGRI0U7RPSNLQV
George Gamow's classic Mr Tompkins in Paperback
Iully revised and updated by Russell Stannard
Illustrated by Michael Edwards

Page iv
PUBLISHED BY CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS (VIRTUAL
PUBLISHING) FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE PRESS SYNDICATE
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU www.cup.cam.ac.uk
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA www.cup.org
10 StamIord Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Cambridge University Press 1999
This edition Cambridge University Press (Virtual Publishing) 2001
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
oI relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction oI any part may
take place without the written permission oI Cambridge University Press.
First published 1999
Reprinted 2000
A revised and updated edition by Russell Stannard oI 0U7RPSNLQVLQ
3DSHUEDFN Cambridge University Press 1965, 1993
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
7\SHIDFH Trump Mediaeval 9.5/15pt 6\VWHP QuarkXPress |DS|
$FDWDORJXHUHFRUGIRUWKLVERRNLVDYDLODEOHIURPWKH%ULWLVK/LEUDU\
/LEUDU\RI&RQJUHVV&DWDORJXLQJLQ3XEOLFDWLRQGDWD
Stannard, Russell.
The NEW World oI Mr. Tompkins: George Gamow's classic Mr. Tompkins in
Paperback/Iully revised and updated by Russell Stannard.
p. cm.
ISBN 0521630096
I. Physics. I Gamow, George, 1904
1968. Mr Tompkins in Paperback. II. Title.
QC71.S775 1999
539-dc21 98-50379 CIP
ISBN: 0 521 63009 6 hardback
eISBN 0 521 63009 6 virtual (netLibrary Edition)
&RQWHQWV
Reviser's Foreword
Gamow's PreIace to 0U7RPSNLQVLQ3DSHUEDFN
1
City Speed Limit
2
The ProIessor's Lecture on Relativity Which Caused Mr Tompkins's Dream
3
Mr Tompkins Takes a Holiday
4
The Notes oI the ProIessor's Lecture on Curved Space
5
Mr Tompkins Visits a Closed Universe
6
Cosmic Opera
7
Black Holes, Heat Death, and Blow Torch
8
Quantum Snooker
9
The Quantum SaIari
10
Maxwell's Demon
11
The Merry Tribe oI Electrons
11 1/2
The Remainder oI the Previous Lecture through Which Mr Tompkins Dozed
12
Inside the Nucleus

13
The Woodcarver
14
Holes in Nothing
15
Visiting the 'Atom Smasher'
16
The ProIessor's Last Lecture
17
Epilogue
Glossary

Page vii
5HYLVHUV)RUHZRUG
There cannot be many physicists who have not at one time or other read the
Mr Tompkins adventures. Although originally intended Ior the layperson,
Gamow's classic introduction to modern physics has had enduring, universal
appeal. I myselI have always regarded Mr Tompkins with the greatest
aIIection. I was thereIore delighted to be asked to update the book.
A new version was clearly long overdue, so much having happened in the 30
years since the last revision, especially in the Iields oI cosmology and high
energy nuclear physics. But on re-reading the book, it struck me that it was not
only the physics that needed attention.
For example, the current output Irom Hollywood could hardly be regarded as
'inIinite romances between popular stars'. Again, ought one to be introducing
quantum theory by reIerence to a tiger shoot, given our modern-day concern
Ior endangered species? And what oI 'pouting' Maud, the proIessor's
daughter, 'engulIed in 9RJXH', wanting 'a darling mink coat', and told to 'run
along, girlie' at the mere mention oI physics. This hardly strikes the right note at
a time when strenuous eIIorts are being made to persuade girls to study
physics.
Then there are problems with the plot. While Gamow deserves credit Ior the
innovative way he introduced the physics through a story, the actual storyline
has always had its weaknesses. For instance, Mr Tompkins repeatedly learns
new physics Irom his dreams beIore he has had any chance oI being exposed
to such ideas (even subliminally) through real liIe situations involving the
proIessor's lectures or

Page viii
conversations. Or take the case oI his holiday at the seaside. He Ialls asleep in
the train and dreams that the proIessor is accompanying him on his journey. It
later turns out that the proIessor actually is on holiday with him and Mr
Tompkins is IearIul that he will remember what a Iool he made oI himselI on
the train in his dream?!
At times the physics explanations are not as clear as they might have been. For
instance, in dealing with the relativistic loss oI simultaneity Ior events occurring
in diIIerent locations, a situation is described where observers in two
spacecraIt are to compare results. But instead oI adopting the viewpoint oI one
oI these two Irames oI reIerence, the problem is addressed Irom a third, and
unacknowledged, Irame in which both craIt are moving. Likewise, the account
given oI the shooting oI the station master, while the porter was apparently
reading a paper at the other end oI the platIorm, does not in Iact establish the
porter's innocence as is claimed. (The description would need to rule out
the possibility oI the porter Iiring the gun beIore sitting down to read the
paper.)
There is the question oI what to do with the 'cosmic opera'. The idea oI such a
work ever being staged at Covent Garden, was, oI course, always IarIetched.
But now we are Iaced with the added problem that the subject oI the opera
the rivalry between the Big Bang theory and the Steady State theory can
hardly be regarded as a live issue today, the experimental evidence having
come down heavily in Iavour oI the Iormer. And yet the exclusion oI this
ingenious, joyIul interlude would be a great loss.
Another problem concerns the illustrations. 0U7RPSNLQVLQ3DSHUEDFN was
partly illustrated by John Hookham, and partly by Gamow himselI. In order to
describe the latest developments in physics, Iurther illustrations would be
required, so necessitating yet a third artist. Should one settle Ior the resulting
unsatisIactory clash oI styles, or adopt a completely Iresh approach?
In the light oI these various considerations, a decision had to be made: I could
content myselI with a minimal rewrite in which I simply patched up the physics
and turned a blind eye to all the other

Page ix
weaknesses. Alternatively, I could grasp the nettle and go Ior a thorough
reworking.
I decided on the latter. All the chapters needed work doing on them. Chapters
7, 15, 16 and 17 are entirely new. I decided it would also be helpIul to add a
glossary. The detailed changes I proposed met with the approval oI the
Gamow Iamily, the publishers and their panel oI advisors with the notable
exception oI one consultant who was oI the opinion that the text should not in
any way be touched. This dissenting view was a signal that I was not going to
be able to please everyone! Clearly there will always be those who would
rather stay with the original which is Iair enough.
But as Iar as this version is concerned, it is primarily aimed at those who have
yet to make the acquaintance oI Mr Tompkins. While trying to remain true to
the spirit and approach oI Gamow's original, it aims to inspire and meet the
needs oI the next generation oI readers. As such, I would like to think that it is
a version George Gamow himselI might have written had he been at work
today.
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV
Thanks are due to Michael Edwards Ior enlivening the text with his reIreshing
illustrations. I am grateIul to Matt Lilley Ior his helpIul and constructive
comments on an early draIt. The encouragement and support I received Irom
the Gamow Iamily was much appreciated.

Page xi
*DPRZV3UHIDFHWR0U7RPSNLQVLQ3DSHUEDFN
In the winter oI 1938 I wrote a short, scientiIically Iantastic story (not a science
Iiction story) in which I tried to explain to the layman the basic ideas oI the
theory oI curvature oI space and the expanding universe. I decided to do this
by exaggerating the actually existing relativistic phenomena to such an extent
that they could easily be observed by the hero oI the story, C. G. H.
*

Tompkins, a bank clerk interested in modern science.
I sent the manuscript to +DUSHUV0DJD]LQH and, like all beginning authors, got
it back with a rejection slip. The other halI-a-dozen magazines which I tried
Iollowed suit. So I put the manuscript in a drawer oI my desk and Iorgot about
it. During the summer oI the same year, I attended the International ConIerence
oI Theoretical Physics, organized by the League oI Nations in Warsaw. I was
chatting over a glass oI excellent Polish miod with my old Iriend Sir Charles
Darwin, the grandson oI Charles (7KH2ULJLQRI6SHFLHV) Darwin, and the
conversation turned to the popularization oI science. I told Darwin about the
bad luck I had had along this line, and he said: 'Look, Gamow, when you get
back to the United States dig up your manuscript and send it to Dr C. P.
Snow, who is the editor oI a popular scientiIic magazine 'LVFRYHU\ published
by the Cambridge University Press.'
*
The initials oI Mr Tompkins originated Irom three Iundamental physical
constants: the velocity oI light F, the gravitational constant *, and the quantum
constant K, which have to be changed by immensely large Iactors in order to
make their eIIect easily noticeable by the man on the street.

Page xii
So I did just this, and a week later came a telegram Irom Snow saying: 'Your
article will be published in the next issue. Please send more.' Thus a number oI
stories on Mr Tompkins, which popularised the theory oI relativity and the
quantum theory, appeared in subsequent issues oI 'LVFRYHU\. Soon thereaIter
I received a letter Irom the Cambridge University Press, suggesting that these
articles, with a Iew additional stories to increase the number oI pages, should
be published in book Iorm. The book, called 0U7RPSNLQVLQ:RQGHUODQG,
was published by Cambridge University Press in 1940 and since that time has
been reprinted sixteen times. This book was Iollowed by the sequel, 0U
7RPSNLQV([SORUHVWKH$WRP, published in 1944 and by now reprinted nine
times. In addition, both books have been translated into practically all
European languages (except Russian), and also into Chinese and Hindi.
Recently the Cambridge University Press decided to unite the two original
volumes into a single paperback edition, asking me to update the old material
and add some more stories treating the advances in physics and related Iields
which took place aIter these books were originally published. Thus I had to
add the stories on Iission and Iusion, the steady state universe, and exciting
problems concerning elementary particles. This material Iorms the present
book.
A Iew words must be said about the illustrations. The original articles in
'LVFRYHU\ and the Iirst original volume were illustrated by Mr John Hookham,
who created the Iacial Ieatures oI Mr Tompkins. When I wrote the second
volume Mr Hookham had retired Irom work as an illustrator, and I decided to
illustrate the book myselI, IaithIully Iollowing Hookham's style. The new
illustrations in the present volume are also mine. The verses and songs
appearing in this volume are written by my wiIe Barbara.
G. GAMOW
UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER,
COLORADO, USA

Page1
1
CitySpeedLimit
Itwasapublicholiday,andMrTompkins,alittleclerkofabigcitybank,slept
lateandhadaleisurelybreakfast.Tryingtoplanhisday,hefirstthoughtabout
goingtoanafternoonmovie.Openingthelocalnewspaper,heturnedtothe
entertainmentpage.Butnoneofthefilmsappealedtohim.Hedetestedthe
currentobsessionwithsexandviolence.Asfortherest,itwastheusual
holidayfareaimedatchildren.Ifonlytherewereatleastonefilmwithsome
realadventure,withsomethingunusualandmaybechallengingaboutit.But
therewasnone.
Unexpectedly,hiseyefellonalittlenoticeinthecornerofthepage.The
town'suniversitywasannouncingaseriesoflecturesontheproblemsof
modernphysics.Thisafternoon'slecturewastobeaboutEinstein'sTheoryof
Relativity.Well,thatmightbesomething!Hehadoftenheardthestatementthat
onlyadozenpeopleintheworldreallyunderstoodEinstein'stheory.Maybehe
couldbecomethethirteenth!Hedecidedtogotothelectureitmightbejust
whatheneeded.
Arrivingatthebiguniversityauditorium,hefoundthelecturehadalready
begun.Theroomwasfullofyoungstudents.Buttherewasasprinklingof
olderpeoplethereaswell,presumablymembersofthepubliclikehimself.
Theywerelisteningwithkeenattentiontoatall,whitebeardedmanstanding
alongsideanoverheadprojector.Hewasexplainingtohisaudiencethebasic
ideasoftheTheoryofRelativity.
MrTompkinsgotasfarasunderstandingthatthewholepointofEinstein's
theoryisthatthereisamaximumvelocity,thevelocityof

Page2
light,whichcannotbeexceededbyanymovingmaterialobject.Thisfactleads
toverystrangeandunusualconsequences.Forexample,whenmovingcloseto
thevelocityoflight,measuringrulerscontractandclocksslowdown.The
professorstated,however,thatasthevelocityoflightis300,000kilometres
persecond(i.e.186,000milespersecond),theserelativisticeffectscould
hardlybeobservedforeventsofordinarylife.
ItseemedtoMrTompkinsthatthiswasallcontradictorytocommonsense.
Hewastryingtoimaginewhattheseeffectswouldlooklike,whenhishead
slowlydroppedonhischest...
Whenheopenedhiseyesagain,hefoundhimselfsitting,notonalectureroom
bench,butononeofthebenchesprovidedbythecityfortheconvenienceof
passengerswaitingforabus.Itwasabeautifuloldcitywithmedievalcollege
buildingsliningthestreet.Hesuspectedthathemustbedreaming,butthere
wasnothingunusualaboutthescene.Thehandsofthebigclockonthecollege
toweroppositewerepointingtofiveo'clock.
Thestreetwasnearlyemptyexceptforasinglecyclistcomingslowly
towardshim.Asheapproached,MrTompkins'seyesopenedwidewith
astonishment.Thebicycleandtheyoungmanonitwereunbelievably
shortenedinthedirectionoftheirmotion,asifseenthroughacylindricallens.
Theclockonthetowerstruckfive,andthecyclist,evidentlyinahurry,
steppedharderonthepedals.MrTompkinsdidnotnoticethathegained
muchinspeed,but,asaresultofhiseffort,heshortenedstillfurtherandwent
downthestreetlookingratherlikeaflatpicturecutoutofcardboard.
ImmediatelyMrTompkinsunderstoodwhatwashappeningtothecyclistit
wasthecontractionofmovingbodies,aboutwhichhehadjustheard.Hefelt
verypleasedwithhimself.'Nature'sspeedlimitmustbelowerhere,'he
concluded.'Ireckonitcan'tbemuchmorethan20m.p.h.They'llnotbe
needingspeedcamerasinthistown.'Infact,aspeedingambulancegoingpast
atthatmomentcouldnotdomuchbetterthanthecyclistwithlightsflashing
andsirensounding,itwasreallyjustcrawlingalong.

Page3

Page4
MrTompkinswantedtochaseafterthecyclisttoaskhimhowhefeltabout
beingflattened.Buthowwashetocatchupwithhim?Itwasthenhespotted
anotherbicyclestandingagainstthewallofthecollege.MrTompkinsthoughtit
probablybelongedtoastudentattendinglectureswhomightnotmissitifhe
weretoborrowitforashortwhile.Makingsurenoonewaslooking,he
mountedthebikeandspeddownthestreetinpursuitoftheothercyclist.
Hefullyexpectedthathisnewlyacquiredmotionwouldimmediatelyshorten
him,andlookedforwardtothisashisincreasinggirthhadlatelycausedhim
someanxiety.Tohissurprise,however,nothinghappenedbothheandhis
cycleremainedthesamesizeandshape.Ontheotherhand,thescenearound
himcompletelychanged.Thestreetsgrewshorter,thewindowsoftheshops
becamenarrowslits,andthepedestrianswerethethinnestpeoplehehadever
seen.
'Ah!'exclaimedMrTompkinsexcitedly.'Igetitnow.Thisiswheretheword
relativitycomesin.Everythingthatmovesrelativetomelooksshorterfor
mewhoeverworksthepedals!'
Hewasagoodcyclistandwasdoinghisbesttoovertaketheyoungman.But
hefoundthatitwasnotatalleasytogetupspeedonthisbicycle.Althoughhe
wasworkingonthepedalsashardashepossiblycould,theincreaseinspeed
wasalmostnegligible.Hislegshadalreadybeguntoache,butstillhecouldnot
managetopassalamppostonthecornermuchfasterthanwhenhehadjust
started.Itlookedasifallhiseffortstomovefasterwereleadingtonothing.He
begantounderstandnowwhytheambulancecouldnotdomuchbetterthan
thecyclist.Itwasthenherememberedwhattheprofessorhadsaidaboutthe
impossibilityofexceedingthelimitingvelocityoflight.Henoticed,however,
thattheharderhetried,theshorterthecityblocksbecame.Thecyclistriding
aheadofhimdidnotnowlooksofarawayandindeedheeventually
managedtocatchupwithhim.Ridingsidebyside,heglancedacrossandwas
surprisedtofindthatboththecyclistandhisbikewerenowlookingquite
normal.
'Ah,thatmustbebecausewearenolongermovingrelativetoeachother,'he
concluded.

Page5

Page6
'Excuseme,'hecalledout,'Don'tyoufinditinconvenienttoliveinacitywith
suchalowspeedlimit?'
'Speedlimit?'returnedtheotherinsurprise,'wedon'thaveanyspeedlimit
here.IcangetanywhereasfastasIwishoratleastIcouldifIhada
motorcycleinsteadofthisoldbike!'
'Butyouweremovingveryslowlywhenyoupassedmeamomentago,'said
MrTompkins.
'Iwouldn'tcallitslow,'remarkedtheyoungman.'That'sthefifthblockwe've
passedsincewestartedtalking.Isn'tthatfastenoughforyou?'
'Ahyes,butthat'sonlybecausetheblocksandthestreetsaresoshortnow,'
protestedMrTompkins.
'Whatdifferencedoesitmake?Wemovefaster,orthestreetbecomes
shorteritallcomesdowntothesamethingintheend.Ihavetogoten
blockstogettothepostoffice.IfIstepharderonthepedalstheblocks
becomeshorterandIgettherequicker.Infact,hereweare,'saidtheyoung
manstoppinganddismounting.
MrTompkinsstoppedtoo.Helookedatthepostofficeclockitshowedhalf
pastfive.'Hah!'heexclaimedtriumphantly.'WhatdidItellyou.Youwere
goingslow.Ittookyouallofhalfanhourtogothosetenblocks.Itwasexactly
fiveo'clockbythecollegeclockwhenyoufirstpassedme,andnowit'shalf
past!'
'Didyounoticethishalfhour?'askedhiscompanion.'Diditseemlikehalfan
hour?'
MrTompkinshadtoadmitthatithadn'treallyseemedallthatlongnomore
thanafewminutes.Moreover,lookingathiswristwatchhesawthatitwas
showingonlyfiveminutespastfive.'Oh!'hemurmured,'Areyousayingthe
postofficeclockisfast?'
'Youcouldsaythat,'repliedtheyoungman.'Or,ofcourse,itcouldbeyour
watchrunningslow.It'sbeenmovingrelativetothoseclocks,right?What
moredoyouexpect?'HelookedatMrTompkinswithsomeexasperation.
'What'sthematterwithyou,anyway?Yousoundlikeyou'refromsomeother
planet.'Withthat,theyoungmandisappearedintothepostoffice.

Page7
MrTompkinsthoughtwhatapityitwastheprofessorwasnotathandto
explainthesestrangehappeningstohim.Theyoungmanwasevidentlya
native,andhadbeenaccustomedtothisstateofthingsevenbeforehehad
learnedtowalk.SoMrTompkinswasforcedtoexplorethisstrangeworldby
himself.Heresethiswatchbythetimeshownonthepostofficeclock,andto
makesureitwasstillgoingallright,hewaitedfortenminutes.Itnowkeptthe
sametimeasthepostofficeclock,soallseemedtobewell.
Resuminghisjourneydownthestreet,hecametotherailwaystationand
decidedtocheckhiswatchoncemore,thistimebythestationclock.Tohis
dismayitwasagainquiteabitslow.
'Ohdear,relativityagain,'concludedMrTompkins.'Itmusthappeneverytime
Imove.Howinconvenient.Fancyhavingtoresetone'swatchwheneveryou've
beenanywhere.'
Atthatmomentawelldressedgentlemanemergedfromthestationexit.He
lookedtobeinhisforties.Heglancedaroundandrecognisedanoldlady
waitingbythekerbsideandwentovertogreether.MuchtoMrTompkins's
surprise,sheaddressedthenewarrivalas'dearGrandfather'.Howwasthat
possible?Howcouldhepossiblybehergrandfather?
Overcomewithcuriosity,MrTompkinswentuptothepairanddiffidently
asked,'Excuseme.DidIhearyourightly?Areyoureallyhergrandfather?I'm
sorry,butI...'
'Ah,Isee,'saidthegentleman,smiling,'perhapsIshouldexplain.Mybusiness
requiresmetotravelagreatdeal.'
MrTompkinsstilllookedperplexed,sothestrangercontinued.'Ispendmost
ofmylifeonthetrain.So,naturallyIgrowoldmuchmoreslowlythanmy
relativeslivinginthecity.It'salwayssuchapleasuretocomebackandseemy
dearlittlegranddaughter.ButI'msorry,you'llhavetoexcuseme,please...'
Hehailedataxi,leavingMrTompkinsaloneagainwithhisproblems.
Acoupleofsandwichesfromthestationbuffetsomewhatrevivedhim.'Yes,of
course,'hemused,sippinghiscoffee,'motionslowsdowntime,sothat'swhy
heagesless.Andallmotionisrelative

Page8
that'swhattheprofessorsaidsothatmeanshewillappearyoungerto
hisrelatives,inthesamewayastherelativesappearyoungertohim.Good.
That'sgotthatsortedout.'
Butthenhestopped.Heputdownthecup.'Holdon.That'snotright,'he
thought.'Thegrandaughterdidnotseemyoungertohimshewasolderthan
him.Greyhairisnotrelative!Sowhatdoesthatmean?Allmotionisnot
relative?'
Hedecidedtomakeonelastattempttofindouthowthingsreallyare,and
turnedtotheonlyothercustomerinthebuffetasolitarymaninrailway
uniform.
'Excuseme,'hebegan,'wouldyoubegoodenoughtotellmewhois
responsibleforthefactthatthepassengersinthetraingrowoldsomuchmore
slowlythanthepeoplestayingatoneplace?'
'Iamresponsibleforit,'saidtheman,verysimply.
'Oh!'exclaimedMrTompkins.'How...'
'I'matraindriver,'answeredtheman,asthoughthatexplainedeverything.
'Atraindriver?'repeatedMrTompkins.'Ialwayswantedtobeatrain
driverwhenIwasaboy,thatis.But...butwhat'sthatgottodowith
stayingyoung?'headded,lookingmoreandmorepuzzled.
'Don'tknowexactly,'saidthedriver,'butthat'sthewayitis.Gotitfromthis
blokefromtheuniversity.Sittingovertherewewere,'hesaidnoddingata
tablebythedoor.'Passingthetimeofday,youknow.Toldmeallaboutithe
did.Wayovermyhead,mindyou.Didn'tunderstandawordofit.Buthedid
sayitwasalldowntoaccelerationandslowingdown.Irememberthatbit.It's
notjustspeedthataffectstime,hesaidit'saccelerationtoo.Everytimeyou
getpushedorpulledaroundonthetrainasitcomesintostations,orleaves
stationsthatupsetstimeforthepassengers.Someonewhoisnotonthe
traindoesn'tfeelallthosechanges.Asthetraincomesintotheplatformyou
don'tfindpeoplestandingontheplatformhavingtoholdontorailsorwhat
haveyoutostopfallingoverinthewaythepassengersonthetraindo.So
that'swherethedifferencecomesin.Somehow...'heshrugged.

Page9
SuddenlyaheavyhandshookMrTompkins'sshoulder.Hefoundhimself
sittingnotinthestationcafbutonthebenchoftheauditoriuminwhichhehad
beenlisteningtotheprofessor'slecture.Thelightsweredimmedandtheroom
wasempty.Itwasthejanitorwhohadawakenedhimsaying:'Sorry,sir,but
we'reclosingup.Ifyouwanttosleep,you'dbebetteroffathome.'Mr
Tompkinssheepishlygottohisfeetandstartedtowardstheexit.

Page10
2
TheProfessor'sLectureonRelativityWhichCausedMr
Tompkins'sDream
Ladiesandgentlemen:
Ataveryprimitivestageinthedevelopmentofthehumanmindthereformed
definitenotionsofspaceandtimeastheframeinwhichdifferenteventstake
place.Thesenotions,withoutessentialchanges,havebeencarriedforward
fromgenerationtogeneration,and,sincethedevelopmentoftheexact
sciences,theyhavebeenbuiltintothefoundationsofthemathematical
descriptionoftheUniverse.ThegreatNewtonperhapsgavethefirstclearcut
formulationoftheclassicalnotionsofspaceandtime,writinginhisPrincipia:
'Absolutespace,initsownnature,withoutrelationtoanythingexternal,
remainsalwayssimilarandimmovable'and'Absolute,trueandmathematical
time,ofitself,andfromitsownnature,flowsequablywithoutrelationto
anythingexternal.'
Sostrongwasthebeliefintheabsolutecorrectnessoftheseclassicalideas
aboutspaceandtimethattheyhaveoftenbeenheldbyphilosophersasgivena
priori,andnoscientisteventhoughtaboutthepossibilityofdoubtingthem.
However,atthestartofthepresentcenturyitbecameclearthatanumberof
results,obtainedbythemostrefinedmethodsofexperimentalphysics,ledto
clearcontradictionsifinterpretedintheclassicalframeofspaceandtime.This
realizationbroughttooneofthegreatesttwentiethcenturyphysicists,Albert
Einstein,therevolutionaryideathattherearehardlyanyreasons,exceptthose
oftradition,for

Page11
consideringtheclassicalnotionsconcerningspaceandtimeasabsolutelytrue,
andthattheycouldandshouldbechangedtofitournewandmorerefined
experience.Infact,sincetheclassicalnotionsofspaceandtimewere
formulatedonthebasisofhumanexperienceinordinarylife,weneednotbe
surprisedthattherefinedmethodsofobservationoftoday,basedonhighly
developedexperimentaltechniques,indicatethattheseoldnotionsaretoo
roughandinexacttheyhavebeenusedinordinarylifeandintheearlierstages
ofthedevelopmentofphysicsonlybecausetheirdeviationsfromthecorrect
notionsweretoosmalltobenoticeable.Norneedwebesurprisedthatthe
broadeningofthefieldofexplorationofmodernscienceshouldbringusto
regionswherethesedeviationsbecomesoverylargethattheclassicalnotions
couldnotbeusedatall.
Themostimportantexperimentalresultwhichledtothefundamentalcriticism
ofourclassicalnotionswasthediscoverythatthevelocityoflightina
vacuumisaconstant(300,000kilometrespersecond,or186,000miles
persecond),andrepresentstheupperlimitforallpossiblephysical
velocities.
Thisimportantandunexpectedconclusionwasfullysupported,forinstance,by
theexperimentsoftheAmericanphysicistsMichelsonandMorley.Attheend
ofthenineteenthcentury,theytriedtoobservetheeffectofthemotionofthe
Earthonthevelocityoflight.Theyhadinmindtheprevailingviewatthetime
thatlightwasawavemovinginamediumcalledtheaether.Assuchitwas
expectedtobehaveinmuchthesamewayaswaterwavesmoveoverthe
surfaceofapond.TheEarthwasexpectedtobemovingthroughthisaether
mediuminamannersimilartoaboatmovingoverthesurfaceofthewater.The
ripplescausedbytheboatappeartoapassengertomoveawaymoreslowly
fromthevesselinthedirectioninwhichitistravellingthantheydototherear.
Inonecasewehavetosubtractthespeedoftheboatfromthatofthewater
waves,andintheotherweaddthem.Wecallthisthetheoremofadditionof
velocities.Thishasalwaysbeenheldtobeselfevident.Inthesameway,
therefore,onewouldexpectthatthespeedoflightwouldappeartodiffer
accordingtoitsdirectionrelativetothe

Page12
motionoftheEarththroughtheaether.Indeed,itoughttobepossibleto
determinethespeedoftheEarthwithrespecttotheaetherbymeasuringthe
speedoflightindifferentdirections.
ToMichelsonandMorley'sgreatsurprise,andthesurpriseofallthescientific
world,theyfoundthatnosucheffectexiststhevelocityoflightwasexactlythe
sameinalldirections.Thisoddresultpromptedthesuggestionthatperhaps,by
anunfortunatecoincidence,theEarthinitsorbitaroundtheSunjusthappened
tobestationaryrelativetotheaetheratthetimetheexperimentwasearned
out.Tocheckthatthiswasnotso,theexperimentwasrepeatedsixmonths
laterwhentheEarthwastravellinginthereversedirectionontheoppositeside
ofitsorbit.Again,nodifferenceinthespeedoflightcouldbedetected.
Ithavingbeenestablishedthatthevelocityoflightdidnotbehavelikethatofa
wave,theremainingpossibilitywasthatitbehavedmorelikethatofa
projectile.Ifweweretofireabulletfromagunintheboat,itwouldseemto
thepassengertoleavethemovingboatatthesamespeedinalldirections
whichisthebehaviourMichelsonandMorleyfoundforlightemittedinall
directionsfromthemovingEarth.Butinthatcase,someonestandingonthe
shorewouldfindthatabulletfiredinthedirectioninwhichtheboatwas
headingwouldbetravellingfasterthanonefiredintheoppositedirection.In
thefirstcasethespeedoftheboatwouldbeaddedtothemuzzlespeedofthe
bullet,andinthelatteritwouldbesubtractedagaininaccordancewiththe
theoremfortheadditionofvelocities.Accordingly,wewouldexpectthatlight
emittedfromasourcethatwasmovingrelativetouswouldhavespeeds
dependentontheangleofemissiontothedirectionofmotion.
Experimentshows,however,thatthisisalsonotthecase.Take,forexample,
neutralpions.Theseareverysmallsubatomicparticleswhichundergodecay
withtheemissionoftwopulsesoflight.Itisfoundthatthesepulsesarealways
emittedwiththesamespeedwhatevertheirdirectionrelativetothemotionof
theparentpion,evenwhenthepionitselfistravellingataspeedclosetothatof
light.

Page13
Thus,wefindthatwhereasthefirstexperimentshowedthatthevelocityoflight
didnotbehavelikethatofaconventionalwave,thissecondoneshowsthatit
doesnotbehavelikeaconventionalparticleeither.
Inconclusion,wefindthatthespeedoflightinavacuumhasaconstantvalue
regardlessofthemovementoftheobserver(ourobservationsfromthemoving
Earth),orthemovementofthesourceoflight(ourobservationsoflightemitted
fromthemovingpion).
WhatoftheotherpropertyoflightImentioned:itbeingtheultimatelimiting
velocity?
'Ah,'youmightsay,'butisitnotpossibletoconstructasuperlightvelocityby
addingseveralsmallervelocities?'
Forexample,wecouldimagineaveryfastmovingtrainwithavelocityof,say,
threequartersthatoflight,andwecouldhaveamanrunningalongtheroofsof
thecarriagesalsowithavelocitythreequartersthatoflight.(Iaskedyouto
useyourimagination!)Accordingtothetheoremoftheadditionofvelocities,
thetotalvelocityshouldbe11/2timesthatoflight.Thatwouldmeanthe
runningmanshouldbeabletoovertakethebeamoflightfromasignallamp.It
seems,however,that,sincetheconstancyofthevelocityoflightisan
experimentalobservation,theresultingvelocityinourcasemustbesmallerthan
weexpecttheclassicaltheoremfortheadditionofvelocitiesmustbe
wrong.
ThemathematicaltreatmentoftheproblemsomethingIdonotwantto
enterintohereleadstoaverysimplenewformulaforthecalculationofthe
resultingvelocityoftwosuperimposedmotions.Ifv
1
andv
2
arethetwo
velocitiestobeadded,andcisthevelocityoflight,theresultingvelocitycomes
outtobe
Youseefromthisformulathatifbothoriginalvelocitiesweresmall,Imean
smallascomparedwiththevelocityoflight,thesecondterminthe
denominator(thebottombit)of(1)willbesosmallitcanbe

Page14
ignored,givingtheclassicaltheoremofadditionofvelocities.If,however,v
1

andv
2
arenotsmall,theresultwillalwaysbesomewhatsmallerthanthe
arithmeticalsum.Forinstance,intheexampleofourmanrunningalongatrain,
v
1
=3/4candv
2
=3/4candourformulagivestheresultingvelocityV=24/25c,
whichisstillsmallerthanthevelocityoflight.
Youshouldnotethatintheparticularcasewhenoneoftheoriginalvelocitiesis
c,formula(1)alwaysgivescfortheresultingvelocityindependentofwhatthe
secondvelocitymightbe.Thus,byoverlappinganynumberofvelocities,we
canneverexceedthevelocityoflight.Thisformulahasbeenconfirmed
experimentallytheadditionoftwovelocitiesisalwayssomewhatsmallerthan
theirarithmeticalsum.
Recognizingtheexistenceoftheupperlimitvelocitywecanstartonthe
criticismoftheclassicalideasofspaceandtime,directingourfirstblowagainst
thenotionofsimultaneity.
Whenyousay,'TheexplosionintheminesnearCapetownhappenedat
exactlythesamemomentasthehamandeggswerebeingservedinyour
Londonapartment,'youthinkyouknowwhatyoumean.Iamgoingtoshow
you,however,thatyoudonot.Strictlyspeaking,thisstatementhasnoexact
meaning.
Toseethis,considerwhatmethodyouwouldusetocheckwhethertwoevents
intwodifferentplacesweresimultaneousornot.Youwouldsaythatthetwo
eventsweresimultaneousifclocksatbothplacesshowedthesametime.But
thenthequestionarisesastohowwearetosetthedistantclockssothatthey
showthesametimesimultaneouslyandwearebackattheoriginal
question.
Sincetheindependenceofthevelocityoflightinavacuumonthemotionofits
sourceorthesysteminwhichitismeasuredisoneofthemostexactly
establishedexperimentalfacts,thefollowingmethodofmeasuringthedistances
andsettingtheclockscorrectlyondifferentobservationalstationsshouldbe
recognisedasthemostrationaland,asyouwillagreeafterthinkingmoreabout
it,theonlyreasonablemethod.

Page15
AlightsignalissentfromstationA,andassoonasitisreceivedatstationBit
isreturnedbacktoA.Onehalfofthetime,asreadatstationA,betweenthe
sendingandthereturnofthesignal,multipliedbytheconstantvelocityoflight,
willbedefinedasthedistancebetweenAandB.
TheclocksonstationsAandBaresaidtobesetcorrectlyifatthemomentof
arrivalofthesignalatBthelocalclockwereshowingtheaverageofthetwo
timesrecordedatAatthemomentsofsendingandreceivingthesignal.Using
thismethodbetweendifferentobservationalstationsestablishedonarigid
body(inthiscase,thesurfaceoftheEarth)wearrivefinallyatthedesired
frameofreference.Wecannowanswerquestionsconcerningthesimultaneity
of,orthetimeintervalbetween,twoeventsindifferentplaces.
Butgiventhatallobserversusethismethodforestablishingtheirframesof
reference,willtheyobtainthesameresultsfortheirmeasurements?Whatiffor
instanceobserversaremovingrelativetoeachother?
Toanswerthisquestion,supposethatsuchframesofreferencehavebeen
establishedontwodifferentrigidbodies,sayontwolongspacerockets
movingwithaconstantspeedinoppositedirections.Letusseehow
measurementsmadewiththesetwoframescheckwithoneanother.Suppose
observersarelocatedoneatthefront,andoneattherearend,ofeachrocket.
Firstly,eachpairofobserversneedstosettheirclockscorrectly.Thistheydo
usingamodificationoftheabovementionedmethod.Usingameasuringruler,
theylocatethecentreoftheirrocket.Heretheyplaceanintermittentsourceof
light.Theyarrangeforthesourcetoemitapulseoflightthatspreadsoutwards
towardsbothendsoftherocket.Theyagreetosettheirwatchestozeroatthe
instanttheyreceivethepulsefromthemiddleattheirrespectivelocations.The
lighthavingtravelledequaldistancestoeachend,atthesamespeed,c,our
observershaveestablished,accordingtothepreviousdefinition,thecriterionof
simultaneityintheirownsystem,andhavesettheirwatches'correctly'from
theirpointofview.
Nowtheydecidetoseewhetherthetimereadingsontheirrocketcheckwith
thoseontheother.Forexample,dothewatchesof

Page16
Theirwatchesdonotreadthesame

Page17
thetwoobserversonrocket1showthesametimewhenobservedfrom
rocket2?Thiscanbetestedbythefollowingmethod:Atthecentrepointof
eachrocket(wherethelightsourcesaresituated),twoelectricallycharged
conductorsareinstalled,insuchawaythat,whentherocketspasseachother
andtheircentresaredirectlyoppositeeachother,asparkjumpsbetweenthe
conductors.Thistriggersthetwolightsourcestoemittheirpulses
simultaneouslytowardsthefrontandrearendsoftheirrespectiverockets
asIhaveshownhereinFig.(a).Afterawhile,accordingtoobservers2Aand
2Bonrocket2,wehavethesituationshowninFig.(b).Rocket1hasmoved
relativetorocket2.Thelightbeamshavemovedoutequaldistancesineither
direction.Butnotewhathashappened.Becauseobserver1Bhasmoved
forwardtomeetthelightbeamcomingtowardsher(according,thatis,to
observers2Aand2B),thereargoingpulseinrocket1hasalreadyreached
thepositionof1B.Accordingto2Aand2B,thisisbecauseithadless
distancetotravel.Soobserver1Bhassetherwatchgoingfromzerobefore
anyoneelse!InFig.(c)thelightpulseshavereachedtheendsofrocket2,and
thisiswhenobservers2Aand2Bsettheirwatchestozerosimultaneously.
ItisonlywhenwegettoFig.(d)thattheforwardgoingpulseinrocket1
catchesupwiththerecedingobserver1Awhich,accordingtohimisthe
timetosethiswatchtozero.Thus,weseethat,fromthepointofviewofthe
observersinrocket2,thoseinrocket1havenotsettheirwatchescorrectly
theirwatchesdonotreadthesametime.
Now,ofcourse,wecouldjustaseasilyhaveshownthesamesituationfrom
thepointofviewoftheobserversinrocket1.Fromtheirstandpointitistheir
rocketthatistreatedasbeing'stationary',anditisrocket2thatshouldbe
shownmoving.Itwillthenbeobserver2Bmovingtomeethislightpulse,and
observer2Amovingawayfromhis.Asfaras1Aand1Bareconcerned,itis
2Aand2Bwhohavenotsettheirwatchescorrectly,whereastheythemselves
have.
Thedifferenceofopinionarisesbecause,whereeventsoccurinseparated
locations,bothsetsofobservershavetomakecalculationsbeforetheycan
decideonthesimultaneityorotherwiseofseparated

Page18
eventstheyhavetomakeallowanceforthetimeithastakenforthelight
signalstotravelfromthedistantlocations,andbothinsistthatthespeedoflight
isaconstantinalldirectionsrelativetothem.(Itisonlywhereeventsoccurat
thesamelocationwherethereisnoneedforcalculationthattherecan
beuniversalagreementoverthesimultaneityofeventstakingplaceatthatone
location.)Sincebothrocketsarequiteequivalent,thisdisagreementbetween
thetwogroupsofobserverscanbesettledonlybysayingthatbothgroupsare
correctfromtheirownpointofview,butthequestionofwhoiscorrect
'absolutely'isonethathasnouniqueanswer.
Inthiswayweseethatthenotionofabsolutesimultaneityvanishes,and
twoeventsindifferentplacesconsideredassimultaneousfromone
systemofreferencewillbeseparatedbyadefinitetimeintervalfromthe
pointofviewofanothersystem.
Thispropositionsoundsatfirstextremelyunusual.Butletmeaskyouthis:
WoulditbeunusualifIweretosaythat,havingyourdinneronatrain,youcan
eatyoursoupandyourdessertinthesamepointofthediningcar,butin
widelyseparatedpointsoftherailwaytrack?Ofcoursenot.Thisstatement
aboutyourdinnerinthetraincanbeformulatedbysayingthattwoevents
happeningatdifferenttimesatthesamepointinspaceofonesystemof
referencewillbeseparatedbyadefinitespaceintervalfromthepointof
viewofanothersystem.
Ithinkyouwillagreethatthisisa'trivial'proposition.Butnowcompareitto
theprevious'paradoxical'one,andyouwillseethattheyareabsolutely
symmetricalstatements.Onecanbetransformedintotheothersimplyby
exchangingthewords'time'and'space'.
HereisthewholepointofEinstein'sview:WhereasinNewton'sclassical
physics,timewasconsideredassomethingquiteindependentofspaceand
motion('flowingequablywithoutrelationtoanythingexternal'),inthenew
physics,spaceandtimearecloselyconnected.Theyrepresentjusttwo
differentcrosssectionsthroughtheonehomogeneous'spacetimecontinuum'in
whichallobservableeventstakeplace.Wemustnotbemisledbythevery
differentwaysinwhichweexperienceandmeasurethetwo(onewitharuler,
theother

Page19
withawatch).Physicalrealitydoesnotconsistofathreedimensionalspace,
togetherwithaseparateonedimensionaltime.Spaceandtimeareindissolubly
weldedtogetherintoaseamlessfourdimensionalrealityonewerefertoas
spacetime.
Thesplittingofthisfourdimensionalspacetimecontinuumintoathree
dimensionalspaceandaonedimensionaltimeispurelyarbitrary,anddepends
onthesystemfromwhichtheobservationsaremade.Thus,twoevents,
separatedinspacebythedistancel
1
andintimebytheintervalt
1
asobserved
inonesystem,willbeseparatedbyanotherdistancel
2
andanothertime
intervalt
2
asseenfromanothersystem.Italldependsontheparticularcross
sectiononeistakingthroughthefourdimensionalreality,andthatinitsturn
dependsuponone'smotionrelativetotheeventsinquestion.
Inacertainsenseonecanspeakaboutthetransformationofspaceintotime,
andoftimeintospace.Toanextenttheycanget'mixedup'.Ithappensthat
thetransformationoftimeintospace(asintheexampleofthedinnerinatrain)
isquiteacommonnotionforus.Ontheotherhand,thetransformationof
spaceintotime,resultingintherelativityofsimultaneity,seemsunusual.The
reasonforthisisthatifwemeasuredistancesin,say,'metres',the
correspondingunitoftimeshouldnotbetheconventional'second',butamore
rationalunitoftimerepresentingtheintervaloftimenecessaryforalightsignal
tocoveradistanceofonemetre,i.e.0.000,000,003second.Ifwewere
naturallysensitivetotimeintervalsofthatkindofduration,thelossof
simultaneitywouldhavealwaysbeenmanifestlyobvioustous.Itisthefact
that,inthesphereofourordinaryexperience,thetransformationofspace
intervalsintotimeintervalsleadstodifferencesinobservationthatare
practicallyunobservable,whichhasledtotheclassicalviewoftimeasbeing
somethingabsolutelyindependentandunchangeable.
Wheninvestigatingmotionswithveryhighvelocities,however,suchasthose
encounteredwhenelectronsarethrownoutfromradioactiveatomicnuclei
wherethedistancescoveredinacertainintervaloftimeareofthesameorder
ofmagnitudeasthetimeexpressedinrationalunitsthenonenecessarily
meetswiththeeffectswehavediscussed,

Page20
andthetheoryofrelativitybecomesofgreatimportance.Evenintheregionof
comparativelysmallvelocities,as,forexample,themotionofplanetsinour
solarsystem,relativisticeffectscanbeobserved.Thisisduetotheextreme
precisionofastronomicalmeasurements.Suchobservationofrelativisticeffects
requiresmeasurementsofchangesofplanetarymotionamountingtoafraction
ofanangularsecondperyear.
So,asIhavetriedtoexplaintoyou,ourexaminationofthenotionsofspace
andtimeleadsustotheconclusionthatspaceintervalscanbepartially
convertedintotimeintervals,andviceversa.Thismeansthatthenumerical
valueofagivendistanceoraperiodoftimecanbedifferentwhenmeasured
fromdifferentmovingsystems.
Acomparativelysimplemathematicalanalysisofthisproblem,intowhichIdo
not,however,wanttoenterintheselectures,leadstoadefiniteformulaforthe
changeofthesevalues.Forthoseofyouinterested,itworksoutthatany
objectoflengthl
0
,whenmovingrelativetoanobserverwithvelocityv,will
appeartobeshortenedbyanamountdependingonitsvelocity.Itsmeasured
length,l,willbe
Fromthisyouwillseethatasvbecomesveryclosetoc,lbecomessmaller
andsmaller.Thisisthefamousrelativisticlengthcontraction.Ihastentoadd
thatthisisthelengthoftheobjectinthedirectionofmotion.Itsdimensionsat
rightanglestothatdirectionremainunaltered.Theobjectineffectbecomes
flattenedinthedirectionofmotion.
Analogously,anyprocesstakingtimet
0
willbeobservedfromasystemmoving
withvelocityvrelativetothatprocesstobetakingalongertimet,givenby

Page21
Notethatasvincreases,sodoest.Indeed,asvapproachesthevalueofc,t
becomessolargethattheprocessessentiallycomestoahalt.Thisisknownas
relativistictimedilation.Itistheoriginoftheideathatifoneweretohave
astronautstravellingclosetothespeedoflight,theirageingprocesseswould
slowdownsomuchtheywouldeffectivelygetnooldertheycouldlive
forever!
Don'tforgetthattheseeffectsareabsolutelysymmetricalasbetweenframesof
referenceinuniformrelativemotion.Whereaspeoplestandingonthestation
platformwillconsiderthatpassengersonafastmovingtrainareverythinand
moveaboutthetrainveryslowly,withwatchesontheirwriststhataregoing
slow,thepassengersonthattrainwillthinkthesameaboutthepeopletheysee
outsidestandingontheplatformthestationwillbesquashedupandeverything
happeningtherewillbeinslowmotion.
Atfirstsightthismightstrikeyouasparadoxical.Indeed,theproblemhas
becomeknownasthe'twinparadox'.Theideaisthatyouhavetwotwins,one
ofwhomgoesonajourney,leavingtheotherathome.Accordingtothetheory
Ihavepresented,eachtwinwillbelieveitistheotherwhoisageingless
quickly,basedontheirobservationsoftheotherandthecalculationstheyhave
hadtomakeasregardshowlongthelightsignalshavetakentoreachthem.
Thequestioniswhatwilltheydiscoverwhenthetravellingtwinreturnsanda
directcomparisoncanbemadebetweenthemacomparisonthatno
longerrequiresanycalculationstobemadebecausetheyareoncemoreinthe
samelocation?(Obviouslytheycan'tbothbeolderthantheother.)The
resolutionoftheproblemcomesfromtherecognitionthatthetwotwinsare
notonthesamefooting.Inorderforthetravellingtwintoreturn,shemust
undergoaccelerationfirstofallslowingdown,andthenreacceleratinginthe
oppositedirection.Unlikehertwinbrother,shehasnotremainedinastateof
uniformmotion.Onlythestayathometwinhasabidedbythiscondition,and
soitisthistwinwhofindshimselfvindicatedinhisbeliefthathissisterisnow
youngerthanhimself.
OnemorepointbeforeIend.Youmightbewonderingwhatpreventsus
acceleratinganobjecttoaspeedgreaterthanthatoflight.

Page22
Surely,youmightbethinking,ifIpushhardenoughandforlongenoughonthe
objectsothatitisalwaysaccelerating,eventuallyitmustreachanydesired
speed.
Accordingtothegeneralfoundationofmechanics,themassofabody
determinesthedifficultyofsettingitintomotionoracceleratingthemotion
alreadyexistingthelargerthemass,themoredifficultitistoincreasethe
velocitybyagivenamount.Thefactthatnoobjectunderanycircumstances
canexceedthevelocityoflightleadsustoapossibleinterpretationofwhatis
goingon.Thisholdsthattheincreasedresistancetofurtheraccelerationisdue
toanincreaseintheobject'smass.Inotherwords,itsmassmustincrease
withoutlimitwhenitsvelocityapproachesthevelocityoflight.Mathematical
analysisleadstoaformulaforthisdependence,whichisanalogoustothe
formulae(2)and(3).Ifm
0
isthemassforverysmallvelocities,themassmat
thevelocityvisgivenby
Fromthisweseethattheresistancetofurtheraccelerationbecomesinfinite
whenvapproacheschencecistheultimatespeed.Agooddemonstration
oftherelativisticchangeofmasscanbeobservedexperimentallyonveryfast
movingparticles.Take,forexample,electrons.Thesearethetinyparticles
foundwithinatoms,movingabouttheatom'scentralnucleus.Theyareeasyto
acceleratebecausetheyaresolight.Whenelectronsarestrippedoutoftheir
atomsandsubjectedtopowerfulelectricforcesinspecialparticleaccelerators,
theycanbemadetoreachspeedsthatarewithinatinyfractionofthespeedof
light.Atsuchspeedstheirresistancetofurtheraccelerationcanbethe
equivalentofaparticleofmass40,000timesgreaterthanthenormalmassof
theelectronashasbeendemonstratedatalaboratoryatStanfordin
California.
Notonlythat,buttimedilationhasalsobeendemonstrated.Inthehighenergy
physicslaboratorycalledCERN,justoutsideGenevainSwitzerland,unstable
muons(atypeoffundamentalparticlethat

Page23
normallyundergoesradioactivedisintegrationafteraboutonemillionthofa
second)havebeenfoundtolivelongerbyafactorofthirtywhentravellingat
highspeedaroundacircularmachineshapedlikealargehollowdoughnut.At
thespeedthemuonsweretravelling,afactorofthirtyisexactlythevalue
expectedonthebasisoftheaboveformulafortimedilation.
Thus,forsuchvelocities,theclassicalmechanicalapproximationsbecome
absolutelyinadequate,andweenterintoadomainwheretheapplicationofthe
theoryofrelativitybecomesinescapable.

Page24
3
MrTompkinsTakesaHoliday
Severaldaysafterthatfirstlecture,MrTompkinswasstillintriguedbyhis
dreamconcerningtherelativisticcity.Hewasparticularlypuzzledoverthe
mysteryofhowthetraindriverhadbeenabletopreventthepassengersfrom
gettingold.Eachnighthewenttobedwiththehopethathewouldseethis
interestingcityagain.Butitwasnottobe.Beingasomewhattimidandanxious
man,hisdreamsweremostlyunpleasant.Lasttimeitwasthemanagerofthe
bankwhowasfiringhimforbeingslowpreparinghisaccounts.MrTompkins's
attemptedexcusebasedonrelativistictimedilationhadfoolednoone.He
decidedheneededaholiday.Thus,hefoundhimselfsittinginatrain,watching
throughthewindowthegreyroofsofthecitysuburbgraduallygivingplaceto
greencountrymeadowsasheheadedforaweeklongstaybythesea.Hehad
unfortunatelyhadtomissthesecondlectureintheseries,buthadmanagedto
getholdofaphotocopyoftheprofessor'snotesfromthedepartmental
secretary.Hehadalreadytriedtomakesenseofthem,buthadnotgotfar.
Havingbroughtthemalongwithhim,hepulledthemoutofthesuitcaseand
beganstudyingthemoncemore.Meanwhile,therailwaycarriagerockedhim
pleasantly...
Whenheloweredthenotesandlookedoutofthewindowagain,the
landscapehadchangedconsiderably.Thetelegraphpolesweresocloseto
eachothertheylookedlikeahedge,andthetreeshadextremelynarrow
crowns,ratherlikeItaliancypresses.Toaddtohisdelight,whoshouldbe
sittingoppositehimbuttheprofessor!HemusthaveboardedwhileMr
Tompkinshadbeenbusyreading.

Page25
Pluckingupcourage,MrTompkinsdecidedtotakeadvantageofthe
occasion.
'Itakeitwe'reinthelandofrelativity,'heremarked.
'Yesindeed,'repliedtheprofessor,'you'refamiliarwithit...?'
'Iwashereoncebefore.'
'You'reaphysicistanexpertonrelativity?'enquiredtheprofessor.
'Ohno,'protestedMrTompkinsinsomeconfusion.'Ihaveonlyjuststarted
learningaboutitjusttheonelecturesofar.'
'Good.Nevertoolate.Fascinatingsubject.Whereexactlyareyoustudying?'
'Attheuniversity.Itwasyour lectureIattended.'
'Mine?!'exclaimedhiscompanion.HelookedhardatMrTompkins,then
flashedasmileofrecognition.'Ahyes.Themanwhocreptintothebacklate!I
remembernow.Yes,Ithoughtyourfacewasfamiliar.'
'IhopeIdidn'tdisturb...'mumbledMrTompkinsapologetically.He
desperatelyhopedtheobservantprofessorhadnotnoticedhehadeventually
dozedoffinhislecture.
'No,no.That'sallright,'wasthereply.'Happensallthetime.'
MrTompkinsreflectedforamoment,thenventured,'Idon'twanttoimpose
onyou,butIwaswonderingifImightaskyouaquestionjustashortone?
LasttimeIwashere,Imetatraindriverwhoinsistedthatthereasonwhy
passengersgrowoldlessquicklythanthepeopleinthecityandnotthe
reversewasalltodowiththefactthatthetrainstopsandstarts.Ididn't
understand...'
Theprofessorlookedthoughtful,andthenbegan:
'Iftwopeopleareinuniformrelativemotion,theneachwillconcludethatthe
otherisageinglessquicklythanthemselvesrelativistictimedilation.A
passengeronthetrainwillthinkthatthebookingclerkinthestationisageing
lessquicklythansheislikewise,thebookingclerkwillconcludethatitishe
whoisageinglessquicklythanshe.'
'Buttheycan'tbothberight,'objectedMrTompkins.
'Whynot?Theyarebothrightfromtheirownpointofview.'

Page26
'Yes,butwhoisreallyright?'MrTompkinsinsisted.
'Youcan'taskgeneralquestionslikethat.Inrelativity,yourobservationsmust
alwaysbewithrespecttoaparticularobserveranobserverwithawell
definedmotionrelativetowhateverisbeingobserved.'
'Butweknowit'sthepassengerwhoageslessthantheclerkitisnotthe
otherwayround.'MrTompkinswentontodescribehisencounterwiththe
muchtravelledgentlemanandhisgranddaughter.
'Yes.yes,'interruptedtheprofessorsomewhatimpatiently.'It'sthetwin
paradoxalloveragain.Idealtwiththatinmyfirstlectureifyourecall.The
grandfatherissubjecttoaccelerationunlikethegranddaughter,hedoesnot
remaininastateofuniformconstantmotion.Sosheistheonewhocorrectly
expectshergrandfathertohaveagedlesswhenhegetsbackandtheycan
comparethemselvessidebyside.'
'Yes.Iseethat,'agreedMrTompkins.'ButIstilldon'tgetit.The
granddaughtercanusethetimedilationofrelativitytounderstandwhyher
grandfatherhasagedlessthat'snotaproblem.Butwon'tthegrandfatherbeat
alosstounderstandhowhisgranddaughterhasagedmore?Howdoeshe
accountforthat?'
'Ah,'repliedtheprofessor,'butthat'swhatIwasdealingwithinthesecond
lecture,remember?'
ItwashereMrTompkinshadtoexplainhowhehadmisseditbutwas
neverthelesstryingtocatchupbyreadingthenotes.
'Isee,'resumedtheprofessor,'Well,letmeputitlikethis:Inorderforthe
grandfathertounderstandwhat'sgoingon,hemusttakeaccountofwhathe
reckonsishappeningtohisgranddaughterwhilehechangeshismotion.'
'Andwhatwouldthatbe?'enquiredMrTompkins.
'Well,whileheistravellingalongwithuniformvelocity,hisgranddaughterages
lesstheusualtimedilation.Butoncethedriverappliesthebrakes,orlater
acceleratesbackonthereturnjourney,thenthathaspreciselytheopposite
effectonherageingprocessestheyappeartothegrandfathertospeedup.It's
duringthosebriefspellsofnonuniformmotionthatherageingracesway
aheadofthegrand

Page27
father's.So,eventhoughshethenresumeshernormalslowerageingrate
duringtheuniformcoastinghome,theneteffectwhenhegetsbackisthathe
expectshertohaveagedmorethanheandthatiswhathefinds.'
'Howextraordinary,'observedMrTompkins.'Butdoscientistshaveanyproof
ofthis?Arethereanyexperimentsthatshowthisdifferentialageing?'
'Certainly.InmyfirstlectureImentionedtheunstablemuonscirculatingaround
thathollowdoughnutattheCERNlaboratoryinGeneva.Becausetheyhada
speedclosetothatoflight,theytookthirtytimeslongertodisintegratethan
muonsthatjustsitstillinthelaboratory.Themovingmuonsarelikethe
grandfathertheyaretheonesperformingtheroundtripjourneyand
experiencingalltheforcesneededtosteerthemontheircourseandbringthem
backtotheirstartingpoint.Thestationarymuonsarelikethegranddaughter
theyageatthenormalratetheydisintegrateor'die'quickerthanthe
movingones.
'Infactthereisanotherwayofcheckingthisoutanindirectone:The
conditionsexistinginanonuniformlymovingsystemareanalogous,orshouldI
sayidentical,totheresultoftheactionofaverylargeforceofgravity.You
mayhavenoticedthatwhenyouareinaliftwhichisrapidlyaccelerated
upwardsitseemsthatyouhavegrownheavieronthecontrary,iftheliftstarts
downward(yourealiseitbestwhenthecablebreaks)youfeelasthoughyou
werelosingweight.Theexplanationisthatthe'gravitationalfield'createdby
accelerationisaddedto,orsubtractedfrom,thegravityoftheEarth.This
equivalencebetweenaccelerationandgravitymeansthatwecaninvestigatethe
effectofaccelerationontimebynotingwhateffectgravityhas.Itisfoundthat
theEarth'sgravitycausesatomicvibrationstooccurfasteratthetopofatall
towerthantheydoatthebottom.AndthisisexactlywhatEinsteinpredicted
wouldbetheeffectofaceleration.'
MrTompkinsfrowned.Hedidnotseetheconnectionbetweenspeededup
atomicvibrationsatthetopofatower,andthegranddaughter'ssupposed
speededupageing.Notinghispuzzlement,theprofessorcontinued.

Page28
'Supposeyouareatthebottomofthetowerlookingupatthosespeededup
atomicvibrationsoccurringatthetop.Youarebeingactedonbyanexternal
force:thefloorispushinguponyoutocountergravity.Itisthefactthatthis
upwardforcehascomeintoplaythatincreasesthetimeprocessesofanything
lyingintheupwardsdirection.Thefurtherawayfromyoutheatomsare,the
greaterwillbewhatwecallthegravitationalpotentialdifferencebetween
youandthoseatoms.Thatinturnmeansthemorespeededupthoseatomswill
becomparedwithatomsyouhavewithyouatthebottomofthetower.
'Now,inthesameway,ifyouareacteduponbyanexternalforceinthis
train...'Hepaused.'Infact,Idobelieveweareslowingdownthedriver
hasappliedthebrakes.Excellent.Atthisverymomentthebackofyourseatis
applyingaforcetoyoualteringyourvelocity.Itisactinginadirectiontowards
thebackofthetrain.Whilethisisgoingon,thetimeprocessesofeverything
occurringdownthelineinthatdirectionwillbespeededup,Andifthat'swhere
yourgranddaughteris,that'swhatwillbehappeningtoher.
'Whereareweanyway?'heaskedpeeringoutofthewindow.
Thetrainwaspassingslowlythroughalittlecountrysidestation.Therewasno
oneontheplatformapartfromaticketcollectorand,attheotherendofthe
platform,ayoungmansittingatthewindowofthebookingoffice,readinga
newspaper.Suddenlytheticketcollectorthrewhishandsintotheairandfell
downonhisface.MrTompkinsdidnothearthesoundofshooting,whichwas
probablylostinthenoiseofthetrain,butthepoolofbloodformingroundthe
bodyofthecollectorleftnodoubtastowhathadhappened.Theprofessor
immediatelypulledtheemergencycordandthetrainstoppedwithajerk.
Whentheygotoutofthecarriagetheyoungbookingclerkwasrunning
towardsthebody,carryingagun.Atthatmomentapolicemancameonthe
scene.
'Shotthroughtheheart,'saidthepolicemanafterinspectingthebody.He
turnedtotheyoungman.'Iamarrestingyouforthemurderoftheticket
collector.Handoverthatgun.'
Theclerklookedinhorroratthegun.

Page29

Page30
'It'snotmine!'hecried.'Ijustpickeditup.Itwaslyingoverthere.Iwas
readingandheardthisshotandcamerunning.Andtherewasthegunlyingon
theground.Themurderermusthavethrownitdownashemadehisgetaway.'
'Alikelystory,'saidthepoliceman.
'Itellyou,'insistedtheyoungman,'Ineverkilledhim.WhywouldIwanttodo
athinglikethattotheoldboy...?'
Helookedarounddesperately.'You,'hesaidpointingtoMrTompkinsand
theprofessor.'Youmusthaveseenwhathappened.Thesegentlemencan
testifythatIaminnocent.'
'Yes,'confirmedMrTompkins,'Isawitall.Thismanwasreadinghispaper
whentheticketcollectorwasshot.Hedidnothavethegunwithhimatthe
time.'
'Huh!Butyouwereonthetrain,'saidthepolicemandismissively.'Youwere
movingweren'tyou.Moving!Whatyousawcountsfornothing.That'sno
evidenceatall.Asseenfromtheplatformthemancouldhavetakenoutthe
gunandshotthevictim,eventhoughatthetimeofthedeathitseemedtoyou
onthetrainthathewasstillreading.Simultaneitydependsonthesystemfrom
whichyouobserveit,right?Iknowyoumeanwell,sir,butyou'rejustwasting
mytime.Comealongwithme,'hesaid,turningtotheunfortunateclerk.
'Er,excuseme,officer,'interruptedtheprofessor,'butIthinkyouaremakinga
mistakeaseriousmistake.It'strue,ofcourse,thatthenotionof
simultaneityishighlyrelativeinyourcountry.Itisalsotruethattwoeventsin
differentplacescouldbesimultaneousornot,dependingonthemotionofthe
observer.But,eveninyourcountry,noobservercanseetheconsequence
beforethecause.(Itakeityou'veneverreceivedaletterbeforeitwassent,or
gotdrunkbeforeopeningthebottle?)Nowthefactisthatwesawtheyoung
mantakeholdofthegunaftertheticketcollectorfelldead.AsIunderstandit,
youaresupposingthatbecauseofthemotionofthetrain,wecouldhaveseen
thecollectorgetshotbeforehismurdererfiredthegunthatcausedhisdeath.
Respectfully,Iwouldpointouttoyouthatthisisanimpossiblityevenin
yourcountry.Iknowthatinyourpoliceforce

Page31
youaretaughttoworkstrictlybywhatiswritteninyourinstructionmanual.I
suspectifyoulook,you'llprobablyfindsomethingaboutthis...'
Theprofessor'sauthorativetonemadequiteanimpressiononthepoliceman.
Pullingouthispocketbookofinstructions,hethumbedthroughitslowly.Soon
asheepishsmileofembarrassmentspreadacrosshisbig,redface.
'Yes,IthinkIseewhatyou'reonabout,sir,'headmitted.'Hereitis:section
37,subsection12,paragraphe.''Ifareliableobservationismadefromany
movingsystemwhatsoever,thatthesuspectwasatadistancedfromthescene
ofthecrimewithinatimeintervalcdoftheinstantatwhichthecrimewas
committed(cbeingthenaturalspeedlimit),thenthesuspectcouldnothave
beenthecauseofthecrimeandthushasanacceptablealibi."'
'Iamverysorry,sir,'hemumbledtotheclerk.'Thereseemstohavebeen
somemistake.Idoapologise.'
Theyoungmanlookedrelieved.
Turningtotheprofessor,thepolicemanadded,'Andthankyouverymuch,sir.
I'mnewtotheforce,yousee.I'mstillhavingtogetthehangofalltheserules.I
mustsayyou'vesavedmefromalotoftroublebackatheadquarters.Butif
you'llexcusemenow,Imustreportthemurder.'
Withthathebeganspeakingintohismobileradio.Aminutelater,justasMr
Tompkinsandtheprofessorwerereboardingthetrain,havingtakentheirleave
ofthegratefulclerk,theofficercalledouttothem.'Goodnews!Theyappear
tohavecaughttherealmurderer.Mycolleagueshavepickedupasuspect
runningawayfromthestation.Thankyouoncemore!'
Havingresumedtheirseats,MrTompkinsasked,'Imaybestupid,butIstill
don'tfeelIhavefullygraspedallthisbusinessaboutsimultaneity.AmIrightin
sayingthatitreallyhasnomeaninginthiscountry?'
'Ithas,'wastheanswer,'butonlytoacertainextentotherwiseIshouldnot
havebeenabletohelptheclerkjustthen.Yousee,the

Page32
existenceofanaturalspeedlimitforthemotionofanyobject,orthesendingof
anysignal,makessimultaneityinourordinarysenseofthewordloseits
meaning.Letmeputitthisway.Supposeyouhaveafriendlivinginafaraway
countrywithwhomyoucorrespondbyairmail.Let'ssayittakesthreedays
foralettertomakethejourney.SomethinghappenstoyouonSundayandyou
learnthatthesamethingisgoingtohappentoyourfriend.Itisclearthatyou
cannotlethimknowaboutitbeforeWednesday.Ontheotherhand,ifhe
knewinadvanceaboutthethingthatwasgoingtohappentoyou,thelastdate
toletyouknowaboutitwouldhavebeenthepreviousThursday.Thusfor
threedaysbeforehandyourfriendwasnotabletoinfluenceyourfateon
Sunday,norforthreedaysafterwardscouldheinturnbeaffectedbywhat
happenedtoyouonthatSunday.Fromthepointofviewofcausalityhewas,
sotospeak,excommunicatedfromyou.'
'Whataboutsendingamessageviaemail?'suggestedMrTompkins.
'Iwasassumingforthesakeofargumentthatthevelocityoftheplane
carryingthemailwasthemaximumpossiblevelocity.Inpointoffact,itisthe
velocityoflight(oranyotherformofelectromagneticradiationsuchas
radiowaves)thatisthemaximumvelocity.Youcannotsendasignal,orhave
anycausalinfluence,fasterthanthat.'
'I'msorry,you'velostme,'saidMrTompkins.'Whathasallthistodowith
simultaneity?'
'Well,'repliedtheprofessor.'TakeSundaylunch,forinstance.Bothyouand
yourfriendhaveSundaylunch.Butdoyouhaveitatthesametime
simultaneously?Oneobservermightsayyes.Buttherewouldbeothers,
makingtheirobservationsfromdifferenttrains,say,whowouldinsistthatyou
ateyourSundaydinneratthesametimeasyourfriendhadhisFriday
breakfastorTuesdaylunch.Butandthisisthepointinnowaycould
anybodyobserveyouandyourfriendsimultaneouslyhavingmealsmorethan
threedaysapart.Ifyoudid,you'dgetintoallsortsofcontradictions.For
example,itwouldbepossibleforyoutosendbymailtrainyourSundaylunch
leftoversforyour

Page33
friendtoeatforhisSundaylunch.Howcouldanobserverthenconcludethat
youwereeatingyourSundaylunchessimultaneouslyifyouhadclearlyalready
finishedyours?Andanotherthing...'
Atthispointtheirconversationwasinterrupted.AsuddenjoltawokeMr
Tompkins.Thetrainhadcometoahaltatitsdestination.MrTompkins
hurriedlygathereduphisthings,steppeddownfromthetrain,andwentin
searchofhishotel.
<><><><><><><><><><><><>
Nextmorning,whenMrTompkinscamedowntohavehisbreakfastinthe
longglassverandahofthehotel,asurpriseawaitedhim.Atthetableinthe
oppositecornersattheprofessor!Thiswasnotactuallyasgreatacoincidence
asonemightthink.AtthetimeMrTompkinshadgonetotheuniversityto
collectthelecturenotes,thesecretaryhaddrawnhisattentiontoanotice
statingthatthefollowingweek'slecturehadbeencancelled.MrTompkins
learnedfromthesecretarythatthiswasbecausetheprofessorwastakinga
week'svacation.Onremarkingtoherthathehopedhewasgoingsomewhere
nice,shehadmentionedthenameoftheresort.ItwasoneofMrTompkins's
favourites,thoughhehadnotbeenthereforanumberofyears.Itwasthisthat
hadgivenhimtheideaoffollowingtheprofessor'sexample.Thatwashow
theycametoendupinthesameseasidetownthoughitwasanadded
bonusforMrTompkinstofindhimselfbychanceattheverysamehotelasthe
professor.
ButwhattookMrTompkins'seyeevenmorethantheprofessorwasthe
persontowhomhewastalking:acasuallydressedwoman,notexactly
beautifulbutcertainlystrikingtolookat,shortishbutelegant,withlonghands
whichshemovedexpressivelyasshespokeandlaughed.MrTompkins
reckonedshemustbeinherearly30sprobablyafewyearsyoungerthan
himself.Hewonderedwhatayoungwomanlikethatsawinanoldmanlikethe
professor.
Atthatmomentshehappenedtoglanceinhisdirection.Tohisembarrassment,
beforehecouldlookaway,shecaughthimstaringather.Shegavehima
polite,littlesmile,beforeimmediatelyturningbacktohercompanion.The
professorhadmeanwhilefollowedher

Page34
Pleasedtomeetyou,Maud
gaze,andwasnowexamininghimintently.Astheireyesmethegaveabrief,
quizzicalnodasiftosay'Don'tIknowyoufromsomewhere?'
MrTompkinsfelthehadbettergoacrossandintroducehimself.Itfeltodd
doingitasecondtime,butherealized,ofcourse,thatyesterday'sencounter
hadbeenbutadream.Theprofessorwarmlyinvitedhimtochangetablesand
comeandjointhem.
'This,bytheway,ismydaughter,Maud,'hesaid.
'Yourdaughter!'exclaimedMrTompkins.'Oh.'
'Issomethingwrong?'enquiredtheprofessor.
'No,no,'stammeredMrTompkins.'No.Ofcoursenot.Pleasedtomeetyou,
Maud.'
Shesmiledandofferedherhand.Aftertheyhadresumedtheirseatsand
orderedbreakfast,theprofessorturnedtoMrTompkinsandasked'So,what
didyoumakeofallthatstuffoncurvedspaceinthelastlecture...?'

Page35
'Dad!'Maudgentlyadmonishedhim.Butheignoredher.Again,forwhat
seemedthesecondtime,MrTompkinshadtoapologizeforhavingmissedit.
Theprofessorwas,however,impressedthathehadgonetothetroubleof
procuringthelecturenotesandwastryingtocatchup.
'Good.You'reobviouslykeen,'hesaid.'Ifwegetboredwithallthislying
arounddoingnothingalldaylong,Icouldgiveyouatutorial.'
'Dad!'explodedMaudindignantly.'That'snotwhatwe'reherefor.You're
supposedtobegettingawayfromitallforaweek.'
Hejustlaughed.'Alwaystellingmeoff,'hesaid,pattingthebackofherhand
affectionately.'Theholiday'sheridea.'
'Andyourdoctor's,remember,'sheremindedhim.
'Well,anyway,'saidMrTompkins,'Icertainlygotalotoutofthefirstlecture.'
Helaughedashewentontodescribehisdreamsaboutrelativitylandhow
thestreetshadbecomevisiblyshrunk,andhowthetimedilationeffectshad
beengreatlymagnified.
'Nowthat'swhatI'vebeentellingyouabout,'saidMaudtoherfather.'If
you'retogivelecturestothepublic,yousimplyhavetomakethemmore
concrete.Peoplehavetorelatetheeffectsyou'retalkingabouttoeverydaylife.
IreckonyououghttoincluderelativitylandinyourlecturestakeatipfromMr
Tompkinshere.You'retooabstracttoo,too...academic.'
'Tooacademic,'theprofessorrepeatedwithachuckle.'She'salwaysonabout
that.'
'Well,youare.'
'OK,OK,'heconceded.'I'llthinkaboutit.Mindyou,'headded,'it'snot
right.Evenifthespeedlimitweresomethinglike20milesperhour,you
wouldn'tseeapassingbicycleshortened.'
'Youwouldn't?'queriedMrTompkins,lookingconfused.
'Notassuch.No.Thepointisthatwhatyouseewithyoureyes,orwhat
youwouldphotographwithacameradependsonwhatlightarrivesatthe
eyeorlensatthesameinstantintime.Now,iflightfromtherearofthebike
hasfurthertotraveltoyouthanlightfromthefront,thenthelightarrivingata
particularpointintimefromeachend

Page36
musthavestartedoutatdifferenttimeswhenthebikewasindifferent
positions.Lightfromtherearmusthavestartedoutfromandwillappearto
becomingfromtheplacewheretherearofthebikewaswhenitwas
furtherdowntheroad...'
MrTompkinswasn'tquitefollowingthis,sotheprofessorstopped.Hethought
foramoment,thenshrugged.
'It'sasmallpoint.It'sjustthatthefinitespeedoflightdistortswhatyousee.
Whatyouwouldactuallyseeinrelativitylandisabikethatappearedtobe
rotated.'
'Rotated!'exclaimedMrTompkins.
'Yes.That'showithappenstoworkout.Itappearsrotated,ratherthan
shortened.It'sonlywhenyoutakethisrawobservationthedataonyour
photograph,sayandyoumakedueallowanceforthedifferentjourney
timesofthelightarrivingatdifferentpointsonthephoto,thatyoucalculate
(note,calculateratherthansee)it'sonlythenyouconcludethattogetthat
picture,thebikemustbelengthcontracted.'
'Thereyougoagain.Academicnitpicking,'interruptedMaud.
'Nitpicking!'theprofessorexploded.'It'snothingofthesort...'
'Ihavetogobacktomyroom.Ineedmysketchpad,'sheannounced.'I'll
leaveyoutwotoit.Seeyouforlunch.'
Maudhavingleft,MrTompkinsremarked,'Itakeitshelikesdoingabitof
drawingthen?'
'Abitof...'Theprofessorgavehimawarninglook.'Ishouldn'tletherhear
yousaythat.Maudisanartistaprofessionalartist.She'smadequitea
nameforherself.It'snoteveryonegetsaretrospectiveexhibitioninaBond
Streetgallery.AndtherewasthatprofileonherinTheTimeslastmonth.'
'Really!'exclaimedMrTompkins.'Youmustbeveryproudofher.'
'Iamindeed.It'sallturnedoutwell,verywellintheend.'
'Intheend?Whatdoyoumean...?'
'Ohnothing.It'sjustthatthiswasn'texactlywhatIhadhadinmindforher.She
wascutouttobeaphysicistatonestage.Verygoodshewastopofher
yearinbothmathsandphysicsatcollege.Thensuddenly,shegaveitallup.
Justlikethat...'Hisvoicetrailedoff.

Page37
Pullinghimselftogether,hecontinued'ButasIsaid,she'smadeasuccessof
herselfandshe'shappy.WhatmorecouldIwant?'Heglancedoutofthe
diningroomwindow.'Caretojoinme?Wecouldgrabacoupleofdeckchairs
beforetheyallgo,and...'headdedconspiratorially,makingsureMaudwas
notaround,'wecouldtalkshop.'
Theymadetheirwaytothebeachandsettleddowninaquietspot.
'So,'begantheprofessor,'let'sthinkaboutcurvedspace.Wecandothisbest
bythinkingofasurfaceatwodimensionalsurfacelikethatoftheEarth.
Imaginesomeoiltycoondecidestoseewhetherhispetrolstationsare
distributeduniformlythroughoutsomecountry,sayAmerica.Todothis,he
givesorderstohisoffice,somewhereinthemiddleofthecountry(Kansas
City,say).Theyaretocountthenumberofstationswithinacertaindistanceof
thecity,thenthenumberwithintwicethatdistance,threetimes,andsoon.He
remembersfrom
OilstationsconcentratednearKansasCity

Page38
hisschooldaysthattheareaofacircleisproportionaltothesquareofits
radius,andexpectsthatinthecaseofauniformdistribution,thenumberof
stationscountedshouldincreaselikethesequenceofnumbers1,4,9,16,and
soon.Whenthereportcomesin,heissurprisedtoseethattheactualnumber
ofstationsisincreasingsomewhatmoreslowly,going,letussay,1,3.9,8.6,
14.7,andsoon."Idon'tunderstand,"hewouldexclaim"mymanagersdonot
seemtoknowtheirjob.Whatisthegreatideaofconcentratingthestations
closetoKansasCity?"Butisherightinthisconclusion?'
'Itsoundslikeit,'agreedMrTompkins.
'Heisnot,'declaredtheprofessor.'HehasforgottenthattheEarth'ssurfaceis
notaplanebutasphere.Andonaspheretheareawithinagivenradiusgrows
moreslowlywiththeradiusthanonaplane.Takethatballoverthere,'hesaid,
indicatingtowardsagirlthrowingabeachballtoherfather.'Supposethat
weretobeaglobewithanorthpolemarkedonit.Ifyoustartfromthatnorth
poleascentre,thenthecirclewithradiusequaltoahalfmeridianisthe
equator,andtheareaincludedisthenorthernhemisphere.Increasetheradius
twiceandyouwillgetinalltheEarth'ssurfacetheareawillincreaseonlytwice
insteadoffourtimesasitwouldonaplane.Thedifferenceisduetothe
positivecurvatureofthesurface.OK?'
'Yes,Ithinkso,'saidMrTompkins.'Butwhydidyousay"positive"?Isthere
suchathingas"negativecurvature"?'
'Certainly.'Hiseyesrovedaroundthebeachsearchingly.'There!That'san
exampleofitrightoverthere,'hesaid,pointingtoadonkeygivingaridetoa
boy.'Thesaddle.Thesurfaceofthatdonkey'ssaddleisanexampleof
negativecurvature.'
'Asaddle?'repeatedMrTompkins.
'Yes,oronthesurfaceoftheEarth,asaddlepassbetweentwomountains.
Supposeabotanistlivesinamountainhutsituatedonsuchasaddlepassandis
interestedinthedensityofgrowthofpinesaroundthehut.Ifhecountsthe
numberofpinesgrowingwithinonehundred,twohundred,andsoonmetres
fromthehut,hewillfindthatthenumberofpinesincreasesfaster thanthe
squareofthedistancethe

Page39
oppositeofwhatwehadfortheglobe.Forasaddlesurface,theareaincluded
withinagivenradiusislargerthanonaplane.Suchsurfacesaresaidto
possessanegativecurvature.Ifyoutrytospreadasaddlesurfaceonaplane
youwillhavetomakefoldsinit,whereasdoingthesamewithaspherical
surfaceyouwillprobablytearitifitisnotelastic.'
'Isee,'saidMrTompkins.
'Anotherthingaboutthesesaddlesurfaces,'theprofessorcontinued.'Thearea
ofasphereisfinite(4 r
2
)thesurfaceclosesbackonitself.Butit'snotlike
thatwithasaddle.Asaddlesurfacecould,in
Amountainhutinasaddlepass

Page40
principle,beextendedindefinitelyinalldirections.It'san"open"surface,nota
"closed"one.Ofcourse,inmyexampleofasaddlepassthesurfaceceasesto
possessnegativecurvatureassoonasyouwalkoutofthemountainsandgo
overintothepositivelycurvedsurfaceoftheEarth.Butofcourseyoucan
imagineasurfacewhichpreservesitsnegativecurvatureeverywhere.'
'OK,'saidMrTompkins.'Butifyou'llforgiveme,thisallseemsvery
straightforward.Whyareyoutellingme...?'
'Ah,well,thepointisthatexactlythesamekindofthinkingappliestoTHREE
dimensionalspacenotjusttothetwodimensional"spaces"orsurfaces
we'vebeendealingwithsofar.Threedimensionalspacecanbecurved.'
'Buthow...?'
'Samereasoningasbefore.Weusethesametechnique.Let'ssupposewe
haveobjectsdistributeduniformlythroughoutspacethreedimensional
spacenow,notjustpetrolstationsdistributedonthetwodimensionalsurface
oftheEarth.Theymightbestarsnoworbetterstillgalaxies(greatswirling
collectionsofstarsscatteredthroughoutspace),orclustersofgalaxies.
Supposetheclustersweretobemoreorlessuniformlydistributedmeaning
thedistancebetweenthemwasalwaysthesame.OK,youcounttheirnumber
withindifferentdistancesfromyou.Ifthisnumbergrowsasthecubeofthe
distance,thespaceisflat.(Youknowofcoursethatthevolumeofasphere
goesupasthecubeofitsradiusaccordingtonormalEuclidean
geometry?')'
MrTompkinsnodded.
'OK,then,'theprofessorcontinued.'Ifthat'showthenumberofgalaxy
clustersgoesup,thenthespaceissaidtobe'flat'it'sgenuinelyEuclidean.
Butifwefindthegrowthisslowerorfaster,thespacepossessesapositiveor
negativecurvature.'
'So,areyousayingthatinthecaseofpositivecurvaturethespacehasless
volumewithinagivendistance,andinthecaseofnegativecurvaturemore
volume?'venturedMrTompkins.
'Justso,'smiledtheprofessor.

Page41
'Butthatwouldmean,ifspacewerepositivelycurvedthisspaceallaround
usherethenthevolumeofthatbeachballisnot4/3 r
3
,butsomething
smaller?'
'That'sright.Andifit'sacaseofnegativecurvaturethenitwillbemore.Mind
you,'theprofessoradded,'withaspherethatsmallthedifferencewouldbe
minuteyou'dneverbeabletodetectit.Youronlyhopewouldbetomeasure
overvastdistances,likethoseonedealswithinastronomythat'swhyIwas
talkingofthedistancesbetweengalaxyclustersspreadrightthroughoutthe
Universe.'
'Thisisextraordinary,'murmuredMrTompkins.
'Yes,'agreedtheprofessor.'Butthere'smoretocome.Ifthecurvatureis
negative,weexpectthethreedimensionalspacetoextendindefinitelyinall
directionslikethetwodimensionalsaddlesurface.Ontheotherhand,a
positivecurvaturewouldimplythatthreedimensionalspaceisfiniteand
closed.'
'Whatdoesthatmean?'
'Whatdoesthatmean?'musedtheprofessor.'Itwouldmeanthatifyoutook
offverticallyinaspacerocketfromtheNorthPole,andyoucontinuedinthe
samedirectioninastraightlineeventuallyyouwouldarrivebackatthe
Earth,approachingitfromtheoppositedirection,andlandingattheSouth
Pole.'
'Butthat'simpossible!'exclaimedMrTompkins.
'Asimpossibleasanexplorercircumnavigatingtheglobe,alwaystravelling
exactlydueWest,assumingtheEarthtobeflat,sobelievingheisgetting
furtherandfurtherawayfromhisstartingpointonlytofindhimselfbackat
thepointwherehestarted,approachingitfromtheEast.Andanotherthing...
'
'Notanother,'protestedMrTompkins,hisheadalreadyinaspin.
'TheUniverseisexpanding,'continuedtheprofessorregardless.'Thosegalaxy
clustersItoldyouaboutarerecedingintothedistance.Thefurtheroffthe
cluster,thefasteritismovingaway.It'sallduetotheBigBang.You'veheard
oftheBigBang,Itakeit?'
MrTompkinsnodded,wonderingwhereMaudhadgone.

Page42
'Good,'hiscompanionresumed.'That'showtheUniversebegan.Therewasa
BigBangwitheverythinginitiallycomingfromapoint.Therewasnothing
beforetheBigBangnospace,notime,absolutelynothing.That'swhen
everythingbegan.Theclustersofgalaxiesarestillflyingapartintheaftermath
ofthatgiganticexplosion.Buttheyareslowingdownduetothemutual
gravitationalforcesbetweenthem.Thecrucialquestioniswhethertheclusters
aremovingapartfastenoughtoescapethepulloftheirgravity(inwhichcase
theUniversewillexpandforever),orwhetheronedaytheywillcometoahalt,
andthereaftergetpulledbacktogether.ThatwouldgiverisetoaBigCrunch.'
'WhatwouldhappenthenafterthisBigCrunch?'askedMrTompkins,his
interestonceagainaroused.
'Well,thatmightbethat.Theend.TheUniversegoesoutofexistence.Orit
couldreboundaBigBounce.ItcouldbeaUniversethatisoscillating:
expansion,followedbycontraction,followedbyafurthercycleofexpansion,
andsoonforalltime.'
'Andwhat'sittobe?'askedMrTompkins.'Willtheexpansiongoonforever,
orwillitonedayturnintoaBigCrunch?'
'Notsure.ItdependsonhowmuchmatterthereisintheUniversethe
matterproducingtheslowingdowngravitationalforce.Itlooksveryfinely
balanced.Theaveragedensityofmatterisclosetowhatwecallthecritical
valuethelimitingvaluethatseparatesthetwoscenarios.It'shardtotell
becausewenowknowthatmostofthematterintheUniverseisnotluminous
it'snotlikethematterboundupinstarsitdoesnotshine.Wecallitdark
matter.Beingdark,it'smuchhardertodetectoutthere,butweknowitmakes
upatleast99%ofallmatterandit'sthatwhichbringsthetotaldensity
closetothecriticalvalue.'
'That'sashame,'commentedMrTompkins.'Iwouldliketohaveknownwhich
waytheUniversewasgoingtogo.Whatbadluckthedensitymakingitso
difficulttodecide.'
'Well...yesandno.Thefactthatthedensityhascomeoutsoclosetocritical
(ofallthepossiblevaluesitcouldconceivablyhave

Page43
takenon)raisesthesuspicionthattheremustbesomedeepunderlyingreason
forit.ManypeoplesuspectthatearlyonintheBigBangtherewassome
mechanismatworkthatautomaticallyledtothedensitytakingonthatspecial
value.Inotherwords,it'snocoincidencethatthedensitycomesout
somewherenearthecriticalvalueitdoesn'tjusthappenbychanceitactually
hastohavethecriticalvalue.Infactwethinkweknowwhatthatmechanism
is.It'scalledinflationtheory...'
'Jargon,Dad!'
ThepairwerestartledbyMaud'sarrival.Shehadcomeupfrombehindthem
whiletheywerestillengrossedintheirconversation.'Giveitarest,'shesaid.
'Inaminute,'theprofessorinsisted.Turningbacktohisfriend,hecontinued,'I
wasjustabouttosaybeforeweweresorudelyinterruptedallthese
thingswe'vebeentalkingaboutareconnected.Ifthereisenoughmatterto
causeaBigCrunch,thentherewillbeenoughtoproducepositivecurvature,
andthiswillresultinaclosedUniversewithafinitevolume.Ontheotherhand,
ifthereisnotenoughmatter...'Hepaused,gesturingtoMrTompkinsthatit
washisturntotakeupthestory.
'Er.If,asyousay,thereisnotenoughmatter...er...'MrTompkinsfelt
acutelyembarrassednotparticularlyaboutmakingafoolofhimselfbefore
histeacher,butsomehowthethoughtthatMaudwaslisteningintentlymadeit
muchworse.'Yes,asIwassaying,ifthere'snotenoughmattertogiveyou
criticaldensity,thentheUniversewillexpandforever,and...and...er,I'm
justguessing...You'dgetnegativecurvature...?andtheUniversewould
beinfinitelybig...?'
'Excellent!'exclaimedtheprofessor,'Whatapupil!'
'Yes.Verygood,'Maudagreed.'Butweallknowthedensityislikelytobe
critical,sotheexpansionwilleventuallycometoahaltbutonlyintheinfinite
future.I'vehearditallbefore.Nowareyoucomingforadip?'
ItwasawhilebeforeMrTompkinsrealizedthatthequestionwasaddressed
tohim.'Me?!YoumeantwouldIcomeforaswim?'

Page44
'Well,youdon'tthinkImeanthim,doyou?!'shelaughed.
'Er,wellI'mnotdressedforit.I'llhavetogoandgetmyswimmingtrunks.'
'Ofcourse.Ihadassumedyouwouldbewearingsomething,'shesaidwitha
knowinglook.

Page45
4
TheNotesoftheProfessor'sLectureonCurvedSpace
Ladiesandgentlemen:
Today'stopiciscurvedspaceanditsrelationtothephenomenaofgravitation.
There'sclearlynoproblemimaginingacurvedlineoracurvedsurface.But
whatcouldwepossiblymeanbyacurvedspaceacurvedthree
dimensionalspace?Itisobviouslyimpossibletoformamentalpictureofwhat
acurvedthreedimensionalspacewouldlooklike.Todothatonewouldhave
somehowtoviewitfrom'outside'sotospeakfromsomeotherdimension
(inthesamewayasweviewthecurvatureofatwodimensionalsurfaceby
seeinghowitextendsintothethirddimension).However,thereisanother
approachtotheinvestigationofcurvatureamathematicalapproach,rather
thanonerelyingonvisualisation.
Takefirstofallcurvatureinatwodimensionalsurface.Wemathematicianscall
thissurfacecurvedifthepropertiesofgeometricalfiguresdrawnonitare
differentfromthoseonaplane.Wedeterminethedegreeofthecurvatureby
measuringthedeviationfromtheclassicalrulesofEuclid.Forexample,ifyou
drawatriangleonaflatpieceofpaperthesumofitsanglesisequaltotwo
rightangles(asyouknowfromelementarygeometry).Youcanbendthis
papertogiveitacylindrical,aconical,orstillmorecomplicatedshape,butthe
sumoftheanglesinthetriangledrawnuponitwillalwaysremainequaltotwo
rightangles.Thegeometryofthesurface,therefore,doesnotchangewithsuch
deformations.Fromthepointofviewofthe'internal'orintrinsiccurvature,the
surfacesobtained

Page46
arejustasflatasaplane(eventhoughwewouldcommonlycallthem'curved').
Bywayofcontrast,youcannotfitthesheetofpaperontothesurfaceofa
sphereorasaddlenotwithoutsquashingorstretchingit.Thisisbecausethe
geometryofthesurfaceofaglobe,say,isfundamentallydifferentfromthatofa
flatsurface.Takeforinstanceatriangleonaglobe.Todrawatriangleonthis
surfacewewouldneedtheequivalentofthree'straightlines'.Asonaflat
surface,wedefinea'straightline'onthecurvedsurfacetobetheshortest
distancebetweentwopoints.Thatmeanswearedealingwitharcsofgreat
circlesgreatcirclesbeingtheintersectionofthesphericalsurfacewith
planesdrawnthroughthecentreoftheglobe(forexample,linesoflongitudeon
theEartharegreatcircles).Ifyouweretodrawatriangleusingsucharcs,you
wouldfindthesimpletheoremsofEuclideangeometrywouldnolongerhold.
Infact,atriangleformed,forexample,bythenorthernhalvesoftwomeridians
andthesectionoftheequatorbetweenthem,willhavetworightanglesatits
baseandanarbitraryangleatthetopasumclearlygreaterthantworight
angles.
Ontheotherhand,withatriangledrawnonasaddlesurface,youwouldfind
thatthesumofitsangleswouldalwaysbesmallerthantworightangles.
Thus,todeterminethecurvatureofasurfaceitisnecessarytostudythe
geometryonthissurface.Merelylookingatitfromoutsidecanbemisleading.
Bylookingyouwouldprobablyplacethesurfaceofacylinderinthesame
classasthesurfaceofaglobe.Butaswehavenoted,thefirstisactuallythe
sameasaflatsurface,andonlythesecondiscurvedinthesenseofhavingan
intrinsiccurvature.Assoonasyougetaccustomedtothisstrictmathematical
notionofcurvature,youshouldhavenodifficultyinunderstandingwhata
physicistmeansindiscussingwhetherthethreedimensionalspaceinwhichwe
liveiscurvedornot.Itisunnecessarytoget'outside'the3Dspacetosee
whetherit'looks'curved.Rather,weremainwithinthespace,andcarryout
experimentstoseewhetherthecommonlawsofEuclideangeometryholdor
not.

Page47
Butyoumightbewonderingwhyweshouldinanycaseexpectthegeometry
ofspacetobeanythingotherthan'commonsense'Euclidean.Inordertoshow
youthatgeometrycanindeeddependonphysicalconditions,letusimaginea
largeroundplatformuniformlyrotatingarounditsaxislikeaturntable.Suppose
smallmeasuringrulersareplacedendtoendinastraightlinealongaradius
fromthecentretoapointontheperiphery.Additionalrulersareplacedaround
theperipherytoformacircle.
AccordingtoanobserverA,stationaryrelativetotheroominwhichthe
platformissituated,therulersplacedaroundtheperipheryoftheturntableare
movinginthedirectionoftheirlengthsastheturntablerotates.Theywill
thereforebelengthcontracted(aswelearnedfromthefirstlecture).It
thereforetakesmorerulerstocompletethecirclethanwouldhavebeen
necessaryifthetablehadbeenstationary.Therulerslyingalongtheradius,
orientedsoastolieina
Ittakesmorerulerstocompletethecircle

Page48
directionatrightanglestothemotion,willnotundergolengthcontraction.It
willthereforetakethesamenumbertospanthedistancefromthecentreofthe
tabletoitsperipheryregardlessofthetable'smotion.
Thus,thedistancemeasuredroundthecircumference,C,(intermsofthe
numberofrulersrequired)willbegreaterthanthenormal2 r,rbeingthe
measuredradius.
Aswehaveseen,allthismakesperfectsensetoobserverAintermsofthe
lengthcontractionproducedbythemotionoftherulersaroundtheperiphery.
ButwhatofanobserverB,placedatthecentreoftheturntableandrotating
withit?Whatwillshemakeofitall?Shewouldseethesamenumberofrulers
involvedasdidobserverA,andsowouldlikewiseconcludethattheratioof
circumferencetoradiusdidnotconformwithEuclideangeometry.Butsuppose
theplatformwereaclosedroomwithoutwindows,shewouldobserveno
motion.Towhatthenwouldsheattributetheunusualgeometry?
ObserverBmightnotknowaboutthemotion,butshewouldbeawarethat
therewassomethingoddabouthersurroundings.Shewouldnotethatobjects
placedatdifferentlocationsonthetabledonotremainstationary.They
accelerateawayfromthecentre,theaccelerationbeingdependentonthe
distanceoftheirlocationfromthecentre.Inotherwords,theyappeartobe
subjecttoaforce(acentrifugalforce).Itisapeculiarforceinthatitcausesall
objectstoacceleratefromanyparticularlocationwithidenticallythesame
accelerationregardlessofmass.Inotherwords,the'force'appearstoadjust
itsstrengthautomaticallytomatchthemassoftheobject,thusalways
producingtheaccelerationcharacteristicofthelocation.ObserverBconcludes
thattheremustbesomeconnectionbetweenthis'force'andthenonEuclidean
geometryshefinds.
Notonlythat,considerthepathtakenbyalightbeam.Forthestationary
observerA,lightalwaystravelsinstraightlines.Butsupposeabeamwereto
skimacrossthesurfaceoftherotatingplatform.Thoughitwouldcontinueto
moveinastraightlineaccordingtoA,itspathastracedoutoverthesurfaceof
therotatingplatformwouldnotbestraight.Thisisbecauseittakesafinitetime
forthelighttocross

Page49
theplatform,andinthattime,thetablerotatesthroughacertainangle.(Itisas
thoughyouweretopullasharpknifeinastraightlineacrossarotatingdisc
thescratchonthesurfacewouldbecurvedratherthanstraight.)Thus,
observerBatthecentreofherrotatingplatformwouldfindthatalightbeam
passingfromonesidetotheotherwouldfollowacurved,ratherthanstraight,
path.Thisphenomenon,liketheoneinvolvingthecircumferenceandthe
radius,shewouldhavetoattributetothe'force'characterisingthespecial
physicalconditionsatworkinhersurroundings.
This'force'notonlyaffectsgeometry,includingthepathsoflightbeams,but
alsothepassageoftime.Thiscanbedemonstratedbyplacingaclockonthe
peripheryoftherotatingplatform.ObserverBfindsthatitrunsmoreslowly
thanaclockplacedatthecentreofherplatform.Thisphenomenonismost
readilyunderstoodfromthepointofviewofthestationaryobserverA.Asfar
asheisconcernedtheclockplacedattheperipheryismovingduetothe
table'srotation,andisthustimedilatedcomparedwiththeclockatthecentre,
whichremainsatthesameposition.ObserverB,notawareofthemotion,must
attributetheslowingdownoftheclocktothepresenceofthe'force'.Thus,we
seethatbothgeometryandthepassageoftimecanbeafunctionofphysical
circumstances.
Wenowturntoadifferentphysicalsituationthatwhichwefindclosetothe
surfaceoftheEarth.AllobjectsarepulledtowardsthecentreoftheEarthby
theforceofgravity.Thiscanberegardedassomewhatsimilartothewayall
objectsplacedontherotatingplatformarepulledtowardstheperiphery.The
similarityisstrengthenedwhenwefurthernotethattheaccelerationundergone
bytheobjectisindependentofitsmassitdependssolelyonthelocation.The
correspondencebetweengravityandacceleratedmotioncanbeseeneven
moreclearlyinthefollowingexample:
Supposeaspacecraftfloatsfreelysomewhereinspacesofarfromanystars
thatthereisnoforceofgravityinsideit.Allobjectsinsidesuchacraft,
includingtheastronauttravellinginit,willthushavenoweightandwillfloat
freely.Nowtheenginesareswitchedon,andthe

Page50
craftgainsvelocity.Whatwillhappeninside?Itiseasytoseethat,aslongas
thecraftisaccelerated,alltheobjectsinitsinteriorwillshowatendencyto
movetowardsthebackendofthecraftwhatwemightcallthe'floor'.To
saythesamethinginanotherway,thefloorwillbemovingtowardsthese
objects.If,forexample,ourastronautholdsanappleinherhandandthenlets
itgo,theapplewillcontinuetomove(relativetothesurroundingstars)witha
constantvelocitythevelocitywithwhichthecraftwasmovingatthe
momentwhentheapplewasreleased.Butthecraftitselfisaccelerated
consequentlythefloor,movingallthetimefasterandfaster,willovertakethe
appleandhitit.Fromthismomenton,theapplewillremainpermanentlyin
contactwiththefloor,beingpressedtoitbythesteadyacceleration.
Fortheastronautinside,however,thiswilllookasiftheapple'fallsdown'with
acertainacceleration,andafterhittingthefloorremainspressedtoitbyits
own'weight'.Droppingdifferentobjects,shewillnoticefurthermorethatallof
themfallwithexactlyequalaccelerations(neglectingthefrictionoftheair)and
willrememberthatthisisexactlytheruleoffreefalldiscoveredbyGalileo
GalileibydroppingballsfromtheleaningtowerofPisa.Infacttheastronaut
willnotnoticeanydifferencebetweenthephenomenaintheaccelerated
cabinandtheordinaryphenomenaofgravity.Ifshechooses,shecanusea
clockwithapendulum,putbooksonashelfwithoutanydangeroftheir
floatingaway,andhangapictureonanailinthewall.Thepicturemightinfact
beaportraitofAlbertEinsteintheonewhofirstindicatedthisequivalence
oftheaccelerationofasystemofreferenceontheonehand,andofafieldof
gravityontheother.ItwasonthissimplebasisthatEinsteindevelopedtheso
calledgeneraltheoryofrelativity.Hisspecialtheoryofrelativityiswhatwe
dealtwithlasttime:theeffectsonspaceandtimeofuniformconstantmotion.
Thegeneraltheoryaddstothistheeffectsonspaceandtimeofgravity.And,
asIsaid,thisisdonethroughnotingtheequivalenceofgravityandaccelerated
motion.
Forexample,takethecaseofalightbeam.Wenotedthatundertheconditions
ofcentrifugalaccelerationontherotatingplatform,a

Page51
Alightbeamcrossinganacceleratedspacecraft

Page52
lightbeamwouldappeartofollowacurvedpath.Thesameappliestoalight
beamcrossinganacceleratedspacecraft.Anoutsideobserverwouldseesuch
alightbeammoveinastraightline.Thebeamstartsofflinedupwiththepoint
exactlyoppositeonthefacingwall.Ifthecrafthadbeenstationary,itwould
havehitthatpoint.Butbecauseofthecraft'saccelerationduringthepassageof
thebeamacrossthecabin,thefarwallmoves.Asaresult,thebeamhitsa
pointbehindtheoneatwhichithadbeenoriginallyaimedapointcloserto
the'floor'ofthecraft.Theastronautmakesasimilarobservation:thebeam
originallystartsoutaimingforthepointdirectlyopposite,butendsupatapoint
closertothe'floor'ofthecraft.Asfarassheisconcerned,thebeamfollowed
acurvedpathand'fell'towardsthe'floor'.Notonlythatbutshefindsher
geometryhasgonewrongthesumoftheanglesofatriangleformedbythree
lightraysarenotequaltworightangles,andtheratioofthecircumferenceofa
circletoitsradiusisnotequalto2 .
Wecomenowtothequestionofgreatestimportance.Wehavejustseenthat
inanacceleratedsystemofreference,notonlydoobjects'fall',butalight
beamalso'falls'towardsthe'floor',followingacurvedpath.Wethereforeask
whether,inaccordancewiththeequivalenceprinciple,wearejustifiedin
concludingthatlightbeamswillbebentbygravity.
Inordertogetameasurefortheexpectedcurvatureofalightrayinthefieldof
gravity,weconsiderhowmuchbendingweexpectinthecaseofthe
acceleratingspacecraft.Iflisthedistanceacrossthecabin,thenthetimet
takenbylighttocrossitisgivenby
Duringthistime,theship,movingwiththeaccelerationg,willcoverthe
distanceLgivenbythefollowingformulaofelementarymechanics:

Page53
Thus,theanglerepresentingthechangeofthedirectionofthelightrayisofthe
orderofmagnitude
whereangleisinradians(1radianisabout57degrees).Weseethatis
greaterthelargerthedistancelwhichthelighthastravelledinthegravitational
field.Here,theaccelerationgofthecrafthas,ofcourse,tobeinterpretedas
theaccelerationduetogravity.IfIsendabeamoflightacrossthislecture
room,Icantakeltoberoughly10metres.Theaccelerationofgravitygonthe
surfaceoftheEarthis9.81m/s
2
,and
Thusyoucanseethatthecurvatureoflightcandefinitelynotbeobserved
undersuchconditions.However,nearthesurfaceoftheSun,gis270m/s
2
,
andthetotalpathtravelledinthegravitationalfieldoftheSunisverylarge.The
exactcalculationsshowthatthevalueforthedeviationofalightraypassing
nearthesolarsurfaceshouldbe1.75secondsofarc.Thisisindeedthevalue
observedbyastronomersforthedisplacementoftheapparentpositionofstars
seennearthesolarlimbduringatotaleclipse,comparedwiththeirpositionsat
nighttimeatothertimesoftheyearwhentheSunisinadifferentpartofthe
sky.Indeed,sincetheadventofastronomyusingradioemissionsfromstrongly
emittinggalaxiescalledquasars,onedoesnotevenneedtowaitforaneclipse
radiowavesoriginatingfromquasarsandpassingclosetothelimboftheSun
canbedetectedwithoutdifficultyinbroaddaylight.Itistheseobservationsthat
giveusourmostprecisemeasurementsofthebendingoflight.
Soweconcludethatthebendingoflightthatwefoundintheaccelerated
systemdoesindeedapplyequivalentlytoagravitationalfield.Whataboutthe
otherstrangeeffectourobserverBfoundontherotating

Page54
platformtheonewherebyaclockplacedatsomedistancefromheronthe
peripheryoftheplatformwasfoundtoberunningslow?Wouldthismeanthat
aclockplacedatsomedistancefromusinagravitationalfieldwouldbehave
similarly?Inotherwords,aretheeffectsofaccelerationandtheeffectsof
gravitynotonlyverysimilar,butidentical?
Theanswertothiscanbegivenonlybydirectexperiments.And,indeed,these
doprovethattimecanbeaffectedinanordinaryfieldofgravity.Theeffects
predictedthroughtheequivalenceofacceleratingmotionandgravitational
fieldsareverysmall:thatiswhytheyhavebeendiscoveredonlyafterscientists
startedlookingspeciallyforthem.
Usingtheexampleoftherotatingplatformdiscussedbefore,wecaneasily
estimatetheorderofmagnitudeoftheexpectedchangeoftheclockrate.Itis
knownfromelementarymechanicsthatthecentrifugalforceactingonaparticle
ofunitmass,locatedatadistancerfromthecentre,isgivenbytheformula
where istheconstantangularvelocityofrotationofourplatform.Thetotal
workdonebythisforcewhilemovingtheparticleoutfromthecentretothe
peripheryisthen
whereRistheradiusoftheplatform.
Accordingtotheabovestatedequivalenceprinciple,wehavetoidentifyF
withtheforceofgravityontheplatform,andWwiththedifferenceof
gravitationalpotentialbetweenthecentreandtheperiphery.
Now,wemustrememberthat,aswehaveseeninthepreviouslecture,the
slowingdownoftheclockmovingwiththevelocityvisgivenbythefactor

Page55
Thiscanbeapproximatedby
Ifvissmallascomparedwithc,wecanneglectotherterms.Accordingtothe
definitionoftheangularvelocitywehavev=R andthe'slowingdownfactor'
becomes
givingthechangeofrateoftheclockintermsofthedifferenceofgravitational
potentialsattheplacesoftheirlocation.
So,ifweimagineplacingoneclockonthegroundandanotheronthetopof
theEiffeltower(about300metreshigh)thedifferenceofpotentialbetween
themwillbesosmallthattheclockonthegroundwillgosloweronlybya
factor0.999,999,999,999,97comparedwiththatatthetop.
Infact,anexperimentcarriedoutbeR.V.PoundandG.A.Rebkahas
demonstratedthissmalleffectbyexaminingthedifferenceintheratesofatomic
vibrationsatthetopandbottomofatower22.5metreshigh.Thesameeffect
hasalsobeenfoundbycomparingtheratesofatomicclocksflowninaircraft
withthoseontheground.Agreementwithobservationisobtainedonlyif,in
additiontothetimedilationcausedbytheaircraft'smotion(specialrelativity),
onetakesaccountoftheslowingdownoftheEarthboundclockcompared
withthehighflyingoneduetothedifferenceingravitationalpotential.
Considerablylargereffectsthanthese,however,aretobefoundonceone
involvesthemuchstrongergravityoftheSun.Thedifferenceofgravitational
potentialbetweenthesurfaceoftheEarthandthesurfaceoftheSunismuch
larger,givingaslowingdownfactorof0.999,999,5.Thisismucheasierto
measure,andprovidedthefirstconfirmationoftheseideas.Ofcourse,nobody
canplaceanordinaryclockonthesurfaceoftheSunandwatchitgo!The
physicistshavemuchbettermeans.Byusingaspectroscopewecanobserve
theperiodsof

Page56
vibrationofdifferentatomsonthesurfaceoftheSunandcomparethemwith
theperiodsoftheatomsofthesameelementsputintotheflameofaBunsen
burnerinthelaboratory.ThevibrationsofatomsonthesurfaceoftheSun
shouldbesloweddownbythefactorgivenbyequation(11),andasa
consequence,thelightemittedorabsorbedbythemshouldhaveasomewhat
lowerfrequencythaninthecaseofterrestrialsources,i.e.thefrequencies
shouldbeshiftedtowardstheredendofthespectrum.Thisgravitationalred
shifthasbeenobservedinthespectraoftheSun,andofseveralotherstars,
andtheresultsagreewiththevaluegivenbyourtheoreticalformula.This
showsthattheprocessesontheSunreallydotakeplacesomewhatmore
slowlythantheydoonEarth,owingtothedifferenceingravitationalpotential.
Theseobservationshavethereforedemonstratedtheequivalenceoftheeffects
ofaccelerationandthoseofgravitation.So,withthisinmind,letmenowreturn
oncemoretothecurvatureofspace:
Yourememberthatwecametotheconclusionthatthegeometryobtainedin
acceleratingsystemsofreferenceisdifferentfromthatofEuclid,andthatsuch
spacesshouldbeconsideredascurvedspaces.Sinceanygravitationalfieldis
equivalenttosomeaccelerationofthesystemofreference,thismeansalsothat
anyspaceinwhichthegravitationalfieldispresentisacurvedspace.Or,going
astepfurther,wecansaythatagravitationalfieldisjustaphysical
manifestationofthecurvatureofspace.
Weknowthatgravityarisesinthevicinityofmasses.Thus,wewouldexpect
thatthecurvatureofspaceateachpointshouldbedeterminedbythe
distributionofmasses,andwouldreachmaximumvaluesclosetoheavy
objects.Icannotenterintotherathercomplicatedmathematicalsystem
describingthepropertiesofcurvedspaceandtheirdependenceonthe
distributionofmasses.Iwillmentiononlythatthiscurvatureisingeneral
determinednotbyone,butbytendifferentnumberswhichareusuallyknown
asthecomponentsofgravitationalpotential,g v,andrepresenta
generalizationofthegravitationalpotentialofclassicalphysicswhichIhave
previouslyequatedwithWinequation(10).Correspondingly,thecurvatureat

eachpointisdescribedbytendifferentradiiofcurvatureusuallydenotedbyR v
curvatureareconnectedwiththedistributionofmassesbythefundamentalequati
whereRisanotherkindofcurvature,andthesourcetermT
m
v
(representingthec
curvature)dependsondensities,velocitiesandotherpropertiesofthegravitation
producedbymasses.Gisthefamiliargravitationalconstant.
Thisequationhasbeentestedout,forexample,bystudyingthemotionofthepla
MercurytheplanetclosesttotheSun,andhencetheonewiththeorbitmosts
dependentonthedetailsofEinstein'sequation.Itisfoundthattheperihelionofth
pointofclosestapproachtotheSunoftheplanetasitexecutesitselongatedellip
doesnotremainfixedinspace,butisfoundwitheachturnoftheorbittohavesy
shifteditsorientationrelativetotheSun.Partofthisprecessionisattributabletot
gravitationalfieldsoftheotherplanets,andpartcanbeexplainedintermsofthe
relativisticincreaseinmassduetotheplanet'smotion.Butthereremainsatinyre
of43secondsofarcpercenturywhichcannotbeaccountedforbytheoldNewt
ofgravity,butfindsareadyexplanationintermsofgeneralrelativity.
Thisobservation,togetherwiththeotherexperimentalresultsIhavementionedin
confirmusinourjudgementthatgeneralrelativityisthetheoryofgravitythatbest
actuallyseehappeningintheUniverse.
Beforeendingthislecture,allowmetoindicatetwofurtherinterestingconsequen
(12):
Ifweconsideraspaceuniformlyfilledwithmasses,as,forexample,ourspaceis
stars,galaxiesandclustersofgalaxies,wemustconcludethat,apartfromlocalize
curvaturesnearparticularstarsorgalaxies,spaceshouldpossessanoverallcurv

Page58
thecombinedeffectofallthemassesaregulartendencytocurveuniformly
overlargedistances.Mathematicallytherearedifferentsolutions.Someof
themcorrespondtospacefinallyclosinginuponitself,andthuspossessinga
finitevolume,somewhatsimilartoasphere.Theothersrepresentacurved
space,butnotcurvedsufficientlytocauseclosureinstead,thespaceisinfinite
inextent,havingnoboundariesratheranalogoustothesaddlesurfaceI
mentionedatthebeginningofthislecture.
Asecondimportantconsequenceofequation(12)isthatsuchcurvedspaces
shouldbeinastateofsteadyexpansionorcontraction.Thisphysicallymeans
thattheparticles(thegalaxyclusters)fillingthespaceshouldbeflyingaway
fromeachother,or,onthecontrary,approachingeachother.Further,itcan
beshownthatforaclosedspacewithafinitevolume,theexpansionphasewill
befollowedbyacontractionphase(withpossiblyfurtherexpansionand
contractionphasestofollowthusgivingrisetoanoscillatingUniverse).On
theotherhand,aninfiniteexpanding'saddlelike'spacewouldcontinueto
expandforever.
Thequestionofwhichofthesedifferentmathematicalpossibilitiescorresponds
tothespaceinwhichweliveisverymuchaliveissueatpresent.Itcanonlybe
resolvedbyexperimentalobservationonthemovementsofthegalaxyclusters
(includingtheirrateofslowingdown)eitherthatorbyaccountingforallthe
masspresentintheUniverseandcalculatinghowgreattheslowingdowneffect
willbe.Atpresent,theastronomicalevidenceisunclear.Thoughitiscertain
thatweareatpresentinanexpandingphase,whetherthiswilleverturnintoa
contraction(andconsequently,whetherthespaceisfiniteorinfiniteinsize)is
notyetdefinitelysettled.

Page59
5
MrTompkinsVisitsaClosedUniverse
ThateveningintheBeachHotel,theprofessorandhisdaughterweredeepin
conversation.Theytalkedfreelyofbothcosmologyandart.MrTompkins
joinedinfromtimetotimeasbesthecould,butforthemostpartwashappy
justtoobserveandlisten.HewasfascinatedbyMaudhehadnevermet
anyonelikeher.Butinduecoursehebecamesleepyandmadehisexcuses.
Climbingthestairsandreachinghisroom,hequicklychangedintohispyjamas
andcollapsedontothebed,pullingtheblanketoverhishead.Histiredbrain
wasallmixedup.
Ashelaythere,onethoughtkeptrecurring.Thetypeofcosmologythatreally
intriguedhimwasthatofaclosedUniversetheonewhereifyougoofffrom
theNorthPoleinastraightlineyouwillendupattheSouthPole.Atleastit
wouldbeaUniversewithafinitevolume(hesimplycouldnotgethismind
roundtheinfinitevolumeofanopenUniverse).Fairenough,theprofessor
seemedtohavehisreasonsforthinkingthatthedensityofmatterhadthe
criticalvalue,andsoyouwouldnotbeabletomakethatoddtypeofjourney,
andtheexpansionwouldnotgivewaytoacontractionandaBigCrunch.But
whatifhewerewrong?Whatiftherewasalotmoredarkmatteroutthere
thantheyhadyetaccountedfor?Whatif...?
Thesethoughtswereinterruptedashebecameawarethathewas
uncomfortable.Hehadthestrangefeelingthatinsteadoflyingonacomfy
springmattresshewasstretchedoutonsomethinghard.Hepulledbackthe
blanketsandpeepedout.Tohisastonishment

Page60

Page61
hefoundhimselflyingonaslabofrockoutintheopen.Thehotelhad
vanished!
Therockwascoveredwithsomegreenmoss,andinafewplaceslittlebushes
weregrowingfromcracksinthestone.Thespaceabovehimwasilluminated
bysomeglimmeringlightandwasverydusty.Infact,therewasmoredustin
theairthanhehadeverseen,eveninthefilmsrepresentingduststormsinthe
Americanmidwest.Hetiedhishandkerchiefroundhisnosetokeepfrom
breathingthedust.
Butthereweremoredangerousthingsthanthedustinthesurroundingspace.
Occasionallystones,thesizeofhisheadandlarger,camewhirlingthrough
space,hittingthegroundaroundhim.Healsonoticedoneortworocks,about
10metresacrosshejudged,floatingthroughspaceatsomedistanceaway.
Anotherstrangethingwasthatthereappearedtobenodistanthorizon
despitehisbeingperchedhighup.Hedecidedhehadbetterexplorehis
surroundings.Soitwashebegancrawlingoverthesurface.Becausetherock
curveddownquitesharply,heheldongrimlytotheprotrudingedgesin
constantfearoffallingoff.Butthenhegraduallybecameawareofsomething
oddalthoughhehadmoveddownontoaverysteeppartoftherockyface
sosteephecouldnownolongerseetheblankethehadleftbehind,hedidnot
feelanytendencytofallhewasstillbeingpulledsecurelyontothesurface.
Emboldened,hecontinuedcrawling.Eventuallyhereckonedhemusthave
gonethroughabout180inotherwordsheoughttobedirectly
underneathhisstartingpointandstilltherewasnotendencytofalloffinto
thesurroundingdustydepthsofspace.Hewaspresumablynowupsidedown
comparedwithwhenhestartedout.Itwasthenitdawnedonhimthattherock
hewasonhadnovisiblemeansofsupport.Itwasaplanet!Atinyplanet
similartothefloatingrockshehadseen.
Tohisgreatsurpriseandreliefitwasatthatmomenthealmostbumpedinto
thelegsofafamiliarfigure.Itwastheprofessor.Hewasstandingtherebusily
notingdownobservationsinanotebook.
'Oh,it'syou,'observedtheprofessorcasually.'Whatareyoudoingdown
there?Lostsomething?'

Page62
MrTompkinssheepishlyletgoofhishandhold,andgingerlystoodup.Tohis
greatrelief,notonlydidhenotfalloffintospace,hedidnotevenfeelas
thoughhewoulddriftoffintospace.Hebegantounderstandwhatwasgoing
on.HerememberedthathewastaughtinhisschooldaysthattheEarthisabig
roundrockmovingfreelyinspacearoundtheSun.Everythingispulled
towardsitscentre,sothereisnodangerof'fallingoff',nomatterwhereyou
arepositionedonitssurface.Nowhewasgentlybutfirmlybeingpulled
towardsthecentreofthisnew'planet'aplanetsotinyitspopulation
numberedtwo.
'Goodevening,'saidMrTompkins,'Whatarelieftoseeyou.'
Theprofessorraisedhiseyesfromhisnotebook.'Therearenoevenings
here,'hesaid.'ThereisnoSun',andwiththathereturnedagaintohisnote
book.
MrTompkinsfeltuneasytomeettheonlylivingpersoninthewholeUniverse,
andtofindhimsopreoccupied!Unexpectedly,oneofthelittlemeteorites
cametohishelp.Withacrashingsound,thestonehitthebookinthehandsof
theprofessorandknockedithard.Itflewupintospaceawayfromtheirlittle
planet.'Ohdear,'saidMrTompkins,'Ihopethatwasn'timportant.Idon't
reckonourgravityisstrongenoughtopullitback.'Astheywatched,thebook
continueditsjourneyintothefurthestdepthsofspace,gettingsmallerand
smaller.
'Nottoworry,'repliedtheprofessor.'Yousee,thespaceinwhichwearenow
isnotinfiniteinitsextension.OhIknowthatyouweredoubtlesstaughtin
schoolthatspaceisinfinite,andthattwoparallellinesnevermeet.This,
however,isnottrueforthespaceofthisparticularUniversetheoneweare
nowin.OurnormalUniverseis,ofcourse,verylargeindeedabout
100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000kilometresacrossatpresent,whichfor
mostpurposesisfairlyinfinite.IfIhadlostmybookthere,itwouldhavetaken
anincrediblylongtimetocomebackevenassumingitwereaUniverseof
theclosedtypethatthisoneis.Here,however,thesituationisratherdifferent.
Justbeforethenotebookwastornoutofmyhands,Ihadfiguredoutthatthis
spaceisonlyaboutfivemilesindiameter,thoughitisexpanding.Iexpectthe
bookbackinnotmorethanhalfanhour.'

Page63
'Areyousayingthatthebookisgoingtodooneofthoseroundtripjourneysin
astraightline,'venturedMrTompkins.'Liketheoneyousaidabouttakingoff
fromtheNorthPole...'
'...andlandingbackattheSouthPole?Yes,'repliedtheprofessor.
'Precisely.Thesamethingisgoingtohappentomybookunlessit'shiton
itswaybysomeotherstoneandgetsdeflectedfromthestraighttrack.'
'Andthishasnothingtodowiththegravityofourlittleplanetpullingitback?'
'No,nothingatalltodowiththat.Asfarasthegravityhereisconcerned,the
bookhasescapedintospace.Here,takethesebinoculars,andseeifyoucan
stillseeit.'
MrTompkinsputthebinocularstohiseyes,andthroughthedustwhich
somewhatobscuredthewholepicture,hemanagedtoseetheprofessor's
notebooktravellingthroughspacefar,faraway.Hewassomewhatsurprised
bythepinkcolouringofalltheobjects,includingthebook,atthatdistance.
Notonlythat,'Yourbookisreturningalready,'hecriedoutexcitedly.'Yes,
yes,it'sdefinitelygrowinglargernow.'
'No,no,'saidtheprofessor,'it'llstillbegoingaway.Here,givethosetome.'
Hetookbackthebinoculars,andlookedintently.'No,asIsaid,it'sstillgoing
away.Thefactthatitappearstobegrowinginsizeasifitwerecoming
backthat'sduetoapeculiarfocussingeffectontheraysoflightduetothe
closed,sphericalnatureofthespace.'
Heloweredthebinocularsandscratchedhisgreyinghead.'HowcanIput
it...?Yes.SupposewewerebackonEarth,andlet'simaginethathorizontal
raysoflight(aimedatthehorizon)couldbekeptgoingallthetimehuggingthe
curvedsurfaceoftheEarth(say,byrefractionoftheatmosphere).Underthose
circumstances,ifanathleteweretorunawayfromus,itwouldn'tmatterhow
farshewent,wewouldbeable,usingpowerfulbinoculars,toseeherallthe
timeduringherjourney.Now,ifyouthinkabouttheglobe,youwillseethatthe
straightestlinesonitssurface,themeridians,firstdivergefromonepole,but,
afterpassingtheequator,begintoconvergetowardstheoppositepole.Ifthe
raysoflighttravelledalongthemeridians,you,locatedfor

Page64
exampleatonepole,wouldseethepersongoingawayfromyougrowing
smallerandsmalleronlyuntilshecrossedtheequator.Afterthispointyou
wouldseehergrowinglargeritwouldseemtoyouthatshewasreturning,
albeitgoingbackwards.Onceshereachedtheoppositepole,youwouldsee
heraslargeasifshewerestandingrightbyyourside.Youwouldnotbeable
totouchher,ofcourse,justasyoucannottouchtheimageformedbya
sphericalmirror.
'Rightnow,'theprofessorcontinued,'thisbehaviouroflightasittravelsover
thetwodimensionalcurvedsurfaceoftheEarthcanbeusedasananalogyfor
howlightraysbehaveinthisstrangelycurvedthreedimensionalspacewefind
ourselvesin.InfactIdobelievetheimageofthebookisabouttoarrive.'
Ashesaidthat,theimageofthebookappearedtobeonlyafewyardsaway,
andcomingcloser.Itwasbigenoughnowforonenolongertoneedthe
binocularstoseeitby.However,itlookedratheroddthecontourswerenot
sharp,butseemedwashedout,andthewritingonthecovercouldhardlybe
recognizedthewholebooklookedlikeaphotographtakenoutoffocusand
underdeveloped.
'Youcanseenowit'sonlyanimagenottherealthing,'saidtheprofessor.
'Seehowitsbadlydistortedbythelighthavinghadtotravelhalfwayacrossthe
Universe.Andnoticehowyoucanseeotherlittleplanetsbehindthebook
throughitspages.'
MrTompkinsreachedoutandtriedtograbthe'book'asitspedpassed,but
hishandsimplypassedthroughtheimagewithoutencounteringanyresistance.
'No,no,'admonishedtheprofessor.'Thebookitselfisnowveryclosetothe
oppositepoleoftheUniverse.AsI'vesaid,whatyouseehereisjustan
imageinfacttwoimagesofit.Thesecondimageisjustbehindyouand
whenbothimagesmomentarilycoincidedjustthen,thatwaswhenthereal
bookwasexactlyattheoppositepole.'
MrTompkinsdidn'thearhewastoodeeplyabsorbedinhisthoughts,tryingto
rememberhowtheimagesofobjectsareformedinelementaryopticsby
concaveandconvexmirrorsandlenses.Whenhefinallygaveup,thetwo
imageswererecedinginoppositedirections.

Page65
'AndallthesestrangeeffectsareduetothematterintheUniverse?'he
eventuallyasked.
'That'sright.Thematterwe'restandingonourtinyplanetcurvesthe
spaceinourimmediatevicinity,anditisthisthatisresponsibleforthewaywe
areheldontoitssurface.Butmorethanthat,thegravityofthisplanetcombines
withthatofalltheothermassesintheUniversetoproducetheoverall
curvaturethatgivesrisetotheselensingeffects.Infact,ingeneralrelativityone
dispensesaltogetherwithtalkofgravitational'forces'assuch,andsimplythinks
intermsofcurvature.'
'Buttellme,iftherewerenomatter,wouldwehavethekindofgeometryI
wastaughtatschool,andwouldparallellinesnevermeet?'
'That'sright,'answeredtheprofessor,'butneitherwouldtherebeanymaterial
creaturetocheckit.'
Inthemeantime,theimageofthebookwentoffagainfarawayintheoriginal
direction,andstartedcomingbackforthesecondtime.Nowitwasstillmore
damagedthanbefore,andcouldhardlyberecognizedatall,which,according
totheprofessor,wasduetothefactthatthistimethelightrayshadtravelled
roundthewholeUniverse.
'Andifwepoproundtotheothersideofourplanet...'headded,grabbing
MrTompkinsbythearmandmarchinghimthefewyardsittooktogettothe
otherside.'There,'hedeclared,pointingintheoppositedirection.'There.Can
yousee?Herecomesmybook.It'sabouttocompleteitsjourneyroundthe
Universe.'Withatriumphantgrin,hestretchedouthishand,caughtthebook,
andpusheditintohispocket.'ThetroublewiththisUniverseisthatthereisso
muchdustandstonesaround,itmakesitalmostimpossibletoseeroundthe
world.Noticetheseshapelessshadowsaroundus?Mostprobablythey'rethe
imagesofourselves,andsurroundingobjects.It'sjustthatthey'resodistorted
bydustandirregularitiesofthecurvatureofspacethatIcannoteventellwhich
iswhich.'
'DoesthesameeffectoccurinournormalUniversetheoneweusedtolive
in?'askedMrTompkins.
'Probablynotnotifwe'rerightaboutthedensitybeingcritical.But,'the
professoraddedwithatwinkleinhiseye.

Page66
'youhavetoadmit,it'sstillfuntothinkthiskindofthingthrough,don'tyou
agree?'
Bynowtheskyhadconsiderablychanged.Thereseemedtobelessdust
about,soMrTompkinswasabletotakeoffthehandkerchieffromaroundhis
face.Thesmallstoneswerepassingmuchlessfrequentlyandhittingthesurface
oftheirplanetwithmuchlessenergy.Notonlythat,buttheotherplanetshad
driftedmuchfartherawaybynowandcouldhardlybeseenatthisdistance.
'Well,Imustsaylifeisgettingalotlessscary,'hecommented.'ThoughImust
sayit'sbecomequitechilly.'Hepickeduptheblanketandwrappeditround
him.'Canyouexplainthechangeinoursurroundings?'heasked,turningtothe
professor.
'VeryeasilyourlittleUniverseisexpandingandsincewehavebeenhereits
radiushasincreasedfromfivetoaboutahundredmiles.AssoonasIfound
myselfhere,Inoticedthisexpansionfromthereddeningofthedistantobjects.'
'Ah.Ididnoticeeverythingwaspinkatgreatdistances,'saidMrTompkins,
'butwhydoesthatsignifyexpansion?'
'Ohthat'snotdifficulttosee,'saidtheprofessor.'Itakeityou'venoticedthat
thesirenofanapproachingambulancesoundsveryhigh,butafterthe
ambulancepassesyou,thetoneisconsiderablylower?Thisisthesocalled
DopplerEffect:thedependenceofthepitch(orfrequencyofthesound)onthe
velocityofthesource.Whenthewholeofspaceisexpanding,everyobject
locatedinitmovesawaywithavelocityproportionaltoitsdistancefromthe
observer.Therefore,thelightemittedbysuchobjectsisoflowerfrequency,
whichinopticscorrespondstoredderlight.Themoredistanttheobjectis,the
fasteritmovesandtheredderitseemstous.InournormalUniverse,whichis
alsoexpanding,thisreddening,orthecosmologicalredshiftaswecallit,
permitsastronomerstoestimatethedistancesoftheveryremotegalaxies.For
example,oneofthenearestgalaxies,theAndromedagalaxy,showsa0.05%
reddeningthiscorrespondstothedistancewhichcanbecoveredbylightin
eighthundredthousandyears.Buttherearealsogalaxiesjustonthelimitof
presenttelescopicpowerwhichshowareddeningofabout

Page67
500%,correspondingtodistancesofapproximatelytenthousandmillionlight
years(a'lightyear'beingasthenameimpliesthedistancetravelledby
lightinoneyear).SuchlightwasemittedwhentheUniversewaslessthana
fifthitspresentsize.Thepresentrateofexpansionisabout0.000,000,01%
peryear.OurlittleUniverseheregrowscomparativelymuchfaster,gainingin
sizebyabout1%perminute.'
'WilltheexpansionofthisUniversehereeverstop?'askedMrTompkins.
'Ofcourseitwill,'saidtheprofessor.'Itoldyouinoneofthelecturesthata
closedUniverselikethisonewouldentailtheexpansioneventuallycomingtoa
halt,thisthenbeingfollowedbythecontractionphase.ForaUniversethis
smalltheexpansionphaseshould,Ireckon,lastnomorethanacoupleof
hours.'
'Acoupleofhours,'echoedMrTompkins.'Butthatwouldmeantherecan'tbe
longtogobefore...'Hisvoicetrailedoffastheimplicationsankin.
'Yes,'murmuredtheprofessor.'Ithinkwearenowobservingthestateof
largestexpansion.That'swhyit'sbecomesocold.'
Infact,thethermalradiationfillinguptheUniverse,andnowdistributedovera
verylargevolume,wasgivingonlyverylittleheattotheirplanetthe
temperaturewasataboutfreezingpoint.
'It'sluckyforusthattherewasoriginallyenoughradiationtogivesomeheat
evenatthisstageofexpansion,'theprofessoradded.'Otherwiseitmight
becomesocoldthattheairaroundourrockwouldcondenseintoliquidand
wewouldfreezetodeath.'
Hepeeredintentlythroughhisbinocularsoncemore.'Ah,yes,'hesaidaftera
while.'Thecontractionhasalreadybegun.It'llsoonbewarmagain.'
HeofferedthebinocularstoMrTompkins,whotookthemandscannedthe
heavens.Henoticedthatallthedistantobjectshadchangedtheircolourfrom
pinktoblue.This,accordingtotheprofessor,wasduetothefactthatallthe
stellarbodieshadstartedmovingtowardsthem.Healsorememberedthe
analogygivenbytheprofessorofthehighpitchofthewhistleofan
approachingtrain.

Page68
Rubbinghimselftogetwarm,hecommented,'Well,I'llbegladwhenitheats
upagain.'Butthenathoughtstruckhim.Heturnedanxiouslytotheprofessor.
'Ifeverythingiscontractingnow,shouldn'tweexpectthatsoonallthebig
rocksfillingtheUniversewillcometogetherandthatweshallbecrushed
betweenthem?'
'Iwonderedhowlongitwouldtakeyoutoworkthatout,'answeredthe
professorcalmly.'Butnottoworry.Justthink:wellbeforethathappens,the
temperaturewillrisesohighthatweshallbevapourised!Isuggestyoujustlie
downandobserveaslongasyoucan.'
'Ohmy!'moanedMrTompkins.'Iambeginningtofeelhotalready,eveninmy
pyjamas.'
Itwasnotlongbeforethehotairbecameunbearable.Thedust,whichbecame
verydensenow,wasaccumulatingaroundhim,andhefeltasifhewerebeing
choked.Hestruggledtofreehimselffromtheblanket,whensuddenlyhishead
emergedintocoolair.Heswallowedadeepbreath.
'What'shappening?'hecalledouttotheprofessoronlytodiscoverthathis
companionwasnolongerwithhim.Instead,inthedimlightofmorning,he
recognisedthehotelbedroom.Sighingwithreliefhedisengagedhimselffrom
hisblanketithadbecomeentangledafterwhatmusthavebeenaveryrestless
night.
'ThankGodwe'restillexpanding!'hemuttered,ashemadehiswaytothe
bathroom.'That'swhatyoumightcallacloseshave,'hethoughtashereached
fortherazor.

Page69
6
CosmicOpera
Itwasthefinaleveningoftheirholiday,andMrTompkinsandMaudwere
takingonelaststrollalongthebeachbythewater'sedge.Wasitreallyonlya
weeksincetheyhadfirstmet?Thoughatfirsthehadbeenquitenervousof
speakingwithher,hebeingshybynature,theykneweachotherwellenough
nowfortheconversationtofloweasily.Hefounditextraordinarythatone
personshouldhavesuchwideinterests.Notonlythat,hewasdelightedtonote
thatsheseemedtotakeasmuchpleasurebeingwithhimashewithher.He
couldnotpossiblythinkwhy.Exceptthatononeoccasiontheprofessorhad
letslipthathisdaughterhadbeenbadlyletdowninthepastherengagement
tosomehighflyingexecutivehadbeenabruptlybrokenoff.Perhapsshejust
feltsafewithhimandhisratherhumdrum,butreassuringlysecurelife.
HelookedupattheMilkyWay.'Imustsayyourfatherhasopenedupa
wholenewworldforme.It'ssadhowmostpeopleseemtogothroughlife
withouteverappreciatingjusthowextraordinarytheworldis.'
Pickingupahandfulofpebbles,helazilyaimedthematarockstickingupout
ofthewater.Thenheshotaquickglanceather.'Whywon'tyoushowme
yoursketches?'
'I'vetoldyou.They'renotthesortyoushowanyone.They'reworking
sketchesideas.Justideas.That'sall.Theytrytocapturethefeel ofthe
place.Theywouldn'tmeananythingtoyou.It'sonlywhenIgetbacktothe
studioandworkonthemsomethingemergesornot,asthecasemaybe.'

Page70
'Then,canIcomeandvisityourstudioonedaywhenwegetback?'heasked.
'Ofcourse,'shereplied.'I'dbedisappointedifyoudidn't.'
Bynowtheyhadgotbacktothehotel.MrTompkinsordereddrinks,andfor
thelasttimetheysatonthepatiolookingouttosea.
'Yourfathertoldmetherewasatimewhenyouwerecutoutforacareerin
physics,'hecommented.
'Oh,Iwouldn'tsaythat,'shelaughed.'Wishfulthinking.Thatwaswhathe
wanted.'
'Yes,butyouweregoodatphysics,weren'tyou?'hepersisted.
Sheshrugged.'Yes.Youcouldsaythat.'
'Sowhy...?'
'Why?'sherepeated,wistfully.'Oh,Idon'tknow.Rebelliousteenager,I
suppose.Thatandthefactthatitwasn'teasyinthosedaysforagirltoshow
aninterestinscience.Biologymaybe,butnotphysics.Peerpressureandall
that.It'sdifferentnowwell,atleastit'snotquitesobadnow.'
'Buthowcomeyoustillknowsomuchphysicsafterallthistime?'
'OhIdon'treally.Forgotmostofitlongago.Exceptforastronomyand
cosmology.NowthatIhavetriedtokeepupwith.Whichremindsme...'
shelookedathiminamusement.
'Remindsyouofwhat?'heasked.
'Fancytakingmetotheopera?'
'OPERA!'heexclaimed.'What...whatdoyoumean?What'soperagottodo
withanything?'
'Oh,it'snotarealone,'sheaddedwithalaugh.'No,it'sanamateurone.It
waswrittenagesagobysomeonewhousedtobeinDad'sdepartment.It'sall
abouttheBigBangtheoryversustheSteadyStatetheory...'
'SteadyState?What'sthat?'heenquired.
'TheSteadyStatetheorysaysthattheUniversedidnotbeginwithaBig
Bang...'
'Butweknowitdid.Yourfather'stoldmeallabouttheexpansionofthe
Universethewayallthegalaxiesarestillflyingapartintheaftermathofthe
bigexplosion,'MrTompkinsprotested.

Page71
'Ah,butthatdoesn'tproveanything.Youseetherewerethesephysicists,Fred
Hoyle,HermannBondiandTommyGold,whosuggestedthattheUniverse
couldkeeponrenewingitself.Asfastasgalaxiesmovedaway,newmatter
wascreatedinthespacesleftbehind.Thiscollectedtogethertoformnewstars
andgalaxies,whichintheirturnmovedapart,makingroomforyetmore
matter,andsoon.'
'So,howdidallthisgetstarted,'askedMrTompkins,clearlyintrigued.
'Oh,itdidn't.Therewasnostart,nobeginning.Ithasalwaysbeengoingon,
andalwayswill.It'saworldwithnobeginningandnoend.That'swhyitwas
calledtheSteadyStatetheorytheworldlooksessentiallythesameatall
times.'
'Hey,Ilikethesoundofthat,'enthusedMrTompkins.'Yes,it'sgotthe
right...therightkindoffeel aboutit.YouknowwhatImean?Somehowthe
BigBangideadoesn'thavethatappeal.Youfindyourselfaskingwhyitwas
supposedtohavehappenedatthatparticularinstantintimewhynotsome
otherinstant?Itseemsso...soarbitrarysomehow.Nowifthere'sno
beginning...'
'Holdon!Holdon!'interruptedMaud.'Don'tgettoocarriedaway.The
SteadyStatetheoryisdead.Deadasadodo.'
'Oh,'saidMrTompkinsdisappointedly.'Why'sthat?Howcantheybeso
sure?'
ButbeforeMaudcouldreply,herfatheremergedfromthehoteldoorwayto
remindherthattheyhadtomakeanearlystarthomeinthemorning.Asshe
tookherleaveofMrTompkins,hehurriedlyasked,'Butwhataboutthe
opera?'
'Ohyes,'shesaid.'Saturdayevening,8o'clock,inthemainphysicslecture
theatretheoneyounormallygotoforDad'slectures.Thedepartmentis
revivingtheCosmicOpera.It'sjustabitoffun.The50thanniversaryofthe
firstproposaloftheSteadyStatetheoryIthinkthat'stheexcuse.Seeyou
there.'Withthatshefollowedherfatherintothehotel,brieflyturningherhead
toblowMrTompkinsaplayfulgoodnightkiss.
<><><><><><><><><><><><>

Page72
Therewasagoodturnoutfortheperformance.Thetheatrewasalmostfullas
MrTompkinstookhisplace,accompaniedbytheprofessorandMaud.
'You'dbettertakealookatyourprogramme,'Maudremarkedtohim.
'Quickly.Beforetheyputthelightsout.Youwon'tunderstandwhothe
charactersareifyoudon't.'
Herapidlyscannedthetypedsheethehadbeenhandedatthedoor.Hejust
managedtogettotheendofthebackgroundnoteswhenthetheatrewas
plungedintodarkness,andthesixpieceorchestra,squashedtogetherina
smallspacetothesideoftheraisedplatform,launchedintotheprelude,
precipitevolissimevolmente.Totheaccompanimentofraucousapplause
fromthestudentsmakingupmostoftheaudience,themakeshiftcurtains
erectedaroundtheplatformweredrawnback.Everybodyimmediatelyhadto
shieldtheireyes,sobrilliantwastheilluminationofthestage.Theintensitywas
suchastofilltheentiretheatreinonebrilliantoceanoflight.
'Thatidiottechnician!He'llbloweveryfuseinthebuilding!'mutteredthe
professorfiercelyunderhisbreath.Butitwasnottobe.Graduallythe'Big
Bang'brilliancefaded,leavingadarkenedspace,illuminatedbyamultitudeof
rapidlyrotatingCatherinewheels.Presumablytheseweresupposedtobethe
galaxiesthatformedsometimeaftertheBigBang.
'Nowthey'resetonburningtheplacedown,'theprofessorfumed.'Ishould
neverhavegiventhempermissionforthisnonsense.'
Maudleantacrossandtappedhisarm,drawingattentiontothefactthatthe
'idiottechnician'wasinfactstandingdiscreetlyatthecornerofthestage,
holdingafireextinguisheratthereadyincaseitwasneeded.Meanwhilethe
studentswereloudlyoooohingandahhhinglikesmallchildrenatafirework
festival,beforebeingshushedupattheentryofamaninablackcassockanda
clericalcollar.Accordingtotheprogramme,thiswasAbbGeorgesLematre
fromBelgium,thefirstmantoproposetheBigBangtheoryoftheexpanding
Universe.Singingwithathickaccent,hebeganhisaria:

Page73
O,Atomeprreemorrdiale!
AllcontaineengAtome!
Deessolvedeentofrragmentsexceedeenglysmall.
Galaxiesforrmeeng,
Eachwizprrimalenerrgy!
O,rradioactifAtome!
O,allcontaineengAtome!
O,UnivairrsaleAtome
Worrkofz'Lorrd!
Z'longevolution
Tellsofmightyfirreworrks
Zatendedeenashesandsmouldairreengweesps.

Page74
Westandonz'ceendairres
Fadeengsunsconfrronteengus,
Attempteengtorremembairre
Z'splendeurofz'origine.
O,UnivairrsaleAtome
WorrkofZ'lorrd!
FatherLematrehavingfinishedhisariatoriotouscheersfromthestudent
elementoftheaudience(whichhadclearlyspenttheearlierpartoftheevening
inthebar),therenowappearedatallfellowwho(accordingtotheprogramme
again)wasthephysicistGeorgeGamow,borninRussia,butlatersettledinthe
USA.Hetookcentrestageandbegantosing:
Finishedhisariatoriotouscheers

Page75
GoodAbb,ourrunderrstandink
Itissameinmanyways.
Univerrsehasbeenexpandink
Frromthecrradleofitsdays.
Univerrsehasbeenexpandink
Frromthecrradleofitsdays.
Youhavetolditgainsinmotion.
Irregrrettodisagrree,
Andwedifferrinourrnotion
Astohowitcametobe.
Andwedifferrinourrnotion
Astohowitcametobe.
Itwasneutrronfluidneverr
PrrimalAtom,asyoutold.
Itisinfinite,aseverr
Itwasinfiniteofold.
Itisinfinite,aseverr
Itwasinfiniteofold.
Onalimitlesspavilion
Incollapse,gasmetitsfate,
Yearrsago(somethousandmillion)
Havingcometodenseststate.
Yearrsago(somethousandmillion)
Havingcometodenseststate.
AlltheSpacewasthenrresplendent
Atthatcrrucialpointintime.
Lighttomatterrwastrranscendent
Muchasmeterris,torrhyme.
Lighttomatterrwastrranscendent
Muchasmeterris,torrhyme.

Page76
Forreachtonofrradiation
Thenofmatterrwasanounce,
Tilltheimpulset'warrdinflation
Inthatgrreatprrimevalbounce.
Tilltheimpulset'warrdinflation
Inthatgrreatprrimevalbounce.
Lightbythenwasslowlypalink.
Hundrredmillionyearrsgoby...
Matterr,overlightprrevailink,
Isinplentifulsupply.
Matterr,overlightprrevailink,
Isinplentifulsupply.
Matterrthenbegancondensink
(SuchareJeans'hypotheses).
Giant,gaseouscloudsdispensink
Knownasprrotogalaxies.
Giant,gaseouscloudsdispensink
Knownasprrotogalaxies.
Prrotogalaxieswereshattered,
Flyingoutwardthrroughthenight.
Starrswerreforrmedfrromthem,andscatterred
andtheSpacewasfilledwithlight.
Starrswerreforrmedfrromthem,andscatterred
AndtheSpacewasfilledwithlight.
Galaxiesarreeverrspinnink,
Starrswillburntofinalsparrk,
Tillourruniverrseisthinnink
Andislifeless,coldanddarrk.
Tillourruniverrseisthinnink
Andislifeless,coldanddarrk.

Page77
ItwasthentheturnofFredHoyle.Hesuddenlymaterialisedfromnowherein
thespacebetweenthebrightlyshininggalaxies.HepulledaCatherinewheel
outofhispocket,andlitit.Asitbegantorotate,hetriumphantlyheldthe
newlyborngalaxyaloftandlaunchedintohisaria:

Page78
TheUniverse,byHeaven'sdecree,
Wasneverformedintimegoneby,
Butis,hasbeen,shalleverbe
ForsosayBondi,GoldandI.
Stay,OCosmos,OCosmos,staythesame!
WetheSteadyStateproclaim!
Theaginggalaxiesdisperse,
Burnout,andexitfromthescene.
Butallthewhile,theUniverse
Is,was,shalleverbe,hasbeen.
Stay,OCosmos,OCosmos,staythesame!
WetheSteadyStateproclaim!
Andstillnewgalaxiescondense
Fromnothing,astheydidbefore.
(LematreandGamow,nooffence!)
Allwas,willbeforevermore.
Stay,OCosmos,OCosmos,staythesame!
WetheSteadyStateproclaim!
ButevenastheHoylecharactersang,onecouldnothelpbutnoticethat
despitehisinspiringhymntotheunchangingnatureofthecosmos,bynow
mostofthelittle'galaxies'hadfizzledout.
Andsotheoperacontinuedtoitsfinalactwhentheentirecastassembledto
singthefinalrousingchorus:
'Youryearsoftoil,'
SaidRyletoHoyle,
'Arewastedyears,believeme.
Thesteadystate
Isoutofdate.
Unlessmyeyesdeceiveme,

Page79
Mytelescope
Hasdashedyourhope
Yourtenetsarerefuted.
Letmebeterse:
OurUniverse
Growsdailymorediluted!'
SaidHoyle,'youquote
Lematre,Inote,
AndGamow.Well,forgetthem!
Thaterrantgang
AndtheirBigBang
Whyaidthemandabetthem?
Yousee,myfriend,
Ithasnoend
Andtherewasnobeginning,
AsBondi,Gold,
AndIwillhold
Untilourhairisthinning!'
'Notso!'criedRyle
Withrisingbile
Andstrainingatthetether
'Fargalaxies
Are,asonesees,
Moretightlypackedtogether!'
'Youmakemeboil!'
ExplodedHoyle,
Hisstatementrearranging
'Newmatter'sborn
Eachnightandmorn.
Thepictureisunchanging!'

Page80
'Comeoffit,Hoyle!
Iaimtofoil
Youyet'(Thefuncommences)
'Andinawhile,'
ContinuedRyle,
'I'llbringyoutoyoursenses!'
Attheconclusiontherewasthunderousapplause,stamping,andastanding
ovationtorivaltheheadiestnightatCoventGarden.Eventuallythetemporary
curtaingotstuckintheclosedposition,sopreemptinganyfurthercurtaincalls.
Theaudiencethendispersedtheyoungerelementmakingtheirwaybackto
thestudentunionbar.
'Doinganythingspecialtomorrow,Maud?'askedMrTompkinsashewas
abouttotakehisleave.
'Notreally'shereplied.'Youcouldcomeroundtomyplaceforcoffeeifyou
like.11o'clocksuityou?'

Page81
7
BlackHoles,HeatDeath,andBlowTorch
'Isupposethismustbeit,'mutteredMrTompkinsconsultingthescribbledmap
Maudhadgivenhim.Therewasnonameonthegatetoconfirmthatthiswas
indeedNortonFarm.Attheendofthedrivehecouldseeahuge,rambling
farmhouse.Itwasnotwhathewasexpecting,buthedecidedhe'dbettergo
andask.ItwasthenhespottedMaud.Shewascrouchingdown,weedinga
flowerbed.Theygreetedeachotherwarmly.
'Quitesomeplaceyou'vegothere,'hesaidadmiringly.'Ididn'tknowpainting
paidsowell.Aren'tyousupposedtostarveinagarretsomewhere,andsuffer
foryourart?'
Atfirstshelookedpuzzled,butthensuddenlyburstoutlaughing.'Allthis
mine?!'sheexclaimed.'Somehopes!No,it'sallbeensplitupeversincethe
Nortonsleft.It'sseparateunitsnow.Thisismybit.'Sheindicatedanextension
thathadbeenmorerecentlyadded.'Comeoninandmakeyourselfathome.'
Whiletheywaitedforthekettletoboilshetookhimonaquicktourofher
small,butverypleasantlyfurnishedhome.Thensettlingdownonthesofainthe
livingroom,theyhadtheircoffeeandbiscuits.
'So.Whatdidyoumakeoftheoperayesterday?'sheasked.
'Oh,itwasgreatfun,'hesaid.'Ididn'tgetalltheallusionsofcourse.Butno,I
enjoyedit.Thanksforsuggestingit.Theonlythingwas...'
'Yes?'

Page82
'Well,itwasjustthatwhenIgothomeIcouldn'thelpwonderingwhat
happenedtotheSteadyStatetheory.Itseemssuchasensiblekindoftheory.'
'Don'tletDadhearyousaythat,'shesmiled.'Ittookalotofpersuadingtoget
himtoallowthatoperatotakeplace.Hedidn'twantthestudentstoget
confused.Hemakesabigsonganddanceaboutsciencebeingbasedon
experimentnotaesthetics.Itdoesn'tmatterhowattractedyouaretoa
theory,iftheexperimentalresultsgoagainstit,thenyouditchit.'
'Andistheevidenceagainstitasstrongasyouseemedtobemakingoutthe
otherday?'heasked.
'Ohyes,'shereplied.'TheevidenceisoverwhelminglyinfavouroftheBig
Bang.InthefirstplaceweknowthattheUniversehaschangedovertime
wecanseethatithaschanged.'
MrTompkinsfrowned.'Seeit?'
'Yes.Youhavetorememberthatthespeedoflightisfiniteittakestimefor
lighttoreachusfromadistantobject.Whenyoulookfaroutintospaceyou
alsolookfarbackintotime.ThatlightfromtheSun,forexample,'shesaid,
lookingoutofthewindow,'thattookeightminutestogethere,sothatmeans
weareseeingtheSunasitwaseightminutesagonotasitisatthisprecise
moment.Thesamegoesformoredistantobjects,suchasthegalaxyinthe
constellationofAndromeda.Youmusthaveseenphotographsofthatit'sinall
booksonastronomy.Thatgalaxyislocatedaboutonemillionlightyearsaway,
sothephotosshowhowitlookedonemillionyearsago.'
'Sowhat'syourpoint?'
'Thepointisthis:'shecontinued,'MartinRyleobservedthatthenumberof
galaxiesinagivenvolumewentupthefurtherheprobedintospaceinother
words,thefurtherhelookedbackintime.Andthatofcourseiswhatyou
wouldexpectiftheUniverseweregraduallythinningoutwithtimeitwould
havebeendenserinthepast.'
'Theymentionedthattowardstheendoftheopera,didn'tthey?'MrTompkins
asked.

Page83
'That'sright.Notonlythat,butwenowknowthatthenatureofgalaxies
themselveshaschangedovertime.Therewasaphase,soonaftertheyformed
aftertheBigBang,whentheyburnedmuchbrighterthantheydotodaythey're
calledquasarswhentheybehavelikethat.Quasarsareseenonlyatgreat
distancesmeaningtheyexistedlongagoandnotnowwhichagaindoes
notfitinwiththeideaofanunchangingUniverse.'
'OK,I'mbeginningtobeconvinced,'headmitted.
'ButI'mnotfinished,'shepersisted.'Taketheprimordialnuclearabundances.'
'Thewhat?'
'TheratioofthedifferentkindsofparticlecomingoutoftheBigBang.You
see,atanearlystageoftheBigBang,everythingwashoteverythingwas
movingaboutfastandsmashingintoeachother.Atthatstageallyouhadwere
subnuclearparticles(neutronsandprotons),electrons,andotherfundamental
particles.Youdidn'thavethe
It'sinallbooksonastronomy

Page84
nucleiofheavyatomsnosoonerdidoneform(throughneutronsandprotons
fusingtogether),thanitgotsmashedupagaininasubsequentcollision.It
wasonlylater,astheUniverseexpandedandcooleddown,thatthecollisions
becamelessviolentonlythencouldthenewlyformednucleisurvive.Sothat's
howyougotthisprimordialnucleosynthesis asit'scalled.
'Butthiswasnotsomethingthatcouldgoonindefinitelynucleiabsorbing
moreandmoreprotonsandneutrons,buildingupbiggerandbiggernuclei,'she
continued.'Itwasaraceagainsttime.Thetemperaturewasstillgoingdown.
Thatmeanteventuallyitwouldbesolowthenuclearparticleswouldnolonger
havehadenoughenergytofuse.Notonlythat,butthedensitywasgoing
downtoobecauseoftheexpansionsothecollisionsweregettingless
andlessfrequent.So,foracombinationofthesereasons,thepointwas
reachedwherethenuclearreactionscametoahaltandthemixofheavynuclei
nolongerchanged.Thatmixiscalledthefreeze outmix.Andthatmixof
nucleideterminesthemixofthedifferenttypesofatomthatwereeventuallyto
form.
'Now,theinterestingthingisthis,'sheconcluded.'Ifyouknowwhatthe
densityofmatterintheUniverseistoday,youcanworkoutwhatitmusthave
beenatanyearlierstage,andinparticularwhatitmusthavebeenatthetimeof
primordialnucleosynthesis.Andthatinturnmeansyoucanworkout
theoreticallywhatthefreezeoutmixshouldhavebeen.Itturnsoutthatyou
wouldexpect77%ofthemasstobeintheformofhydrogen(thelightest
element),23%helium(thenextlightest),andjusttracesofheaviernuclei.And
thatisexactlywhatisobservedtodaywhenyouexaminetheatomic
abundancesoftheinterstellargases!'
'OK,youwin,'MrTompkinsconceded.'TheBigBangwinstheday.'
'ButIhaven'ttoldyouthemostconvincingevidenceofall,'addedMaud,
growingmoreenthusiasticbythemoment.
'You'rebeginningtosoundlikeyourfather.'
Ignoringtheremark,shecontinued.'Thecosmicbackgroundradiation.You
see,iftheBigBangwashotitwouldhavebeenaccom

Page85
paniedbyafireballinthesamewayasanuclearbombgoingoffgivesouta
blindingflashoflight.Nowthequesioniswhathashappenedtoallthat
radiationfromtheBigBang.ItmustbeintheUniversesomewherethere'sno
otherplaceforittobe.Allright,itwon'tbeablindinglightanymoreitwill
havecooleddownbynow.Bythisstageitshouldhavewavelengthsinthe
microwaveregion.Infact,Gamow(rememberhimfromlastnight?),wellhe
calculatedthatitshouldhaveawavelengthspectrumcorrespondingtoa
temperaturesomewhereintheregionof7K,thatis7degreesaboveabsolute
zero.Andhewasrighttheremnantsofthefireballhavenowbeenfound.The
radiationwasdiscoveredin1965,purelyaccidentally,bytwocommunications
scientists,PenziasandWilson.Ithasatemperatureof2.73K,whichofcourse
isveryclosetothatpredictedbyGamow.'
MrTompkinssaidnothinghewaslostinthought.Maudlookedathim
quizzically.
'Wasthatallright...?'sheasked.'Convinced?'
MrTompkinsshookhimselfoutofhisreverie.'Ohyes.Yes,fine.Thatwas
fine.Thanks.But...'
'Butwhat?'
'Well,it'sjustthatI'vegotthismentalpictureofhydrogenandhelium,and
electrons,andradiationcomingoutoftheBigBangandnothingelse.So
howcometheworldisthewayitistoday?WheredidtheSunandtheEarth
comefrom?Andwhataboutyouandmewe'renotmadeoutofjusthydrogen
andhelium?'
'You'reaskingfor12,000millionyearsofhistory!HowlonghaveIgot?'
'Wouldthreeminutesbeenough?'askedMrTompkinshopefully.
Shelaughed.'I'llgiveitatry.'Ready?'
'Waitamoment,'hesaid,lookingathiswatch.'OK.Awayyougo.'
'Right.AfewminutesaftertheBigBangwehavehydrogenandheliumnuclei
andelectrons.After300,000yearsthingshavecooleddownenoughthatthe
electronscannowattachthemselvestothenuclei.Thatgivesusthefirstatoms.
Sonowwehavespacefilledwith

Page86
agas.Thegasisprettyuniformindensity,buttherearesomeslight
inhomogeneitiesplaceswherethedensityissomewhatgreaterorlessthan
theaverage.Thegasnowstartstoclumptogetheraroundthedensespots
duetotheirextragravity.Themoregastheycollect,thestrongertheirgravity
becomes,andthebettertheygetatpullinginyetmoregasfromthe
surroundings.Thisgivesuscloudsofgasseparatingoutfromeachother.Now
insideeachcloudlittleeddiesorwhirlpoolsform.Thesesquashdownandheat
up.(Thisalwayshappenswhenyousquashagasdownintoasmallervolume
itheatsup.)Eventuallythetemperaturegetssohighitignitesnuclearfusion
processesandthat'showstarsareborn.So,afterabout1billionyears
we'vegotourgalaxiesofstars.(Actually,itmighthavehappenedtheother
wayround.Insteadofthegalaxycloudformingfirstandthenbreakingdown
intostars,thestarsmighthaveformedfirstandthenlatercollectedtogetherto
formagalaxy.Nooneknowsforcertainatpresent.)Onewayortheother,
wehaveourstars.Thesearepoweredbythenuclearfusionprocesses.These
notonlyreleaseenergy,butalsobuildupthenucleioftheheavieratomsthe
atomsweshalllaterbeneedingtomaketheEarth,andthestuffofourbodies.
Eventuallythestellarnuclearfiresrunoutoffuel.Foramediumsizedstarlike
theSunthattakesabout10,000millionyears.Itswellsupinitsoldageto
becomewhatiscalledaredgiantstar.Thenitshrinksdowntoawhite
dwarf,andthisthenslowlyfizzlesouttobecomeacoldcinder.Moremassive
starsendtheiractivelivesinamuchmorespectacularfashion.Theygoout
withabangliterally.Asupernovaexplosion.It'sthisexplosionthatthrows
outsomeofthenewlysynthesizednuclearmaterialtheheavynuclei.These
arenowmixedupwiththeinterstellargasandcannowcollecttogethertoform
asecondgenerationstar,andforthefirsttime,rockyplanetsliketheEarth
(whichofcourseweren'tthereforthefirstgenerationofstars).It'sthenthat
evolutionbynaturalselectiontakesover,convertingthechemicalsonthe
surfaceoftheplanetintoyouandme.That'showwecometobemadeof
stardust!'
Maudstoppedabruptly.'There!That'sit!Howlongdidthattake?'

Page87
MrTompkinsgrinned.'Well,thatwasjustovertwominutes...'
'Good,'announcedMaud.'Thatgivesmeaminutetotalkaboutblackholes.'
'Blackholes?'
'Yes.That'swhat'sleftafteroneofthesereallymassivestarsblowsup.Itflings
outsomeofthematerial,asIsaid,buttherestcollapsesdowntoformablack
hole.'
'Whatexactlyisablackhole?'askedMrTompkins.'I'veheardofthem,of
course...'
'Ablackholeiswhatyougetwhenthegravityforceissostrongnothingcan
resistit.Allthematterofthestarcollapsesdowntoapoint.'
'Apoint !'exclaimedMrTompkins.'Doyoureallymeanthat?Anactual
point?'
'That'sright.Novolume,'wasthereply.'Thepointwhereallthematteris
concentratedissurroundedbyaregionofincrediblystronggravitationalfield.
It'ssostrong,ifyougetwithinacertaindistanceofit(withinitsevent
horizon),nothingcangetawayfromitnotevenlight.That'swhyit'sblack.
Anythingthatfindsitselfwithintheeventhorizongetssuckedintothatpointat
thecentre.'
'Amazing!'murmuredMrTompkins.'Andwhatliesbeyondtheblackhole?'
'Beyond?Whoknows?Theredoesn'thavetobeanything'beyond'.Thestuff
that'sfalleninjuststaysthereatthecentre.Oh,therearevariousspeculations
thatitmightalltravelthroughatunnelofsomesort,linkingourUniverseto
someother.ItthencomessquirtingoutintotheotherUniverseasa'white
hole'.Butthat'sallitis:purespeculation.'
'Andarewesurethatblackholesactuallydoexist?'
'Ohyes.Theevidenceisprettystrong.Notonlyblackholesfromcollapsed
oldstars,butatthecentreofagalaxiestoomassiveonesthatmighthave
swallowedupamillionorsostars.'
MrTompkinsbeamedatMaudadmiringly.
'Whyareyoulookingatmelikethat?'sheaskedcuriously.

Page88
'Ohnothing.IwasjustwonderinghowonEarthyouknowallthis?'
Sheshruggedmodestly.'Dunno.Mostlyfromthose,Isuppose.'Shenoddedat
ashelffullofpopularsciencemagazines.
'Onelastquestion,Einstein,'heasked.'Howisitallgoingtoend?What's
goingtohappentotheUniverseinthefuture?YourDadsaidsomethingabout
itexpandingforever,butslowingdowntoahaltintheinfinitefuture.'
'That'scorrectifthetheinflationtheoryisright,andthedensityofmatterin
theUniversehasthecriticalvalue.Bythenallthenuclearfuelwillhavebeen
usedup,thestarswillallhavedied,manywillgetsuckedintotheblackholeat
thecentreoftheirgalaxy,theUniversewillbecomefreezingcoldandlifeless.
TheHeatDeathoftheUniversethat'swhattheycallit.'
MrTompkinsshuddered.'NotsureIlikethesoundofthat.'
'OhIdon'tknow.Ishouldn'tletitbotheryou,'sherespondedbrightly.'We'll
allbedeadandburiedlongbeforethat.Anyway,that'senoughofthat.Let's
changethesubject.'
'Yes,I'msorry.Whatmustyouthinkofme?'
'Ohthat'sallright.Makethemostofitwhileyoucan,'shechuckled.'Iwon't
beanyusetoyounextweek.'
'Nextweek?What'shappeningnextweek?'
'Dad'sgettingontoquantumtheoryinhisnextlecture,isn'the?'
'Ibelieveso.'
'Well,Ineverdidfathomquantumtheory.AllIcansayis:Bestofluck!But
rightnowit'smyartwork.Didyouseriouslywanttoseesomeofit?'
'Yourwork?OfcourseIdid,'hereplied.'Wheredoyoukeepit?Isitfarto
yourstudio?'
'Far?No.It'sjustacrossthecourtyard.I'vegottheuseofanoldbarnout
there.ThatwaswhyIcametoNortonFarminthefirstplace.Itwasn'tthe
house,itwasthebarnIwanted.'
Maud'sstudiowasawonderland.MrTompkinshadneverseenanythinglike
it.Hercreations(youcouldn'tcallthempaintings)were

Page89
extraordinary.Althoughtheywereframedandweremeanttobehungona
wall,theyweremadeoutofallsortsofthings:plaster,wood,metaltubing,
slate,pebbles,tincans,etc.Thevariousitemswerestucktogetherinelaborate
andpowerfulcollages.
'They'rewonderful,'heexclaimed.'Ihadnoidea.Quitewonderful.Mindyou,'
hecontinuedhesitantly,'Ican'tsayIunderstandthemnotreallyunderstand
them.ButIdolikethem,'headdedemphatically.
Shesmiled.'Theyaren'tphysicstheories,youknow.They'renottheretobe
understood.Youhavetoexperiencethem.'
Forawhilehestoodsilentlycontemplatingoneoftheworks.Thenhe
ventured,'Youhavetodevelopatwowayrelationshipwithitan
interaction.It'snotcompleteuntiltheviewerputssomethingofhimselfinto
itseesitinrelationtosomeexperienceofhisown.Isthatwhatyoumean?'
Sheshruggednoncommittally.'That'smylatest,'shesaid,noddingattheone
hewasexamining.'Whatdoyouseeinthatone?'
'Thisone?Abeach.Thingswasheduponabeach.Gnarledandtimeworn
eachwithitsownprivatehistorytotellnowbroughttogether,bychance,at
thesameplace,atthesametime.'
Shewasregardinghimclosely.Itwasalookhehadn'tnoticedbefore,andhe
immediatelyfeltratherfoolish.
'Sorry.I'mtalkingnonsense.Probablybeenreadingtoomanyexhibition
catalogues.OneoftheadvantagesofworkingupintownisthatIgetthe
chancetovisitgalleriesandartexhibitionsinmylunchbreak,'heexplained.'I
likeartsomeofit,atanyrate.Itrytokeepabreastofwhat'sgoingon.'
Shesmiled.
'Tellme,'hecontinued.'Howdoyougetthisweatheredeffect?Italmostlooks
asthoughit'sbeensalvagedfromafire.'Hepointedtosomecharredlooking
piecesofwoodembeddedintheplaster.
Shegavehimamischieviouslook.'I'llshowyou,ifyoulikebutyou'llhave
towatchoutforyourself.'
Withthatshestruckamatchandsetlighttoablowtorchstandingonanearby
table.Pickingitupsheplayedtheroaringflamesover

Page90
thefaceofoneofthepictures.Itwasnotlongbeforethewoodenpartsofit
wereglowingred.Innotimethestudiowasfilledwithsmoke.Backingawayin
somealarm,MrTompkinsfoundthedoorandthrewitopentoallowthe
smoketoescape.Fromtherehewatchedinfascination.Hecaughtsightof
Maud'sface.Itwasapictureoftotalconcentration.Itwasatthatmomenthe
realizedthathewasinlove.

Page91
8
QuantumSnooker
Theaudiencefortheprofessor'snextlecturewasnotquiteaslargeasithad
beenatthebeginningoftheseriessomehadclearlynotstayedthecourse.But
itwasstillsizeable.AsMrTompkinssattherewaiting,herecalledMaud's
remarkaboutthedifficultiesoflearningquantumtheoryheanxiously
wonderedhowhewouldmanage.Buthewasdeterminedtomasterit,ifhe
could.Heevenheldouthopesthatwherequantumphysicswasconcerned,it
mightprovetobehisturntotutorher!
Theprofessorentered...
Ladiesandgentlemen:
InmytwopreviouslecturesItriedtoshowyouhowthediscoveryofthe
upperlimitforallphysicalvelocitiesbroughtustoacompletereconstructionof
nineteenthcenturyideasaboutspaceandtime.
Thisdevelopmentofthecriticalanalysisofthefoundationsofphysicsdidnot,
however,stopatthisstagestillmorestrikingdiscoveriesandconclusionswere
instore.Iamreferringtothebranchofphysicsknownasquantumtheory.
Thisisnotsomuchconcernedwiththepropertiesofspaceandtime
themselves,aswiththemutualinteractionsandmotionsofmaterialobjects
takingplaceinspaceandtime.
Inclassicalphysicsitwasalwaysacceptedasselfevidentthattheinteraction
betweenanytwophysicalbodiescouldbemadeassmallasrequiredbythe
conditionsoftheexperiment,andpracticallyreducedtozerowhenever
necessary.Forexample,supposetheaimis

Page92
toinvestigatetheheatdevelopedinacertainprocess,andoneisconcerned
thattheintroductionofathermometerwouldtakeawayacertainamountofthe
heat,andthusintroduceadisturbance.Theexperimenterwasconfidentthatby
usingasmallerthermometer(oraverytinythermocouple),thisdisturbance
couldbereducedtoapointbelowthelimitsofneededaccuracy.
Theconvictionthatanyphysicalprocesscan,inprinciple,beobservedwith
anyrequireddegreeofprecision,withoutdisturbingitbytheobservation,was
sostrongthatnobodytroubledtoformulatesuchapropositionexplicitly.
However,newempiricalfactsaccumulatedsincethebeginningofthetwentieth
centurysteadilybroughtphysiciststotheconclusionthatthesituationisreally
muchmorecomplicated.Infact,thereexistsinnatureacertainlowerlimit
ofinteractionwhichcanneverbereduced.Thisnaturallimitofaccuracyis
negligiblysmallformostkindsofprocesseswearenormallyfamiliarwithin
ordinarylife.Theydo,however,becomehighlysignificantwhenitcomestothe
interactionstakingplaceinsuchtinymechanicalsystemsasatomsand
molecules.
Intheyear1900,theGermanphysicistMaxPlanckwasthinkingaboutthe
conditionsofequilibriumbetweenmatterandradiation.Hecametoa
surprisingconclusion:Nosuchequilibriumwaspossibleiftheinteraction
betweenthematterandradiationtookplacecontinuously,ashadalwaysbeen
supposed.Instead,heproposedthattheenergywastransferredbetween
matterandradiationinasequenceofseparate'shocks'.Aparticularamount
ofenergywastransferredineachoftheseelementaryactsofinteraction.In
ordertogetthedesiredequilibrium,andtoachieveagreementwiththe
experimentalfacts,itwasnecessarytointroduceasimplemathematicalrelation
whichstatedthattheamountofenergytransferredineachshockwas
proportionaltothefrequencyoftheradiationresponsibleforthetransferof
energy.
Thus,denotingthecoefficientofproportionalitybythesymbol'h',Planckwas
ledtoacceptthattheminimalportion,orquantum,ofenergytransferredwas
givenbytheexpression

Page93
wheref standsforthefrequencyoftheradiation.Theconstanthhasthe
numericalvalue6.610
34
Joulesecond,andisusuallycalledPlanck's
constant.(Itakeityouareallfamiliarwiththenotationthat10
34
means:
wherethatissupposedtobe34zerosonthedenominator.)NotethatPlanck's
constanthasaverysmallvalue,anditisthisthatisresponsibleforthefactthat
quantumphenomenaareusuallynotobservedinoureverydaylife.
AfurtherdevelopmentofPlanck'sideaswasduetoEinstein.Heconcluded
thatnotonlyisradiationemittedas'packagesofenergy',butthesepackages
subsequentlytransferenergytomatterinthesamelocalizedwayasparticles
do.Inotherwords,eachpackageremainsintactitdoesnotdisperseits
energyoverawideregion,aswaspreviouslyassumed.Thesepackagesof
energyarereferredtoas'quantaoflight',orphotons .
Insofarasphotonsaremoving,theyshouldpossess,apartfromtheirenergy
hf,acertainmomentumalso.Accordingtorelativisticmechanics,thisshould
beequaltotheirenergydividedbythevelocityoflight,c.Rememberingthat
thefrequencyoflightisrelatedtoitswavelength, ,bytherelationf=c / ,
wecanwriteforthemomentumofaphoton:
Thus,aphoton'smomentumdecreaseswithwavelength.
Oneofthebestexperimentalproofsofthecorrectnessoftheideaoflight
quanta,andtheenergyandmomentumascribedtothem,wasgivenbythe
investigationoftheAmericanphysicistArthurCompton.Studyingthe
interactionsbetweenlightandelectrons,hearrivedattheresultthatelectrons
setinmotionbytheactionofarayoflightbehavedexactlyasiftheyhadbeen
struckbyaparticlewiththeenergyandmomentumgivenbyequations(13)
and(14).Thephotonsthemselves,aftercollidingwiththeelectrons,werealso
showntosuffer

Page94
certainchanges(intheirfrequency),inexcellentagreementwiththeprediction
ofthetheory.
Thus,wecansaythat,asfarastheinteractionwithmatterisconcerned,the
quantumpropertyofelectromagneticradiation,suchaslight,isawell
establishedexperimentalfact.
AfurtherdevelopmentofthequantumideaswasduetotheDanishphysicist
NielsBohr.In1913,hewasfirsttoexpresstheideathattheinternalmotion
ofanymechanicalsystemmaypossessonlyadiscretesetofpossible
energyvalues.Asaresult,thatinternalmotioncanchangeitsstateonlyby
finitesteps,thetransitionbeingaccompaniedbytheradiation,orabsorption,of
adiscreteamountofenergy(theenergydifferencebetweenthetwoallowed
energystates).Thisideawaspromptedbytheobservationthatwhenatomic
electronsemitradiation,theresultingspectrumisnotcontinuousbutconsistsof
certainfrequenciesonlya'linespectrum'.Inotherwords,inaccordance
withequation(13),theemittedradiationhasonlycertainenergyvalues.This
couldbeunderstoodifBohr'shypothesisconcerningtheallowedenergystates
oftheemitterwerecorrectinthiscase,theenergystatesoftheelectronsin
theatom.
Themathematicalrulesdefiningthepossiblestatesofmechanicalsystemsare
morecomplicatedthaninthecaseofradiationandwewillnotenterhereinto
theirformulation.Sufficeittosaythat,whendescribingthemotionofaparticle
suchasanelectron,therearecircumstanceswhereitbecomesnecessaryto
ascribetoitthepropertiesofawave.Thenecessityfordoingthiswasfirst
indicatedbytheFrenchphysicistLouisdeBroglie,onthebasisofhis
theoreticalstudiesofthestructureoftheatom.Herecognizedthatwhenevera
wavefindsitselfinaconfinedspace,suchasasoundwavewithinanorgan
pipe,orthevibrationsofaviolinstring,onlycertainfrequenciesorwave
lengthsarepermittedtoit.Thesewaveshaveto'fit'thedimensionsofthe
confiningspace,givingrisetowhatwecall'standingwaves'.DeBroglieargued
thatiftheelectronsinanatomhadawaveassociatedwiththem,thenbecause
thewaveswereconfined(tothevicinityoftheatomicnucleus),theirwave
lengthwouldonlybeable

Page95
totakeonthediscretevaluespermittedtostandingwaves.Furthermore,ifthis
proposedwavelengthwererelatedtotheelectron'smomentumbyanequation
similartoequation(14)forlight,i.e.
thenthatwouldentailthemomentum(andhencetheenergy)oftheelectron
beingabletotakeononlycertainpermittedvalues.Thiswouldofcourse
provideaneatexplanationofthediscreteenergylevelsofelectronsinatoms,
andtheconsequentlinespectrumnatureoftheiremittedradiation.
Inthefollowingyearsthewavepropertiesofthemotionofmaterialparticles
werefirmlyestablishedbynumerousexperiments.Theyshowedsuch
phenomenaasthediffractionofabeamofelectronspassingthroughasmall
opening,andinterferencephenomenatakingplaceevenforsuch
comparativelylargeandcomplexparticlesasmolecules.Theobservedwave
propertiesofmaterialparticleswere,ofcourse,absolutelyincomprehensible
fromthepointofviewofclassicalconceptionsofmotion.DeBrogliehimself
wasforcedtoaratherunnaturalpointofview:thattheparticlesare
'accompanied'bycertainwaveswhich,sotospeak,'direct'theirmotion.
Duetotheextremelysmallvalueoftheconstant,h,thewavelengthsof
materialparticlesareexceedinglysmallevenforthelightestfundamental
particle,theelectron.Wheneverthewavelengthofradiationissmallcompared
withthedimensionsofaperturesitmightbegoingthrough,thediffraction
effectsaretinyandtheradiationtoallintentsandpurposespassesthroughin
anundeviatedmanner.Thatiswhyafootballpassingthroughthegapbetween
thegoalpostsdoesnotundergoanyvisiblechangeofdirectiondueto
diffraction.Thewavenatureofparticlesisofimportanceonlyformotions
takingplaceinsuchsmallregionsastheinsideofatomsandmolecules.Here
theyplayacrucialpartinourknowledgeoftheinternalstructureofmatter.
Oneofthemostdirectproofsoftheexistenceofthesequenceofdiscrete
statesofthesetinymechanicalsystemswasgivenbytheexperimentsofJames
FranckandGustavHertz.Theybombarded

Page96
atomswithelectronsofvaryingenergy,andnoticedthatdefinitechangesinthe
stateoftheatomtookplaceonlywhentheenergyofthebombardingelectrons
reachedcertaindiscretevalues.Iftheenergyoftheelectronswasbrought
belowacertainlimit,noeffectwhatsoeverwasobservedintheatoms.This
wasbecausetheamountofenergycarriedbyeachelectronwasnotsufficient
toraisetheatomfromthefirstallowedquantumstateintothesecond.
Sohowarewetoviewthesenewideasinrelationtoclassicalmechanics?
Thefundamentalconceptconcerningmotioninclassicaltheoryisthata
particle,atanygivenmoment,occupiesacertainpositioninspaceand
possessesadefinitevelocitycharacterizingitspositionalchangeswithtime
alongitstrajectory.Thesefundamentalnotionsofposition,velocityand
trajectory,onwhichtheentireedificeofclassicalmechanicsisbuilt,areformed
(asareallourothernotions)fromobservationofthephenomenaaroundus.As
wesawearlierwiththeclassicalnotionsofspaceandtime,wemustexpect
thattheymightbeinneedofradicalmodificationassoonasourexperience
extendsintonewandpreviouslyunexploredregions.
IfIaskyouwhyyoubelievethatamovingparticleoccupiesatanygiven
momentacertainposition,andthatoverthecourseoftimeitwilldescribea
definitelinecalledthetrajectory,youwillprobablyanswer:'BecauseIseeit
thisway,whenIobserveitsmotion.'Butletusanalysethismethodofforming
theclassicalnotionofthetrajectoryandseeifitreallywillleadtoadefinite
result.Forthispurposeweimagineaphysicistsuppliedwithsensitive
apparatus,tryingtopursuethemotionofalittlematerialbodythrownfromthe
wallofherlaboratory.Shedecidestomakeherobservationby'seeing'how
thebodymoves.Ofcourse,toseethemovingbody,shemustilluminateit.
Knowingthatlightingeneralproducesapressureonthebody,andsomight
disturbitsmotion,shedecidestouseshortflashilluminationonlyatthe
momentswhenshemakestheobservation.Forherfirsttrialshewantsto
observeonlytenpointsonthetrajectoryandthusshechoosesherflashlight
sourcesoweakthattheintegraleffectof

Page97
Thelightmightdisturbitsmotion
lightpressureduringtensuccessiveilluminationsshouldbewithintheaccuracy
sheneeds.Thus,flashingherlighttentimesduringthefallofthebody,she
obtains,withthedesiredaccuracy,tenpointsonthetrajectory.
Nowshewantstoimproveontheexperimentandgetamoreprecisefixonthe
trajectoryonehundredpointsthistime.Sheknowsthatahundred
successiveilluminationswilldisturbthemotiontoomuchandtherefore,
preparingforthesecondsetofobservations,choosesherflashlighttentimes
lessintense.Forthethirdsetofobservations,

Page98
desiringtohaveonethousandpoints,shemakestheflashlightahundredtimes
fainterthanoriginally.Proceedinginthisway,andconstantlydecreasingthe
intensityofherillumination,shecanobtainasmanypointsonthetrajectoryas
shewants,withoutincreasingthepossibleerrorabovethelimitshehadchosen
atthebeginning.Thishighlyidealized,butinprinciplequitepossible,procedure
representsthestrictlylogicalwaytoconstructthemotionofatrajectoryby
'lookingatthemovingbody'.Asyoucansee,fromthepointofviewof
classicalphysics,allofthisisperfectlypossible.
Butnowletusseewhathappensifweintroducethequantumlimitationsand
takeintoaccountthefactthattheactionofanyradiationcanbetransferred
onlyintheformofphotons.Wehaveseenthatourobserverwasconstantly
reducingtheamountoflightilluminatingthemovingbody.Butnowwehaveto
recognizethatshewillfinditimpossibletocontinuetodothisonceshehas
comedowntoalevelofilluminationequivalenttoonephotonperflash.Either
allornoneofthephotonwillbereflectedfromthemovingbodyonecannot
haveafractionofaphoton.
Now,theexperimentermightarguethat,inaccordancewithequation(14),the
effectofacollisionwithaphotonwouldbelessifthewavelengthwerelarger.
Consequentlysheresolvestoincreasethenumberofobservationsbymaking
compensatoryincreasesinthewavelengthofthelightused.Buthereshe
meetswithanotherdifficulty.Itiswellknownthatwhenusinglightofacertain
wavelength,onecannotseedetailssmallerthanthewavelengthused.(One
cannotpaintaPersianminiatureusingahousepainter'sbrush!)Thus,byusing
longerandlongerwaves,shewillspoiltheestimateofeachsinglepointand
soonwillcometothestagewhereeachestimatewillbeuncertainbyan
amountcomparabletothesizeofherlaboratoryandmore.Thusshewillbe
forcedfinallytoacompromisebetweenthelargenumberofobservedpoints
andtheuncertaintyofeachestimate.Thus,shewillneverbeabletoarriveat
anexacttrajectoryasamathematicallinesuchasthatobtainedbyherclassical
colleagues.Herbestresultwillbearatherbroad,washedoutband.

Page99
Themethoddiscussedhereisanopticalmethodwecouldtryanother
possibility,usingamechanicalmethod.Forthispurposeourexperimentercan
devisesometinymechanicalrecordingdevices,saylittlebellsonsprings,which
wouldregisterthepassageofmaterialbodiesifsuchabodypassescloseto
them.Shecanspreadalargenumberofsuchbellsthroughthespacethrough
whichthemovingbodyisexpectedtopassandaftertheparticle'spassage,the
'ringingofbells'willindicateitstrack.Inclassicalphysicsonecanmakethe
bellsassmallandsensitiveasonelikes,andinthelimitingcaseofaninfinite
numberofinfinitelysmallbells,thenotionofatrajectorycanbeagainformed
withanydesiredprecision.However,thequantumlimitationsformechanical
systemswillspoilthesituationagain.Theclappersofthebellsareinthe
confinedspaceofthebellitself.Theywillthereforehaveonlycertaindiscrete
energystatesallowedtothem.Ifthebellsaretoosmall,theamountof
momentumtheyneedtotakefromthe
Littlebellsonsprings

Page100
movingbodyinordertogettheclappertoringwillbelarge,andasaresult,
themotionoftheparticlewillundergoacorrespondinglylargedisturbance.If
ontheotherhand,thebellsarelarge,littledisturbancewillbecaused,butthe
uncertaintyofeachpositionwillbelarge.Thefinaltrajectorydeducedwill
againbeaspreadoutband!
Theseconsiderationsmightleadyoutoseekyetsomeotherpracticalmethod
fordeterminingthetrajectoryperhapsamoreelaborateandcomplicated
one.Butletmepointoutthatwhatwehavebeendiscussingherehasnotbeen
somuchtheanalysisoftwoparticularexperimentaltechniques,butan
idealizationofthemostgeneralquestionofphysicalmeasurement.Any
schemeofmeasurementwhatsoeverwillnecessarilybereducibletothe
elementsdescribedinthesetwomethods,andwillfinallyyieldthesameresult:
exactpositionandtrajectoryhavenoplaceinaworldsubjecttoquantum
laws...
Itwasatthispointinthelecture,MrTompkinsgaveuphisbattletokeephis
leadeneyesopen.Hisheaddrooped,suddenlytojerkupashetriedtoforce
himselftokeepawakeitdroopedoncemore,anotherslightjerk,another
droop...
Havingorderedapintfromthebar,MrTompkinswasabouttofindhimselfa
seat,whenhisattentionwastakenbytheclickofsnookerballs.He
rememberedthattherewasasnookertableinthebackroomofthispub,sohe
thoughthewouldgoandtakealook.Theroomwasfilledwithmeninshirt
sleeves,drinkingandchattinganimatedly,astheywaitedtheirturntoplay.Mr
Tompkinsapproachedthetableandstartedtowatchthegame.
Therewassomethingverystrangeaboutit!Aplayerputaballonthetableand
hititwiththecue.Watchingtherollingball,MrTompkinsnoticedtohisgreat
surprisethattheballbeganto'spreadout'.Thiswastheonlyexpressionhe
couldfindfortheoddbehaviouroftheballwhich,asitmoved,seemedto
becomemoreandmorewashedout,losingitssharpcontours.Itlookedasif
notoneballwasrollingacrossthetablebutagreatnumberofballs,allpartially

Page101

Page102
penetratingintoeachother.MrTompkinshadoftenobservedanalogous
phenomenabefore,butnotonthestrengthoflessthanonedrink.Hecouldnot
understandwhyitwashappeningnow.
'Hmm,'hethought,'Iwonderhowthis''fuzzy"ballisgoingtohitanotherone.'
Theplayerwhohadhittheballwasevidentlyanexpertthemovingballhitthe
otherheadonjustasitwasmeanttotherewasaloudsoundofimpactjust
likethecollisionbetweentwoordinaryballs.Thenboththeballthathadbeen
movingandtheonethathadbeenstationary(MrTompkinscouldnot
positivelysaywhichwaswhich)spedoff'inalldifferentdirectionsatonce'.
Verypeculiar.Therewerenolongertwoballslookingonlysomewhatfuzzy,
butinsteaditseemedthatinnumerableballs,allofthemveryvagueandfuzzy,
wererushingaboutwithinanangleof180roundthedirectionoftheoriginal
impact.Itresembledawavespreadingfromthepointofcollision,witha
maximumflowofballsinthedirectionoftheoriginalimpact.
'That'saniceexampleofprobabilitywavesthey'vegotthere,'saidafamiliar
voicebehindhim.MrTompkinsswungroundtofindtheprofessorathis
shoulder.
'Oh,it'syou,'hesaid.'Good.Perhapsyoucouldexplainwhat'sgoingonhere.'
'Certainly.Thelandlordseemstohavegothimselfsomeballssufferingfrom
"quantumelephantism"ifImaysoexpressmyself.Allobjectsinnature,of
course,aresubjecttoquantumlaws.ButPlanck'sconstant(thequantity
governingthescaleofthequantumeffects)isvery,verysmallatleastitis
normally.Butfortheseballshere,theconstantseemsmuchlargerabout
ONE,Ireckon.Whichisactuallyquiteusefulhereyoucanseeeverything
happeningwithyourveryowneyes.Normallyyoucanonlyinferthissortof
behaviourusingverysensitiveandsophisticatedmethodsofobservation.'
Theprofessorbecamethoughtful.'ImustsayIwoulddearlylovetoknowhow
thelandlordgotholdoftheseballs.Strictlyspeaking,theycan'texistinour
world.Planck'sconstantisthesameforallobjects.'

Page103
'Maybeheimportedthemfromsomeotherworld,'suggestedMrTompkins.
'Buttellme,whydotheballsspreadoutlikethis?'
'Oh,that'salltodowiththefactthattheirpositiononthetableisnotquite
definite.Youcannotindicatethepositionofaballexactlythebestyoucansay
isthattheballis"mostlyhere"but"partiallysomewhereelse".'
'Itactually,physicallyisinallthesedifferentplacesatonce?'askedMr
Tompkinsincredulously.
Theprofessorhesitated.'Maybe,maybenot.That'scertainlyhowsome
peoplewouldsayitwas.Otherswouldsaythatitisourknowledgeofthe
ball'spositionthat'suncertain.Theinterpretationofquantumphysicshas
alwaysbeenasubjectfordebate.There'snoconsensusevennow.'
MrTompkinscontinuedtogazeinwonderatthefuzzysnookerballs.'Thisis
allveryunusual,'hemurmured.
'Onthecontrary,'insistedtheprofessor,'itisabsolutelyusualinthesense
thatithappensallthetime,toeverymaterialobjectintheUniverse.It'ssimply
thathissoverysmall.Ourordinarymethodsofobservationaretoocrude
theymaskthisunderlyingtypeofindeterminacy.Andit'sthisthatmisleads
peopleintothinkingthatpositionandvelocityareinthemselvesdefinite
quantities.Theyrecognizethatinpurelypracticaltermsyou'renevergoingto
beabletodeterminewhatthosevaluesofpositionandvelocityarenotto
infiniteprecisionbutthistheyputdowntonothingmorethanthe
clumsinessoftheirmeasuringtechniques.Butintruth,bothquantitiesare
fundamentallyindefinitetosomeextent.
'Actuallyitispossibletoalterthebalanceofuncertainties.Forexample,you
mightwanttoconcentrateonimprovingtheaccuracyofyourdeterminationof
position.OKyoucandothat,butthepriceyouhavetopayisanincreasein
theuncertaintyofthevelocity.Alternativelyyoucangoforprecisionof
velocity,butthenyouhavetosacrificeprecisionofposition.Planck'sconstant
governstherelationbetweenthesetwouncertainties.'
'I'mnotaltogethersure...,'beganMrTompkins.

Page104
Ballconfinedtoliewithinatriangle
'Ohit'squitesimplereally,'continuedtheprofessor.'Lookhere,Iamgoingto
putdefinitelimitsonthepositionofthisball.'
Thefuzzylookingballhespokeofwaslazilyrollingoverthetable.Hereached
acrossandtrappeditinsidethewoodentriangletheplayersuseforsettingup
theballsatthestartofagame.Immediatelytheballseemedtogobeserk.The
wholeoftheinsideofthetrianglebecamefilledupwithablurofivory.
'Yousee!'saidtheprofessor,'Ihavenowdefinedthepositionoftheballtothe
extentofthedimensionsofthetriangle.Previouslyallwecouldsayforcertain
wasthatitwasonthetablesomewhere.Butlookwhatit'sdonetothe
velocity.Theuncertaintyinthevelocityhasshotup.'
'Can'tyoustopitrushingaboutlikethat?'askedMrTompkins.
'Noit'sphysicallyimpossible.Anyobjectinanenclosedspacehasto
possessacertainmotionwephysicistscallitzeropointmotion.It's
impossibleforittostaystill.Ifitdidstaystillthenwewouldknow

Page105
forcertainwhatitsvelocitywasitwouldbezero.Butwearenotallowedto
knowthevelocityifwehaveaprettygoodfixonitspositionaswedohere
withtheballconfinedtoliewithintheboundariesofthetriangle.'
WhileMrTompkinswaswatchingtheballdashingtoandfroinits
enclosurelikeatigerinacagesomethingveryoddhappened.Theball
gotout!Itwasnowontheoutsideofthetriangle,rollingtowardsadistant
cornerofthetable.Buthow?Itwasn'tthatitjumpedoverthewallofthe
triangleinsteadithadsortof'leaked'throughthebarrier.
'Hah!'exclaimedtheprofessorexcitedly,'Didyouseethat?Oneofthemost
interestingconsequencesofquantumtheory:Itisimpossibletoholdanything
insideanenclosureindefinitelyprovidedthereisenoughenergyforthe
objecttorunawayonceithascrossedthebarrier.Soonerorlatertheobject
will"leakthrough"andgetaway.'
'Goodgrief!'declaredMrTompkins.'ThenI'llnevergotothezooagain.'His
vividimaginationimmediatelyconjuredupapictureoflionsandtigers'leaking
through'thewallsoftheircages.Thenhisthoughtstookasomewhatdifferent
turn:Whatifhiscarleakedoutofitslockedgarage?Hehadamentalimageof
itpassingthroughthegaragewall,liketheproverbialghostofthemiddleages,
andcareeringoffdownthestreet.Hewonderedwhetherhiscarinsurance
coveredsucheventualities.
Hementionedthistotheprofessor,andasked,'HowlongwouldIhavetowait
forthattohappen?'
Aftermakingsomerapidcalculationsinhishead,theprofessorcameback
with:'Itwilltakeabout1,000,000,000...000,000years.'
EventhoughMrTompkinswasaccustomedtolargenumbersinthebank's
accounts,helostcountofthenumberofnoughtsintheprofessor'sanswer.It
was,however,areassuringlylongperiodoftimeenoughforhimnottobe
undulyworried.
'Buttellme,'hesaid.'Intheordinaryworldintheabsenceofballslike
thesehowcansuchthingsbeobservedifittakessolongtohappen?'
'Goodquestion.There'snopointhangingaroundhopingtoseeordinary,
everydayobjectsperformthesefeats.No,thepointisthe

Page106
Whatifhiscarleakedoutofitslockedgarage?
effectsofthequantumlawsonlyreallybecomenoticeablewhenyou'redealing
withverysmallmassessuchasatomsorelectrons.Forsuchtinyparticles,the
quantumeffectsaresolargethatordinarymechanicsbecomesquite
inapplicable.Acollisionbetweentwoatoms,say,wouldlookexactlylikea
collisionbetweentwoofthese"quantumelephantistic"balls.Notonlythat,but
themotionofelectronswithinanatomresemblesverycloselythe"zeropoint
motion"oftheballwhenitwasinsidethewoodentriangle.'
'Anddotheelectronsescapefromtheiratomsveryoften?'askedMr
Tompkins.

Page107
'No,no,'respondedtheprofessorhurriedly.'No,thatdoesn'thappenatall.
YoumustrememberwhatIsaidabouttheobjecthavingenoughenergytoget
awayonceithasleakedthroughthebarrier.Anelectronisheldinanatomby
theforceofattractionbetweenthenegativeelectricchargeitcarriesandthe
positivechargeontheprotonsinthenucleus.Theelectrondoesnothave
enoughenergytoescapethispull,soitcannotgetaway.No,ifyouwantto
seeleakage,thenIsuggestexaminingthenucleusoftheatom.Tosomeextent
anucleuscanbehaveasthoughit'smadeupofalphaparticles.'
'Alphaparticle?'
'That'sthenamegivenhistoricallytothenucleusofaheliumatom.Itconsistsof
twoneutronsandtwoprotons.Itisexceptionallytightlyboundthefour
particlescan"fittogether"inaveryefficientmanner.Anyway,asIwassaying,
becausealphaparticlesaresotightlybound,heavynucleicaninsome
circumstancesbehaveasthoughtheywereacollectionofalphaparticles
ratherthanindividualneutronsandprotons.Althoughthealphasaremoving
aboutwithintheoverallvolumeofthenucleus,theyareconstrainedtostay
withinthatvolumebytheshortrangeattractiveforcesthatbindnuclear
particlestogether.Atleast,theystaytogethernormally,buteverysooften,one
ofthealphasescapes.Itgetsoutbeyondtherangeoftheattractivenuclear
forcethathadbeenconstrainingit.Infact,nowitissubjectonlytothelong
rangerepulsiveforcebetweenitspositiveelectricchargeandthatontherestof
thenucleusithasleftbehind.Sonowthealphaispropelledaway.It'saform
ofradioactivenucleardecay.So,asyousee,thisisquiteanalogoustoyour
carinitsgarageonlythealphaescapesmorequickly!'
Atthispoint,MrTompkinsfeltastrangesensationinhisarm.Ithadbegunto
shake.Heheardawoman'shushedvoicesaying'Shh!'
Heawoketofindaladysittingnexttohimonthelecturetheatrebench.She
wasgentlytappinghimonthearm.Shesmiledsympatheticallyandwhispered
'Youwerebeginningtosnore.'
MrTompkinspulledhimselftogetherandsilentlymouthedthewords'thank
you'toher.Hewonderedhowmuchofthelecturehehad

Page108
missed.Perhapseveninhissleephehadbeenunconsciouslytunedin.He
rememberedhearingareportonceofsomeonewhowassupposedtohave
learnedaforeignlanguagebygoingtosleepwithheadphoneson.Anyway,the
professorwasstillinfullflow...
Letusnowreturntoourexperimenterandtrytogetthemathematicalformfor
thelimitationsimposedbyquantumconditions.Wehavealreadyseenthat
whatevermethodofobservationisused,thereisalwaysaconflictbetweenthe
estimateofpositionandthatofvelocityofthemovingobject.Intheoptical
method,thecollisionbetweentheobjectandthephotonfromtheilluminating
sourcewill,becauseofthelawofconservationofmomentum,introducean
uncertaintyinthemomentumoftheparticlecomparablewiththemomentumof
thephotonused.Thus,usingequation(15),wecanwritefortheuncertaintyof
momentumoftheparticle
Rememberingthattheuncertaintyofpositionoftheparticleisgivenbythe
wavelength(ie. q )wededuce:
Inthemechanicalmethodofobservationusingthe"bells",themomentumofthe
movingparticlewillbemadeuncertainbytheamounttakenbythebellclapper.
Becausetheclapperisconfinedwithinthebell,itsmomentummustbesuchas
tocorrespondwithawavelengthcomparabletothedimensionsofthebell,l.
Thus,usingequation(15), p
particle
h/l.Recallingthatinthiscasethe
uncertaintyofpositionisgivenbythesizeofthebell(i.e. q l),wecome
againtothesameequation(17).Thisuniversalrelationshipbetweenthetwo
uncertainties,involvingasitdoesPlanck'sconstant,wasfirstformulatedbythe
GermanphysicistWernerHeisenberg.Hence,equation(17)isknownasthe
Heisenberguncertaintyrelationship.Fromthisitbecomesimmediatelyclear
thatthebetteronedefinestheposition,themoreindefinitethemomentum(or
velocity)becomes,and

Page109
viceversa.Rememberingthatmomentumistheproductofthemassofthe
movingparticleanditsvelocity,wecanwrite
Forbodieswhichweusuallyhandle,theseuncertaintiesareexceedinglysmall.
Foralightparticleofdust,withamassof0.000,000,1g,bothpositionand
velocitycanbemeasuredwithanaccuracyof0.000,000,01%!However,for
anelectron(withamassof10
30
kg),theproduct v qshouldbeoftheorder
of10
4
m
2
/s.Insideanatom,thevelocityofanelectronshouldbelessthan10
6

m/s,otherwiseitwillescape.Soitsvelocityneedstobedefinedtoaprecision
withinthatlimitingvelocity.Usingequation(17),thisgives10
10
mforthe
uncertaintyofposition,i.e.wewouldexpectthatthiswouldrepresentthetotal
dimensionsofanatom.Andindeed,thatiswhatwefindtobethecasein
practice.HerewebegintoglimpsethepowerandusefulnessofHeisenberg's
uncertaintyrelationship.Merelyfromaknowledgeofthestrengthoftheforces
withintheatom(andhencethemaximumvelocitiesallowedtotheelectrons),
weareabletoarriveatanestimateofthesizeofatoms!
InthislectureIhavetriedtoshowyouapictureoftheradicalchangethatour
classicalideasofmotionhavehadtoundergo.Theelegantandsharplydefined
classicalnotionsaregone,andyoumightwellbewonderinghowphysicists
managetokeepafloatonthisoceanofuncertainty.Itcannotbeafunctionof
anintroductorylecturelikethistoprovideyouwiththefullmathematicalrigour
ofquantummechanics.Butforthoseofyouinterested,letmegiveyouthe
flavourofit.
Itisclearthatifwecannotingeneraldefinethepositionofamaterialparticle
byamathematicalpoint,anditstrajectorybyamathematicalline,wehaveto
useothermathematicalmethodsofdescription.Thisinfactentailstheuseof
continuousfunctions(suchasareusedinhydrodynamics).Suchfunctionswill
allowustodefinethe'densityofpresence'oftheobjectasit'spreadsout'in
space.
Ishouldperhapswarnyouagainsttheerroneousideathatthefunction
describingthe'densityofpresence'hasaphysicalrealityin

Page110
ourordinarythreedimensionalspace.Infact,ifwedescribethebehaviourof,
say,twoparticles,wemustanswerthequestionconcerningthepresenceof
ourfirstparticleinoneplaceandthesimultaneouspresenceofoursecond
particleinsomeotherplace.Todothiswehavetouseafunctionofsix
variables(thecoordinatesofthetwoparticles),andthesecannotbe'localised'
inthreedimensionalspace.Formorecomplexsystems,functionsofstilllarger
numbersofvariablesmustbeused.Inthissense,thequantummechanical
wavefunctionisanalogoustothe'potentialfunction'ofasystemofparticlesin
classicalmechanicsortothe'entropy'ofasysteminstatisticalmechanics.It
onlydescribesthemotion,andhelpsustopredicttherelativeprobabilitiesof
variouspossibleoutcomesofournextobservationoftheobject.Forexample,
supposewehaveanelectronbeambeingdiffractedasitpassesthroughslitsin
abarrier,beforefinallystrikingadistantscreenwhereitsarrivalisrecorded.
Thewavefunctionforthisphysicalsetupwillallowustocalculatetherelative
probabilitiesfortheelectronsarrivingatdifferentlocationsonthescreen
theirarrivalbeingintheformoflocalisedquantaorparticles.
TheAustrianphysicistErwinSchrdingerwasthefirsttowritetheequation
definingthebehaviourofthewavefunction, ,ofamaterialparticle.Iamnot
goingtoenterhereintothemathematicalderivationofhisfundamental
equation,butIwilldrawyourattentiontotherequirementswhichleadtoit,the
mostimportantofthesebeingaveryunusualone:Theequationmustbewritten
insuchawaythatthefunctiondescribingthemotionofmaterialparticles
shouldshowallthecharacteristicsofawave.
Thus,thebehaviourofourYfunctionisnotanalogousto(letussay)the
passageofheatthroughawallheatedononeside,butrathertothemovement
ofamechanicaldeformation(asoundwave)throughthesamewall.
Mathematically,itrequiresadefiniteratherrestrictedformofequation.This
fundamentalcondition,togetherwiththeadditionalrequirementthatour
equationsshouldgooverintotheequationsofclassicalmechanicswhen
appliedtoparticlesof

Page111
largemassforwhichquantumeffectsshouldbecomenegligible,practically
reducestheproblemoffindingtheequationtoapurelymathematicalexercise.
Ifyouareinterestedinhowtheequationlooksinitsfinalform,hereitis:
Inthisequation,theparticleshavemass,m,andthefunctionUrepresentsthe
potentialoftheforcesactingontheparticles.Theequationgivesthesolution
forthemotionoftheparticles,giventheparticulardistributionofforces.The
applicationofSchrdinger'swaveequationhasallowedphysiciststodevelop
themostcompleteandlogicallyconsistentpictureofallphenomenataking
placeinthesubatomicworld.
BeforeIendIsupposeIoughtjusttomentionawordortwoaboutmatrices.
Ifyouhavealreadyreadquiteabitaboutquantumphysics,youmayhave
comeacrossthisverydifferentapproachtothesubject.Imustconfessthat
personallyIratherdislikethesematrices,andprefertodowithoutthem.But,
forcompletenessIoughtatleasttomentionthem.
Themotionofaparticleorofacomplexmechanicalsystemisalways
described,asyouhaveseen,bycertaincontinuouswavefunctions.These
functionsareoftenrathercomplicatedandcanberepresentedasbeing
composedofanumberofsimpleroscillations,thesocalled'properfunctions',
muchinthewaythatacomplicatedsoundcanbemadeupfromanumberof
simpleharmonicnotes.Onecandescribethewholecomplexmotionbygiving
theamplitudesofitsdifferentcomponents.Sincethenumberofcomponents
(overtones)isinfinitewemustwriteinfinitetablesofamplitudesinaform:

Page112
Suchatable,whichissubjecttocomparativelysimplerulesofmathematical
operations,iscalleda'matrix'.Sometheoreticalphysicistsprefertooperate
withmatricesinsteadofdealingwiththewavefunctionsthemselves.Thus,the
'matrixmechanics',astheysometimescallit,isjustamathematicalmodification
oftheordinary'wavemechanics'.
Iamparticularlysorrythattimedoesnotpermitmetodescribetoyouthe
furtherprogressofquantumtheoryinitsrelationtothetheoryofrelativity.This
development,duemainlytotheworkoftheBritishphysicistPaulDirac,brings
inanumberofveryinterestingpointsandhasalsoledtosomeextremely
importantexperimentaldiscoveries.Imaybeabletoreturnatsomeothertime
totheseproblems,buthereforthepresentImuststop.

Page113
9
TheQuantumSafari
Beep...beep...beep
MrTompkinspulledhimselfup,reachedoutfromunderthebedclothesand
bangedthetopofthealarmclock.ThoughtsofMondaymorningandwork
begantoseepintohisconsiousness.Slumpingdownoncemore,hebeganhis
customaryfinaltenminutessnoozebeforetheinsistentnoisewasdueto
recommence...
'Hey!Comeon!It'stimetogetup.We'vegotaplanetocatch,remember.'It
wastheprofessorhewasstandingbythesideofthebed,holdingalarge
suitcase.
'What...what'sthat?'mumbledaflusteredMrTompkinsashesatuprubbing
hiseyes.
'We'regoingonsafari.Don'ttellmeyou'veforgotten!'
'Safari!?'
'Yesofcourse.We'reofftothequantumjungle.Veryhelpfulthelandlordof
thatpubtoldmewheretheivoryforhissnookerballscamefrom.'
'Ivory?!Butwe'renotsupposedtogolookingforivorythesedays...'
BrushingasideMrTompkins'protest,theprofessorrummagedintheside
pocketofthecase.
'Ha!Hereitis,'hedeclared,pullingoutamap.'Yes,look.I'vemarkedthe
regioninred.See?Everythingwithinthatareaissubjecttoquantumlawswith
averylargevalueofPlanck'sconstant.We'reofftoinvestigate.'

Page114
Thejourneywasnothingremarkable,andMrTompkinsscarcelynotedthe
timeuntiltheplanetoucheddownattheirdestinationinsomedistantcountry.
Accordingtotheprofessor,thiswasthenearestpopulatedplacetothe
mysteriousquantumregion.
'Weshallbeneedingaguide,'hesaid.Butrecruitingoneturnedouttobe
difficult.Thelocalswereclearlywaryaboutgoingtothequantumjungle,and
normallyneverwentneartheplace.Buteventuallyabrash,daredevillad,
tauntinghisfriendsfortheircowardice,volunteeredtotakethetwovisitors.
Firststopwasthemarkettopickupsupplies.
'You'llhavetorentusanelephanttoride,'theboyannounced.
MrTompkinstookonelookatthehugeanimal,andwasimmediatelyfilled
withalarm.Hewasexpectedtomountthat!'Look,I'drathernot,'he
declared.'I'veneverdonethissortofthingbefore.Ireallycouldn't.Ahorse,
maybe.Butnotthat.'Justthenhenoticedanothertradersellingdonkeys.He
brightened.'Howaboutoneofthem?Ireckonthat'smoremysize.'
Theboylaughedderisively.'Takeadonkeytothequantumjungle?Youmust
bejoking.Thatwouldbelikeridingabuckingbronco.You'dbethrownoffin
notime(assumingthedonkeydidn'tleakthroughyourlegsbeforethat).'
'Ahyes,'murmuredtheprofessor.'Ibegintosee.Thelad'sactuallymakinga
lotofsense.'
'Heis?'saidMrTompkins.'Ireckonhe'sincahootswiththeelephant
salesman.They'rerippingusoffmakingusbuysomethingwedon'tneed.'
'Butwedoneedanelephant,'repliedtheprofessor.'Wecan'trideananimal
that'sgoingtospreadoutallovertheplacelikethosesnookerballs.We
needtobeattachedtosomethingheavy.Thatwaythemomentumwillbehigh,
evenifit'sgoingslow,andthatinturnmeansthewavelengthwillbetiny.Itold
yousometimeagothatalltheuncertaintyinpositionandvelocitydependson
themassthelargerthemass,thesmallertheuncertainty.Thatiswhythe
quantumlawshavenotbeenobservedintheordinaryworldevenforobjects
aslightasparticles

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ofdust.Electrons,atomsandmolecules,yes.Butnotordinarysizedobjects.In
thequantumjungle,ontheotherhand,Planck'sconstantislarge.Buteven
there,it'sstillnotlargeenoughtoproducestrikingeffectsinthebehaviourof
suchaheavyanimalasanelephant.Theuncertaintyofthepositionofa
quantumelephantcanbenoticedonlybycloseinspection.Onemightexpect
itsoutlinetobeslightlyfuzzy,butnothingmore.Inthecourseoftime,this
uncertaintywillincreaseveryslowly.Thatinfactisprobablytheoriginofthe
locallegendthatveryoldelephantsfromthequantumjungledeveloplongfur.'
Aftersomehaggling,theprofessoragreedaprice,andheandMrTompkins
mountedtheelephant,climbingintothebasketfastenedtotheanimal'sback.
Withtheyoungguidetakinguphispositionontheelephant'sneck,theystarted
towardsthemysteriousjungle.
Ittookaboutanhourtoreachitsoutskirts.Astheyenteredtheforest,Mr
Tompkinsnotedthattheleavesinthetreeswererustling,andyettheredidnot
appeartobeawind.Heaskedtheprofessorwhythiswasso.
'Oh,that'sbecausewe'relookingatthem,'wasthereply.
'Lookingatthem!What'sthatgottodowithit?'exclaimedMrTompkins.'Are
theysoshy?'
'Iwouldhardlyputitlikethat,'smiledtheprofessor.'Thepointisthatin
makinganyobservationyoucan'thelpdisturbingwhateveritisyouarelooking
at.Thephotonsofsunlighthereobviouslypackabiggerpunchthantheones
weareusedtobackhome.WithPlanck'sconstantbeingthatmuchbigger
now,wemustexpecttofinditaprettyroughworld.Nogentleactionis
possiblehere.Ifapersonheretriedtopatadog,itwouldeithernotfeel
anythingatall,oritsneckmightbebrokenbythefirstquantumofcaress.'
Astheyambledalongthroughthetrees,MrTompkinsgottothinking.'Whatif
nobodyislooking?'heasked.'Wouldeverythingbehaveproperlythen?I
mean,wouldthoseleavesbehaveinthewayweareaccustomedtothink?'
'Whocansay?'musedtheprofessor.'Whennobodyislooking,whocanknow
howtheybehave?'

Page116
'You'resayingthatismoreaphilosophicalquestionthanascientificone?'
'Youcancallitphilosophyifyoulike.Butitmightsimplybeameaningless
question.Onethingisclear,inscienceatleast,itisafundamentalprinciplethat
onetriesnevertospeakaboutthethingsyoucannotexperimentallytest.
Allmodernphysicaltheoryisbasedonthisprinciple.Inphilosophyitmightbe
different.Somephilosophersmighttrytogobeyondthat.Forexample,the
GermanphilosopherImmanuelKantspentquitealotoftimereflectingabout
thepropertiesofobjectsnotasthey''appeartous",butasthey"arein
themselves".Forthemodernphysicistonlythesocalled"observables"the
resultsofmeasurements,suchaspositionandmomentumonlythesehave
anysignificance.Allofmodernphysicsisbasedontheirmutualrelation...'
Atthismomenttherewasasuddenbuzzingnoise.Theylookedupand
momentarilycaughtsightofalargeblackflyinginsect.Abouttwicethesizeofa
horsefly,itlookedexceedinglyvicious.Theboyguideyelledawarningto
themtokeeptheirheadsdown.Heproducedaflyswat,andimmediately
startedthrashingoutattheattackinginsect.Theinsectbecameablur,andthe
blur,initsturn,developedintoanindistinctcloudwhichenvelopedtheelephant
anditsriders.Theboywasnowvigorouslyswattinginalldirections,butmostly
attheregionwherethecloudwasdensest.
THWACK!Hesucceededinmakingcontact.Thecloudinstantlydisappeared,
andthedeadbodyoftheinsectcouldbeseenhurtlingaway,describinganarc
intheair,andlandingsomewhereamongthedenseundergrowth.
'Welldone!'exclaimedtheprofessor.Theboybeamedtriumphantly.
'I'mnotsureIquiteunderstoodwhatthatwasallabout...'murmuredMr
Tompkins.
'Ohnothingtoitreally,'repliedtheprofessor.'Theinsectisverylight.Afterour
firstsightingofit,itspositionrapidlybecamemoreandmoreuncertainwith
time.Eventuallyweweresurroundedbyan"insectprobabilitycloud"much
inthesamewayasanatomic

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Page118
nucleusissurroundedbyan"electronprobabilitycloud".Bythetimethathad
happened,wenolongerknewforcertainwheretofindtheinsect.Exceptthat
wheretheprobabilitycloudisdensest,thatiswherethereisthebetterchance
offindingit.Didn'tyouseehowtheladwaspreferentiallyswattingatthe
denserpartsofthecloud?'Thatwasthecorrectstrategy.Itincreasedthe
probabilityoftheinteractionbetweentheswatterandtheinsect.Inthe
quantumworld,yousee,onecannotaimpreciselyandbesureofahit.
Astheyresumedtheirjourney,hecontinued.'That'sexactlywhatwefindin
ourworldathomebutonamuchsmallerscale.Thebehaviouroftheelectron
roundtheatomicnucleusisinmanyrespectsanalogoustothebehaviourofthe
insectwhichseemedtobeallroundtheelephant.Withatomicelectronsyou
havenomorecertaintyofbeingabletohititwithaphoton,say,astheladhad
ofhittingtheinsect.It'salldowntoprobabilitiesplayingtheodds.You
shineabeamoflightontheatomandmostofthephotonswillmisstheypass
throughwithouthavinganyeffectatall.Youjusthopeoneofthephotonswill
scoreabullseye.'
'Soundslikethepoordogwhichcannotbepattedinthequantumworld
withoutbeingkilled,'concludedMrTompkins.
Justthentheyemergedfromtheforestandfoundthemselvesonahighplateau
overlookingopencountry.Theplainlaidoutbelowthemwasdividedintwo
byadenselineoftrees,huggingthebanksofadriedupriverbed,and
stretchingawayfromthemintothedistance.
'Look!gazelles,andlotsofthem!'whisperedtheprofessorexcitedly,pointing
toaherdquietlygrazingovertotheright.
ButMrTompkin'sattentionhadbeendrawntowhatlayontheoppositeside
ofthetreeline.Hehadseenagroupofthreelionesses.Then,ashortwayoff,
hespottedanothergroup,andanother,andanother...Thegroupsof
lionesseswerestrungoutalongastraightlinerunningparalleltothetrees.
Moreover,thegroupswereexactlyequallyspacedfromeachother.Howvery
odd,hethought.Itremindedhimofthescenethatgreetedhimeverymorning,
MondaytoFriday,ontherailwaystationplatformathome.Throughlong
expe

Page119
rience,regularcommutersonthe7.05a.m.knewexactlywherethedoorsof
thetrainwerelikelytobewhenthetrainpulledin.Unlessyouweresituated
directlyoppositeadoorwhenitopened,youhadnochanceofgettingaseat.
ThatiswhytheoldhandslikeMrTompkinsweretobefoundhuddled
togetherinsmallgroupsatregularintervalsalongtheplatform.
Thelionesseswerealllookingexpectantlytowardstwonarrowgapsinthetree
line.ButbeforeMrTompkinscouldaskwhatwasgoingon,therewasa
suddencommotionoveratthefarrighthandside.Asolitarylionesshad
suddenlyemergedoutintotheopenfromwhereshehadbeenconcealed.The
gazellescaughtsightofherandimmediatelytookfright.Theyfledinaheadlong
chargetowardsthetwogapsinthetrees.
Astheyemergedtheotherside,amostbizarrethinghappened.Insteadof
stayingtogetherasaherd,orscatteringinalldirections,theytookoffin
separatecolumnseachcolumnheadingstraightforoneofthegroupsof
waitinglionesses.Onarrival,thekamikazegazellesweredulysetupon,and
eaten.
MrTompkinswasdumbstruck.'Thatdoesn'tmakesense,'hecried.
'Ohbutitdoes,'murmuredtheprofessor.'Itmostcertainlydoes.How
absolutelyfascinating.Young'sdoubleslit.'
'Whosedoublewhat,'moanedMrTompkins.
'Oh,sorry.Morejargon,I'mafraid.Thepointisthatthereisanexperiment
whereyoushineabeamontotwoslitsinabarrier.Ifthebeamweremadeof
particleslikepaintbeingsprayedoutofacanyou'dexpecttogettwo
beamscomingouttheotherside,onecorrespondingtoeachslit.Butifthe
beamismadeofwaves,eachslitactsasasourceofwaves.Theyspreadout
onthefarside,overlappingwitheachother.Thehumpsandtroughsofthetwo
lotsofwavesgetmixedupwitheachotherandinterferewitheachother.In
somedirectionsthewavetrainsareoutofstepthehumpsfromonecoincide
withthetroughsoftheothertheycanceleachotherout,sonothinghappensin
thosedirections.Wecallthatdestructive

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Page121
interference.Inotherdirections,wegettheopposite:thewavetrainsarein
step,thehumpsofonecoincidewiththehumpsoftheother,andsimilarlythe
troughscoincidetheyreinforceeachotherandyougetaparticularlylarge
transmittedwaveinthosedirections.Thatiswhatwecallconstructive
interference.'
'Soyou'resayingthatyougetseparatedbeamsontheothersideoftheslits
whereyougetconstructiveinterferenceandnothinginbetweenwhereit's
destructive?'askedMrTompkins.
'That'sright.Andyouarenotconfinedtojusttwobeams.Youcangetlotsof
them,equallyseparatedfromeachother.Theangletheycomeoffatdepends
onthewavelengthoftheinitialbeamandonthedistanceseparatingthetwo
slits.Thefactthatyougetmorethantwotransmittedbeamsprovesthatyou
aredealingwithwavesratherthanparticles.It'scalled"Young'sdoubleslit
experiment"becausethatishowthephysicistYoungwasabletodemonstrate
thatlightbeamsaremadeupofwaves.Now,inthisversionhere,'the
professorgesturedtothesceneofcarnagebelowthem,'youhavea
demonstrationthatgazellesalsohaveawavebehaviour.'
'ButIstilldon'tquiteunderstand,'thepuzzledMrTompkinspersisted.'Why
didthegazellescommitsuicidelikethat?'
'Theyhadnoalternative.Theinterferencepatterndeterminedwheretheywere
likelytoendup.Foranyparticulargazelletherewasnowayoftellinginwhich
directionitwouldgoonemergingfromthetwogapsinthetrees.Allyoucan
sayinadvanceisthattheprobabilitieswillbehighincertaindirectionsand
poorinothers.Thegazelleshavesimplytogothroughthegapsandseewhat
happens.Unfortunatelyforthem,thelionessesareexperiencedhunters.They
knowhowmuchtheaveragegazelleweighsandhowfastitcanrun.Sothat
determinesthemomentumandhencethewavelengthofthegazellebeam.They
alsoknowthedistancebetweenthegapsinthetrees,andthatwaycanwork
outwheretheyshouldwaitfortheirmealtobedelivered.'
'Youmeanthoselionessesaregoodatmathematics!?'exclaimedMr
Tompkinsincredulously.

Page122
Theprofessorlaughed.'No.Idoubtthat.Nomorethanachildhastobegood
atcalculatingparabolictrajectoriestoknowhowtocatchaball.It'sprobably
aninstinctivejudgementthey'remaking.'
Astheywatched,thelionessthathadoriginallyscaredtheherdtotakeflight
herselfjoinedoneofthegroupsoflionessesforhershareofthemeal.
'Nicetouchthat,'observedtheprofessor.'Didyounotehowslowlyshe
ambleduptothegapsinthetrees.Shewasobviouslycompensatingforhaving
agreatermassthanthetypicalgazelle.Bymovingmoreslowlysheendedup
withthesamewavelength.Thatwaysheensuredthatsheherselfwouldget
diffractedintooneofthedirectionsfollowedbythegazellesandsowould
endupwithoneofthemeals.Anevolutionarybiologistwouldhaveafieldday
studyingthekindsofbehaviourthathavebeenselectedforinthis
environment...'
Hewasinterruptedbyahighpitchedbuzzingsound.
'Lookout!'criedtheguide.'Anotherinsectisabouttoattack.'
MrTompkinshurriedlycroucheddownlow,drawinghiscoatoverhisheadfor
addedprotection.Exceptthatitwasn'thiscoat,butabedsheet.Anditwasn't
thesoundofanattackingquantuminsect,butthebeepingofthealarmclock.

Page123
10
Maxwell'sDemon
Overtheensuingmonths,MrTompkinsandMaudvisitedartgalleriestogether
andarguedthemeritsorotherwiseoftheexhibitionstheyhadseen.Hetriedas
besthecouldtointroducehertothemysteriesofthequantumphysicshehad
recentlylearned.Withhisheadforfigureshewasalsoprovinginvaluabletoher
whenitcametolendingahandwiththebusinesssideofherinvolvementwith
dealersandartgalleryowners.
Induecourse,hepluckedupcouragetoaskhertomarryhim,andwas
delightedwhensheaccepted.TheydecidedtosetuphomeatNortonFarm
thatwayshewouldnothavetosurrenderherstudio.
OneSaturdaymorning,theywereexpectingherfatherroundforlunch.Maud
wassittingonthesofareadingthelatestNewScientist.MrTompkinswasat
thediningtabletryingtosortouthertaxreturn.Siftingthroughthepilesof
receiptsforartmaterials,hecommented,'Idon'tseemyselfbeingabletoretire
earlyandliveoffmywife'searningsnotyetanyway.'
'AndIdon'tseethetwoofuslivingoffyourseither,'sherepliedwithout
lookingup.
MrTompkinssighed,gatheredupthepapersandputthembackinaboxfile.
HepickedupthenewspaperandjoinedMaudonthesofa.Leafingthroughthe
coloursupplement,hisattentionwasdrawntoanarticleaboutgambling.
'Hey,'hesaidafteramoment.'Ireckonthisistheanswer.Afoolproofbetting
system.'

Page124
'Ohyes,'murmuredMaudabsently,stillreading.'Whosays?'
'Itsaysithere.'
'Oh,it'sinthepaper,thenitmustbetrue,'shesaidsceptically.
'No,seriously.Listentothis.Youbetonthefirsthorsesoastowin1,say.If
youwin,fine.Youputthat1inthebank.'
'Andifyoulose?'
'Ifyoulose,youbetonasecondhorse,butnowyouraisethestakesothatif
youwin,yougetbackwhatyoulostonthefirstrace,plus1.Thatwayyou
getyourpoundtoputinthebank,andyou'venotlostanything.Ifyoulosethe
secondtime,thenonthethirdraceyouraisethestakesothatyourecoveryour
lossesonthefirsttworaces,plusyougainthepound.It'ssimple.Thatway,it
doesn'tmatterhowoftenyoulose,intheendyou'reboundtogetyourmoney
backfromthepreviousracesthatwasjusttemporaryandyoumakea
profitof1intothebargain.'
'Wellapound'snotmuch,'saidMaud,stillnotconvinced.
'Butthat'sjustforstarters,'saidMrTompkinsexcitedly.'Itgoesonheretosay
thathavingputthe1winningsinthebank,youdon't
You'reboundtomakeaprofit

Page125
touchit.Insteadyougoontorepeatthewholethingalloveragain.Youbacka
horsetowin1ifyouloseyouincreasethestakesoastocovertheloss,plus
makeaprofitof1.Youcarryonlikethisuntilyoueventuallywinagain
andthatgivesyouasecondpoundtoputinthebank.Nowyou'vegot2,
andsoon.3,4,adinfinitum.Howaboutthat!'heendedtriumphantly.
'Well,Idon'tknow,'shereplieduncertainly.'Fatherhasalwayssaidtherecan't
besuchathingasasurefiregamblingsystem.'
'Ohno?Where'stheflaw?'hedemanded.'Tellyouwhat:I'llproveit.I'llputit
intopracticerightaway.'Withthat,heturnedtotheracingpagesofthesports
section,shuthiseyesandmadeastabwithhisfinger.'Demon'sDelight,the
2.30atHaydock.That'lldoaswellasany.OK.I'llpopdowntothebetting
shoprightthisveryminute.'
Herose,putonhisjacketandmadeforthedoor.Butbeforehecouldreachit,
thedoorbellrangitwasMaud'sfather.
'Oh,youoffsomewhere?'theprofessorasked.
MrTompkinsexplainedwhathewasdoing.
'Oh,Isee,'wasthenoncommittalreply.'Thatoldchestnut.'Theprofessor
passedMrTompkinsinthepassageandwenttogreethisdaughter.Beinga
nicewarmday,theythenmadetheirwayouttotheseatsonthepatio.
'Afoolproofgamblingsystem?'hemuttered.'ThenumberoftimesI'veheard
that.'
'Iknowitsoundsunlikely,'admittedMrTompkins,ashefollowedthe
professor.'Butthisoneisdifferent.You'reguaranteednottolose.You're
boundtowin.Thisonecannotmiss.'
'Can'tit?'saidtheprofessorwithasmile.'Well,let'ssee,shallwe.'Aftera
shortinspectionofthearticle,hewenton,'Thedistinguishingfeatureofthis
systemisthattherulegoverningtheamountofyourbetscallsforyoutoraise
yourbetaftereachloss.Ifyoushouldwinandlosealternatelyandwith
completeregularity,yourcapitalwouldoscillateupanddown,eachincrease
beingslightlylargerthanthepreviousdecrease.Insuchacaseyouwould,of
course,graduallyincreaseyourcapitalovertime,possiblybecominga
millionaireinduecourse.'

Page126
'That'swhatIsaid.'
'Butasyouarenodoubtaware,suchregularitydoesnotoccur,'continuedthe
professor.'Asamatteroffact,theprobabilityofsucharegularlyalternating
seriesisjustassmallastheprobabilityofanequalnumberofstraightwins.So
wemustseewhathappensifyouhaveasequenceofseveralsuccessivewins
orlosses.
'Ifyougetwhatgamblerscallastreakofluck,youwillmakeasuccessionof
wins.Butyourtotalwinnings,at1atime,willnotbeveryhigh.Ontheother
hand,abadstreakwillrapidlylandyouindeeptrouble.Youwillfindthatthe
rateatwhichyouhavetoincreaseyourbettocoverpreviouslosseswill
quicklycleanyououtandthrowyououtofthegame.Forexample,iftheodds
areeven(youbet1towin1),afterfivesuccessivelossesyouwillhaveto
bet32nexttimetocoverthoselossesandmakeaprofitof1tenstraight
lossesandthestakebecomes1,024fifteenlossesandyouarenowhavingto
bet32,768allinordertowin1!Agraphrepresentingthevariationsin
yourcapitalwillconsistofseveralslowlyrisingportionsinterruptedbyvery
sharpdrops.Atthebeginningofthegame,itislikelythatyouwillgetontothe
long,slowlyrisingpartofthecurveandwillenjoyforawhilethepleasant
feelingofwatchingyourmoneyslowlybutsurelyincreasing.However,ifyou
goonlongenough,inthehopeoflargerandlargerprofits,youwillcome
unexpectedlytothesharpdropwhichwillbedeepenoughtomakeyoubet
andloseyourlastpenny.
'Theimportantthingisthis:nopurseisinfinite.Anygamblerembarkingonthis
schemewillhavelimitedfunds.Theymaybegreat,buttheyarenecessarily
limited.Thatbeingso,theremustcomeatimewhen,bythelawofaverages,
abadrunningstreakwillproducelossessufficienttowipeoutthosefunds.Ina
quitegeneralway,withthisoranyothersimilarsystem,theprobabilitythatyou
willdoubleyourinitialfundsfromwinningisequaltothatofhavingyourfunds
wipedout.Inotherwords,thechancesoffinallywinningareexactlythesame
asifyouputallyourmoneyonthetossofacoindoubleorquits.Allthat
suchasystemcandoistoprolongthegameandgiveyoumorefun(oragony)
forthemoney.

Page127
'OfcourseIhavebeenassumingallalongthatthebookmakerisnottakinga
cut,whichisnottrue,andmeansthingsareevenworsethanIhavedescribed.
No,theonlypersonguaranteedtoenduphappyandprosperousbyyour
foolproofsystemisthebookmaker.'
'So,you'resayingthere'snopossiblewayofwinningmoneywithoutriskingthe
slightlyhigherprobabilityoflosingit?'saidMrTompkinsdejectedly.
'Precisely,'saidtheprofessor.'Whatismore,whatIhavesaidappliesnotonly
tosuchcomparativelyunimportantproblemsasgamesofchance,buttoa
greatvarietyofphysicalphenomenawhich,atfirstsight,seemtohavenothing
todowiththelawsofprobability.Forthatmatter,ifyoucoulddeviseasystem
forbeatingthelawsofchance,therearemuchmoreexcitingthingsthan
winningmoneyonecoulddowithit.Onecouldbuildcarsthatranwithout
petrol,factoriesthatcouldbeoperatedwithoutcoaloroil,andplentyofother
fantasticthings.'
'Really?'askedMrTompkins,beginningtotakeaninterest.Hesatdownon
thesofaoncemore.'I'vereadaboutmachineslikethat.Perpetualmotion
machines,right?ButIthoughtyoucouldn'thavesuchathingmachines
runningwithoutfuel.Youcan'tmanufactureenergyoutofnothing.'
'Quiteright,myboy,'agreedtheprofessor,pleasedtothinkthathehadbeen
abletodeflecthissoninlaw'sattentionawayfromharebrainedgambling
systems,andbacktohisownfavouritetopic:physics.'Thiskindofperpetual
motion,''perpetualmotionmachinesofthefirsttype"astheyarecalled,cannot
existbecausetheywouldbecontrarytothelawoftheConservationofEnergy.
HoweverthefuellessmachinesIhaveinmindareofaratherdifferenttype.
Theyareusuallyknownas"perpetualmotionmachinesofthesecondtype".
Theyarenotdesignedtocreateenergyoutofnothing,buttoextract
energyalreadyexistingenergyfromsurroundingheatreservoirsintheearth,
seaorair.Forinstance,youcanimagineasteamshipwheretheboilers
producedsteambyextractingheatfromthesurroundingwaterinsteadof
burningcoaloroil.Itwoulddependonyoubeing

Page128
abletoforceheattoflowawayfromsomethingthatwascoldtoward
somethingthatwashotterwhich,ofcourse,istheoppositeofwhatheat
normallydoes.'
'Thatsoundsagreatidea,'enthusedMrTompkins.'Wecouldconstructa
systemforpumpinginseawater,takingoutitsheatcontent,theheatgoesto
theboilers,andtheresttheblocksoficewell,wecouldjustthrowthose
overboard.Infact,Iseemtorememberfromschoolthatwhenagallonofcold
waterfreezesintoice,itgivesoffenoughheattoraiseanothergallonofcold
wateralmosttoboilingpoint.Right?Soallwewouldhavetodoispumpafew
gallonsofseawaterperminute,andwecouldeasilycollectenoughheattorun
agoodsizedengine.Youknow,Ireckonwe'reontosomething.'
'Lunchisonthetable,'Maudcalledoutfromthediningroom.Thetwomen,
whohadbeensointentontheirconversationthattheyhadnotevennoticed
thatMaudhadleftthemtopreparethemeal,reenteredthehousethemselves
andjoinedher.
'Forgetthebookmaker,Maud,'MrTompkinssaidastheysatdown.'Your
Dad'sontoarealsurefirecerthere!'
Havinghelpedhimselftovegetables,hepausedandfrowned.Heturnedtothe
professor,'Except...ifit'ssuchagoodidea,whyhasn'tsomeonethoughtof
itbefore?'
Theprofessorsmiled.'Buttheyhave.Yousee,forallpracticalpurposes,such
aperpetualmotionmachineofthesecondtypewouldbejustasgoodas
thekinddesignedtocreateenergyoutofnothing.Withengineslikethattodo
thework,you'dneverhavetoworryaboutfuelbillsorconservingenergy
resources.Thetroubleismachinesofthattypearejustasimpossibleasthe
firsttype.'
'Butwhy?'
'Thelawsofprobability,'repliedtheprofessor.'Thesamelawsasdefeated
yourfoolproofgamblingsystem.'
'Sorry?Idon'tseetheconnection.Whathavelawsofprobabilitygottodo
withit?'
'Well,heatprocessesarethemselvessubjecttoprobabilitythey'reverysimilar
togamblinggamesbettingonhorses,rolling

Page129
dice,spinningtheroulettewheelthatsortofthing.Toexpectheattoflow
fromsomethingcoldtosomethingthatishotter...well,thatwouldbelike
hopingthatmoneywillflowfromthebookmaker'sbankintoyourpocket.Or
expectingthesalttosprinkleitselfovermyplatewithoutsomeonegivingita
helpinghand.'
'Salt?What...?'
'Cyril,'chidedMaudgently,noddinginthedirectionofthesaltcellar.
'Oh,I'msorry,'hesaidapologetically,passingittohisfatherinlaw.'Wasn't
thinking.'
'Howaboutchangingthesubject,'Maudsuggested.'Atleastuntilyou've
eaten.'
Afterlunchtheydecidedtotaketheircoffeesoutside.TheprofessoraskedMr
Tompkinsifhemighthaveawhisky.'Justoccasionally,myboy.Notusedto
biglunches.Helpssettlemystomach.'
Havingsettledintosunloungers,theprofessorwhisperedconspiratorilytoMr
Tompkins,'Doyouthinkwecanresumewhereweleftoff?'
Maudoverheardandprotestedmildly,'ItisSaturday,youknow.There
shouldbearulethatnoonetalksshopattheweekend.'
Ignoringher,theyreturnedtothesubjectofprobability.
'Whatdoyouknowaboutheat?'askedtheprofessor.
'Abit.Butnotmuch.'
'Right.Wellit'snothingbuttherapidirregularmovementofatomsand
molecules.Youknow,ofcourse,thatallmaterialbodiesaremadeofatoms?
Andsomeoftheatomssticktogethertoformmolecules?'
MrTompkinsnodded.
'OK,'continuedtheprofessor.'Themoreviolentthismolecularmotionis,the
warmerthebody.Asthismolecularmotionisquiteirregular,it'ssubjecttothe
lawsofchance.Itiseasytoshowthatthemostprobablestateofasystem
madeupofalargenumberofparticleswillcorrespondtoamoreorless
uniformdistributionamongallofthemofthetotalavailableenergy.Ifforany
reasononeparticularpartoftheobjectgetsheatedinotherwords,the
moleculesinthisregion

Page130
aremadetomovefasteronewouldexpectthat,throughalargenumberof
accidentalcollisions,thisexcessenergywouldsoonbedistributedevenly
amongalltheremainingparticles.
'However,asthecollisionsarepurelyaccidental,thereisalsothepossibility
that,merelybychance,acertaingroupofparticlesmaycollectthelargerpart
oftheavailableenergyattheexpenseoftheothers.'
'Youmeanthetemperaturewouldrise?Itwouldgetterhotterinoneplace
andpresumablycolderinanother?'venturedMrTompkins.
'Exactly.Therewouldbeaspontaneousconcentrationofthermalenergyinone
particularpartoftheobject,andthiswouldcorrespondtotheflowofheat
againstthetemperaturegradientfromcoldertohotter.Thispossibilityis
notexcludedatleastnotinprinciple.However,ifonetriestocalculatethe
relativeprobabilityofsuchaspontaneousheatconcentrationoccurring,one
getssuchsmallnumericalvaluesthatthephenomenonisforallpractical
purposes,impossible.'
'SohaveIgotthisright?You'resayingthattheseperpetualmotionmachinesof
thesecondkindcouldconceivablywork.They'renotabsolutelyruledout.
Butthechancesofthathappeningareveryslightsay,likethrowingacouple
ofdiceahundredtimesandgettingdouble6everytime.'
'Yes,thatsortofthing.Exceptthattheoddsaremuchsmallerthanthat,'said
theprofessor.'Infact,theprobabilitiesofgamblingsuccessfullyagainstnature
aresoslightthatitisdifficulttofindwordstodescribethem.Forinstance,I
canworkoutthechancesofalltheairinthediningroomcollecting
spontaneouslyunderthetable,leavingavacuumeverywhereelse.Thenumber
ofdiceyouwouldthrowatonetimewouldbeequivalenttothenumberofair
moleculesintheroom,soImustknowhowmanythereare.Onecubic
centimetreofairatatmosphericpressure,Iremember,containsabout10
20

molecules(1followedby20noughts,yes?).Sotheairmoleculesinthewhole
roommusttotalsome10
27
.Thespaceunderthetableisabout...let'ssay
onepercentofthevolumeoftheroom.Thatmeansthechancesofanygiven
moleculebeingunderthetableandnotsomewhereelseareoneinahundred.
So,toworkoutthe

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chancesofallofthembeingunderthetableatonce,Imustmultiplyone
hundredthbyonehundredthandsoon,foreachmoleculeintheroom.And
thatgivesonechancein10
54
.'
'Phew!'exclaimedMrTompkins,'You'dhavetobeaprettyhardenedgambler
tobetonthoseodds!'
'Yes,'agreedtheprofessor.'Youcantakeitfrommeyou'renotlikelyto
suffocatebecausealltheairlandsupunderthetable.Norforthatmatter,that
thetophalfofthecoffeeinyourcupwillboilawaywhilethebottomhalf
becomesablockofice.'
Theylaughed.
'Butthereisstillachanceoftheunusualhappening,'insistedMrTompkins.
'Isn'tthere?'
'Yes,ofcoursethereis.It'snotcompletelybeyondtheboundsofpossibility
forthatflowerpotovertheretosuddenlyjumpupintotheairoffthepatio
becausethevibrationsofthemoleculesinthegroundaccidentallyreceived
thermalvelocitiesinthesameupwardsdirectionallatthesametime.'
'Whythatverythinghappenedonlyyesterday,'chimedinMaud.'Remember,
Cyril,howyouwerebackingthecar,andthedustbin...'
'Allright,allright,'interruptedMrTompkins.
'What...whatwasthat?'enquiredtheprofessor.
'Nothing,nothing,'saidMrTompkinshastily.
Theprofessorchuckled.'Well,whateverhappenedtothedustbin,Idoubtyou
canlaytheblameonMaxwell'sDemon.'
'Maxwell'sDemon?Whatdoyoumean?'
'ClerkMaxwell.Aprominentphysicist.Heintroducedtheideaofastatistical
demon.Itwasjustabitoffun.Heusedittohelpexplainwhatwe'vebeen
talkingabout.Maxwell'sDemonwassupposedtobeaverynimblefellow,
capableofobservingeachindividualmoleculeandchangingitsdirectionof
motioninanywayhewanted.Iftherereallyweresuchademon,hewouldbe
abletodeflectthemotionofallthefastmoleculessothattheywouldgoinone
particulardirection,andtheslowoneshewoulddeflectintheopposite
direction.Thatwayhecouldgetheattoflowagainstthetemperaturegradient.
Itwouldbe

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awayofgoingagainstthesecondlawofthermodynamics:theprincipleof
increasingentropy.'
'Entropy?What'sthat?'
'Oh,that'sthetermusedtodescribethedegreeofdisorderofmolecular
motioninanygivenphysicalbodyorsystemofbodies.Forinstance,alltheair
moleculesbeingunderthediningroomtableandnoneanywhereelseinthe
roomwouldbeaveryorderlyarrangement.Havingthemscatteredallabout
theroomwillynillywouldbeverydisordered.Ortakethemoleculesinthe
surfaceofthispatiofloor.Iftheywereallvibatingupwardsinunison,that
wouldbeveryordered.Tohavethemvibratinginalldifferentdirections,thatis
disordered.Theorderedstateswesayhavelowentropythedisorderedones,
highentropy.Andit'salwaysinthenatureofthecollisionsbetween
moleculesbecausetheyaresoirregularandunsystematicthattheytend
toincreasetheentropy.Thatway,absolutedisorderisthemostprobablestate
ofanystatisticalensemble.'
'You'resimplysayingthatifyouleavethingstotheirowndevicestheytendto
getmessedupratherthansortthemselvesout,'suggestedMrTompkins.
'Yes,youcouldputitlikethat,'agreedtheprofessor.
'NotthatDadwouldputitlikethat.He'sjusttryingtomakeitsoundscientific,'
saidMaud,sleepilystretchingoutonherlounger.Arrangingahatoverherface
toshieldhereyesfromtheSun,sheaddedinmuffledtones,'Butdon'tlethim
foolyouwithhisjargon.Entropy,Iaskyou!'
'Thankyou,dear,'saidtheprofessorindulgently.'AsIwassaying:IfMaxwell's
Demoncouldbeputtowork,hewouldsoonputsomeorderintothe
movementofthemoleculesthewayagoodsheepdogroundsupandsteersa
flockofsheep.Thentheentropywoulddecrease.Ishouldalsotellyouthat
accordingtothesocalledHtheoremLudwigBoltzmannintroduced...'
Apparentlyforgettinghewasnottalkingtoaclassofadvancedstudents,he
continuedtorambleon.Usingsuchmonstroustermsas'generalized
parameters'and'quasiergodicsystems',heobviously

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thoughthewasmakingthefundamentallawsofthermodynamicsandtheir
relationtoGibbs'formofstatisticalmechanicscrystalclear.MrTompkinswas
usedtohisfatherinlawlapsingintothehabitoftalkingoverhishead,sohe
sippedhiscoffeeandcontentedhimselfwithtryingtolookintelligent.
ButallthiswasprovingtoomuchforMaud.Itwasbecomingmoreandmore
ofastruggletokeephereyesopen.Shegottothinkingofthewashingupthat
stillneededdoing.So,tothrowoffherdrowsinessshedecidedtogoinand
stackthedishesreadyforthementodotheactualwashinguplater.
'Doesmadamdesiresomething?'inquiredatall,elegantlydressedbutler,
bowingasshecameintothekitchen.
'No,justgoonwithyourwork,'shesaid,vaguelywonderinghowtheyhad
cometoacquireabutler.Presumablyherhusbandhadwonafortuneonthe
horsesafterall,orperhapshehadmanagedtopatentoneofhisperpetual
motionmachines.Thebutlerwastallandleanwithanoliveskin,long,pointed
nose,andgreenisheyeswhichseemedtoburnwithastrange,intenseglow.
Sheregardedhimashefinisheddryingthedisheswhichshenoticedhad
alreadybeenwashed.Shewascuriousaboutthetwosymmetricallumpshalf
hiddenbytheblackhairabovehisforehead.Heseemedtobearastriking
resemblancetoMephistopheles.
'Whenexactlydidmyhusbandhireyou?'sheasked,justforsomethingtosay.
'Oh,hedidn'thireme,'answeredthestranger,neatlyfoldingtheteatowel.'As
amatteroffact,Icamehereofmyownaccord.Idosoenjoymakingthings
neatandtidy.Ican'tstandmess.IcametoshowyourdistinguishedfatherI
amnotthemythhebelievesmetobe.Ihappenedtocatchsightofthe
appallingstateofthesinkasIpassedthekitchendoor.Nooffencemeant,of
course.Iamsuresomeonewouldhavegotaroundtocleaningitupeventually.
ButIcouldn'tresistthetemptation.Isimplyhadtobringalittleordertobear.
It'smynaturemyunnaturalnature.Allowmetointroducemyself.Iam
Maxwell'sDemon.'

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'Oh,'breathedMaudwithrelief.'That'sallrightthenIthoughtyoumight
be...'
'Yes,Iknow.I'moftenmistakenforhim.ButhavenofearI'mquiteharmless.
Theoddpracticaljoke,maybe.Butnothingmoreseriousthanthat.Infact,I
wasabouttoplayoneonyourfather.'
'Whatexactly...?'askedMaud,uncertainly.'I'mnotsuremyfatherwould
appreciate...'
'Oh,don'tworry.Justabitoffun.Isimplywanttodemonstratethatthelawof
increasingentropycanbebroken.Andtoconvinceyoutoo,whydon'tyou
comealongwithme?'
Notwaitingforheranswer,hegrippedherelbow.Everythingaroundher
suddenlywentcrazy.Allthefamiliarkitchenobjectsbegantogrowwithterrific
speedeitherthat,orsheandthedemonhadbeguntoshrink.Shegotalast
glimpseofthebackofachaircoveringthewholehorizon,beforethingsfinally
quieteddown.Shenowfoundherselffloatingintheair,supportedbyher
companion'sstronggriponherarm.Foggylookingspheres,aboutthesizeof
tennisballs,joinedtogetherinpairs,whizzedby.Theycamefromalldirections.
Maudwasfrightenedthatoneofthesedangerouslookingmissilesmighthither.
'Whatarethey?'sheasked.
'Airmolecules,'repliedMaxwell'sDemon.'Thatoneoverthereisoxygen.And
thisone...Duck!...'Heexpertlysteeredthetwoofthemsoastoavoida
collision.'Thatonewasnitrogen.'
Lookingdown,Maudcaughtsightofwhatlookedlikeafishingboat.Itsdeck
wascompletelycoveredbyaquiveringheapofglisteningfish.Exceptthat
whentheygotcloser,itturnedoutthattheywerenotfishatall,butaseething
massoffoggyballs,notunlikethoseflyingpastthemintheair.TheDemon
gentlybutfirmlyguidedherincloserstill.Nowshecouldobservehowtheballs
weremovingaboutinarandom,patternlessway.Somecamefloatingtothe
surface,othersgotsuckeddown.Occasionallyonewouldcometothesurface
withsuchspeeditwouldescapethepulloftheothersandtearoffintospace.
Therewereyetotherballsflyingthroughtheairthatwoulddiveintothe'soup'
anddisappearunderthousandsofotherballs.

Page135

Page136
Lookingatthesoupmoreclosely,Mauddiscoveredthattheballswereoftwo
differentkinds.Ifmostlookedliketennisballs,therewereothers,largerand
moreelongated,thatwereshapedmorelikerugbyballs.Allofthemwere
semitransparentandseemedtohaveacomplicatedinternalstructurewhich
Maudcouldnotmakeout.
'Wherearewe?'gaspedMaud.'IsthisHell!?'
'Ofcoursenot,'snappedtheDemon,'Itoldyoubefore:I'mnotwhoyou
thoughtIwas.We'resimplytakingacloselookataverysmallportionofthe
liquidsurfaceofthewhiskythatisabouttobedrunkbyyourfatheroncehe
getsoffthesubjectofquasiergodicsystems.Thesmallerroundballsarewater
moleculesthelarger,longeronesaremoleculesofalcohol.Ifyoucaretowork
outtheproportions,youcanfindoutjusthowstrongthedrinkisthatyour
husbandpoured.'
JustthenMaudspottedwhatappearedtobeacoupleofwhalesplayinginthe
water.
'Atomicwhales?'sheasked,pointingintheirdirection.
TheDemonlookedwheresheindicated.'No,no,'helaughed.'Barley.Very
finefragmentsofburnedbarleytheingredientwhichgiveswhiskyits
particularflavourandcolour.Eachfragmentismadeupofmillionsandmillions
ofcomplexorganicmoleculesthat'swhytheyarequitelargeandheavy
comparedwithindividualmolecules.Infact,that'sveryinteresting:Notethe
waytheybouncearound.SeewhatImean?'
Shenodded.'Yes.Whyaretheydoingthat?'
'It'sbecausetheyarebeingbumpedintobythesurroundingmolecules.The
moleculesgettheirenergyfromthermalmotion.Butthentheyhitthepieceof
barley.Onemolecularimpactisnotgoingtohavemucheffect.Butatanygiven
timetheremightbemoreimpactsononesidethantheotherpurelyat
randomsotheimpactsaddup,andthatleadstothebarleybeingpushedin
thatdirectionjustforamoment.Thenitgetspushedinanotherdirection,
andsoon.That'swhyitendsupjigglingaboutlikethat.
'Infact,thatishowscientistsgottheirfirstdirectproofofthekinetictheoryof
heatthatmatterwasmadeupofmoleculesmoving

Page137
about.Moleculesaretoosmalltobeseendownamicroscope,but
intermediatesizedparticles,likethatbarleyfragment,canbeseen.Andwhat's
more,youcanseeitdoingthatjigglelikedanceBrownianmotionit's
called.Sobymeasuringtheextentofitszigzagpath,andapplyingstatistical
analysis,physicistswereabletogetinformationontheenergyofmolecular
motionwithouthavingtoseetheindividualmolecules.Clever,eh?'
TheDemontookherrightupclosetotheliquidsurface.Nowshecouldseea
largetransparentblockmadeofnumberlessmoleculesfittedneatlyandclosely
togetherlikebricks.Itsstraight,smoothwallsroseupoutofthesurfaceofthe
whiskysea.
'Howveryimpressive!'exclaimedMaud.'Itlookslikeaglassofficeblock.'
'Notglass.Ice,'correctedtheDemon.'Thisispartofanicecrystal,oneofthe
cubesinyourfather'sglass.Nowifyouwillsithereforawhile,'hesaid,setting
herdownontheedgeoftheicecrystal,sothatsheperchedlikeanunhappy
mountainclimber,'Ihaveworktodo.'
Armedwithaninstrumentlikeatennisracquet,hedivedintothewhiskysea.
Asheswamaround,Maudcouldseehimswattingthemoleculesaroundhim.
Dartinghereandthere,hedeflectedthepathsofsomemoleculesonewayand
othersinanotherdirection.Maudcouldnotatfirstunderstandtherationale
behindhisactions.Butthenhisstrategybecameclear.Thefastmoving
moleculeswerebeingdirectedtoonepartoftheglass,thesloweronestothe
oppositeside.Maudcouldnothelpbutadmirehisspeedanddexterity.Such
quickthinking!Suchskill!Comparedwiththeexhibitionshewaswitnessing,
Wimbledontennischampionshadmuchtolearn.
Inafewminutes,theresultsoftheDemon'sworkbecameapparent.Onehalf
oftheliquidsurfacewasnowcoveredbyveryslowlymoving,quietmolecules,
whiletheotherbecamemoreandmorefuriouslyagitated.Thenumberof
moleculesescapingfromthesurfaceintheprocessofevaporationwas
increasingrapidly.Theywerenowescapingingroupsofthousandstogether,
tearingthroughthesurfaceasgiantbubbles.Thereweresomanyofthem
Maudcouldgetonly

Page138
Thewhiskyit'sboiling
occasionalglimpsesofthewhizzingracquetorthetailofthedemon'sdresssuit
amongthemassesofmaddenedmolecules.
Suddenlythedemonwasatherside.
'Quick!'hesaid,'Timetobegoingbeforewegetscalded.'
Withthat,hetookherelbowoncemoreinhissuregripandpropelledher
upwards.Shenowfoundherselfhoveringhighabovethepatio,lookingdown
onherfatherandhusband.Herfatherwasspringingtohisfeet.
'Goodgrief!'heexclaimed,staringbewilderedathiswhiskyglass.'It'sboiling!'
Sureenough,thewhiskyintheglasswascoveredwithviolentlybursting
bubbles,andathickcloudofsteamroseupintheair.
'Look!'hecriedinanawed,tremblingvoice.'HereIwastellingyouabout
statisticalfluctuationsinthelawofentropyandnowweactuallyseeone!
Bysomeincrediblechance,possiblyforthefirsttime

Page139
sincetheEarthbegan,thefastermoleculeshaveallgroupedthemselves
accidentallyononepartofthesurfaceofthewaterandthewaterhasbegunto
boilbyitself!Inthebillionsofyearstocome,wewillstill,probably,betheonly
peoplewhohaveeverhadthechancetoobservethisextraordinary
phenomenon.Whatastrokeofluck!'
AsMaudcontinuedtowatchfromabove,shebecameenvelopedinthecloud
ofsteamthathadrisenfromtheglass.Soonshecouldnolongerseeanything.
Itbecamehotandstuffy.Shehaddifficultybreathing.Shegaspedand
struggled.
'Areyouallrightdear,'MrTompkinsenquired.Hewasgentlyshakingher
elbow.'Soundsasthoughyou'resuffocatingunderthere.'
Shepulledherselftogether,removingherhat.SheblinkedatthesettingSun.
'Sorry,'shemurmured.'Musthavedroppedoff.'
Shelaythererecallingthatafriendhadrecentlytoldherthatmarriedpeople
tendtobecomelikeeachother.Shewasn'tsurethatsherelishedtheideaof
havingmoreofthesamekindofdreamsasherhusband.'Though,'shesmiled
toherselfwistfully,'WecouldcertainlydowithatameMaxwell'sDemonto
keepthehouseingoodorder.'

Page140
11
TheMerryTribeofElectrons
Afewdayslater,whilefinishinghisdinner,MrTompkinsrememberedthatit
wasthenightoftheprofessor'slectureonthestructureoftheatom.Hehad
promisedtoattend,butwasparticularlytiredthatevening.Thetrainhomefrom
workhadbeendelayedbysomebreakdownalongtheline.Ithadwaitedfor
overhalfanhouroutsidethestation.Theweatherbeinghot,thecarriagehad
becomeunbearablystuffy,andhehadarrivedhomeexhausted.Hethoughthe
wouldgivethelectureamiss.Hehopedhisfatherinlawmightnotnoticehis
absence.Butjustashesettleddowntothenewspapertoseewhatwasonthe
television,Maudcutoffthisavenueofescapebylookingattheclockand
remarking,gentlybutfirmly,thatitwasalmosttimeforhimtoleave.
So,itwashefoundhimselfonceagainonthebenchintheuniversity
auditorium,togetherwiththeusualcrowdofstudents.Theprofessorbegan...
Ladiesandgentlemen:
LasttimeIpromisedtogiveyousomedetailsconcerningtheinternalstructure
oftheatom,andhowthesefeaturesaccountforitsphysicalandchemical
properties.Youknow,ofcourse,thatatomsarenolongerconsideredas
elementary,indivisibleconstituentpartsofmatter.Thatrolehaspassednowto
muchsmallerparticlessuchaselectrons.
Theideaofelementaryconstituentparticlesofmatter,representingthelast
possiblestepindivisibilityofmaterialbodies,datesbacktotheancientGreek
philosopherDemocritus.Helivedinthefourth

Page141
centuryBC.Sittingonsomestepsoneday,henoticedthattheywereworn.
Hewonderedwhatwasthesmallestparticleofwearing.Coulditbe
infinitesimallysmall?Inthosedaysitwasthecustomtotryandsolveproblems
bypurethinking.Inanycase,thequestionwasatthattimebeyondany
possibleattackbyexperimentalmethods.SoitwasthatDemocritushadto
searchforthecorrectanswerinthedepthsofhisownmind.Onthebasisof
someobscurephilosophicalconsiderations,hefinallycametotheconclusion
thatitis'unthinkable'thatmattercouldbedividedintosmallerandsmallerparts
withoutanylimit.Thusonemustassumetheexistenceof'thesmallestparticles
whichcannotbedividedanymore'.Hecalledsuchparticles'atoms'.Thatisa
wordwhichinGreekmeans'indivisibles'.
IshouldpointoutthatbesidesDemocritusandhisfollowers,therewas
undoubtedlyanotherschoolofGreekphilosophywhichmaintainedthatthe
processofdivisibilityofmattercouldbecarriedbeyondanylimit.Atthistime,
andforcenturieslater,theexistenceofindivisibleportionsofmatterhadto
remainapurelyphilosophicalhypothesis.
Itwasonlyinthenineteenthcenturythatscientistsdecidedthattheyhadfinally
foundtheindivisiblebuildingblocksofmatterwhichhadbeenforetoldbythe
oldGreekphilosophermorethantwothousandyearspreviously.Intheyear
1808anEnglishchemist,JohnDalton,showedthattherelativeproportions...
Fromthebeginningofthelecture,MrTompkinsknewhisattendanceherewas
amistake.Theurgetoresthiseyes,whichwaseverpresentwhenattending
talks,wasthiseveningirresistible.Tomakemattersworse,hehadchosento
sitattheendoftherow,wherehewasconvenientlyabletoleanagainstthe
lecturetheatrewall.Halfdozing,halflistening,therestofthelecturebecamea
blur.
Withtheprofessor'svoicestillvaguelyechoinginthebackground,Mr
Tompkinsexperiencedthepleasantsensationoffloatingonair.Openinghis
eyeshewassurprisedtofindhimselfdashingthroughspaceatwhatappeared
tobeaprettyrecklessspeed.Lookingaroundhesawthathewasnotaloneon
thisfantastictrip.Nearhimanumberof

Page142
TheyseemedtobedancingaViennesewaltz
vague,mistyformswereswoopingaroundalarge,heavy,nobblylooking
object.Thesestrangebeingsweretravellinginpairs,happilychasingeach
otheralongcircularandellipticalpaths.Astheyswungroundthecentral
object,eachofthemspunlikeatoponememberofeachpairspunoneway,
anditspartnerintheoppositedirection.ForalltheworlditseemedtoMr
TompkinstheyweredancingaViennesewaltz.Allofwhichmadehimfeelout
ofplace.Conspicuously,hewastheonlyoneofthewholegroupwhohadno
companion.

Page143
'Whydidn'tIbringMaudalongwithme?'hewonderedgloomily.'Wecould
havehadawonderfultimeatthisball.'
Thepathhewasmovingalonglayoutsidealltheothers.Hewantedverymuch
tojointherestoftheparty,butthereseemedtobesomestrangeinfluencethat
preventedhimfromgettinganyclosertothem.Theuncomfortablefeelingof
beingtheoddmanoutbecamemorepronounced.
Justthen,oneoftheelectrons(forbynowMrTompkinsrealizedhehad
miraculouslyjoinedtheelectroniccommunityofanatom)waspassingcloseby
onitselongatedtrack.Hedecidedtocomplainaboutthesituation.
'Excuseme,butcouldyoutellmewhyIdon'tseemtohaveapartner,whereas
everyoneelsedoes?'heshoutedacross.
'Why?Becausethisisanoddatom.Youarethevalencyelectrooon...,'
calledtheelectronasitturnedandplungedbackintothedancingcrowd.
'Valencyelectronslivealoneorfindcompanionsinotheratoms,'squeakedthe
highpitchedsopranoofanotherelectronrushingpasthim.'Don'tyouknow
anything?'
'Ifyouwantapartnerfair,jumpintochlorineandfindonethere,'chanted
anothermockingly.
'Itakeityouarenewhere,myson,'saidafriendlyvoiceabovehim.Looking
up,MrTompkinssawthestoutfigureofamonkclothedinabrowntunic.
'IamFatherPauli,'wentonthemonk,movingalongthetrackwithMr
Tompkins.'Mymissioninlifeistokeepwatchoverthemoralsandsociallife
ofelectronsinatomsandelsewhere.Itismydutytokeeptheseplayful
electronsproperlydistributedamongthedifferentquantumcellsofthebeautiful
atomicstructureserectedbyourgreatarchitectNielsBohr.Tokeeporder
(andtopreservedecorum)Ineverpermitmorethantwoelectronstofollow
thesametrack.Amnagetroisalwaysgivestrouble,don'tyouthink?You
willnotethateachelectronisneatlypairedoffwithoneoftheopposite
''spin"amarriageofopposites,ifyoulike.Nointruderispermittedifacell
is

Page144
alreadyoccupiedbyacouple.It'sagoodrule,andImayadd,ithasnever
beenbroken.Theelectronsclearlyunderstandthatitmakessoundsense.'
'Maybeitisagoodrule,'objectedMrTompkins,'butitisratherinconvenient
formeatthemoment.'
'Iseeitis,'smiledthemonk.'ButI'mafraiditisjustyourbadluck,beinga
valencyelectroninasodiumatom.It'sanoddatom,yousee.Theelectric
chargeofitsnucleus(thatbignobblydarkmassoverthereinthecentre)is
enoughtoholdelevenelectronstogether.Andelevenisanoddnumber.Half
thenumbersareoddsoit'shardlyunusual.Idon'tseethatyoucanreally
complainifyouturnuplateandarethelasttoattachyourselftoanoddatom.
Youwilljusthavetowaitabit.'
'YoumeanthereisachancethatIcangetinlater?'askedMrTompkins
eagerly.'Kickingoneoftheoldtimersout,forexample?'
'Now,now,'admonishedthemonk,sternlywaggingaplumpfingerathim,'that
isnotthewaywebehavearoundhere.Youmustlearntobepatient.Youwill
findthatthereisalwaysachancethatsomeoftheinnercirclememberswillbe
thrownoutbyanexternaldisturbance.Thatwayanemptyplacemightbecome
available.However,Iwouldn'tcountonitmuch,ifIwereyou.'
'TheytoldmeI'dbebetteroffifImovedintochlorine,'saidMrTompkins,
discouragedbyFatherPauli'swords.'Canyoutellmehowtodothat?'
'Youngman,youngman!'murmuredthemonksorrowfully,'whyareyouso
insistentonfindingcompany?Whycan'tyouappreciatesolitudeandthis
Heavensentopportunitytocontemplateyoursoulinpeace?Whymustyou
electronsalwayslooktotheworldlylife?'Hesighed.'However,ifyouinsiston
companionship,Iwillhelpyoutogetyourwish.'
Helookedabouthimintently.Afterawhilehebrightenedupandbegan
pointing.'Ah!'heexclaimed.'Overthere.Achlorineatomandit's
approachingus.Look!Evenatthisdistanceyoucanseeanunoccupiedspot
whereyouwouldmostcertainlybewelcomed.Theemptyspotisintheouter
groupofelectrons,thesocalled"Mshell",

Page145
Anunoccupiedspotinachlorineatom
whichissupposedtobemadeupofeightelectronsgroupedinfourpairs.But,
asyousee,therearefourelectronsspinninginonedirectionandonlythreein
theother,withoneplacevacant.Theinnershells(the"K"and"L"shells)are
completelyfilledup.Yes,theatomwillbegladtogetyouandhaveitsouter
shellcompletetoo.'
Themonkbeganwavinghisarmabouttoattractthechlorineatom'sattention,
muchasonewouldhailataxicab.
'Whenitgetsclose,justjumpacross,'heinstructedMrTompkins.'That'swhat
valencyelectronsusuallydo.Andmaypeacebewithyou,myson!'Withthese
words,thepriestlyfatherfigureoftheelectronssuddenlyfadedintothinair.
Feelingconsiderablymorecheerful,MrTompkinsgatheredhisstrengthfora
neckbreakingjumpintotheorbitofthepassingchlorineatom.Tohissurprise
heleaptoverwithaneasygraceandfoundhimselfinthecongenial
surroundingsofthemembersofthechlorineMshell.Hewaswarmly
welcomedbytheothers.Immediatelyaseductiveelectronofoppositespin
sidleduptohim.

Page146
'Delightfulofyoutojoinus,'shepurred.'Bemypartner,andlet'shavefun.'
Glidinggracefullyalongthetracktogether,MrTompkinsagreedthatthisreally
wasfunlotsoffun.Butonelittleworrykeptstealingintohismind.'Howam
IgoingtoexplainthistoMaudwhenIseeheragain?'hethoughtratherguiltily.
Butnotforlong.'Surelyshewon'tmind,'hedecided.'Afterall,theseareonly
electrons.'
'Whydoesn'tthatatomyou'veleftgoawaynow?'askedhiscompanionwitha
pout.'Ihopeitdoesn'texpecttogetyouback.'
And,asamatteroffact,thesodiumatom,withitsvalencyelectrongone,was
stickingcloselytothechlorineone.
'Wellhowdoyoulikethat!'saidMrTompkinsangrily,frowningattheatom
whichhadearliertreatedhiminsuchanunfriendly,offhandmanner.
'Oh,they'realwayslikethat,'saidamoreexperiencedmemberoftheMshell.
'It'snotsomuchtheelectronsthatwantyoubackasthesodiumnucleusitself.
There'salmostalwayssomedisagreementbetweenthecentralnucleusandits
electronicescort.Thenucleuswantsasmanyelectronsarounditasitcan
possiblyholdontowithitselectriccharge,whereastheelectronsprefertohave
justenoughtomaketheshellscomplete.
'Thereareonlyafewatomicspeciesthesocalledraregases,ornoble
gasesastheGermanchemistscalltheminwhichthedesireoftheruling
nucleusandthesubordinateelectronsareinfullharmony.Thenumberof
electronsthenucleuscanholdontoisjustequaltothenumberneededtogive
completeshells.Suchatomsashelium,neonandargon,forexample,are
unbelievablysmugandselfsatisfied.Theyneedneithertoexpelunwanted
extraelectronsnorinvitenewonestofillupvacancies.Sotheykeep
themselvestothemselvesthey'rechemicallyinert.
'Butinallotheratoms,'thisknowledgeableelectroncontinued,'theelectronic
communitiesarealwaysreadytochangetheirmembership.Inthesodium
atomyourformerhometheelectricchargeonthenucleusisenoughto
holdontoonemoreelectronthanisnecessaryfor

Page147
harmonyintheshells.Ontheotherhand,inouratomthenormalcontingentof
electronsisnotenoughforcompleteharmony.Andthat'swhywewelcome
yourarrivalinspiteofthefactthatyourpresencehereoverloadsour
nucleus.Aslongasyoustayhere,ouratomisnolongerelectricallyneutralit
hasyourextranegativeelectriccharge.Thesodiumatomyouleftisnowshort
ofanelectron,sooverallitnowhasapositiveelectriccharge.That'swhyit
continuestostandbyit'sheldbytheforceofelectricattractionbetweenits
positivechargeandournegativeone.Ionceheardourgreatpriest,Father
Pauli,saythatsuchatomiccommunities,withextraelectronsorelectrons
missing,arecallednegativeandpositive"ions".Healsousestheword
"molecule"forgroupsoftwoormoreatomsboundtogetherbytheseelectric
forces.Thisparticularcombinationofsodiumandchlorineatomshecallsa
moleculeof''tablesalt"whateverthatmightbe.'
'Doyoumeantotellmeyoudon'tknowwhattablesaltis?'saidMrTompkins,
forgettingtowhomhewastalking.'Why,that'swhatyouputonyour
scrambledeggsatbreakfast.'
'Whatare"scrambulldeggs",andwhatis"breakfust"?'askedtheelectron.
MrTompkinswasatalosstoknowwhattosay.Herealizedthefutilityof
tryingtoexplaintohiscompanionseventhesimplestdetailsofthelivesof
humanbeings.Fortunatelytheinformativeelectronwasnotreallyinterestedin
anythinghehadtosayabouthumanlife,beingtoobusyshowingoffherown
knowledgeoftheworldofelectrons.
'Youmustnotthink,'shecontinued,'thatthebindingofatomsintomoleculesis
alwaysaccomplishedbyonevalencyelectronalone.Thereareatoms,like
oxygenforexample,whichneedtwomoreelectronstocompletetheirshells,
notjusttheonethatchlorineneeds.Andtherearealsoatomswhichneedthree
electrons,andevenmore.Ontheotherhand,insomeatomsthenucleusholds
twoormoreextraorvalencyelectrons.Whensuchatomsmeet,thereis
quitealotofjumpingoverandbindingtodo.Asaresult,yougetquite
complexmolecules,oftenconsistingofthousandsofatoms.Therearealsothe

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socalled"homopolar"molecules,thatis,moleculesmadeupoftwoidentical
atoms,butthatisaveryunpleasantsituation.'
'Whyunpleasant?'askedMrTompkins.
'Toomuchwork,'repliedtheelectron.'It'stoomuchworktokeepthem
together.SometimeagoIgotthejob.Ididn'thaveamomenttomyself.It's
nothinglikethewayitisherewherethevalencyelectronjustenjoysherself
whilethedesertedatomstandsby.Nosir!Tokeeptwoidenticalatoms
together,youhavetojumptoandfro,fromonetotheotherandbackagain.
Backandforth,backandforth,allthetime.It'sasbadasbeingapingpong
ball.'
MrTompkinswasrathersurprisedtoheartheelectron,whichdidnotknow
whatscrambledeggswere,speaksoknowledgeablyofpingpong,butheletit
pass.
'I'llnevertakeonthatjobagain!'declaredtheelectron.'I'mquitecomfortable
where...'Hervoicetrailedoffassomethingcaughtherattention.'Hey!Did
youseethat?!Hah!Anevenbetterplace.Soloooong!'
AstartledMrTompkinswatchedastheelectron,withagiantleap,swooped
towardstheinterioroftheatom.Itseemsthatoneoftheelectronsoftheinner
circlehadbeenthrownclearoftheatombysomeforeignhighspeedelectron
whichhadunexpectedlypenetratedintotheirsystem.Acosyplaceinthe'K'
shellwasnowwideopen.Chidinghimselfformissingthisopportunitytojoin
theinnercircle,MrTompkinsnowwatchedwithgreatinterestthecourseof
theelectronhehadjustbeentalkingto.Deeperanddeeperintotheatomic
interiorthishappyelectronsped,brightraysoflightaccompanyingher
triumphantflight.Onlywhenitfinallyreachedtheinternalorbitdidthisalmost
unbearableradiationcease.
'Whatwasthat?'askedMrTompkins,hiseyesaching.'Thatflashoflight.
Whatwasthatallabout?'
'Ohthat'sjusttheXrayemission,'explainedhisorbitcompanion.'Yougetit
whenthere'satransition.Wheneveroneofussucceedsingettingdeeperinto
theinterioroftheatom,thesurplusenergymustbeemittedintheformof
radiation.Thatluckygirlmadequiteabig

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jump.Thatletloosealotofenergy.Moreoftenwehavetobesatisfiedwith
smallerjumps,hereintheatomicsuburbs,andthenourradiationiscalled
"visiblelight"atleastthat'swhatFatherPaulicallsit.'
'ButthisXraylight,itwasalsovisible,'protestedMrTompkins.'Isawit.
Whyisn'tthatcalled"visible"too?'
'We'reelectrons.We'resusceptibletoanykindofradiation.ButFatherPauli
tellsusthatthereexistgiganticcreatures,"HumanBeings",hecallsthem,who
canseelightonlywhenitfallswithinanarrowwavelengthinterval.Hetoldus
oncethatitwasn'tuntilsomehumancalledRoentgencamealongthattheyeven
knewthattherewassuchathingasXrays.Thesehumansdon'tsoundvery
clevertome.Anyway,havingatlonglastdiscoveredthem,Iunderstandthey
usethemquitealotnowinsomethingcalled"medicine".'
'Ohyes.Iknowquitealotaboutthat,'saidMrTompkins.'Medicineiswhere
wetryto...Imean,wherehumanstrytohelpthose...'
Theelectronyawnedrudely.'Ishouldn'tbother.Ireallydon'tcare.Comeon,
let'sdance.'Withthatshetookhishandandtheywhirledalongtheirtrajectory.
ForquitesometimeMrTompkinswascontenttoenjoythepleasantsensation
ofdivingthroughspacewiththeotherelectronsinakindofglorifiedtrapeze
act.Then,allofasudden,hefelthishairstandonend,anexperiencehehad
feltoncebeforeduringathunderstorminthemountains.Itwasclearthata
strongelectricaldisturbancewasapproachingtheiratom,breakingthe
harmonyoftheelectronicmotion,andforcingtheelectronstodeviateseriously
fromtheirnormaltracks.Hewaslatertolearnthatitwasonlyawaveof
ultravioletlightpassingthroughthespotwherethisparticularatomhappenedto
be,buttothetinyelectronsitwasaterrificelectricstorm.
'Holdontight!'yelledsomeone,'oryou'llbethrownoutbyphotoelectriceffect
forces!'Butitwasalreadytoolate.MrTompkinswassnatchedawayfromhis
companionsandhurledintospaceataterrifyingspeed.Itwasasthoughhe
hadbeenneatlyextractedfromtheatombytweezers.Breathlesslyhehurtled
furtherandfurther

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throughspace,tearingpastallkindsofdifferentatomssofasthecouldhardly
distinguishtheseparateelectrons.Suddenlyalargeatomloomeduprightin
frontofhimandheknewthatacollisionwasunavoidable.
'Pardonme,butIamphotoelectriceffectedandcannot...,'beganMr
Tompkinspolitely,buttherestofthesentencewaslostinanearsplittingcrash
asheranheadonintooneoftheouterelectrons.Thetwoofthemtumbled
headoverheels.MrTompkinslostmostofhisspeedinthecollision,andnow
foundhimselftrappedinnewsurroundings.
Havingregainedhisbreath,heexaminedhisenvironment.Hefoundhimselfto
behemmedinonallsidesbyatoms.Theyweremuchlargerthananyhehad
seenbefore.Hecouldcountasmanyastwentynineelectronsineachofthem.
Ifhehadknownhisphysicsbetterhewouldhaverecognizedthemasatomsof
copper,butattheseclosequartersthegroupasawholedidnotlooklike
copperatall.Henotedthattheywerenotonlyspacedratherclosetoone
another,buttheywerearrangedinaregularpatternwhichextendedasfaras
hecouldsee.
ButwhatsurprisedMrTompkinsmostwasthefactthattheseatomsdidnot
seemtobeveryparticularaboutholdingontotheirquotaofelectrons,
particularlytheirouterelectrons.Infacttheouterorbitsweremostlyempty,
andcrowdsofunattachedelectronsweredriftinglazilyabout,stoppingfrom
timetotime,butneverforverylong,ontheoutskirtsofoneatomoranother.
Theyremindedhimofgangsofyouthshangingaroundstreetcornersand
wanderingaimlesslydownthestreetintheeveningwithnothingtodo.
Tiredafterhisbreakneckflightthroughspace,MrTompkinstriedatfirsttoget
alittlerestonasteadyorbitofoneofthecopperatoms.However,hewas
sooninfectedwiththeprevailingvagabondishfeelingofthecrowd,andhe
joinedtherestoftheelectronsintheirnowhereinparticularmotion.
'Imustsaythingsdon'tseemtobeverywellorganizedhere,'hecommentedto
himself.'Therearetoomanyelectronsnotattendingto

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theirbusinessleadingaimlesslives.IwonderifFatherPauliknowsabout
thislot.'
'OfcourseIdo,'saidthefamiliarvoiceofthemonk.Hehadsuddenly
materializedfromnowhere.'There'snoproblem.Theseelectronsarenot
disobeyinganyrules.Infact,they'redoingaveryusefuljob.Ifallatomscared
asmuchaboutholdingontotheirelectronsassomeofthemdo,therewould
benosuchthingaselectricconductivity.Noelectricappliances,noelectric
lights,nocomputers,TVs,radios.'
'Areyousayingtheseelectronsthesewanderingelectronsare
responsibleforelectriccurrent?'askedMrTompkins.'Idon'tseehow.It'snot
asthoughtheyaremovinginanyparticulardirection.'
'Youwaitandsee,'saidthemonk.'Allitrequiresisforsomeonetopressthe
switch.Andbytheway,Idon'tknowwhyyouareusingtheword"they"it
oughttobe"we".Youseemtoforgetthatyouareaconductingelectron
yourself.'
'AsamatteroffactI'mgettingquitetiredofbeinganelectron,'saidMr
Tompkins.'Itwasfuntobeginwith,butthenoveltyisfastwearingoff.I've
cometotheconclusionIamnotcutouttobefollowingtheserules,andbeing
knockedaroundforever.'
'Notnecessarilyforever,'counteredFatherPaulisomewhattestily.Heclearly
didnotexpect'lip'fromamereelectron.'Thereisalwaysthechancethatyou
willgetannihilated.'
'Annihilated!?'exclaimedMrTompkinsinalarm.'ButIthoughtelectronswere
eternal.'
'Thatiswhatphysicistsusedtobelieve,'agreedFatherPauli,'butnowthey
knowbetter.Electronscanbeborn,anddie,justlikehumans.Notthatthey
dieofoldage,ofcourse.Deathcomessuddenly,withoutwarning,through
collisions.'Hesmiledasherelishedthedisconcertingeffecthiswordswere
havingonMrTompkins.
'Ihadacollisiononlyashortwhileago.Itwasaprettybadonetoo,'saidMr
Tompkinsrecoveringalittleconfidence.'Butitdidn'tputmeoutofaction.
Don'tyouthinkyou'rebeingjustaweebitoverdramatic?'
'It'snotaquestionofhowforcibly youcollide,'FatherPaulicorrectedhim.
'It'salltodowithwhatyoucollidewith.IfIamnot

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mistaken,yourrecentcollisionwaswithanothernegativeelectrononevery
similartoyourself.There'snottheslightestdangerinsuchanencounter.Infact,
youcouldbutteachotherlikeacoupleoframsforyearsandnoharmcouldbe
done.Butthereisanotherbreedofelectron:thepositivelychargedones.
Thosearetheonestowatchoutfor.Thepositiveelectrons,orpositrons ,look
exactlythewayyoudo.Whenyouseeoneapproaching,youthinkit'sjust
anotherinnocentmemberofyourtribe.So,yougoaheadandgreethim.But
thenyoufindthat,insteadofyournegativechargespushingyouawayslightlyto
avoidtoocloseacollision,hispositivechargeattractsyournegativeone,and
hepullsyourightin.Andthenitistoolatetodoanything.'
'Why?Whathappensthen?'askedMrTompkins.
'Yougeteatenup.Destroyed.'
'Oh!Andhowmanypoorordinaryelectronscanonepositroneatup?'
'Fortunatelyonlyone.Indestroyinganegativeelectron,thepositronalso
destroysitself.Isupposeyoucouldsaytheyhaveakindofdeathwish
alwaysonthelookoutforapartnerwithwhomtheycanenterintoasuicide
pact.Positronsdonotharmeachotherbutassoonasanegativeelectron
comestheirway,ithasn'tmuchchanceofsurviving.'
'Thenit'sluckyIhaven'trunintooneofthesemonstersyet,'saidMrTompkins
nervously.'Ihopethey'renotverynumerous.Arethey?'
'No,no.Theydon'thangaroundlongenoughforthatalwayslookingfor
troubleandsovanishverysoonafterthey'reborn.Ifyouwaitaminute,Ishall
probablybeabletoshowyouone.'
FatherPaulilookedabouthimforafewminutes,thenexclaimed,'Yes,there
weare!'Hepointedtoadistantheavynucleus.'Canyousee?That'sapositron
beingborn.'
Theatomatwhichthemonkwaspointingwasevidentlyundergoingastrong
electromagneticdisturbanceowingtosomevigorousradiationfallingonitfrom
outside.ItwasamuchmoreviolentdisturbancethantheonewhichthrewMr
Tompkinsoutofhis

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chlorineatom.Theatom'sfamilyofelectronswasbeingblownawaylikedry
leavesinahurricane.
'Lookcloselyatthenucleus,'saidFatherPauli.Concentratinghisattention,Mr
Tompkinssawsomethingveryunusual.Closetothenucleus,insidetheinner
electronicshell,twovagueshadowswerequicklytakingshape.Amoment
later,MrTompkinssawtwoglitteringbrandnewelectronsrushingatgreat
speedawayfromtheirbirthplace.
'ButIseetwoofthem,'saidMrTompkins,excitedly.
'That'sright,'agreedFatherPauli.'Electronsarealwaysborninpairs.They're
electricallycharged,soyouhavetoproducetwoatthesametimeonewith
positivecharge,theotherwithnegativeotherwiseitwouldcontradictthe
lawofconservationofelectriccharge.So,theactionofthatstronggammaray
onthenucleushasproducedanordinarynegativeelectronaswellasthe
positron.'
'Oh,that'snotsobadthen,'commentedMrTompkins.'Ifthebirthofeach
positronisaccompaniedbyanextranegativeelectron,thenthatmeanswhen
thepositrondestroysanegativeonelater,we'rebacktowherewewereas
farasthetotalnumberofelectronsisconcerned.Soitdoesn'tleadtothe
extinctionoftheelectronictribe,andI...'
'IfIwereyou,Iwouldwatchoutforthatpositron,'interruptedthemonk.
'Whichone'sthepositron?'askedMrTompkins.'Theylookthesametome.'
'Notsure.Butoneofthem'scomingourway.'
HebrusquelyshovedMrTompkinsasidewhilethenewbornparticlewhistled
by.Nosoonerhaditpassed,thanitcrashedintoanotherelectron.Therewere
twoblindingflashesoflightthennothing!
'Well,Iguessthatanswersyourquestion,'smiledthemonk.
MrTompkins'sreliefatescapingtheclutchesofthemurderouspositron,
however,wereshortlived.BeforehehadtimetothankFatherPauliforhis
quickthinking,heabruptlyfelthimselfbeingpulled.Heandalltheother
wanderingelectronshadbeengalvanizedintoactionandwereallbeing
propelledinthesamedirection.
'Hey!What'shappeningnow?'hecried.

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'Someonemusthavepressedthelightswitch.You'reonyourwaytothe
filamentinthelightbulb,'calledthemonk,whobynowwasfastdisappearing
intothedistance,'Bye!Nicetalkingtoyou.'
Atfirstthejourneywasquitepleasantandeffortlesslikebeingtransported
onamovingwalkwayatanairport.MrTompkinsandtheotherloose
electronsweregentlyweavingtheirwaythroughthelatticeofatoms.Hetried
togetintoconversationwithanearbyelectron.
'Quiterelaxingthis,isn'tit,'heremarked.
Theelectronshothimamenacinglook.'Huh!You'reobviouslynewtothis
circuit.Justyouwaittillwegettotherapids.'
MrTompkinsdidnotknowwhatthismeant,butdidnotlikethesoundofit.
Hedidnothavelongtowaittofindout.Suddenlythechannelthroughwhich
theywerepassingnarrowed.Theelectronswerenowcrushedtogetherasthey
squeezedalong.Itbecamehotterandhotter,andbrighterandbrighter.
'Braceyourself!'mutteredhiscompanionasshecamecrashinginfromthe
side.
MrTompkinsawoketofindthatthewomansittingnexttohimonthelecture
theatrebenchhadalsodozedoff,andhadslumpedsidewaysontohim,pushing
himupagainstthewall.

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111/2
TheRemainderofthePreviousLecturethroughWhichMr
TompkinsDozed
...Infact,intheyear1808,anEnglishchemistJohnDaltonshowedthatthe
relativeproportionofthechemicalelementsneededtoformacomplicated
chemicalcompoundisalwaysaratioofwholenumbers.Heinterpretedthis
ruleasindicatingthatallchemicalcompoundsarebuiltupfromparticles
representingsimplechemicalelements.Thefailureofmedievalalchemytoturn
onechemicalelementintoanothersuppliedsupportingevidenceofthe
apparentindivisibilityoftheseparticles.So,withoutmuchhesitationtheywere
giventheoldGreekname:'atoms'.Althoughweknownowthatthese'Dalton's
atoms'arenotatallindivisible(theyare,infact,formedfromstillsmaller
particles),thename'atom'stuck.
Thustheentitiescalled'atoms'bymodernphysicsarenotatalltheelementary
andindivisibleconstituentunitsofmatterimaginedbyDemocritus,andtheterm
'atom'wouldactuallybemorecorrectifitwereappliedtosuchsmaller
particlesaselectronsandquarksfromwhich'Dalton'satoms'arebuilt.
(Quarks,incidentally,aretheultimateconstituentsofatomicnucleiIshallbe
havingmoretosayaboutthematalaterdate.)Suchachangeofnamesatthis
latestagewouldcausemuchconfusion.Forthisreasonweretaintheoldname
of'atoms'inDalton'ssense,andrefertoparticlessuchaselectronsandquarks
as'elementaryparticles'.Thislatternameindicates,ofcourse,thatwebelieve
atpresentthatthesesmallerparticlesarereallyelementaryandindivisiblein
Democritus'senseoftheword.Youmaywellaskwhetherhistorywillnot
repeatitself,andwhetherinthefurtherprogressof

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science,theelementaryparticlesofmodernphysicswillprovetobequite
complex.Myansweristhat,althoughthereisnoabsoluteguaranteethatthis
willnothappen,thereareverygoodreasonstobelievethatthistimeweare
right.
Thereareninetytwodifferentkindsofatoms(correspondingtoninetytwo
differentchemicalelements),andeachkindofatompossessesrather
complicatedcharacteristicproperties.Thisinitselfinvitesthesuggestionthat
theymighthaverathercomplicatedstructuresconstructedoutofmore
elementaryones.
HowareDalton'satomstobebuiltupfromtheelementaryparticles?Thefirst
steptowardsansweringthisquestionwastakenin1911bythecelebrated
BritishphysicistErnestRutherford(laterLordRutherfordofNelson).Hewas
studyingthestructureofatomsbybombardingthemwithalphaparticles.(You
recallthesearethenucleiofheliumatoms.)Thesepositivelychargedparticles
areemittedintheprocessofdisintegrationofradioactiveelements.Rutherford
observedthedeflection(thatistosay,thescattering)oftheseprojectilesafter
theirpassagethroughapieceofmatter.Hefoundthatwhereasmostofthe
projectileswereabletopassthroughwithverylittledeviation,afewrecoiled
throughexceptionallylargeangles.Itwasasthoughtheyhadscoredabullseye
onsomethingverysmallandhighlyconcentratedwithintheatom.Inthisway,
hecametotheconclusionthatallatomsmustpossessaverydense,positively
chargedcentralcore,ornucleus.Thisheenvisagedasbeingsurroundedbya
ratherrarefiedcloudofnegativeelectriccharge.
Itwaslaterdiscoveredthattheatomicnucleusismadeupofacertainnumber
ofpositivelychargedprotons andelectricallyneutralneutrons.Theseareso
similartoeachother(apartfromtheircharge)thattheyareknownunderthe
collectivename:nucleons.Theyareheldtightlytogetherbyashortranged,
powerfulcohesiveforceknownasthestrongnuclearforce.Itgetsitsname
becauseitisstrongenoughtokeepprotonsboundwithinthenucleusdespite
therepulsiveforceactingbetweentheirpositivecharges.
Asforthesurroundingcloud,thisconsistsofnegativeelectronsswarming
aroundundertherestraininginfluenceoftheelectrostatic

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attractionexertedbythepositivechargeoftheprotonsinthenucleus.(You
recall,ofcourse,thatlikechargesrepel,whereasunlikechargesattract.)The
numberofelectronsformingtheatomiccloudvariesfromonetypeofatomto
another,anddeterminesallthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofagiventype
ofatom.Thenumberofelectronsvariesalongthenaturalsequenceofchemical
elementsfromone(forhydrogen)uptoninetytwo(fortheheaviestnaturally
occurringelement:uranium).
InspiteoftheapparentsimplicityofRutherford'satomicmodel,itsdetailed
understandingturnedouttobeanythingbutsimple.Forexample,whatwasto
stopalltheelectronsbeingquicklydrawnintothenucleusbytheelectrostatic
attraction?Accordingtoclassicalideas,theonlyexplanationmustbethatthe
electronsareavoidingthenucleusinmuchthesamewayastheplanetsinthe
SolarSystemavoidbeingpulledintotheSun.Thistheydobymovinginorbits
aboutthecentreofattraction(inthatcase,gravitationalattraction).But
unfortunately,classicalphysicsalsosaysthatwhentheorbittingbodyis
electricallycharged,itwillprogressivelyradiateenergyawayaformof
lightemission.Itwascalculatedthat,duetothesesteadyenergylosses,allthe
electronsforminganatomiccloudshouldcollapseonthenucleuswithina
negligiblefractionofasecond.Thisseeminglysoundconclusionofclassical
theorystands,however,insharpcontradictiontotheempiricalfactthatatomic
cloudsare,onthecontrary,quitestable.Insteadofcollapsingonthenucleus,
atomicelectronscontinuetheirmotionaroundthecentralbodyforanindefinite
periodoftime.Thusweseethatadeeprootedconflictarisesbetweenthe
basicideasofclassicalmechanics,andtheempiricaldataconcerningthe
mechanicalbehaviourofatoms.
ItwasthiscontradictionthatbroughtthefamousDanishphysicistNielsBohrto
therealizationthatclassicalmechanics,whichclaimedforcenturiesaprivileged
andsecurepositioninthesystemofnaturalsciences,shouldfromnowonbe
consideredasarestrictedtheory.Itisapplicableonlytothemacroscopic
worldofoureverydayexperience,butfailsbadlyinitsapplicationtothemuch
moredelicatetypesofmotiontakingplacewithinatoms.

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Asthetentativefoundationforanewtypeofmechanics(onethatwas
eventuallytoflowerintothequantummechanicsIdiscussedinanearlier
lecture),Bohrproposedthatfromtheinfinitevarietyoforbitstheoretically
possibleinclassicaltheory,onlyafewspeciallyselectedonesare
availabletoelectronsorbittinganatomicnucleus.Thesepermittedorbits,
ortrajectories,areselectedaccordingtocertainmathematicalconditions,
knownasthequantumconditionsoftheBohrtheory.
Ishallnotenterhereintoadetaileddiscussionofthesequantumconditions,but
willmentiononlythattheyhavebeenchoseninsuchawaythatallthe
restrictionsimposedbythembecomeofnopracticalimportanceincases
wherethemassofthemovingparticleismuchlargerthanthemasseswe
encounterinatomicstructures.Thus,whenthenewmechanicsisappliedto
macroscopicobjects,suchasorbittingplanets,onegetsthesameresultsasthe
oldclassicaltheory.Thissocalledprincipleofcorrespondenceensures,for
example,thatalthoughaplanethasonlycertainorbitsabouttheSunopentoit,
thesearesonumerousandsoclosetoeachotherthattherestrictionisnot
apparent.Itthereforebecomeseasytoformtheimpressionthatthereisno
restrictiononthetypeoforbitpermitted.Itisonlyinthecaseoftinyatomic
mechanismsthatthedifferencebetweenadjacentpermittedstatesbecomesso
markedthatonecannotanylongerignorethefactthatrestrictionsonthe
trajectoriesdoindeedapply,andthedisagreementbetweenthetwotheories
becomesmarked.
Withoutgoingintoanydetails,letmeindicatethekindofresultsthatstemfrom
Bohr'stheory.Onthisslide,Ihaveshown(onagreatlymagnifiedscale,of
course),thesystemofcircularandellipticalorbits,representingtheonlytypes
ofmotionpermittedbyBohr'squantumconditionsfortheelectronsofthis
particularatom.Classicalmechanicswouldallowtheelectrontomoveatany
distancefromthenucleusandputsnorestrictionontheeccentricity(i.e.
elongation)ofitsorbit.Incontrast,theselectedorbitsofBohr'stheoryforma
discretesetwithalltheircharacteristicdimensionssharplydefined.The
combinationofanumberandaletternexttoeachorbitindicatesthe

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Page160
nameofthatorbit,usingthetypeofclassificationschemethathascometobe
adopted.Youmaynotice,forexample,thatthelargernumberscorrespondto
theorbitsoflargerdiameter.
AlthoughBohr'stheoryofatomicstructureturnedouttobeextremelyfruitfulin
theexplanationofvariouspropertiesofatomsandmolecules,thefundamental
notionofdiscretequantumorbitsremainedobscure.Thedeeperonetriedto
gointotheanalysisofthisunusualrestrictionontheclassicaltheory,themore
confusedtheoverallpicturebecame.Itbecameclearthatthefundamental
problemwithBohr'stheorywasthatitwasbasedonrestrictingtheresultsof
classicalphysicsbyasystemofadditionalconditionswhichwereinprinciple
quiteforeigntothewholestructureofclassicaltheory.Whatwasrequiredwas
acompleterethinkingoftheunderlyingphysics.
Thecorrectsolutioncamethirteenyearslater,intheformofsocalled
quantummechanics(alternativelyknownaswavemechanics).Thismodified
theentirebasisofclassicalmechanics.Inspiteofthefactthatthesystemof
quantummechanicsmightatfirstseemstillcrazierthanBohr'soldtheory,this
newmicromechanicsrepresentsoneofthemostconsistentandaccepted
partsofthetheoreticalphysicsoftoday.Ihavealready,inapreviouslecture,
talkedatlengthaboutthenewmechanicsinparticularthenotionsof
'indeterminacy'and'spreadingouttrajectories'.So,Iwillnotrepeatmyself
here.Instead,letuslookalittlemorecloselyathowthoseideasapplytothe
problemofatomicstructure.
Inthissecondslide,youseethewayinwhichthemotionofatomicelectronsis
visualizedbyquantummechanicsfromthepointofviewof'spreadingout
trajectories'.Thispicturedepictsthetypesofmotioncorrespondingtothose
representedclassicallyinthepreviousdiagram(apartfromthefactthat,for
greaterclarity,Iamnowshowingeachtypeofmotiondrawnseparately).You
canseehow,insteadofthesharplinedtrajectoriesofBohr'stheory,wenow
havediffusepatternsconsistentwiththefundamentaluncertaintyprinciple.
Thenotationofthedifferentstatesofmotionisthesameasontheprevious
diagram.Infact,ifyoucomparethetwo(andstretchyourimagination

Page161
Wenowhavediffusepatterns
slightly),youwillnoticethatourcloudyformsreflect,tosomeextent,the
generalfeaturesoftheoldBohrorbits.Forinstance,largernumbers
correspondtolargerpatterns,circularorbitswithsphericalshapes,elliptical
orbitswithelongatedpatterns.Thesediagramsshowwhathappenstothe
goodoldfashionedtrajectoriesofclassicalmechanicswhenthequantumisat
play.Althoughittakesalittlegettingusedto,scientistsworkinginthe
microcosmosofatomshavenodifficultyacceptingthispicture.
Somuchforthepossiblestatesofmotionintheelectroniccloudofanatom.
Wenowcometoanimportantproblemconcerningthedistributionofelectrons
amongthesevariouspossiblestatesofmotion.Hereagainweencounteranew
principleonequiteunfamiliarinthemacroscopicworld.Thisprinciplewas
firstformulatedbyWolfgangPauli.Itstatesthatwithinagivenatom,notwo
particlesmaysimultaneouslypossessthesametypeofmotion.This
restrictionwouldbe

Page162
ofnogreatimportanceif,asitisinclassicalmechanics,therewereaninfinityof
possiblemotions.Underthosecircumstances,ifonestateofmotionwere
alreadybeingexhibitedbyanelectron,asecondelectroncouldhaveastateof
motiondifferentfromthatofthefirst,butonewherethedifferencescouldbe
madearbitrarilysmall.Since,however,thepermittedstatesofmotionwithinan
atomaredrasticallyreducedbythequantumlaws,thePauliprincipleplaysa
veryimportantroleinthemicroworld.Itmeans,forexample,thatifstatesof
motionclosetothenucleusarealreadyfilledbyelectrons,additionalelectrons
havetooccupystatesthatliesignificantlyfurtheroutfromthenucleus.This
preventsthemfromcrowdingtogetherinoneparticularspot.
Youmustnotconclude,however,fromwhatIhavesaidsofar,thateachof
thediffusequantumstatesofmotionrepresentedonmydiagrammaybe
occupiedbyoneelectrononly.Infact,quiteapartfromthemotionalongits
orbit,eachelectronisalsospinningarounditsownaxisinmuchthesame
wayastheEarthspinsaboutitsNorthSouthaxisinadditiontoorbittingthe
Sun.ItwouldnotdistressDrPauliatalliftwoelectronsmovealongthesame
orbit,providedtheyspinindifferentdirections.Nowthedetailedstudyof
electronspinindicatesthatthespeedoftheirrotationaroundtheirownaxisis
alwaysthesame,andthatthedirectionofthisaxismustalwaysbe
perpendiculartotheplaneoftheorbit.Thisleavesonlytwodifferent
possibilitiesofspinningthesecanbecharacterizedas'clockwise'and'anti
clockwise'.
ThusthePauliprincipleasappliedtothequantumstatesinanatomcanbe
reformulatedinthefollowingway:eachquantumstateofmotioncanbe
occupiedbynotmorethantwoelectrons,inwhichcase,thespinsofthese
twoparticlesmustbeinoppositedirections.Accordingly,asweproceed
alongthenaturalsequenceofelementstowardstheatomswithlargerand
largernumbersofelectrons,wefinddifferentquantumstatesofmotionbeing
graduallyfilledwithelectrons,startingfromthoselyingclosesttothenucleus,to
thoselyingfurtherout.

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Itmustalsobementionedinthisconnectionthat,fromthepointofviewofthe
strengthoftheirbinding,differentquantumstatesofatomicelectronscanbe
unitedinseparategroups(orshells)ofstateswithapproximatelyequalbinding.
Whenweproceedalongthenaturalsequenceofelements,onegroupafter
anotherisfilled,and,asaconsequenceoftheirsubsequentfillingofelectronic
shells,thepropertiesoftheatomsalsochangeperiodically.Thisisthe
explanationofthewellknownperiodicpropertiesofelements,discovered
empiricallybytheRussianchemistDimitrijMendeleff.

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12
InsidetheNucleus
ThenextlecturewhichMrTompkinsattendedwasdevotedtothestudyof
atomicnuclei.Theprofessorbegan:
Ladiesandgentlemen:
Diggingdeeperanddeeperintothestructureofmatter,weshallnowtryto
penetratewithourmentaleyeintotheinterioroftheatomicnucleusthat
mysteriousregionoccupyingonlyonethousandmillionmillionthpartofthetotal
volumeoftheatomitself.Yet,inspiteofthealmostincrediblysmalldimensions
ofournewfieldofinvestigation,weshallfinditpackedwithfascinatingactivity.
Enteringthenuclearregionfromthethinlypopulatedelectroncloudofthe
atom,weareatoncesurprisedbytheextremelyovercrowdedstateofthe
localpopulation.Thenucleus,inspiteofitsrelativelysmallsize,containsabout
99.97%oftotalatomicmass.Heretheparticlesrubshoulderswithone
anotherortheywouldiftheyhadshoulders.Inthisrespectthepicture
presentedbythenuclearinteriorissomewhatsimilartothatofaliquid,suchas
waterexceptthatinplaceofwatermolecules,wehereencountermuch
smallerparticles:theprotonsandneutrons.Asfarastheirgeometrical
dimensionsareconcerned,nucleonspossessadiameterofabout
0.000,000,000,000,001metre.
Thenucleonsarepackedclosetogetherduetotheactionofthestrongnuclear
force.Itfunctionsinratherthesamewayastheforcesactingbetweenthe
moleculesinaliquid.And,justasinliquids,thoseforces,whilepreventingthe
particlesfrombeingcompletelyseparated,donothindertheirdisplacement
relativetooneanother.Thusnuclear

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Nuclei
matterpossessesacertaindegreeoffluidity.Whenundisturbedbyanyexternal
forces,itassumestheshapeofasphericaldrop,justlikeanordinarydropof
water.
IntheschematicdiagramwhichIamgoingtodrawforyounow,yousee
differenttypesofnucleibuiltfromprotonsandneutrons.Thesimplestisthe
nucleusofhydrogen,whichconsistsofjustoneproton.Incontrast,themost
complicateduraniumnucleusconsistsof92protonsand142neutrons.Of
course,youmustconsiderthesepicturesonlyasahighlyschematic
presentationoftheactualsituation,since,owingtothefundamentaluncertainty
principleofthequantumtheory,thepositionofeachnucleonisactually'spread
out'overtheentirenuclearregion.
AsIhavesaid,particlesforminganatomicnucleusareheldtogetherbystrong
cohesiveforces.Butinadditiontotheseattractiveforces,therearealsoforces
ofanotherkindactingintheopposite

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direction.Asyouknow,theprotons,whichformaboutonehalfofthetotal
nuclearpopulation,allcarrypositiveelectriccharge.Theyarethusmutually
repelledfromoneanotherbytheCoulombelectrostaticforces.Forthelight
nuclei,wheretheelectricchargeiscomparativelysmall,thisCoulombrepulsion
isoflittleconsequence.Butinthecaseofheavier,highlychargednuclei,
Coulombforcesofferseriouscompetitiontotheattractivestrongnuclearforce.
Thelatterisshortrangedandthereforeoperatesonlybetweenneighbouring
nucleons.Theelectrostaticforce,ontheotherhand,islongranged.That
meansaprotonontheperipheryofthenucleuswillbeattractedonlybyits
immediateneighbours,butrepelledbyalltheotherprotonsinthenucleus.The
additionofmoreprotonswouldprogressivelybuilduptherepulsiveforce,
withoutacompensatingincreaseinthestrongattractiveforce(therebeinga
physicallimittohowmany'shoulders'aprotoncanrubatthesametime).
Aboveacertainsize,thenucleusisnolongerstable,andisapttoejectsome
ofitsconstituentparts.Andthatisexactlywhathappenstoanumberof
elementslocatedattheveryendoftheperiodicsystemofclassifyingthe
elementsdevelopedbyMendeleff:thoseknownasthe'radioactiveelements'.
Fromallthis,youmightconcludethattheseheavyunstablenucleishouldemit
protons(sinceneutronsdonotcarryanyelectriccharge,andarethereforenot
subjecttotheCoulombrepulsiveforces).Experimentsshow,however,thatthe
particlesactuallyemittedarealphaparticles.Thereasonforthisspecific
groupingofnuclearconstituentpartsisthatthisparticularcombinationoftwo
protonsandtwoneutronsisespeciallystableitisveryefficientlylocked
together.Itisthereforeeasiertothrowoutthewholegroupatonce,rather
thanbreakitintoseparateprotonsandneutrons.
ThephenomenonofradioactivedecaywasfirstdiscoveredbytheFrench
physicistHenriBecquerel.Itsinterpretationastheresultofspontaneous
disintegrationofatomicnucleiwasgivenbytheBritishphysicistLord
RutherfordanameIhavealreadymentionedinotherconnections.Science
owesagreatdebttoRutherfordforhisimportantdiscoveriesinthephysicsof
theatomicnucleus.

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Oneofthepeculiarfeaturesoftheprocessofalphadecayconsistsofthe
sometimesextremelylongperiodsoftimeneededforalphaparticlestomake
their'getaway'fromthenucleus.Foruraniumandthoriumthisperiodis
measuredinbillionsofyearsforradiumitisaboutsixteencenturies.Thereare
someelementsforwhichdecaytakesplaceinafractionofasecond,buteven
inthesecases,thelifespanisstillverylongcomparedwiththerapidityof
intranuclearmotion.So,wehavetoaskwhatconstrainsalphaparticlesto
stayinsidethenucleus,sometimesformanybillionsofyears,whenthe
repulsiveforcesareclearlystrongenoughtobootthemout.Andhaving
alreadystayedsolong,whatfinallytriggerstheirexpulsion?
Toanswerthis,wemustfirstlearnalittlemoreaboutthecomparativestrength
ofthecohesivenuclearforce,andtherepulsiveelectrostaticforce.Acareful
experimentalstudyoftheseforceswasmadebyRutherford.Heusedtheso
called'atomicbombardment'method.Inhisfamousexperimentsatthe
CavendishLaboratory,Rutherforddirectedabeamoffastmovingalpha
particles,emittedbysomeradioactivesubstance,andobservedthedeviations
(thescattering)oftheseatomicprojectilesresultingfromtheircollisionswiththe
nucleiofthebombardedsubstance.Theseexperimentsconfirmedthat,whileat
greatdistancesfromthenucleustheprojectilesarerepelledbythelongrange
electricforceofthenucleus,thisrepulsionchangesintoastrongattractionifthe
projectilemanagestocomeveryclosetotheouterlimitsofthenuclearregion.
Youcansaythatthenucleusissomewhatanalogoustoafortresssurrounded
onallsidesbyahigh,steepbulwark,preventingtheparticlesfromgettinginas
wellasfromgettingout.
ButthemoststrikingresultofRutherford'sexperimentswasthediscoverythat
thealphaparticlesgettingoutofthenucleusintheprocessofradioactive
decay,aswellastheprojectilespenetratingthenucleusfromoutside,actually
possesslessenergythanwouldcorrespondtothetopofthebulwark,orthe
potentialbarrier,asweusuallycallit.Thisstoodincompletecontradictionto
allthefundamentalideasofclassicalmechanics.Indeed,howcanyouexpecta
balltorolloverahillifyouhavethrownitwithlessenergythanisnecessaryto

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gettothetopofthehill?Classicalphysicscouldonlysupposethattheremust
havebeensomemistakeinRutherford'sexperiments.
Buttherewasnomistake.ThesituationwasclarifiedsimultaneouslybyGeorge
GamowandbyRonaldGurneyandE.U.Condon.Theypointedoutthatthere
wasnodifficulty,providedonetookintoaccountquantumtheory.Aswehave
noted,weknowthatquantumphysicsrejectsthewelldefinedlinear
trajectoriesofclassicaltheory,andreplacesthemwithdiffuseghostlytrails.
And,justasagoodoldfashionedghostcouldpasswithoutdifficultythrough
thethickmasonrywallsofanoldcastle,theseghostlytrajectoriescan
penetratethroughpotentialbarrierswhichseemtobequiteimpenetrablefrom
theclassicalpointofview.
AnddonotforonemomentthinkIamjoking.Thepenetrabilityofpotential
barriersforparticleswithinsufficientenergycomesasadirectmathematical
consequenceofthefundamentalequationsofthenewquantummechanics.It
representsoneofthemostimportantdifferencesbetweenthenewandold
ideasaboutmotion.But,althoughthenewmechanicspermitssuchunusual
effects,itdoessoonlywithstrongrestrictions:inmostcasesthechancesof
crossingthebarrierareextremelysmall,andtheimprisonedparticlemust
throwitselfagainstthewallanalmostincrediblenumberoftimesbeforeits
attemptfinallysucceeds.Thequantumtheorygivesusexactrulesconcerning
thecalculationoftheprobabilityofsuchanescapeithasbeenshownthatthe
observedperiodsofalphadecayareincompleteagreementwiththe
expectationofthetheory.Also,inthecaseofprojectileswhichareshotinto
thenucleusfromtheoutside,theresultsofquantummechanicalcalculationsare
inverycloseagreementwiththeexperiment.
Beforegoinganyfurther,Iwanttoshowyousomephotographsrepresenting
theprocessofdisintegrationofvariousnucleiwhenhitbyhighenergyatomic
projectiles.Thefirstisanoldcloudchamberpicture.Ishouldexplainthatwith
thesesubatomicparticlesbeingsosmall,oneisnotabletoseethemdirectly,
evenunderthemostpowerfulmicroscope.Soyoumustnotexpectmeto
provideyouwithactualphotographsofthem.No,wehavetobecunning.

Page169
Consideravapourtrailleftbyahighflyingaircraft.Theplaneitselfmightbeso
highitisdifficulttoseeindeeditmightnolongerbethereatall.Butweknow
aboutitfromthevapourtrailithasleftbehind.C.R.T.Wilsonsawinthisa
simplewayofrenderingsubatomicnuclei'visible'.Hebuiltachamber
containinggasandvapour.Usingapiston,hesuddenlyexpandedthegas.This
causedanimmediatedropintemperature,plungingthevapourintoasuper
saturatedconditionthevapourwasallsettoformacloud.Butcloudscan't
juststartforming.Theyhavetohavesomecentresonwhichtocondense
(otherwise,whywouldadropbegintoforminonelocationratherthan
another?).Whatnormallyhappensincloudformationisthatdustparticles
presentintheatmospherebecomethepreferentialcentresuponwhich
condensationcanbegin.ThecleverthingabouttheWilsoncloudchamber,
however,isthatheexcludedanydust.Sowherewerethedropletstoform?It
soturnsoutthatwhenachargedparticlemovesthroughamedium,itionises
atomsinitspath(thatistosay,itejectselectronsfromtheiratoms).These
ionisedatomsmakegoodcentresfromwhichdropletscangrow.Sowhat
happenedinthechamberwasthatwhereverthechargedparticleswent
(leavingtheirtrailofionisedatomsbehindthem)thereformedatrailofdroplets
whichinafractionofasecondhadgrowntovisiblesizeandcouldbe
photographed.Andthatiswhatishappeninginthisslide.Fromtheleftyousee
numeroustrailsofdroplets.Eachtrailiscausedbyanalphaparticleradiating
fromapowerfulalpharaysource(whichisnotshowninthepicture).Mostof
theseparticlesarepassingthroughthefieldofvisionwithoutasingleserious
collision,butoneofthemjustbelowthemiddleofthepicturehas
succeededinhittinganitrogennucleus.Thetrackofthealphaparticlestopsat
thecollisionpoint,andfromthesameplaceyoucanseetwoothertracks
emerging.Thelongthintrackgoingupthepicturebelongstoaprotonkicked
outfromthenitrogennucleus.Theshortheavyonerepresentstherecoilofthe
nucleusitself.Thisisn't,however,anitrogennucleusanymore,sincebylosing
aprotonandabsorbingtheincidentalphaparticle,ithasbeentransformedinto
anucleusofoxygen.Thuswehaveherean

Page170
Thereformedatrailofdroplets
alchemictransformationofnitrogenintooxygenwithhydrogenasaby
product.Iamshowingyouthisbecauseitisthefirstpictureofartificial
transmutationofelementsevertaken.ItwasmadebyPatrickBlackett,a
studentofLordRutherford.
Thetransformationistypicalofmanyothernucleartransformationsstudiedin
experimentalphysicstoday.Inalltransformationsofthiskind,theincident
particle(proton,neutronoralphaparticle)penetratesintothenucleus,kicks
someotherparticlesout,perhapsremainingitselfintheirplace.Inallsuch
transformationsanewelementisformedinthereaction.
Justbeforethesecondworldwar,twoGermanchemists,O.HahnandF.
Strassmann,discoveredadifferenttypeofnucleartransformation:aheavy
nucleusbreaksupintotwoalmostequalpartswiththeliberationofa
tremendousamountofenergy.Inmynextslide,youseetwouraniumfragments
flyinginoppositedirectionsfromathinuraniumfilament.Thisphenomenon,
knownasnuclearfission,wasnoticedfirstinthecaseofuraniumbombarded
byabeamofneutrons.Butitwassoonfoundthatotherelements,alsolocated
neartheendof

Page171
Thisphenomenonknownasnuclearfission
theperiodicsystem,possesssimilarproperties.Itseemsthattheseheavynuclei
areattheverylimitoftheirstability.Thesmallestprovocation,causedsaybya
collisionwithaneutron,isenoughtomakethembreakintotwolikean
oversized,wobblingdropletofwater.Thisinstabilityofheavynucleiholdsthe
clueastowhythereareonly92elementsinnature.Anynucleusheavierthan
uraniumcouldnotexistforanysignificantperiodoftimewithoutimmediately
breakingintomuchsmallerfragmentsthishappeningquitespontaneously,
withoutanyoutsidestimulation.
Thephenomenonofnuclearfissionisinterestingfromapracticalpointofview:
itcanbeasourceofnuclearpower.Whentheybreakup,thenucleiemit
energyintheformofradiationandfastmovingparticles.Amongtheejected
particlesareneutrons.Thesemaygoontocausethefissionofneighbouring
nuclei.Theseinturncanleadtoyetmoreneutronsbeingemitted,yieldingyet
furtherfissionsasocalledchainreaction.Givenenoughuranium
materialwhatwecallthecriticalmasstheemittedneutronshavesucha
highprobabilityofhittingothernucleiandcausingfurtherfissions,thatthe
process

Page172
becomesselfperpetuating.Indeed,itcantriggeranexplosivereactioninwhich
theenergystoredinsidethenucleiissetfreeinafractionofasecond.Thiswas
theprincipleusedinthefirstnuclearbombs.
Thechainreactiondoesnothavetoleadtoanexplosion.Undercarefully
controlledconditions,theprocesscanbecontained,leadingtoasteady,
sustainedreleaseofenergy.Thisiswhathappensinnuclearpowerstations.
Thenuclearfissionofheavyelementslikeuraniumisnottheonlywayof
tappingintotheenergyofthenucleus.Thereisatotallydifferentwayofdoing
it.Thisinvolvesfusingtogetherthelightestelementssuchashydrogento
produceheavierones.Thisprocessisknownasnuclearfusion.Whentwo
lightnucleicomeintocontacttheyfusetogetherasdotwodropletsofwaterin
asaucer.Thiscanhappenonlyataveryhightemperature,sincethelightnuclei
approachingeachotherarekeptfromcomingintocontactbytheelectric
repulsion.Butwhenthetemperaturereachestensofmillionsofdegrees,
electricrepulsionispowerlesstopreventthecontact,andthefusionprocess
starts.Themostsuitablenucleiforthefusionprocessaredeuterons,i.e.the
nucleiofheavyhydrogenatomsdeuteriumbeingreadilyextractedfrom
oceanwater.
Nowyoumightbewonderinghowbothfissionandfusioncanleadtothe
releaseofenergy.Theimportantpointtograspisthatcertaincombinationsof
neutronsandprotonsaremoretightlyboundthanothers.Wheneveronegoes
fromamorediffusesetuptooneinwhichthenucleonsaremoreefficiently
bound,theexcessenergyisavailabletobereleased.Itturnsoutthatlarge
uraniumnucleiareratherinefficientlybound,andcanbetransformedinto
tightercombinationsbysplittingupintosmallergroupings.Attheotherendof
theperiodictable,itistheheaviercombinationsofnucleonsthatarethemore
efficientlybound.Aheliumnucleus,forinstance,consistingoftwoprotonsand
twoneutrons,isexceptionallytightlyboundaswehaveearliernoted.Thus
thereisenergyavailableforreleaseifseparatenucleonsordeuteronscanbe
persuadedtocollideandsticktogetherashelium.

Page173
Bothfissionandfusioncanleadtothereleaseofenergy
Andthatiswherethehydrogenbombcomesin.Itisbasedontheconversion
ofhydrogenintoheliumthroughreactionsinvolvingfusion.Muchgreater
outputsofenergyareinvolvedherehencethegreaterpowerofhydrogen
bombsoverthefirstgenerationofnuclearweaponsbasedonfission.
Unfortunately,ithasprovedmuchmoredifficulttoharnessthepowerofthe
hydrogenbombforpeacefulpurposes.Powerstationsproducingenergyfrom
nuclearfusionstillhavealongwaytogobeforeachievingcommercialviability.

Page174
TheSun,however,hasnodifficultyindoingthis.Thecontinuousconversionof
hydrogenintoheliumistheSun'smainsourceofenergy,andithassucceeded
insustainingthisreactionatasteadyrateforthepast5000millionyears
withanother5000millionyearsstilltogo.
InstarsmoremassivethantheSun,higherinternaltemperaturesprevail,and
manyadditionalfusionreactionsoccur.Theseconverttheheliumintocarbon,
thecarbonintooxygen,etc.allthewayuptoiron.Beyondironnofurther
energyistobegainedfromfusion.Instead,aswehavenotedfortheheavier
nucleilikeuranium,moreefficientpackingofnucleons,andhenceenergy
release,istobederivedfromtheoppositeprocess:fission.

Page175
13
TheWoodcarver
Arrivinghomethateveningfromthelecture,MrTompkinsfoundMaudhad
alreadyretiredtobedandwasfastasleep.Hemadehimselfadrinkofhot
chocolateandjoinedher.Hesatinbedforawhilethinkingbackoverthe
lecture.Heespeciallyrecalledtheparttodowithnuclearbombs.Thethreatof
nuclearannihilationhadalwaysdisturbedhim.
'Thiswon'tdo,'hemused.'I'llbegivingmyselfnightmaresifI'mnotcareful.'
Heputdowntheemptymug,switchedoffthelight,andsnuggleduptoMaud.
Fortunatelyhisdreamswerenotatallunpleasant...
MrTompkinsfoundhimselfinaworkshop.Atonesidewasalongwooden
benchcoveredwithsimplecarpenter'stools.Ontheoldfashionedshelves
attachedtothewall,henoticedalargenumberofdifferentwoodcarvingsof
strangeandunusualshapes.Anold,friendlylookingmanwasworkingatthe
table.Observingmorecloselyhisfeatures,MrTompkinswasstruckbyhis
strongresemblancebothtotheoldmanGepettoinWaltDisney'sPinocchio,
andtoaportraitofthelateLordRutherfordofNelsonhehadseenhangingon
thewalloftheprofessor'slaboratory.
'Excuseme,'venturedMrTompkins,'Icouldn'thelpnoticing,butyoulooka
lotlikeLordRutherfordthenuclearphysicist.Youaren'tbyanychance
related,areyou?'

Page176
'Whydoyouask?'repliedtheoldman,settingasidethepieceofwoodhewas
carving.'Don'ttellmeyou'reinterestedinnuclearphysics.'
'Well,asamatteroffact,yes,'saidMrTompkins,addingdiiffidently,'notas
anexpert,Ihastentosay...'
'Inthatcase,youcametojusttherightplace.Imakeallkindsofnuclei.I'dbe
gladtoshowyouaroundmylittleworkshop.'
'Youmakethem,didyousay?'exclaimedMrTompkins.
'Ofcourse.Naturally,itrequiressomeskillespeciallyinthecaseof
radioactivenuclei.TheytendtofallapartbeforeI'vehadtimetopaintthem.'
'Paintthem?'
'Yes,Iuseredforthepositivelychargedparticles,andcyan(thispeacock
blue)forthenegativeones.Redandcyanarecomplementarycoloursmix
themtogetherandtheycanceleachotheroutthemixiscolourless.'
'Idon'tthinkso,'MrTompkinsprotestedmildly.'Notcolourless,surely.IfI
mixredandgreenybluepaintIget...well,amuddysortofcolour.'
Thewoodcarversmiled.'Quiteright.It'snotcolourlessifyoumixthepigments.
Butifyoulookatamixtureofredlightandgreenybluelight,itproducesthe
sensationofwhiteness.'
MrTompkinsstilllookeddoubtful.
'Ifyoudon'tbelieveme,'continuedtheoldman,'allyouhavetodoispaintone
halfofatopredandtheotherhalfcyanlikethisoneIhavehereand
giveitaquickspin.Seeitlookswhitecolourless.Anyway,asIwas
saying,Ipainttheprotonsintheatomicnucleiredfortheirpositivecharge,and
theelectronsoutsidethenucleuscyanfortheirnegativecharge.This
correspondstothemutualcancellationofpositiveandnegativeelectric
charges.Iftheatomismadeupofanequalnumberofpositiveandnegative
chargesmovingrapidlytoandfro,itwillbeelectricallyneutralandwilllook
whitetoyou.Iftherearemorepositiveormorenegativecharges,thewhole
systemwillbecolouredredorgreenyblue.Simple.Yes?'

Page177

Page178
MrTompkinsnodded.
'Now,'continuedthewoodcarver,showingMrTompkinstwolargewooden
boxesstandingnearthetable,'thisiswhereIkeepthematerialsfromwhich
variousnucleicanbebuilt.Thefirstboxcontainsprotons ,theseredballshere.
Theyarequitestableandkeeptheircolourpermanentlyunlessyouscratch
itoffwithaknife,orsomething.Ihavemuchmoretroublewiththeneutronsin
thisotherbox.Theyarenormallywhite,orelectricallyneutral.Buttheyhavea
strongtendencytoturnintoredprotons.Aslongastheboxisclosedtight,
everythingisallright,butassoonasyoutakeoneout...Well,seefor
yourself.'
Openingthebox,hetookoutoneofthewhiteballsandplaceditonthetable.
Forawhilenothinghappened.Then,justwhenMrTompkinswasaboutto
losepatience,theballsuddenlycamealive.Irregularreddishandgreenish
stripesappearedonitssurface,andforashortwhiletheballlookedlikeoneof
thecolouredglassmarbleschildrenlikesomuch.Thenthegreenybluecolour
becameconcentratedononeside,andfinallyseparateditselfentirelyfromthe
ball,formingabrilliantdropletthecolourofapeacock,whichfelltothefloor.
Atthesameinstant,atinywhiteballemergedandshotacrosstheroom,
disappearingintothewall.Meanwhile,theballitselfwasnowleftcompletely
red,nodifferentfromanyoftheredcolouredprotonsinthefirstbox.
'Didyouseethat?'theoldmanasked,excitedly.'Thewhitecolourofthe
neutronbrokeupintoredandcyan,andthenthewholethingsplitintothree
separateparticles:thiselectron,'hesaid,pickinguptheballfromthefloor.
'Yousee,it'sjustanordinaryelec

Page178
MrTompkinsnodded.
'Now,'continuedthewoodcarver,showingMrTompkinstwolargewooden
boxesstandingnearthetable,'thisiswhereIkeepthematerialsfromwhich
variousnucleicanbebuilt.Thefirstboxcontainsprotons ,theseredballshere.
Theyarequitestableandkeeptheircolourpermanentlyunlessyouscratch
itoffwithaknife,orsomething.Ihavemuchmoretroublewiththeneutronsin
thisotherbox.Theyarenormallywhite,orelectricallyneutral.Buttheyhavea
strongtendencytoturnintoredprotons.Aslongastheboxisclosedtight,
everythingisallright,butassoonasyoutakeoneout...Well,seefor
yourself.'
Openingthebox,hetookoutoneofthewhiteballsandplaceditonthetable.
Forawhilenothinghappened.Then,justwhenMrTompkinswasaboutto
losepatience,theballsuddenlycamealive.Irregularreddishandgreenish
stripesappearedonitssurface,andforashortwhiletheballlookedlikeoneof
thecolouredglassmarbleschildrenlikesomuch.Thenthegreenybluecolour
becameconcentratedononeside,andfinallyseparateditselfentirelyfromthe
ball,formingabrilliantdropletthecolourofapeacock,whichfelltothefloor.
Atthesameinstant,atinywhiteballemergedandshotacrosstheroom,
disappearingintothewall.Meanwhile,theballitselfwasnowleftcompletely
red,nodifferentfromanyoftheredcolouredprotonsinthefirstbox.
'Didyouseethat?'theoldmanasked,excitedly.'Thewhitecolourofthe
neutronbrokeupintoredandcyan,andthenthewholethingsplitintothree
separateparticles:thiselectron,'hesaid,pickinguptheballfromthefloor.
'Yousee,it'sjustanordinaryelec

Page179
tronlikeanyother.Thenthereistheprotononthetable(again,aperfectly
ordinaryproton),andthatneutrino.'
'Thatwhat?'askedMrTompkinslookingpuzzled.'Sorry.Thelastoneyou
mentionedwhatwasthatagain?'
'Aneutrino,'repeatedthewoodcarver.'Itwentoverthere,'headded,pointing
tothedistantwall.'Didn'tyounoticeit?'
'Yes,yes.Isawit,'repliedMrTompkinshurriedly.'Butwherehasitgone?I
don'tseeitanymore.'
'Ohthat'sneutrinosforyou.Terriblyslipperytheyare.Passthroughanything.
Closeddoors,walls.IcouldfireonefromhererightthroughtheEarthandout
theotherside.'
'GoodHeavens!'exclaimedMrTompkins.'Howodd.Thiscertainlytopsany
colouredhandkerchieftrickIhaveeverseen.Butcanyouchangethecolours
backagain?'
'Yes,Icanrubthecyanpaintbackontothesurfaceoftheredball(bypushing
anelectronin)andmakeitwhiteagain,butthatwouldrequiresomeenergy,of
course.Anotherwaytodoitwouldbetoscratchtheredpaintoff,which
wouldtakesomeenergytoo.Thenthepaintscratchedfromthesurfaceofthe
protonwouldformaredpositronapositiveelectron.Doyouknowabout
positrons?'
'Yes,whenIwasanelectronmyself...,'beganMrTompkins,butchecked
himselfquickly.'Imean,Ihaveheardthatpositiveandnegativeelectrons
annihilateeachotherwhenevertheymeet,'hesaid.'Canyoudothattrickfor
metoo?'
'Noproblem,'saidtheoldman.'ButIwon'ttakethetroubletoscratchthe
paintoffthisproton,asIhaveacoupleofpositronsleftoverfrommy
morning'swork.'
Openingoneofthedrawers,heextractedatinybrightredball,and,pressingit
firmlybetweenfingerandthumb,putitbesidethegreenoneonthetable.
Therewasasharpbang,likeafirecrackerexploding,andbothballsvanished
atonce.
'Yousee?'saidthewoodcarver,blowingonhisslightlyburnedfingers.'That's
whyonecannotuseelectronsforbuildingnuclei.Itrieditonce,butgaveitup
rightaway.NowIuseonlyprotonsandneutrons.'

Page180
'Butneutronsareunstabletoo,aren'tthey?'askedMrTompkins,remembering
therecentdemonstration.
'Ontheirown,yes.Butwhenthey'repackedtightlyinthenucleus,and
surroundedbyotherparticles,theybecomequitestable.Unless,'headded
hastily,'therearetoomanyneutronsinthenucleusrelativetothenumberof
protons.Thentheycantransformthemselvesintoprotons,withtheextrapaint
beingemittedfromthenucleusintheformofanegativeelectron.Sameway,if
therearetoomanyprotons,theywillchangeintoneutrons,gettingridoftheir
unwantedredpaintintheformofapositiveelectron.Suchadjustmentswecall
betatransformations.''Beta"istheoldnamegiventotheelectronsemittedfrom
suchradioactivedecays.'
'Doyouuseanyglue,inmakingthenuclei?'askedMrTompkinswithinterest.
'Don'tneedany,'answeredtheoldman.'Theseparticles,yousee,stickto
eachotherbythemselvesassoonasyoubringthemintocontact.Youcantry
ityourselfifyouwantto.'Followingthisadvice,MrTompkinstookoneproton
andoneneutronineachhand,andbroughtthemtogethercarefully.Atoncehe
feltastrongpull,andlookingattheparticleshenoticedanextremelystrange
phenomenon.Theparticleswereexchangingcolour,becomingalternatelyred
andwhite.Itseemedasiftheredpaintwere'jumping'fromtheballinhisright
handtotheoneinhislefthand,andbackagain.Thistwinklingofcolourwas
sofastthatthetwoballsseemedtobeconnectedbyapinkishbandalong
whichthecolouringwasoscillatingtoandfro.
'Thisiswhatmyfriendsthetheoreticalphysicistscallthe"exchange
phenomenon",'saidtheoldmaster,chucklingatMrTompkins'ssurprise.'Both
ballswanttobered,ortohavetheelectriccharge,ifyouwanttoputitthat
way,andastheycannothaveitsimultaneously,theypullittoandfro
alternately.Neitherwantstogiveup,andsotheysticktogetheruntilyou
separatethembyforce.NowIcanshowyouhowsimpleitistomakeany
nucleusyouwant.Whatshallitbe?'
'Gold,'saidMrTompkins,rememberingtheambitionofthemedieval
alchemists.

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'Gold?Letussee,'murmuredthewoodcarver,turningtoalargecharthanging
onthewall.'Thenucleusofgoldweighsonehundredandninetysevenunits,
andcarriesseventyninepositiveelectriccharges.ThatmeansIhavetotake
seventynineprotonsandaddonehundredandeighteenneutronstogetthe
masscorrect.'
Countingoutthepropernumberofparticles,heputthemintoatallcylindrical
vesselandcovereditallwithaheavywoodenpiston.Then,withallhis
strength,hepushedthepistondown.
'Ihavetodothis,'heexplainedtoMrTompkins,'becauseofthestrong
electricrepulsionbetweenthepositivelychargedprotons.Oncethisrepulsion
isovercomebythepressureofthepiston,theprotonsandtheneutronswill
sticktogetherbecauseoftheirmutualexchangeforces,andwillformthe
desirednucleus.'
Pressingthepistoninasfarasitwouldgo,hetookitoutagainandquickly
turnedthecylindricalvesselupsidedown.Aglitteringpinkishballrolledouton
thetable.Watchingitclosely,MrTompkinsnoticedthatthepinkishcolour
wasduetoaninterplayofredandwhiteflashesamongtherapidlymoving
particles.
'Howbeautiful!'heexclaimed.'sothisisanatomofgold!'
'Notanatomyet,onlytheatomicnucleus,'theoldmancorrectedhim.'To
completetheatomwehavetoaddthepropernumberofelectronstoneutralize
thepositivechargeofthenucleus,andmakethecustomaryelectronicshell
aroundit.Butthat'seasy,andthenucleusitselfwillcatchitselectronsassoon
astherearesomearound.'
'It'sfunnymyfatherinlawnevermentionedthatonecouldmakegoldso
simply,'musedMrTompkins.
'Ohyourfatherinlaw,andthoseothernuclearphysicists!'murmuredtheold
manwithatwinkleinhiseye.'Yes,ofcourse,theycantransformoneelement
intoanothertoalimitedextent.Butthequantitiestheygetaresosmallthey
canhardlybeseen.Letmeshowyouhowtheydoit.'
Withthat,hetookupaproton,andthrewitwithconsiderableforceagainstthe
goldnucleuslyingonthetable.Nearingtheoutsideofthenucleus,theproton
sloweddownalittle,hesitatedamoment

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andthenplungedinsideit.Havingswallowedtheproton,thenucleusshivered
forashorttimeasthoughinahighfeverandthenasmallpartofitbrokeoff
withacrack.
'Yousee,'hesaid,pickingupthefragment.'Thisiswhattheycallanalpha
particle.Ifyouinspectitcloselyyou'llnoticethatitconsistsoftwoprotonsand
twoneutrons.Suchparticlesareusuallyejectedfromtheheavynucleiofthe
socalledradioactiveelements.Butonecanalsokickthemoutofordinary
stablenucleiifonehitsthemhardenough.Notethatthelargerfragmentlefton
thetableisnolongeragoldnucleusitgainedonepositivecharge,butlosttwo
whenthealphawasemitted,meaningithaslostonepositivechargeoverall.It's
nowanucleusofplatinum,theprecedingelementintheperiodictable.Insome
cases,however,theprotonwhichentersthenucleuswillnotcauseittosplitin
twoparts,andasaresultyouwillgetthenucleusthatfollowsgoldinthetable,
i.e.thenucleusofmercury.Combiningtheseandsimilarprocessesonecan
actuallytransformanygivenelementintoanyother.'
'Sowhydon'tphysiciststurnlotsofthecommonelements,suchaslead,into
themorevaluableonesgold,say?'askedMrTompkins.
'Becausefiringprojectilesatnucleiisnotveryeffective.Firstofalltheycannot
aimtheirprojectilesthewayIcaninmypistontube.Onlyoneinseveral
thousandshotsactuallyhitsthenucleus.Second,eveninthecaseofadirect
hit,theprojectileisverylikelytobounceoffthenucleusinsteadofpenetrating
intotheinterior.DidyounoticehowwhenIthrewtheprotonintothegold
nucleus,ithesitatedabitbeforegoingin.Foramoment,Ithoughtitwasgoing
tobethrownbackassooftenhappens.'
'What'stheretopreventtheprojectilesfromgoingin?'askedMrTompkins.
'Youdon'tneedmetotellyouthat,surely,'repliedtheoldmansomewhat
reproachfully.'Think!Boththenucleusandthebombardingprotoncarry
positivecharges.Therepulsiveforcebetweenthesechargesformsakindof
barrier.It'snoteasyfortheprotontogetacrossthisbarrier.Ifthebombarding
protonmanagestopenetratethe

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nuclearfortress,itisonlybecauseitusessomethingliketheTrojanhorse
techniquetheygothroughthenuclearwalls,notoverthem.It'ssomething
theycandoaswaves,ratherthanparticles.'
MrTompkinswasabouttoconfessthathedidnotunderstandwhatonEarth
theoldmanwasonabout,whenitgraduallydawnedonhimthatheprobably
didunderstand!
'Ioncesawafunnysnookergame,'hesaid.'Therewasthisball.Itstartedoff
insidethewoodentriangle.Thenallofasuddenitwasoutside.Itsortof
'leaked'throughthewoodenbarrier.Itgotmeworryingaboutthepossibilityof
tigersleakingoutoftheircages.Doyouthinkthat'sthesamekindofthing
we'vegothereonlynowinsteadofasnookerball,ortiger,leakingout,we
haveaprotonleakingin?'
'Soundslikeittome.Buttotellthetruth,theorywasnevermystrongpoint.
I'mapracticalmanmyself.Still,itdoesseemprettyobviousthatthesenuclear
particlesgiventhattheyaremadeoutofquantummaterialaregoingto
leakthroughobstaclesordinarilyconsideredimpenetrable.'
HelookedhardatMrTompkins.'Thosesnookerballs,'headded.'They
weren'tbyanychancerealquantumivorysnookerballs?'
'Yes,'repliedMrTompkins.'Iunderstandtheyweremadefromthetusksof
quantumelephants.'
'Well,suchislife,'saidtheoldmansadly.'Theyusesuchrarematerialsjustfor
games,andIhavetocarveprotonsandneutrons,thebasicparticlesofthe
entireuniverse,outofplainquantumoak!But,'hecontinued,tryingtohidehis
disappointment,'mypoorwoodentoysareprobablyjustasgoodasallthose
expensiveivorycreations.Here,letmeshowyouhowneatlytheycanpass
throughanykindofbarrier.'
Climbingontothebench,hetookfromthetopshelfacarvedobject,whichMr
Tompkinsatfirsttooktobethemodelofavolcano.
'Whatyouseehere,'thewoodcarvercontinued,gentlyblowingoffthedust,'is
amodelofthetypicalbarrierofrepulsiveforcessurroundinganatomic
nucleus.Theouterslopescorrespondtotheelectricrepulsionbetweenthe
charges,andthecratertothecohesiveforceswhichmakethenuclearparticles
sticktogether.IfInowflipaballuptheslope,but

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nothardenoughtobringitoverthecrest,youwouldnaturallysupposethatit
wouldrollbackagain.Butseewhatactuallyhappens...'
Hegavetheballaslightflip.Afterrisingabouthalfwayuptheslope,itrolled
backdownagaintothetablesurface.
'So?'remarkedMrTompkins,unimpressed.
'Wait,'saidthewoodcarverquietly.'Youcan'texpectsuccessatthefirst
attempt.'
Again,hesenttheballuptheslopebutagainitfailed.Itwasnotuntilthethird
timehestruckitlucky:theballsuddenlydisappearedjustwhenitwasabout
halfwayuptheslope.
'Hah!'thewoodcarverdeclaredtriumphantly,withtheairofamagician.
'Abracadabra!Thefamousvanishingtrick.Whatdoyoumakeofthat?
Where'sitgone?'
'Intothecrater?'enquiredMrTompkinsuncertainly.
Againhesenttheballuptheslope

Page185
'That'swhatIthink,'agreedtheoldman.'Let'ssee...'Hepeeredintothe
topofthecrater.'Yes,that'sexactlywhereitis,'headded,pickingouttheball
withhisfingers.
'Now,let'sseethereverse,'hesuggested.'Let'sseeiftheballcangetoutof
thecraterwithoutrollingoverthetop.'
Havingcarefullyreplacedtheballinthehole,theywaited.Forawhilenothing
happened.MrTompkinscouldheartherumblingoftheballrollingtoandfroin
thecrater.Then,asifbyamiracle,theballsuddenlyappearedontheoutside,
abouthalfwayuptheslope,andquietlyrolleddowntothetable.
'Whatyouseethistimeisaprettygoodrepresentationofwhathappensin
radioactivealphadecay,'saidthewoodcarver.Puttingthemodelbackonits
shelf,headded.'Sometimestheseelectricbarriersareso"transparent"the
particleescapesinasmallfractionofasecondsometimestheyareso
"opaque"ittakesmanybillionyearsasforexample,inthecaseofthe
uraniumnucleus.'
'Butwhyaren'tallnucleiradioactive?'askedMrTompkins.
'Becauseinmostnucleithefloorofthecraterisbelowtheouterlevel,andonly
intheheaviestknownnucleiisthefloorsufficientlyelevatedtomakesuchan
escapepossible.'
Thewoodcarverlookedupattheclockonthewall.'Goodness,isthatthe
time.Ishouldbeshuttingupshop.Doyoumind...'
'OhI'msorry.Ididn'tmeantotakeupyourtimelikethis,'apologisedMr
Tompkins.'Butithasbeenmostinteresting.JustonemorethingthoughifI
may?'
'Yes?'
'Yousaidthatfiringprojectilesatnucleiwasaveryinefficientwayof
transformingbaseelementsintomorevaluableones...'
Thewoodcarversmiled.'Stillhopingtomakeyourfortunethroughnuclear
physics?'
MrTompkinsshifteduncomfortably,butcontinued.'Andyetyouseemtohave
nodifficultywithyourcleverdeviceoverthere.'Hepointedinthedirectionof
thetubeandpistoncontraption.'So,Iwaswondering...'

Page186
Thewoodcarversmiled.'Cleveritisrealitisn't.That'stheproblem.No,you'll
justhavetoacceptthattheconversionofbasemetalsintogold
commerciallyspeakingisapipedream.It'stimeforyoutowakeup,I'm
afraid.'
'Whatashame,'thoughtMrTompkins,disconsolately.
'Isaid,it'stimetowakeup!'
Thistimeitwasn'tthewoodcarverspeaking.ItwasMaud.

Page187
14
HolesinNothing
Ladiesandgentlemen:
Tonightwetackleaparticularlyfascinatingtopic:antimatter.
Thefirstexampleofanantiparticlewasthepositronthepositiveelectronof
whichIhavespokeninpastlectures.Itisnoteworthythattheexistenceofthis
newkindofparticlewaspredictedonthebasisofpurelytheoretical
considerations.Thiswasseveralyearsbeforeitwasactuallydetected.Infact,
theexperimentaldiscoverywasmuchhelpedbyknowinginadvancewhatits
mainpropertieswereexpectedtobe.
ThehonourofhavingmadethispredictionbelongstotheBritishphysicist,Paul
Dirac.UsingEinstein'stheoryofrelativity,andincorporatingtherequirements
ofquantumtheory,hededucedaformulafortheenergy,E,ofanelectron.
TowardstheendofthecalculationhearrivedatanexpressionforE
2
.So,the
laststepconsistedintakingthesquarerootofthisexpressiontofindthe
formulacorrespondingtoEitself.Asisusual,whenyoutakeasquareroot,
therearetwopossibleanswers:onepositive,theothernegative.(Forexample,
thesquarerootof4canbe+2or2.)Insolvingphysicalproblems,itis
customarytoignorethenegativesolutionasbeing'unphysical'inotherwords,
itistakentobeamerequirkofthemathematicsofnosignificance.Inthis
particularcase,thenegativesolutionwouldhavecorrespondedtoanelectron
havingnegativeenergy.Bearinginmindthat,accordingtorelativitytheory,
matterisaformofenergyinitself,anegativeenergyelectronwouldimplythat
ithadnegativemass.

Page188
Thiswouldbereallyweird!Exertapullonsuchaparticle,anditwouldmove
awayfromyoutrytopushitaway,anditwouldcometowardsyouthe
veryoppositeofwhatisexpectedof'sensible'positivemassparticles.Surely,
itmightbethought,thisisreasonenoughforregardingthenegativesolutionto
theequationas'unphysical'.Ignoreit!
ThegeniusofDiraclayinthewayhedidnottakethatline.Inadditiontothe
infinitenumberofdifferentpositiveenergyquantumstatesopentoanelectron,
hetookthenegativesolutiontoimplythattherewasalsoaninfinitenumberof
negativeenergystatesopentoit.Theproblemwasthatassoonasanelectron
founditselfinoneofthelatter,itwouldhavetoexhibitthebehaviour
characteristicofnegativemassand,ofcourse,nosuchthinghasbeen
observed.So,wherearethesehypothetical,bizarrenegativemasselectrons?
Onemightatfirsttrytowriggleoutofthisbysayingthatitjustsohappens
electronsavoidthoseparticularstatesforsomereasontheyareleft
permanentlyempty.Butthiswillnotdo.Wealreadyknowthatwiththe
quantumenergystatesavailabletoanelectroninanatom,theelectronshavea
naturaltendencytoradiateawaytheirenergyanddropdowntothelowest
availableenergystate(consistentwiththatstatenotalreadybeingoccupiedby
anotherelectroninaccordancewiththePauliexclusionprinciple).That
beingso,wewouldexpectallelectronsintimetodropdownfromthehigher
positiveenergystatestothelowernegativeenergystates.Theyshouldall
behavebadly!
ThesolutionDiracproposedwasthestrangestpossible.Heclaimedthatthe
reasonwhytheelectronsweknowofdonotdropdownintothenegative
energystates,isthatallthosestatesarealreadyfulltheinfinitenumberof
negativeenergystatesarefilledbyaninfinitenumberofnegativemass
electrons!Ifthatisreallyso,whydowenotseethem?Preciselybecausethere
aresomanyofthemtheyformaperfectcontinuum.Theelectronsarethere
inthe'vacuum'inacompletelyregularanduniformdistribution.
Aperfectcontinuumisundetectable.Youcan'tpointtoitandsay"Thereitis."
Itiseverywhere.Thereisnot'more'ofitinone

Page189
regionthananother.Asyoumovethroughitthereisnobuildupofitsdensityin
frontofyou,leavinga'gap'behindyouasisthecasewhenacarmoves
throughair,orafishthroughwater.Thusthereisnoresistancetomotion...'
Bythispointinthelecture,MrTompkinsfelthisbrainreeling.Avacuum
totalemptinessbeingcompletelyfullofsomething!It'sallaroundyouand
withinyou,butyoudon'tnoticeit!
Hegottodaydreamingaboutwhatitwouldbeliketobeafish,spendingall
one'slifeinwater.Hefeltagentlewarmbreezeofftheseaanidealdayto
takeadipinthegentlyrollingbluewaves.Soitwashejoinedthefishintheir
wateryworld.Thoughhewasagoodswimmer,onthisoccasionhefound
himselfsinkingdeeperanddeeperbeneaththesurface.Butstrangelyenough,
hedidnotnoticethelackofair,andfeltquitecomfortable.Maybe,hethought,
thisistheeffectofaspecialrecessivemutation.Herecalledhow,accordingto
palaeontologists,lifeoriginatedintheocean,withthefirstfishpioneertoget
outondrylandbeingsimilartothesocalledlungfish.Itcrawledoutontoa
beach,walkingonitsfins.Accordingtobiologists,thesefirstlungfishgradually
evolvedintolanddwellinganimals,likemice,catsandhumans.Butsomeof
them,likewhalesanddolphins,afterlearningofallthetroublesoflifeondry
land,returnedtotheocean.Gettingbacktothewater,theyretainedthe
qualitiesacquiredduringtheirstruggleontheland,andremainedmammals,the
femalesbearingtheirprogenyinsidetheirbodiesinsteadofjustdroppingeggs
andhavingthemfertilisedlaterbythemales.
Itwaswhilehewaslazilyswimmingaboutandhavingsuchthoughtsthathe
cameuponastrangecoupleonewasamanbearinganuncannyresemblance
toPaulDirac(MrTompkinsrecognisedhimfromaslidephotographthe
professorhadbrieflyflashedupinhislecture),theotherwasadolphin.They
weredeepinconversation.ThisdidnotstrikeMrTompkinsasbeinginany
wayodddolphinsherememberedwereveryintelligent.

Page190
My'water'isfrictionlessanduniformeverywhere
'Lookhere,Paul,'thedolphinwassaying,'youcontendthatwearenotina
vacuumbutinamaterialmediumformedbyparticleswithnegativemass.As
farasIamconcerned,waterisnodifferentfromemptyspaceitiscompletely
uniformandIcanmovefreelythroughitinalldirections.Inourdolphin
community,alegendhasbeenhandeddownfromourprepreprepre
predecessorsthatdrylandisquitedifferent.Therearemountainsandcanyons
whichonecannotcrosswithouteffort.Buthereinwaterwecanmoveinany
directionwechoose.'
'You'reright,myfriend,'answeredDirac.'Waterexertsfrictiononthesurface
ofyourbodythishelpsyougeta'grip'onthewater.Youareabletobuildup
pressuredifferentialsinthewaterbythewayyoumoveyourfinsandtail.This
helpsyoutoswimtomoveabout.Butifwaterhadnofriction,andifthere
werenopressuregradientsbecause

Page191
thewaterwasperfectlyuniformeverywhere,thenyouwouldbeashelplessas
anastronautwhohadrunoutofrocketfuel.
'My''water",whichisformedbyelectronswithnegativemasses,isquite
different.Itiscompletelyfrictionlessanduniformeverywhere,andistherefore
unobservable.Anotherdifferenceisthatnotasingleelectroncanbeaddedto
it.ThisisbecauseofthePauliexclusionprinciple(whichyourecallforbids
morethantwoelectronswithoppositespinsfromoccupyingthesamequantum
state).Inmy"water"allthepossiblequantumlevelsarealreadyoccupied.Any
extraelectronwouldhavetoremainabovetheocean'ssurface.Thisinturn
meansithasthenormalpositivemassandbehaveslikeanormalelectron.'
'But,'persistedthedolphin,'ifyouroceanisunobservablebecauseofits
continuityandabsenceoffriction,whatisthesenseoftalkingaboutit?'
'Well,'repliedDirac,'assumethatsomeexternalforceliftedoneofthe
electronswithnegativemassfromthedepthoftheoceantoaboveitssurface.
Inthiscasethenumberofobservableelectronswillincreasebyone.Butnot
onlythat,theemptyholeintheoceanfromwhichtheelectronwasremoved
willnowbeobservable.'
'Itwouldactlikeoneofthebubblesdownhere,'suggestedthedolphin.'Like
thatoneoverthere,'hecontinued,pointingtoabubblelazilyemergingfromthe
depthsandmakingitswaytothesurface.
'Exactly,'agreedDirac.'Inmyworldwewouldnotonlyseetheelectronthat
hadbeenknockedupintothepositiveenergystate,wewouldalsoseethe
holeleftbehindinthevacuum.Theholeistheabsenceofwhateverwasthere
before.Thusforinstance,theoriginalelectronhadanegativeelectriccharge
theabsenceofthatnegativechargefromauniformdistributionwouldbe
perceivedasthepresenceofanequalamountofpositivecharge.Theabsence
ofitsnegativemasswouldmoreoverbeperceivedasapositivemassthe
samesizemassastheoriginalelectron,onlypositive.Inotherwordsthehole
behavesasaperfectlynormal,sensibleparticle.Itbehaveslikeanelectron,
exceptitcarriespositivechargeratherthantheusualnegativecharge.It'swhat
wecallthepositron.Sothat'swhat

Page192
wehavetolookoutfor:pairproductionthesimultaneousappearanceof
anelectronandapositronatthesamepointinspace.'
'Averyclevertheory,'remarkedthedolphin.'Butisittrue...?'
'Nextslide.'ThefamiliarcommandingvoiceoftheprofessorbrokeintoMr
Tompkin'sreverie:
AsIwassaying,theonlywaytodetectthecontinuumwouldbeifyoucould
somehowdisturbit.Thatwayitwouldnolongerbeaperfectcontinuum.If
youknockedaholeinit,youwouldthenbeabletosay'Thecontinuumis
everywhereexceptthere'.That,ladiesandgentlemen,ispreciselywhat
Diracsuggested:youknockaholeinemptyspace.Andthispictureshowsit
beingdone!
Itisabubblechamberphotograph.Ishouldperhapsexplainthatabubble
chamberisaparticledetectorsomewhatliketheWilsoncloudchamberbut
'turnedinsideout'.ItwasinventedbytheAmericanphysicistDonaldGlaser,
securingforhimtheNobelPrizein1960.Accordingtohisstory,hewasonce
sittinginabar,gloomilywatchingbubblesrisinginthebeerbottlewhichstood
infrontofhim.Hesuddenlythought,ifWilsoncouldstudyliquiddropletsina
gas,whycouldn'thedobetterbystudyinggasbubblesinaliquid?Insteadof
expandingagastocreateasupersaturatedvapourthattriestocondense,why
notreleasethepressureonaliquidsothatitbecomessuperheatedandtriesto
boil?Andthatiswhatthebubblechamberdoes:itmarksoutthetrailsof
chargedsubatomicparticleswithtrailsofbubbles.
Thisparticularslideshowstheproductionoftwoelectronpositronpairs.A
chargedparticleentersatthebottomofthepicture.Itundergoesaninteraction
atthepointwhereyouseethekink.Fromthisinteractionthereemergesnot
onlythechargedparticleleavingthetrackveeringofftotheright,butalsoa
neutralparticlewhichpromptlychangesintotwohighenergygammarays.You
cannotseeeitherthissecondparticleorthegammaraysitproducesbecause
theyareelectricallyneutralandsoleavenotrailofbubbles.Buttheneachof
thegammasgivesrisetoanelectronpositronpairtheVshapedconfigu

Page193
rationoftracksatthetopofthepicture.Notehowboththe"V's"arepointing
backtothevicinityoftheoriginalinteraction.
Pointingbacktothevicinity
oftheoriginalinteraction
Notealsothatallthetracksaresystematicallycurvedtoonesideortheother.
Thisisbecausethereisapowerfulmagneticfieldoperatingoverthewhole
areaofthechamber,directedalongourlineofsight.Thiscausesnegatively
chargedmovingparticlestocurveclockwiseinthephotograph,andpositively
chargedparticlestocurveintheoppositesense.Havingtoldyouthat,you
shouldnowbeabletodistinguishthepositronfromtheelectronineachpair.
Incidentally,thereasonwhysometracksaremorecurvedthanothersisthat
theamountofbendingdependsontheparticle'smomentumthesmallerthe
momentum,thegreaterthecurvature.Asyouwillbegintoappreciate,abubble
chamberpictureisfullofcluesastowhatisgoingonthere!
Nowyouhaveseenhowtoknockholesinavacuum,youwilldoubtlessbe
wonderingwhathappenstothemafterthat...
Inpointoffact,thatwasnotwhatMrTompkinswaswonderingabout.His
thoughtshadalreadygonebacktothetimewhenhewashimselfanelectron.
Herememberedwithashiverhavingtododgethepredatorypositron.Butthe
professorcontinued:...Thepositroncontinuesbehavinglikeanormal
particleuntilthatisitmeetsupwithanordinarynegativelychargedelectron.
Theelectron

Page194
promptlyfallsintothehole,fillingitup.Thecontinuumisrestored,andboththe
electronandtheholedisappearwecallthisthemutualannihilationofa
positiveandanegativeelectron.Theenergysetfreeinthefallisemittedinthe
formofphotons.
OnegeneralpointIoughttomakeisthatIhavebeenreferringtonegative
electronsastheoverflowofDirac'soceanandtopositronsastheholesinit.
Onecan,however,reversethepointofviewandconsiderordinaryelectrons
astheholes,givingtopositronstheroleofthrownoutparticles.Bothpictures
areabsolutelyequivalentfromthephysicalaswellasthemathematicalpointof
view.
Next,electronsarenotuniqueinhavinganantiparticleaswecallthe
positron.Correspondingtotheprotonthereisanantiproton.Asyouwould
expect,ithasexactlythesamemassastheproton,buttheoppositeelectric
chargeinotherwords,antiprotonsarenegativelycharged.Theantiprotoncan
beregardedasaholeinanothertypeofcontinuumoneconsistingthistime
ofaninfinitenumberofnegativemassprotons.Indeed,allparticleshave
antiparticles.Thevacuumreallydoescontainaverygreatdeal!
Onequestionthatmighthaveoccurredtoyouiswhytheworldweknowhas
suchapreponderenceofmatterasdistinctfromantimatter.Thisextremely
interestingquestionisaveryhardonetoanswer.Infact,sinceatomsbuiltby
positiveelectronssurroundingnegativenucleiwouldhaveexactlythesame
opticalpropertiesasordinaryatoms,thereisnowaytodecidefromany
spectroscopicobservationwhetherdistantstarsaremadeofourtypeofmatter
oritsopposite.Forallweknow,itisquitepossiblethatthematerialforming,
letussay,theGreatAndromedaNebulaisofthistopsyturvytype.Theonly
waytoproveitwouldbetogetholdofapieceofthatmaterialandsee
whetherornotitisannihilatedbycontactwithterrestrialmaterials.(There
would,ofcourse,beaterribleexplosion!)
Inpointoffactwedonothavetoembarkonsuchadangerousmission.Itis
quitecommontoobservegalaxiescollidingwitheachother.Ifoneweremade
ofmatterandtheotherofantimatter,theamountofenergyreleasedasthe
electronsofonegalaxyannihilated

Page195
thepositronsoftheotherwouldbespectacularindeed.Observationsreveal
nothingtosuggestthatthisishappening.Thusitseemsfairlysafetoassume
thatalmostallthematteroftheUniverseisofonetypeonly.Itisnotthecase
thathalfthegalaxiesarematterandtheotherhalfantimatter.
Recentlytherehavebeensuggestionsthattheremighthavebeenequal
numbersofthetwotypesofmatterattheverybeginningoftheUniverse.But
then,inthecourseofthedevelopmentoftheBigBang,interactionstendedto
favouroneratherthantheother.Itwasthissubsequentbehaviourthatledto
thepresentimbalance.This,however,isbutatentativesuggestionatthe
moment.

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15
Visitingthe'AtomSmasher'
MrTompkinscouldhardlycontainhisexcitement.Theprofessorhadarranged
forapartyofhisstudentstovisitoneoftheworld'sforemosthighenergy
physicslaboratories.Theywereabouttoseeanatomsmasher!
Intheweekspreceding,theyhadeachbeenissuedwithabrochure.Mr
Tompkinshaddutifullyreaditfromcovertocover.Notthatitseemedtomake
muchsense.Hismindwasacompleteblur:jumbledupideasaboutquarks,
gluons,strangeness,energychangingintomatter,andgrandunifyingtheories
thatexplainedeverythingthoughnottohim.
OnarrivalattheVisitors'Centre,theywereusheredintoawaitingroom.They
didnothavelongtowaitbeforetheirguidecamebustlingin.Abrighteyed,
earnestlookingyoungwomaninhermidtwenties,shewelcomedthemand
introducedherselfasDrHanson,amemberofoneoftheresearchteams.
'Beforewegoovertotheaccelerator,Iwouldjustliketosayafewwords
aboutwhatwedohere.'
Amantentativelyraisedahand.
'Yes?'DrHansonasked.'Youhaveaquestion?'
'Yousaid"accelerator".Whatabouttheatomsmasher?Aren'twegoingtosee
thataswell?'
Theguidegaveaslightgrimace.'That'swhatIwastalkingabout.The
machinetheacceleratorit'swhatnewspaperscallan"atomsmasher".
Butthat'snotwhatwecallit.It'smisleading.Afterall,ifyousimplywantto
smashanatom,youknocksomeofitselectronsoff.

Page197
Amemberofoneoftheresearchteams
Easy.Evensmashinguptheatom'snucleusisrelativelyeasyatleast,
comparedwithwhatwedohere.Sowecallita"particleaccelerator".
'Anyfurtherquestions?Pleasefeelfree...'Shelookedaroundtheaudience.
Therebeingnoresponse,shecontinued.
'Right,then.Theoverallaimistrytounderstandthetiniestbitsofmatterand
whatholdsthemtogether.Asyoudoubtlessknow,matterismadeof
molecules,moleculesofatoms,andanatomiscomposedofanucleusand
electrons.Electronsarethoughttobeelementaryinotherwordstheyare
notmadeupfromevenmorefundamentalconstituents.Butthisisnotthecase
forthenucleusthenucleusismadeofprotonsandneutrons.Itakeitallthisis
familiar?'
Theaudiencenodded.
'So,it'sprettyobviouswhatthenextquestionwillbe...'
'Whatareprotonsandneutronsmadeof?'aladysuggested.
'Exactly.Andhowdoyousuggestwefindout?'

Page198
'Smashthemup?'sheventured.
'Yesindeed.Thatseemstherightapproach.Wefindoutaboutthestructureof
molecules,thenatoms,andthennucleibyhurlingprojectilesatthemand
breakingthemapart.Sothat'swhatwestartouttryingtodoweaccelerate
particleseitherprotonsorelectronstohighenergyandmakethem
collidewithprotons.Thatwaywehopetosplituptheprotonintoits
constituentparts.
'Andwhathappens?'shecontinued.'Doestheprotonbreakup?No.
Regardlessofhowenergetictheprojectile,theprotonneversplitsup.Instead,
somethingelsehappenssomethingquiteremarkable:Thecollisionleadsto
thecreationofnewparticlesparticlesthatweren'ttheretobeginwith.
'Forexample,collidetwoprotonsandyoumightendupwithtwoprotonsplus
anadditionalparticle,asocalledpionor particle.Ithasamass273.3times
themassofanelectron,or273.3m
e
.Wewriteitlikethis...'
DrHansonmovedtoaflipchartandwrote:
Anelderlymanimmediatelyraisedhisarm.
'Butsurelythat'snotallowed,'hedeclaredwithafrown.'It'salongtimesinceI
didphysicsatschool,butonethingIdoremember:Mattercanneitherbe
creatednordestroyed.'
'I'mafraidIhavetotellyouthattheonethingyoulearnedatschooliswrong!'
DrHansonannounced,causingarippleoflaughter.
'Well,notentirelywrong,Isuppose,'sheaddedhastily.'Wecannotcreate
matterfromnothing.Thatstillapplies.No,wecreatematterfromenergy.It's
apossibilityallowedbyEinstein'sfamousequation,
Itakeityou'vecomeacrossthisbefore?'
Thestudentsglancedaroundateachotheruncertainly.
'I'msureit'ssomethingwe'veallheardof,'MrTompkinsvolunteered.'ButI'm
notsurewe'vecovereditinourlecturesyet.'

Page199
'Well,it'saconsequenceofEinstein'srelativitytheory,'DrHansonexplained.
'AccordingtoEinstein,itisimpossibletoaccelerateaparticlefasterthanthe
speedoflight.Onewayofunderstandingthisistothinkofthemassgoingup.
Astheparticlegoesfaster,itsmassincreases,makingfurtheracceleration
moredifficult.'
'We'vecoveredthat,'saidMrTompkinshopefully.
'Ohexcellent,'shereplied.'Wellinthatcase,allyouhavetorecogniseisthat
theacceleratingparticleisgettingnotonlymoremassive,butalsomore
energetic.TheequationE=mc
2
means,ineffect,thatenergy,E,hasamass,
m,associatedwithit.(cisthespeedoflightandisincludedinordertoallow
ustowritemassinthesameunitsasenergy.)So,astheparticleaccelerates
andtakesupmoreenergy,itmustalsotakeonboardwhatevermassgoeswith
thatenergy.Andthat'swhytheparticleseemstogetheavier.Theextramassis
duetotheextraenergyitnowhas.'
'ButIdon'tunderstand,'theelderlymanpersisted.'Yousaytheextramass
comeswiththeextraenergy.Buttheparticlealreadyhadmasswhenitwas
stationarywhenithadnoenergy.'
'Goodpoint.Whatwehavetorememberisthatenergycomesindifferent
forms:heatenergy,kineticenergyofmotion,electromagneticenergy,
gravitationalpotentialenergy,etc.Thefactthatastationaryparticlehasmass
showsthatmatteritselfisaformofenergy:"lockedup",or"congealed"
energy.Themassofastationaryparticleisthemassofitslockedupenergy.
'Now,whathappenedinthiscollisionisthatsomeoftheinitialkineticenergyof
theprojectilegottransformedintolockedupenergythelockedupenergy
ofthenewpion.Westillhaveexactlythesameamountofenergyandof
massafterthecollisionasbefore,butnowsomeoftheenergyisina
differentform.OK?'
Everyonenodded.
'Right.Sowe'vecreatedapion.Nowwerepeattheexperiment.Welookat
lotsandlotsofcollisions.Whatwefindisthatwecannotcreatenewparticles
ofanymass:273.3m
e
yes,butnever274m
e
or275m
e
,say.Thereare
heavierparticlesbuttheyonlyoccuratcertain

Page200
allowedmasses.Forexample,thereisaKparticlewithamassof966m
e
,in
otherwords,abouthalfthemassofaproton.Andthereareparticlesheavier
thantheproton,suchasthe (lambda)at2,183m
e
.Infact,therearenow
over200knownparticles,togetherwiththeirantiparticles.Weexpectthe
numbertobeunlimited.Whatwecanmakedependsonhowmuchenergyis
availableinthecollision.Themoreenergy,theheaviertheparticlewecan
produce.
'OK.Havingcreatedthesenewparticles,wetakealookatthemweexamine
theirproperties.Thisisnottosaywe'velostinterestinourfirstquestion:What
isaprotonmadeof?Certainlynot.Butitturnsoutthatthekeyto
understandingthestructureoftheprotonliesinthestudyofthesenew
particlesnotintheattempttobreaktheprotondownintoitsconstituent
parts.Thepointisthatallthesenewparticlesareclosecousinstotheproton.
Youknowhowyoucansometimeslearnaboutapersonbystudyingtheir
familybackground.Thesameappliesherewecanlearnaboutthestructureof
ourfamiliarproton,andneutron,bytakingalookattheirrelatives.
'Andwhatdowefind?Well,asyouwouldexpect,thenewparticlesare
characterisedbythenormalproperties:mass,momentum,energy,spinangular
momentum,andelectriccharge.Butinadditiontothese,theyalsohavenew
propertiespropertiestheprotonandneutrondonothave.Propertieswith
nameslike"strangeness"and"charm".Incidentally,don'tbefooledbythe
whimsicalnatureofthesenameseachpropertyhasastrictscientificdefinition.'
Someoneintheaudienceraisedahand.'Whatdoyoumean:"anew
property"?Whatkindofpropertyarewetalkingabout?Howdoyou
recogniseit?'
'Goodquestion,'musedDrHanson.Shepausedforamoment.
'Yes,letmetryandputitthisway.I'llstartwithafamiliarproperty.Takea
lookatthefollowingreactionproducinganunchargedpion,orpizeroparticle:

Page201
Herethesuperscriptreferstotheelectricchargecarriedbytheparticle.
Normallywedon'tbothertowritea+abovethepbecauseeveryoneknowsa
protonhasoneunitofpositivecharge.Butforreasonsthatwillbecomeclear
later,Iwishtospellitout.Herearetwomorereactions,oneproducingapi
minus,theotherapizero:
wherethesymboln
0
referstoaneutron.Allthreeofthesereactionshappen.
Thefollowingdoesnothappen:
Now,whydoyouthinkthat'sthecase?Whydothefirstthreehappen,butthe
fourthoneneverdoes?'
'Hasitanythingtodowiththeelectricchargesbeingwrong?'oneofthethe
youngerstudentsasked.'Withthefourthreactionyouhavetwopositive
chargesontheleft,andtwopositivesandanegativeontheright.Theydon't
balance.'
'Exactly.Electricchargeisapropertyofmatter,andithastobeconserved.
Thenetchargebeforethereactionmustequalthenetchargeafterwards
andwiththefourth,itdoesn't.OK,that'sprettystraightforward.Butnowtake
alookatthisreaction.Itinvolvestwoofthenewparticles,thelambdazero
andthekayplus:
Itisareactionthatisobservedtohappen.Contrastthatwiththisnextone
whichneverhappens:
Ifyouwanttoproducethatcombinationoffinalparticles,youmustbegin
differently:

Page202
Butifyoustartoffwiththatinitialcombination,younowfindthefollowing
won'thappen:
Andthat'sdespitethefactthatenergywiseitoughttobeeasiertoproduce
(
0
+K
+
)than(
0
+K
+
+n
0
).So,thequestionis:Whatstopsreactions(vi)
and(viii)fromhappening?'
Shescannedthestudents'faces.'Isitanythingtodowithelectriccharge
conservationthistime?'
Theyshooktheirheads.
'No.Itcan'tbethat,'shesaid.'Theelectricchargebalances.So.Anyideas?'
Theyalllookedblank.
'OK.It'satthispointweintroducetheideaoftherebeinganewproperty.We
callitbaryonnumber.ThenamecomesfromtheGreekwordmeaning
''heavy".WedenoteitbytheletterB.Weassignthefollowingvaluestothe
particles:
Thefirstgroupofparticleswecall"baryons",andthesecond"mesons"
fromtheGreekmeaning'middle'.(Ishouldperhapsmentionthatthereareyet
otherparticles,suchaselectrons,whicharelightthesocalled"leptons".)
'Right,now.HavingassignedtheBvalues,weproposethatBisconserved:
Thetotalamountofbaryonnumberbeforeandafterthecollisionhastobethe
same.So,withthatinmind,I'dlikeyoutotakealookatthosereactionsagain.
CheckthattheonesthathappenarethosethatconserveB,whiletheonesthat
donot,failtoconserveB.'
Afteraminuteortwoofconcentratedaddingandsubtracting,thestudents
begantonod,murmuringtheiragreement.
'Good.It'sthefailuretoconserveBthatisresponsibleforthosereactions
beingdisallowed.Thenonoccurrenceofthosereactionstells

Page203
usthereisanewproperty,B.What'smore,wehavelearnedsomethingabout
thatproperty:ithastobeconservedincollisionsjustlikeelectriccharge,or
energy,ormomentum,etc.'
Thestudentswereobviouslyhappywiththisexplanation.NotsoMr
Tompkins.Hesatthere,armsfolded,ascepticallookonhisface.DrHanson
noticed.
'Somethingwrong?'sheenquired.'Youhaveaquestion?'
'Notexactlyaquestion,'hereplied.'Moreacomment.Frankly,I'mnot
convinced.Infactifyoudon'tmindmesayingsoIthinkit'sallabitofa
fiddle!'
'Afiddle?'sheaskedinsomeconfusion.'Idon't...Sorry.Whatareyou
saying...?'
'Thevaluesofthebaryonnumbersofthoseparticles.Wheredidyougetthem
from?Ireckonyouchosethempreciselyinordertogettheresultsyou
wanted.Youarrangedforthemtohavethosevaluessothattherightreactions
went,andtheothersdidn't.'
MrTompkins'fellowstudentsstaredathiminsurprise.Howdarehe?Butthe
tensionwasquicklyresolvedDrHansonbrokeintolaughter.
'Verygood,'shesaid.'Absolutelyright.Thatishowwefindoutwhatbaryon
numberstoassign.Welookatreactionsthathappen,andthosethatdonot,
andwemaketheassignmentstofit.
'Butthereismoretoitthanthat.Ifthereweren't,itwouldbeawasteoftime.
Thepointisthis:Havingusedupahandfulofreactionstofindoutwhatthe
particleassignmentsshouldbe,wecanthengoontomakepredictionsabout
whatotherreactionscanandcannothappenhundredsandhundredsof
predictions.'
MrTompkinsstilllookedunconvinced.
'Letmeputitlikethis,'sheadded.'Oneday,aresearchteamannouncesabig
discovery.Theyhavefoundanewnegativelychargedparticle.Theycallitthe
X

.Itwasfoundinthereaction
WhatisitsB?'

Page204
Aftersomehurriedarithmetic,thestudentsstartedmurmuring'Minus1?'
'That'sright.ThetotalBontheleftis+2,whereasontherightwehavetwo
protonsandaneutron,givingB=+3.So,tobalanceupthetwosides,X

must
haveB=1.OK,we've"usedup"thatreactioninordertofindoutwhatthe
valueofBis.That's"thefiddle"part,'shesaid,lookingmeaningfullyinthe
directionofMrTompkins.'TheresearchersnowgoontoclaimthattheX

particle,directlyafteritwasproduced,wentontogivethefollowingreaction:
Areyouhappywiththat?'
Thestudentsnoddedautomatically.Butthen,followingawhispered
conversation,afewbegantentativelyshakingtheirheads.
'What'sthematter?'DrHansonaskedofthem.'Youdon'tbelievethey'vegot
itright?'
Furtherdiscussion.Thenoneofthemexplainedthat,iftheBoftheX

really
was1,astheyhadearlierconcluded,thenthetotalBbeforeandafterthis
newreactiondidnotbalance.Thatmeantthereactioncouldnothave
happened.
'Welldone!Quiteright.Theywerejustkidding!WhattheX

reallydidwas
this:
020402.gif
This,youcancheckout,doesbalance.So,whatthismeansisthatyouhave
usedthebaryonnumberideatomakeapredictionthepredictionthat
reaction(x)cannothappen.That'sthepowerofthebaryonnumberidea.'
TurningtoMrTompkins,sheasked,'Satisfied,now?'
Hegrinnedandnoddedhisassent.
'Infact,'shecontinued,'theX

isanantiprotonusuallyrepresentedby .
Theantiprotonhasthesamemassastheprotonbutoppositeelectriccharge
andB.Reaction(xi)isatypicalwayinwhichaprotonandanantiproton
annihilateeachother.

Page205
'OK.Nowwe'regettingtheidea,letustrythefollowingreaction.Itnever
happens:
IfyoucheckouttheelectricchargeandBnumbertotalsonbothsides,they
bothtallyallright.But,asIsay,thisreactionneverhappens.Whydoyouthink
thatmightbe?'
'There'sanotherpropertyaround?'suggestedMaud.
'Yes.That'sright.Wecallitstrangeness,anddenoteitbys.TheK
+
hass=
+1p
+
,n
0
,

,
0
,and
+
haves=0while
0
andK

haves=1.
'Notethatnormalmatterprotonsandneutronshasnostrangeness.So
tocreateaparticlecarryingstrangeness,youhavetoproducemorethanone
ofthematthesametime:aparticlewiths=+1,andanotherwiths=1(asin
reactions(v)and(vii)).Thatwaytheircombinedsaddsuptotheoriginalzero.
Whenthefirstexamplesof
Anassociatedproductionevent

Page206
thesenewparticleswerefoundbeforeonegottoknowofsandits
conservationitwasthoughtodd,orstrange,thewaytheywerealways
producedinassociationwitheachotherhencethename"strange".Infact,if
I'mnotmistaken,Ithinkthere'saphotographofanassociatedproduction
eventinyourbrochure.Youmightliketohavealookatit.Anyway,sincethe
discoveryofstrangeness,otherpropertieshavebeenidentified:charm,top
andbottom.
'So,whatwefindisthateachparticleinvolvedinthesecollisionscomeswitha
characteristicsetoflabels.Forinstance,theprotonhaselectriccharge,Q=
+1,B=+1,s=0,andzeroforitscharm,topandbottom.
'But,you'redoubtlessthinking,thisisallverywell,butwhathasitgottodo
withfindingoutaboutthestructureoftheprotonandneutron?Afterall,Idid
sayearlierwecouldfindoutwhatprotonsaremadeofbylookingattheir
closerelativesthesenewparticles.It'satthisstagewegetinvolvedina
pieceofdetectivework.Thebasicideaisthatwecollectparticlestogetherthat
havecertainpropertiesincommon:sameB,samespin,etc.Wethendisplay
themaccordingtothevaluestheyhavefortwootherproperties.Theseares,
whichweweretalkingaboutjustnow,andsomethingelsecalledisotopic
spin,denotedbyI
z
.Thenamederivesfromtheword'isotope'meaning'same
form'.Itarisesfromthefactthatcertainparticlesaresosimilartoeach
otherhavingthesamestronginteractionsandalmostidenticalmasses
thatonetendstothinkofthemasdifferentmanifestationsofthesameparticle.
Forexample,theprotonandtheneutronareregardedastwoformsofthe
sameparticle,thenucleon.Inoneofitsforms,thenucleonhaselectriccharge,
Q=+1,intheotherQ=0.Intermsofisotopicspin,theyhavevaluesI
z
=
+1/2,andI
z
=1/2respectively.(The'spin'partofthenamederivesfromthe
wayitbehavesmathematicallyinawaysimilartoordinaryspin.)
'OnewayofdefiningI
z
isbytherelation ,whereQistheelectric
chargeoftheparticle,and isthemeanchargeofthemultiplettowhichthe
particlebelongs.Soforexample,withQbeing+1forthep,and0forthen,
themeanchargefortheirnucleondoubletis .Thatinturnmeans
I
z
forthepisI
z
=11/2=+1/2,andforthen,I
z
=01/2=1/2.

Page207
'Rightnow,asIsaid,wetakeparticleswithcertainpropertiesincommonand
displaythemaccordingtotheirindividualvaluesofsandofI
z
.Takethisone,
forexample...'
DrHansonsketchedoutanarrayofparticles.
'Thisisoneofthepatternsweget:agroupingofeightbaryons,eachhavingB
=+1andspin1/2.Notethehexagonalshape,withtwoparticlesinthemiddle.
Youseeitcontainstheneutronandproton.Setoutlikethis,webeginto
recognisethattheyarebuttwomembersofafamilyofeight.
Sketchedoutanarrayofparticles
'Nowlookatthisone...'
Shedrewasecondpattern.
'ThisisthefamilyofB=0,spin=0mesons,containingthepions.Ithas
exactlythesameoverallhexagonalpatternasbefore,consistingagainofan
octet,butthistimewithanadditionalsingletparticleatthecentre.
'OK.Whatarewetomakeofthis?Isitjustacoincidencetogetthesame
patternrepeated?No.Toamathematician,thispatternhasaspecial
significance.Itderivesfromabranchofmathematicsknownas"group
theory"atypeofmathematicswhich,untilrecently,hashad

Page208
Thesameoverallhexagonalpattern
littleapplicationtophysicsbeyondthedescriptionofthesymmetriesof
crystals.Wecallthis'arepresentationofSU(3)'.'SU'standsforSpecial
Unitary,anddescribesthenatureofthesymmetry.The'3'referstothethree
foldsymmetry.(Notehowwegetthesamepatternwhenwerotateitthrough
120,240and360.)
'Besidescomingupwiththishexagonaloctetpattern,thesameSU(3)theory
leadsustoexpectotherpatternswiththreefoldsymmetry.Thesimplestisa
singlet.Withthemesons,wehavethataswellastheoctet.Thenthereisa
decupletmakingupatriangularpattern...'
Atthispoint,DrHansonwasinterruptedbyaknockonthedoor.Shewas
handedanote.
'Ohgood.Ourminibushasarrived.I'mafraidI'llhavetobringmyminilecture
toanabruptclose.Sorryaboutthat,butI'msureyouwillbecoveringthisstuff
onSU(3)representationslaterinyourlectures.'
Itwasquitealongridetotheirdestination.Ondisembarkingfromthebus,they
foundthemselveswalkingovertoaverymodestlookingbuilding.

Page209
'Theaccelerator'sinthere?'MrTompkinsenquiredoftheguide,feeling
somewhatletdown.
Shelaughed,andshookherhead.'No,no.It'sdownthere!'
Shepointedattheground.'Aboutahundredmetresbelowthesurface.Thisis
justhowwegainaccesstoit.'
Onenteringthebuilding,theytookthelift.Emergingatthebottom,theyfound
themselvesattheentrancetotheacceleratortunnel.
'BeforegoinginIusuallydoalittledemonstrationatthispoint.Youmightnot
realiseitbutyouhaveaparticleacceleratorinyourhome.There'soneherefor
example,'shesaid,pointingtoaTVsurveillancemonitorbythegateway.'Ina
TVtubeelectronsareboiledofffromahotwirefilamentandacceleratedbyan
electricfield,soastostrikethefrontscreen.Thefieldisproducedbyavoltage
dropoftypically20,000Volts.Wesaytheelectronshaveanenergyof20,000
electronVolts(eV).Infact,theeVisthebasicunitofenergyweusehere.
Well,notexactlytheeVthat'stoosmallaunit.It'smoreconvenienttodealin
unitsofamillioneVcalledMeV,or10
9
eVdenotedbyGeV.Inorder
toorientateyou,theamountoflockedupenergyinaprotonis938MeV,or
almost1GeV.Ishouldperhapsalsomentionthatwenormallyrefertothe
massesofparticlesintermsoftheirenergyequivalentsratherthaninterms
ofelectronmasses.Sothemassoftheprotonis938MeV/c
2
.
'Theparticleacceleratoryouareabouttoseealsoaccelerateselectrons,butto
muchhigherenergiesthaninthismonitorenergiessufficienttocreatethose
particlesIwastalkingabout.Infactweneedtoreachenergiesoftensor
hundredsofGeV.Thatinturnrequirestheequivalentofavoltagedropof10
11
volts!Butnowaycanwecreateandsustainsuchvoltagesjustthinkofthe
insulationproblems.InaminuteI'llbeshowingyouhowwegetroundthis
difficulty.Butmeanwhile,takealookatthis...'
Shereachedinherpocketandpulledsomethingout.Shemoveditoverthe
faceoftheTVmonitor.Thepictureimmediatelybecamegrosslydistorted.
'Amagnet,'shesaid.'Magneticfieldscanbeusedforpushingparticlebeams
around.That'sanotherideaweshallbecallingon.

Page210
Thetubethroughwhichtheparticlespass
Incidentally,'sheaddedhastily,'donotIrepeat,DONOTdothismagnet
experimentonyourTVsetathome.Ifit'sacolourset,you'llwreckityouwill
endupwithapermanent recordofwhatmagnetscandotobeamsof
electrons!It'sonlysafetodoitwithblackandwhitesetslikethisone.OK.
Let'smoveon.'

Page211
Theywalkeddownapassagewhicheventuallyopenedoutintoatunnelabout
thesizeofanundergroundrailwaytunnel.Oppositethepassageopeningwasa
longmetaltube.Itwas10to20centimetresincrosssectionandtravelledthe
wholelengthofthetunnel.Goingacrosstoit,DrHansonexplained,
'Thisisthetubethroughwhichtheparticlespass.Theyhavealongwaytogo
andmustn'thitanything,soithastobeevacuated.Infact,thevacuuminhere
isbetterthanwhatyouwillfindinmanyregionsofouterspace.Thisthing
here,'shesaid,indicatingaboxwrappedroundthetube,'isahollowcopper
radiofrequencycavity.Itgeneratestheelectricfieldresponsiblefor
acceleratingtheparticlesastheypassthroughit.Butit'snotparticularly
powerfulliketheacceleratingfieldinthatTVmonitorbackthere.So,how
arewetoreachthecolossalenergiesweneed?
'Well,takealookalongthetunneltothefarend.Noticeanythingaboutthe
shapeofthetunnel?'
Theypeeredintothedistance.Thenayoungmansaid,'It'scurved.Everso
slightly.Ithoughtatfirstitwasstraight.Butit'snot.'
'That'sright.Thetunnelandthetubeoftheacceleratoriscurved.It's
actuallycircularthewholethingisshapedlikeahollowdoughnut.The
circumferenceofthis,andothermachineslikeit,ismeasuredintensof
kilometres.Whatwearelookingathereisbutatinysegmentofthecomplete
circle.Theelectronsaremadetogoroundthiscircularracetrack.Thatmeans
theyeventuallyendupbackwheretheystartedallreadytogothroughthe
sameradiofrequencycavitiesagain.Eachtimetheypassthrough,theygetan
additionalkick.Atnostagedoweneedabigvoltagedrop.Instead,wegive
themaseriesofkickssmallkicksusingthesamecavitiesoverandover
again.Cleverdon'tyouthink?'
Theymurmuredtheiragreement.
'Butthisraisesanotherproblem.Wehavetobendthepathsoftheparticles
intoacircle.Howdoyousuggestwedothat?'
'Well,basedonwhatyoudidbacktherewiththeTVscreen,Iguessitmustbe
donebymagnets,'proposedMrTompkins.

Page212
'That'sright.Thisisonehere,'shesaid,movingontoamassiveblockofiron,
againsurroundingthetube.'Anelectromagnet,withonepoleabovethetube
andonebeneath.Thatproducesaverticalmagneticfield,forbendingthe
particles'pathinthehorizontalplane.Lookalongthetunnel,andyouseethere
arelotsofthem,allthesame,stretchingrightroundthering,producingthe
necessarycircularpath.
'Afurtherproblemisthattheamountbywhichamagnetisabletodeviatethe
pathofachargedparticledependsonthemomentumofthatparticleits
masstimesitsvelocity.Buttheparticlesareacceleratingtheyareconstantly
gaininginmomentum.Thatmeansitbecomesmoreandmoredifficulttobend
theirpathsandholdthemoncoursearoundthering.So,whatwehavetodois
this:Astheparticlesgaininmomentum,theelectriccurrentfedtothe
electromagnetsissteadilyincreased.Thisinturnincreasesthestrengthofthe
magneticfieldbetweenitstwopoles.Iftheincreaseinmagneticfieldis
synchronizedsoastomatchtheincreaseinparticlemomentum,thenthe
particlesstayonexactlythesamecourseduringtheirperiodofacceleration.'
'Ah!'exclaimedtheelderlygentleman.'Thatmustbewhyit'scalleda
''synchrotron".I'vealwayswondered.'
'Yes.That'sright.It'sabitlikehammerthrowingattheOlympicsswinging
aballroundandroundinacircle,andhavingtoholdonmoretightlyasitgets
upspeed.'
'So,doItakeittheseparticlesgetreleasedatsomestage?Youeventuallylet
go,andtheycomeoutsomewhere?'
'Wellactually,no,'repliedDrHanson.'That'swhatweusedtodo.Wewould
activateakickermagnetorelectricfieldtoejectparticlesfromtheaccelerator
oncetheyhadreachedmaximumenergy.Theythenhittargetsofcopperor
tungstenwherethenewparticleswereproduced,andthesewerethensorted
andseparatedoutbymoremagneticandelectricfields.Eventuallytheywere
ledofftodetectors,likebubblechambers.
'Thetroublewithfixedtargetslikethatwasthatasfarasuseableenergywas
concerned,itwasnotveryefficient.Yousee,inacollisiononemustconserve
notonlyenergybutalsomomentum,orimpetus.A

Page213
projectilefromanacceleratorcarriesmomentum,andthismustbepassedon
totheparticlesemergingfromthecollision.Butthefinalparticlescannothave
momentumwithoutalsohavingkineticenergy.So,ineffect,someofthe
projectile'senergyhadtobeheldbackinreservesothatitcouldlaterbe
passedontothefinalparticlesasthekineticenergytogoalongwiththe
necessarymomentum.
'Thebeautyofthismachineisthatithastwobeamsgoinginopposite
directions.Withaheadoncollision,themomentumbroughtinbyoneparticle
isbalancedbyanequalandoppositemomentumbroughtinbytheparticle
movingintheoppositedirection.Thatway,alltheenergy,broughtinbyboth
beams,becomesavailableforparticleproduction.It'sabitlikeaheadon
collisionbetweencarsthisisfarmoredevastatingthanacollisionwhereoneof
thecarswasstationary,andtheyjustshuntalongafterwards.'
'So,doesthatmeanyouhavetwoacceleratorsoneforeachbeam?'Maud
asked.
'No,that'snotnecessary.Aparticlewithnegativeelectricchargegetsbentby
amagneticfieldintheoppositesensetothatofapositivelychargedparticle.
Sowhatwedoissendpositiveparticlesroundoneway,andnegativeonesthe
otherwayusingthesamebendingmagnetsandacceleratingcavities.Of
course,tostayonexactlythesametrack,theymustatalltimeshavethesame
momentum,sothetwosetsofparticlesmusthavethesamemassaswellasthe
samespeed.That'swhyinherewehavecounterrotatingelectronsand
positrons.Anothercombinationwouldbeprotonsandantiprotons.
'So,theparticlesareacceleratedroundandroundinoppositedirectionsuntil
theyreachmaximumenergy.Theyarethenbroughttogetheratselectedpoints
aroundtheringsoastocollideheadon.Anditisatthoseintersectionpoints
wesetupourdetectiondevices.'
'Thisheadonbusinessseemstheobviouswayofdoingthingsforthe
reasonyoustated.Sowhydidtheyeverbotherwithfixedtargetsinthefirst
place?'enquiredtheelderlyman.
'Thedifficultywiththesecollidingbeamsisthatofgettinganintenseenough
beamofpositronsorofantiprotons,'theguideexplained.

Page214
'Weconcentratethemintotightbunchesaboutthesizeofapencil.Buteven
so,whenthebeamsarebroughttogether,mostparticlesgosailingthroughthe
intersectionpointwithoutencounteringanyparticlefromtheotherbeam.
Highlysophisticatedtechniqueshavetobeusedforconcentratingtheparticles
soastogiveaworthwhilenumberofcollisions.That'sdonebythefocussing
magnets,likethisonehere,'shesaid,pointingoutadifferenttypeofmagnet.
'Thishastwopairsofpolesinsteadoftheusualsinglepair.'
'ButwhatIdon'tunderstandiswhythemachinehastobesobig,'askeda
woman.
'Well,youhavetorealisethatthereisacertainmaximumfieldoneofthese
magnetscanproduce.Asparticleenergiesgoup,theyaremoredifficultto
steer,sotoclosethecircle,youmusthavemoreandmoreofthesemagnets.
But,asyouseeeachmagnethasacertainphysicalsizeaboutsixmetres.
So,giventhenumberofmagnetsthathavetobefittedinroundthecircle
about4000tosaynothingofthefocussingmagnetsandtheaccelerating
cavities,thatsetsthesizeofthecircle.Thehigherthefinalenergyofthe
particles,thebiggerthecirclehastobe.'
'Andaretheparticlesgoingroundinthererightnow?'askedoneoftheparty.
'Ohgoodnessme,no!'exclaimedDrHanson.'Whenthemachineisoperating
nooneisalloweddownhereintheacceleratortunnelthelevelofradiation
wouldbetoohigh.No.Thisisoneoftheperiodic,routineshutdownperiods
formaintenance.That'swhyyourvisitwastimedfortoday.'
Takingaquicklookatherwatch,shecontinued.'Right,wemustbemoving
along.Followme,please,andI'lltakeyoutooneofthepointswherethe
beamscollide.It'llgiveusachancetotakealookatoneofthedetectors.'
Havingwalkedaveryconsiderabledistancepasttheseeminglyendless
successionofmagnets,theyeventuallyreachedasectionwherethetunnel
openedouttobecomeavastundergroundcavern.Thereinthecentre,and
toweringabovethem,wasanobjectasbigasatwostoreyhouse.

Page215
Anobjectasbigasatwostoreyhouse
'That'sthedetector,'DrHansonannounced.'Whatdoyouthinkofthat?'
Theyweresuitablyimpressed.
'No.Pleasedon'tgowanderingoff,'shehastilycalledtoacouplewhowere
makingtherewayovertotakeacloserlook.'Wemustn'tgetinthewayofthe
physicistsandtechnicians.Theyareworkingtoaverytightschedule.Alltheir
maintenancehastobecarriedoutduringthisbriefshutdownperiod.'
Shewentontoexplainhowthedetectorwaswrappedaroundthetubeatone
oftheintersectionpointsofthebeams.Itspurposewastodetecttheparticles
comingoutofthecollisions.Infact,itwasnotonedetector,butmany,each
withitsowncharacteristicsanditsown

Page216
jobtodo.Forexample,thereweretransparentplasticsthatscintillatedwhen
chargedparticlespassedthroughthem.Therewerematerialswherethe
particlesemittedaspecialkindoflight(calledCerenkovradiation)whenevera
particlepassedthroughataspeedgreaterthanthatoflightinthatmedium.
'ButIthoughtrelativitytheorysaidnothingcouldtravelfasterthanlightthe
ultimatespeedbarrier,'awomaninterrupted.
'Yesthat'struebutonlyifoneisthinkingofthespeedoflightinavacuum,'
DrHansonexplained.'Whenlightpassesintoamediumsuchaswater,glass,
orplastic,itslowsdown.That'sthereasonyougetrefractionchangesin
directiontheprincipleonwhichthespectaclesyouarewearingisbased.
There'snothingtostopaparticlepassingthroughthatmediumfasterthanlight
does.Whenthathappens,itemitsakindofelectromagneticshockwave
analogoustothesonicboomgivenoutbyaircraftwhentheyexceedthespeed
ofsound.'
Shewentontodescribehowsomedetectorsconsistedofgasfilledchambers
containingthousandsofelectrifiedfinewires.Whenachargedparticlepasses
throughthechamber,itknockselectronsofftheatomsbelongingtothegas(it
ionisesthem).Theseelectronsmigratetothewireswheretheirarrivalcanbe
recorded.Inthiswaythetrackoftheparticlecanbereconstructedfroma
knowledgeofwhichwireswereaffected.Bysuperimposingamagneticfieldit
ispossibletomeasurethemomentumoftheparticlesbythecurvature
producedonthedifferenttracks.
Thentherewerecalorimeters.Thesearesocalledafterthecalorimetersoften
usedinschoolsciencelessonsforheatexperimentsaimedatmeasuringenergy.
Thecalorimetersusedheremeasuretheenergyofindividualparticles,orthe
totalenergyofclosebunchesofparticles.
Knowingtheenergyofaparticle,andcombiningitwithaknowledgeofthe
momentumderivedfromthemagneticcurvatureofthetracks,onecanidentify
themassoftheparticlecomingfromtheprimaryinteraction.Finally,outside
thecalorimetersarechamberswhichactasdetectorsofmuons.Themuonisa
particlewhich,liketheelectron,doesnotexperiencethestrongnuclearforce.
Butunlike

Page217
theelectron,itdoesnoteasilyloseenergythroughemittingelectromagnetic
radiation(onaccountofitbeingsome200timesheavierthantheelectron).It
canthereforepoweritswaythroughmostobstacleswithoutdoingmuch.And
thatistheverypropertyusedagainstit.Theoutsidemuondetectorispacked
withdensematerial.Anythinggettingthroughthathastobeamuon!
Allthesedifferenttypesofdetectorarearrangedlikethelayersofacylindrical
onionwrappedaroundthesegmentoftheaccelerator'stubewherethe
interactionstakeplace.Theyhavetobefittedtogetherratherlikeagigantic
threedimensionaljigsawpuzzle.Intotalthestructureweighs2,000tons.
'Butallthishappensonlywhenthesynchrotronisswitchedon,surely,'saidMr
Tompkins.
'Ofcourse.'
'Butnooneisalloweddownherewhenit'son.Sohowdothescientistsknow
whatishappeninginthere?'
'Goodpoint,'remarkedDrHanson.'Seeallthose?'shesaid,pointingtoa
tangledwebofcablesleadingawayfromthedetector.ToMrTompkinsit
lookedlikeaspaghettifactoryhitbyabomb.
'Theytaketheelectronicsignalsfromtheindividualdetectorsandpassthemon
tothecomputer.Thecomputerprocessesalltheinformationandreconstructs
thetracksoftheparticles.Thesecanthenbedisplayedtothephysicistsinthe
remotecontrolroom.Thatoverthereshowsthesortofthingtheyhavetodeal
with.'
Shenoddedtowardsaphotographsellotapedtothewall.
'Comeandhaveaquicklookatit.ThenI'lltakeyoutoseethecontrolroom
itself.'
Followingtheothers,MrTompkinsmomentarilyglancedbackatthedetector.
Indoingso,hefailedtonoticethatoneofthemaintenancetechnicianshadleft
acablerunningacrossthefloor.Hetrippedoverit,fell,andhithisheadonthe
concretefloor...
'Goodheavens,Watson,thisisnotimetotakearest.Getupmanandgiveme
ahand.'

Page218
Displayedtothephysicistsintheremotecontrolroom
AfiguredressedasSherlockHolmeswasstandingoverhim.MrTompkins
wasabouttoexplainthathisnamewasnotWatson,whenhisattentionwas
distractedbythedetector.Itwasspewingoutparticlesinalldirections!They
wererollingaboutalloverthefloor.
'Comeon!Collectthemupformeasmanyasyoucancarry.'
MrTompkinslookedaroundforDrHansonandtherestoftheparty.They
werenowheretobeseen.Heconcludedtheymusthavegoneofftothecontrol
roomwithouthim.Oddthat,butpresumablytheywouldcomebackforhimat
somestage.Meanwhilehethoughthehadbetterhumourthismadmaninfancy
dress.
Gatheringupanarmfuloftheparticles,hecarriedthemovertotheHolmes
character,whowasquietlysurveyingneatarrangementsofparticleslaidouton
thefloor.MrTompkinsrecognisedthemasthefamiliarhexagonalshapesof
theSU(3)representations.
'Right.Somuchforspin1/2.Nowforthespin3/2,B=1particles,'said
Holmesholdingouthishand.

Page219
Particleswithspin3/2andB=1
'Ibegyourpardon.'
'Particleswithspin3/2andB=1.ComealongmydearfellowI'vedonethe
others.'
MrTompkinswasconfused.'HowamItoknow...'
'Lookatthelabels,'saidthegreatdetectivewearily.
ItwasonlynowthatMrTompkinsnoticedthateachparticlehadatinylabel
stucktoit.Itlistedtheparticle'sproperties.Siftingthroughthem,hehanded
overthosestatingthattheyhadspin3/2andB=1.Holmesbentdownand
laidthemoutonthefloor.Aftersomerearranging,hedrewupachair,andsat
studyingthem.

Page220
'Well,Watson,'hemurmured.'Whatdoyoumakeofit?Letmehearyour
reconstructionofthesituation.'
MrTompkinsgazedatthepatternbeforehim.
'Itlookslikeatriangle,'heventured.
'Youareofthatopinion,areyou?Asamanofpreciselyscientificmind,doyou
recogniseanythingerroneouswiththatconclusion?'
'Well,thebottomapexismissing.'
'Exactly!Asyouastutelyobservethetriangleisincomplete.Aparticleis
missing.MayIhavethefinalpiece?'
Stillsurveyingthepattern,Holmesagainheldouthishand.
MrTompkinsrummagedthroughtheparticlesoncemore,buttonoavail.
'Sorry,Holmes.Idon'tseemtohaveit.'
'Hmmm.ButIamstillpersuadedtheprobabilityliesinthedirectionofthere
beinganotherparticle.So,onthebasisofthatbeingourworkinghypothesis,
whatdoyouconcludeforthepropertiesofthatmissingparticle?'
MrTompkinsthoughtforamoment.'Itwillhavespin3/2andB=1?'
'MydearWatson,youexcelyourself,'sighedHolmessarcastically.'Ofcourse,
itwillhavethosepropertiesitwouldnotbelongtothisfamilyifitdidn't.Think
man!Whatelsecanyoutellmeaboutit?Youknowmymethods.Apply
them!'
MrTompkinsdidnotknowwhattothink.Afterapause,headmitted,'I'm
afraidIhaven'taclue.'
'Really!'Holmesexploded.'Itisperfectlyobvioustothetrainedmanofscience
thatthemissingparticleisnegativelycharged,havingnopositiveorneutral
counterpartaverysingularparticleithass=3(quiteanunprecedented
amountofstrangenessincidentally)andamassofabout1680MeV/c
2
.'
'GoodHeavens,Holmes,youastoundme!'exclaimedMrTompkins.Witha
startherealisedthat,unwittingly,hehadnowcompletelyassumedtheroleof
Watson.
'Asitisthelastparticletocompletethispattern,IshallcallittheOmegaminus
(

),'concludedHolmes.

Page221
'ButIdon'tunderstand.Howdoyouknowallthis?'
Thegreatmansmiled.'Itisapleasureformetoexerciseanysmallpowers
whichIpossessatyourexpense.Inthefirstplacehowmanygapsaretherein
thepattern?'
'One.'
'Precisely.Hencewearedealingwithasinglemissingparticle.Next,whatdo
younoteaboutitsstrangeness?'
'Well,thegapinthepatternislevelwiths=3.'
'Exactly.Andnowitselectriccharge?'
'No.I'mafraidI'mstumpedonthatone.'
'Useyourpowersofobservation,man.Whatdoyounoticeabouttheelectric
chargeoftheparticlesattheextremelefthandendofeachrow?'
'Theyareallnegative.'
'Quite.Our particleisatthelefthandendofitsrow,soittoomustbe
negative.'
'But,'protestedMrTompkins,'it'stheonlyparticleinthatrow.Soitisalsoat
therighthandendoftherowaswell.'
'Whatofit?Runyoureyedowntherighthandmembersofeachrow.Whatdo
younotice?'
MrTompkinsstudiedthemforamomentandthendeclared,'OhIsee,what
youmean.Eachsuccessiverowlosesaunitofcharge:Q=+2,+1,0,sothe
lastonewillbeQ=1,whichiswhatwehadbefore.Butthenyousaid
somethingaboutthemassofthe .Howcouldyoupossiblydecidethat?'
'Examinethemassesoftheotherparticles.'
'Yes.Sowhat?'askedMrTompkinsthoroughlyperplexed.
'Mentalarithmetic!Whatarethedifferencesinmassbetweensuccessiverows
ofparticles?'
'Er.Betweenthe sandthe
*
s,Imakethat152MeV/c
2
.Andbetweenthe
*
sandthe
*
s...149MeV/c
2
.They'realmostthesame.'
'FromwhichIsurmisethesamedifferencemightapplybetweenthe
*
sand
ourconjectured particle.Ournetisclosingin.Withthosepropertiesinmind,
perhapsyouwouldbesokindastogoandlookforit.'

Page222
Withthat,Holmesleantbackinhischair,placedhisfingertipstogether,and
closedhiseyes.
IrritatedthoughMrTompkinswaswithHolmes'condescension,hewas
intriguedtoknowwhethertherewasanytruthinthesedeductions.Sohe
dutifullytrudgedoffwiththeintentionofrummagingthroughthevarious
particlesstrewnovertheflooraroundthedetector.
Butbeforehegotthere,ajostlingcrowdofelectronsappearedfromnowhere.
MrTompkinsfoundhimselfcompletelysurroundedandcaughtupwiththem.
'Allaboard!'cameacommandingvoice.Immediatelyalltheelectronssurged
towardstheaccelerator,propellingMrTompkinswiththem.Theycrammed
insidethetubeitwasworsethancatchingarushhourtrain.Everyonewas
furiouslyusingtheirelbowstorepeltheothersandmakespaceforthemselves.
'Excuseme.Butwhat'shappening?'MrTompkinsenquiredofaneighbouring
electron.
'What'shappening?Younewaroundhereorsomething?'
'Asamatteroffact...'
'Thenwelcometothekamikazes!'theelectronleeredmenacingly.
'Sorry?Idon't...'
Buttherewasnotimeforexplanations.Aviolentshoveintheback,andthey
wereontheirway,headingdownthetube.JustasMrTompkinsthoughthe
wasboundtocrashintothecurvingwall,hebecameawareofasteady
sidewaysforcedirectinghimawayfromit.
'Ah!'hethought,'thatmustbetheeffectofthebendingmagnets.'Another
shoveintheback.'Andthatmustbeanotheracceleratingcavitywe'vegone
through.'
Astheycoastedalongbetweentheperiodickicks,henoticedthatthebunchof
electronstendedtodispersesomewhat.'Isupposethat'sbecauseweallhave
negativeelectricchargeandarerepellingeachother.'
Butthentheywereabruptlysquashedtogetheragain.Hesurmisedthatmust
havebeenduetothempassingthroughafocussingmagnet.

Page223
Suddenly,toMrTompkinsalarm,outofthegloomaswarmofparticlescame
flyingtowardsthemfromtheoppositedirection.Theynarrowlymissed.
'Help!'MrTompkinscried.Heturnedtohiscompanion.'Didyouseethat?I
mean,thatwasDANGEROUS.Whowerethey?'
'Youarenew,aren'tyou,'camethesneeringreply.'Positrons!Whoelse?'
Thepatternofeventsrepeateditself:asuccessionofacceleratingkicks,
interspersedwithfocussingepisodes,andallthetimethebendingmagnetic
fieldgettingstrongerandstrongerthemoreenergetictheparticlesbecame.
Andofcourse,atregularintervals,therewerethebunchesofpositronsflying
pastdoingthecircuitintheoppositesense.
Infact,thingswerebeginningtogetveryugly.Noweverytimethepositrons
wentpassedtheyshoutedabuse.'Justyouwait.We'regoingtogetyoulot!'
theytaunted.
'Ohyeah.Youandwhoelse?'retaliatedMrTompkins'selectrons.Both
electronsandpositronsseemedgrippedbyamountingsenseofanticipation
andexcitement.
ButMrTompkinswasceasingtocare.Witheachturnoftheacceleratorhe
feltmoreandmoredizzyandnauseous.Until,thatis,hisattentionwas
suddenlyarrestedbyamutteredwarningfromhiscompanion:'OK.Brace
yourself.Fullenergy.Thisisit.Goodluck!You'llneedit.'
MrTompkinswasabouttoaskwhathemeantbythisbuttherewasno
need:thepositronswereuponthem.Butnowtheywereheadingstraightfor
eachother.Onallsides,MrTompkinssawviolentcollisionsbetweenelectrons
andpositrons,eachproducingjetsofnewparticlesspreadingoutinall
directions.Nosoonerhadsomeofthenewparticlesbeencreatedinthe
collision,thantheysplitupintootherparticles.Eventuallyallthedebrispassed
throughthewallsoftheacceleratortubeanddisappearedfromsight.
Silence.Itwasallover.Thepositronshadgone,leavingjusttheelectrons.On
lookingaroundhim,itseemedtoMrTompkinsthat

Page224
despitealltheviolencethathadtakenplace,mostoftheelectrons,likehimself,
werecompletelyunscathed.
'Phew!Thatwaslucky,'hesighedwithrelief.'I'mgladthat'sover.'
Hiscompanionshothimascornfullook.'It'sreallyamazing,'theelectron
remarked.'Youhonestlydon'tknowanythingatall,doyou.'
Withthat,thepositronswereback!Thewholefrighteningsequencewasre
enactedasecondtime,thenathirdtime,afourthtime,andsoon:periodsof
quiet,interspersedbymayhem.MrTompkinsgraduallycametorealisethatthe
collisionsalwaystookplaceatthesamepointsaroundthering.'Thesemustbe
wherethedetectorsareplaced,'heguessed.
Itwasduringoneoftheencountersbetweenthebeams,thatithappened
whatMrTompkinshadmostdreaded.Adirecthit!Withoutwarning,hewas
knockedflying.Hewassentcleanthroughthewalloftheacceleratorwhere
ashehadsuspectedthedetectorwasawaitinghim.Hewasonlydimly
awareofwhatoccurrednext:strongbendingtooneside,showersofsparks,
flashesoflight,andaseriesofbumpsashecrashedthroughmetalplates,
beforeeventuallycomingtorestinoneofthem.Howhemanagedtoextract
himselffromtheplatehecouldneverrememberhewasmuchtoodazed.But
somehowhedidit,andfoundhimselfoncemoreintheexperimentalhall,amid
apileofotherparticlesthathadalsoleakedoutofthedetector.
Hewaslyingtherestaringupattheceiling,tryingtocollecthiswits,whena
voicecoylyasked,'Lookingforme?'
Atfirsthedidnotrealisethequestionwasbeingdirectedathim.Butwhenthe
seductiveenquirywasrepeated,hestruggledtoasittingposition.
'Ibegyourpardon,'heventured,lookingaround.
Hefoundhewasbeingaddressedbyoneoftheparticlesarather
exceptional,indeedexoticlookingparticle.
'Idon'tthinkso,'hemumbled.
'Areyousure?'shepersisted.

Page225
'Quitesure.'
Therewasanawkwardpause.'Pity.Icoulddowithcompanybeingsingle.
Youmightatleastlookatmylabels,'sheaddedsulkily.
MrTompkinssighed,butdutifullycomplied.Hereadout'Spin3/2,B=1,
negativecharge,s=3,mass1672MeV/c
2
.'
'So?'shesaidexpectantly.
'Sowhat?'hereplied,wonderingwhatshewasgettingat.Butthenitstruck
him.'GoodLord!You're...You'rethe

particle!You'retheoneI'vebeen
senttolookfor!I'dquiteforgotten.Ohmygoodness!I'vefoundthemissing

!'
Excitedlygatheringherup,herushedbacktoHolmestoshowhimhisprize.
'Excellent!'exclaimedHolmes.'JustasIthought.Putitwhereitbelongs.'
MrTompkinsplaceditonthefloortocompletethetriangulardecuplet.
Holmeslituphisfavouriteblackclaypipe,andsatbackpuffingcontentedly.
'Elementary,mydearWatson,'hedeclared.'Elementary.'
MrTompkinsgazedforawhileatthepatternslaidoutbeforethem,the
hexagonaloctetsandthetriangulardecuplet,butthenbecameawareofjust
howacridthefumesfromHolmes'strongtobaccowere.Hewasbecoming
envelopedinsmoke.Itwasmostunpleasant,sohedecidedtomoveaway.
Wanderingoff,heidlydecidedtodoatourrightroundthedetector.Reaching
thefarside,hewassurprisedanddelightedtoseeafamiliarfigurehunched
overaworkbench.Itwasthewoodcarver!
'Whatareyoudoinghere?'heenquired.
Thewoodcarverlookedup.Onrecognisinghisvisitor,hisfacebrokeintoa
smile.'Well,ifitisn'tyou!Goodtoseeyouagain.'
Theyshookhands.
'Stillbusywithyourpainting,Isee,'commentedMrTompkins.
'Ah,butI'vemovedonsincethelasttimeyousawme,'hesaid.'Newjob.No
morepaintingprotonsandneutrons.Thesedaysit'squarks!'

Page226
'Quarks!'exclaimedMrTomkins.
'That'sright.Theultimateconstituentsofnuclearmatter.It'swhatprotonsand
neutronsaremadeof.'
Helookedabouthim,andbeckonedhisfriendtocomecloser.'Couldn'thelp
overhearingyourconversationwiththatloudmouthoverthere,'hemuttered
confidentially.'''Elementary,mydearWatson.Elementary"'herepeated
mockingly.'Takeitfromme,hedoesn'tknowwhathe'stalkingabout.
Elementary,myfoot!Thoseparticlesofhisareanythingbutelementary.Take
mywordforit:quarksiswhatit'sallabout.'
'So,whatexactlyareyoudoing?'askedMrTompkins.'Paintingthequarks,'
thewoodcarverreplied.'Asthenewparticlescomeoutoftheaccelerator,I
painttheirquarks.'
Takingupafinelypointedbrushinonehand,andapairoftweezersinthe
otherhecontinued.'Fiddlywork.Thequarksaresosmall.Look.Here'sa
meson.Seethequarksinthere:onequark,andanantiquark.Igetholdofthe
quarklikethis,'hesaid,reachinginsidewiththetweezersandcatchingholdof
thequark.'Youcanneverpullthequarksoutthey'regluedintootightly.But
nomatter.Icanpaintthemperfectlywellwhilethey'restillinside.Ipaintthe
quarkred,likethis.Then,withthisotherbrush,theantiquarkcyan.'
'Thosewerethecoloursyouusedfortheprotonandelectron,'recalledMr
Tompkins.
'That'sright.Andasyouseethecombinationmakestheoverallmesonwhite.
ButIcanalsousetheseothercomplementarycolourcombinations:bluewith
yellow,andgreenwithmagenta(orpurple),'hesaidpointingtootherpaint
bottlesonthebench.
'Thebaryons,likethisprotonhere,aremadefromacombinationofthree
quarks.Forbaryons,Ipainteachquarkadifferentprimarycolour:red,blue,
andgreen.Thatisthealternativewayofproducingwhiteyoueitherusea
colouranditscomplementarycolour,oryouhaveamixofallthreeprimary
colours.'
MrTompkins'sthoughtswanderedtohisearlierencounterwiththemonk.He
imaginedFatherPauliwouldapproveofmesonsthe

Page227
marriageofopposites,butwasnotsurewhathewouldhavemadeofthe
combinationofthreeofthesame!
Thewoodcarvercontinuedgravely,'Iwouldhaveyouknowthisisvitally
importantwork.TheveryfabricoftheUniversedependsonwhatIamdoing
here.Paintingprotonsandelectronswasjusttomakethemlookpretty
moreeasilydistinguishableindiagramsinpopularphysicsbooks.This,onthe
otherhand,isseriouscolour.Imean,it'ssomethingphysicists themselvesrefer
to.Itexplainswhyquarksholdontoeachotherwhytheycan'tcomeout
separately.Tobeabletostandonitsown,aparticlehastobewhitelike
theprotonsandneutronsI'vejustfinisheddoingoverthereinthatbox.
Theyarenowreadyforshipment.Individualquarks,onthetheotherhand,are
coloured,sotheymustforeverbeattachedtoothersoftheappropriate
colours.ItrustIhavemadethisallclear.'
MrTompkinsfeltthatsomeoftheinformationhehadpreviouslyreadinthe
brochuremightnowbeslottingintoplace.Butwhyexactlyparticleshadtobe
whitewasstillamysterytohim.Hewentovertotheboxofnucleonsandlifted
thelid.Hewasstruckbytheirbrilliantwhiteness.Infacthewasquitedazzled
byit,andhadtoshieldhiseyes...

Page228
'Idobelievehe'scomingroundatlast.'ItwasthevoiceofMaud.'Thelight.
Please!You'reblindinghim.Darling,darling,areyouallright?Whatarelief!
Weweresoworried.Whataknockyoutook!Howareyoufeeling?'
'Itwasthepositron,'MrTompkinsmurmured.'Thepositronhitme.'
'Apositronhithim?!'avoiceenquired.'Isthatwhathesaid?'
'Concussion,'pronouncedanother.'He'ssufferingfromconcussion.Rambling.
WemustgethimovertoCasualtyrightaway.He'llneedtotakeiteasyfora
while.Andwemustgetadressingonthatcuttohisforehead.'

Page229
16
TheProfessor'sLastLecture
Ladiesandgentlemen:
ItwasMurrayGellMannandYuvalNe'emanwhoin1962,independentlyof
eachother,recognisedthattheparticlescouldbegatheredtogetherintofamily
patternsbasedontheSU(3)group.
Notallthepatternswerefoundtobecompletethereweregaps.Inthis
respect,thesituationboresimilaritiestothatwhichhadearlierconfronted
MendeleffwhencompilinghisPeriodicTableoftheatomicelements.Hetoo
hadfoundrecurringpatternsofbehaviourprovidedheleftgapsforhitherto
undiscoveredelements.Bylookingatthepropertiesoftheelementsadjacent
tothegaps,Mendeleffhadbeenabletopredicttheexistenceandnatureof
theunknownelements.HistorynowrepeateditselfasGellMannandNe'eman
predictedtheexistence,andthedetailedproperties,ofthe

onthebasisofa
gapinatriangulardecuplet.Theremarkablediscoveryofthe

in1963
servedtoconvincethescientificcommunityofthevalidityofthesymmetry
groupSU(3).
TheMendelefftable,throughsettingouttherelationshipsbetweentheatomic
elements,hintedataninnercompositiontheelementsweretoberegardedas
differentvariationsonacommontheme.Thissuggestionwaslatertobeborne
outinthetheoryofatomicstructure,wherebyallatomsconsistofacentral
nucleuswithsurroundingelectrons.
In1964,GellMannandGeorgeZweigsuggestedthatthesimilaritiesand
familypatternsdisplayedbytheparticleswerelikewise

Page230
areflectionofsomeinnerstructure.Thisproposalheldoutthepossibilitythat
the200ormoreparticles,untilthattimeregardedas'elementary',wereinfact
compositesconstructedfromyetdeeperfundamentalconstituents.These
constituentsweretobecalledquarks.Atthepresenttime,webelievequarks
tobetrulyelementary.Theyaretreatedaspointlike,havingnoinnerstructure
consistingof'subquark'constituents.Butwhoknows?Wemightbeproved
wrongagain!
Theoriginalschemewasbasedontherebeingthreetypes,orflavours ,of
quark:up,down,andstrangequarks.Thefirsttwoweresonamedbecauseof
the'up'and'down'directionoftheirisospin.Thestrangequarkgotitsname
throughcarryingthenewlydiscoveredpropertyofmatter:strangeness.The
recognitioninthe1970sofparticlescarryingtwofurtherproperties(charmand
bottom),andinthe1990s,yetanotherproperty(top),waslatertonecessitate
theinclusionofthreefurtherflavoursofquarkthosecarryingtheadditional
properties.ThepropertiesofallsixquarksaresetoutinTable1.
Inadditiontothesesixquarks,therearesixantiquarkspossessingtheopposite
valuesofallthequantitiesdisplayedinthetable.Forexample,the antiquark
tothesquark,hasQ=+1/3,B=1/3,ands=+1.
Table1Thepropertiesofthequarks

Q B s c b t
d 1/3 1/3 0 0 0 0
u
2/3
1/3 0 0 0 0
s 1/3 1/3 1 0 0 0
c
2/3
1/3 0 0 0 0
b 1/3 1/3 0 0 1 0
t
2/3
1/3 0 0 0 1
QistheelectricchargeBisthebaryonnumbersthestrangenessnumbercischarm
bisbottomandtistopd,u,s,c,b,andtdenotethesixquarks.

Page231
Fromthesequarksandantiquarks,allthenewparticlesproducedinhigh
energycollisionscanbesynthesised.Thebaryonsaremadeupofthree
quarks:(q,q,q).So,forinstance,theprotonisthecombination(u,u,d),the
neutronis(u,d,d),andthe
0
is(u,d,s).Youshouldcheckfromthetablethat
thesecombinationsdoindeedyieldthepropertiesoftheparticles(theproton,
forexample,havingB=+1,andQ=+1).
Theantibaryonsconsistofthreeantiquarks:( , , ).Thisresultsinbaryon
andantibaryonhavingexactlyoppositeproperties.
Whatofmesons,suchasthepion?Mesonsareconstructedfromthe
combinationofaquarkandanantiquark:(q, ).Thus,forinstance,the
+

consistsof(u, ).Againcheckthatthiscombinationyieldstherightoverall
propertiesforthatpion:B=0,andQ=+1.
Ishouldpointoutthatnotallparticlesaremadeofquarks.Onlythebaryons
andmesonsaresoconstructed.Infact,wecallallsuchparticlescollectively,
hadronsawordmeaning'strong'.Hadronsfeelthestrongnuclearforce
othertypesofparticles,suchastheelectron,muonandtheneutrinos,donot.
Theyarecollectivelyknownasleptons.Indeed,thenames'baryon'and
'meson'canbesomethingofamisnomer.Theyarebasedontheideaofhow
massivetheparticleis.Butwenowknowofalepton,thetau,whichistwiceas
heavyastheprotonhardlya'light'particle!Itisthereforepreferableto
delineateparticlesaccordingtowhethertheyarehadrons(stronglyinteracting),
orleptons(notsubjecttothestrongnuclearforce).
Sofarwehavetalkedofquarksboundupinhadrons.Whatoffreequarks?
Theyshouldbeeasilyrecognisablewiththeirfractionalonethirdortwothirds
electriccharge.
Despitestrenuousefforts,nonehaseverbeenseen.Eveninthehighestenergy
collisions,quarksareneverejected.Thiscallsforanexplanation.
Oneideacanvassedforatimewasthatquarkswerenotrealtheyweremere
mathematicalentitiesusefulfictions.Theparticlesbehavedasifthey
consistedofquarks,buttherewasnosuchthingasanactualquark.

Page232
Butthencameaconclusivedemonstrationoftheirreality.Itwasafurther
exampleofhistoryrepeatingitself.RecallhowLordRutherfordin1911had
demonstratedtheexistenceofthenucleusbyfiringprojectiles(alphaparticles)
atatoms,andobservingsomereboundatlargeangles.Thisindicatedthatthe
projectileshadstruckasmallconcentratedtarget(thenucleus)withintheatom.
In1968,itbecamepossibletofirehighenergyelectronsintotheinteriorofthe
proton.Evidencebeganaccumulatingthattheelectronswereoccasionally
sufferinglargesidewayskicks,indicativeofthemhavingreboundedfromsome
smallandconcentratedelectricchargeinsidetheproton.Thiswasconfirmation
thatthequarkswereindeedreal.Indeed,fromthefrequencyofthelargeangle
scatters,itcouldbecalculatedthattherewerethreequarksinsidetheproton.
So,ifthequarksaredefinitelyinthere,whydotheynevercomeoutsingly?
Also,weneedtoaddressthequestionastowhywegetonly(q, )and
(q,q,q)combinations.Whynotothers,suchas(q, ,q)and(q,q,q,q)?To
elucidatethisweturntothenatureoftheforcebetweenthequarks.
Webeginbyrecallinghowtheattractionbetweentheprotonandelectronofa
hydrogenatomarisesoutoftheelectrostaticforceoperatingbetweenthe
electricchargescarriedbytheprotonandelectron.Byanalogytherefore,we
areledtointroduceanadditionalkindof'charge'.Wepostulatethatquarks
carrythiskindof'charge'(inadditiontoelectriccharge),andthestrongforce
arisesbecauseofinteractionsoccurringbetweenthese'charges'.Forreasons
thatwillbecomeclearlater,wecallitcolourcharge.
Inthesamewayasoppositeelectricchargesattracteachother,soopposite
colourchargesattractonlywithamuchstrongeraction.Wepostulatethat
quarkscarrypositivecolourcharge,andantiquarksnegative.Thisaccountsfor
thereadyoccurrenceofthe(q, )mesoncombination.Againinanalogywith
theelectrostaticcase,weassumethatlikecolourchargesrepeleachother.
Thisaccountsforthenonexistenceof(q, ,q).Justasasecondelectronclose
toahydrogenatomdoesnotattachitselfbecauseitsattractiontotheprotonis
compensatedby

Page233
itsrepulsionfortheelectronalreadythere,soasecondquarkdoesnotattach
itselftoamesonbecauseoftherepulsionoftheotherquark.
Butwhat,youwillbeasking,istheexplanationforthe(q,q,q)combination?It
isherewemusttakenoteofadifferencebetweenelectricchargeandcolour
charge.Whereasthereisonlyonekindofelectriccharge(whichcanbe
positiveornegative),therearethreekindsofcolourcharge(eachofwhichcan
bepositiveornegative).Wecallthemred,green,andblueorr,g,andb
forreasonsthatwillbecomeclearsoon.(Iimmediatelyhastentoemphasise,
however,thattheyhavenothingtodowithordinarycolours.)Therebeing
threetypesofcolourcharge,thispromptsthequestion:Whatkindof
interactiontakesplacebetweenquarkscarryingdifferenttypesofcolour
chargeforinstance,aq
r
carryingred,andaq
b
carryingblue?Theansweris
thattheyattracteachother.Thisforceofattractionissuchthatthecombination
(q
r
,q
g
,q
b
),wherethethreequarksareeachofadifferentcoloursoeachis
attractedtotheothertwoisparticularlystronglyboundandstablehence
theoccurrenceofbaryons.
Whydowenotgetthe(q,q,q,q)combination?Because,giventhatthereare
onlythreetypesofcolourcharge,thefourthquarkmusthavethesamecolour
chargeasoneorotherofthethreequarksalreadyinthebaryon.Itwill
thereforeberepelledbyitslikecharge.Itturnsoutthatthisrepulsiveforce
exactlycancelsouttheattractionthefourthquarkexperiencesfromtheother
twoquarksofdifferentcolourcharge.Henceitdoesnotattachitself.
Atthispointwecanbegintounderstandwhythename'colour'chargehasits
appeal.Justasatomsarenormallyelectricallyneutraloverall,wesaythatthe
allowedcombinationsofquarkshavetobecolourneutralor'white'.There
aretwowaysofmixingcolourstoproducewhite.Eitheracolouriscombined
withitscomplementary(ornegative)colour,orthethreeprimarycoloursare
combined.Butthoseareexactlytherulesforcombiningthecolourchargesto
producetheoverallneutralcombinations:themesonandthebaryon.
Sosummarising,quarkscarryapositiveamountofeitherr,b,org,whilean
antiquarkwillhaveanegative,orcomplementaryamount:

Page234
, ,or .Likechargesrepel,soforexamplerrepelsr: repels .
Oppositechargesattract,hencerattracts ,etc.Finally,chargesofdifferent
typeattracteachother.
Aquestionwehaveyettoaddressisthatconcerningtheabsenceofisolated
quarks.Toanswerthiswemustunderstandmoredeeplythenatureofthe
colourforce,andindeedofforcesingeneral.
Inthespiritofquantumphysics,whereinteractionsoccurdiscretelyratherthan
continuously,weregardthemechanismbywhichaforceanyforceis
transmittedfromoneparticletoanotherasinvolvingtheexchangeofan
intermediarythirdparticle.Basicallywecanthinkofparticle1emittingthe
intermediaryinthedirectionofparticle2,andintheprocesssufferinga
recoilmuchasariflerecoilsintheoppositedirectiontothemotionofthe
bullet.Particle2,onreceivingtheintermediary,takesupitsmomentum,
causingittorecoilawayfromparticle1.Theoveralleffectofthisexchangeis
thatbothparticlesarepushedapart.Theprocessthenrepeatsitselfwhenthe
intermediaryisreturnedthereisafurtherpushingapart.Theneteffectisthat
thetwoparticlesrepeleachotheri.e.theyexperiencearepulsiveforce.
Whataboutforcesofattraction?Essentiallythesamemechanismisinvolved,
thoughIsupposethistimeifyouinsistonhavingananalogywemust
thinkoftheparticlesthrowingboomerangsratherthanshootingbullets!Particle
1emitstheintermediaryinadirectionawayfromparticle2,hence
experiencingarecoiltowardsthatparticlethelatterthenreceivesthe
intermediaryfromtheoppositedirection,andisalsopushedtowardsits
companion.
Inthecaseoftheelectricforcebetweentwocharges,theintermediaryparticle
isthephoton.Thetwochargesareeitherrepelledorattractedduetothe
repeatedexchangeofphotons.
Thatbeingso,itpromptsustoaskwhetherthestrongforcebetweenthe
quarksisalsoopentoanexplanationintermsoftheexchangeofsomekindof
intermediaryparticle.Theanswerisyesquarksareheldtogetherinthehadron
bytheexchangeofparticlescalledgluons.(ItakeitIneednotexplainthe
originofthatname!)

Page235
Thereareeightdifferenttypesofgluon.Thesearisebecause,intheprocessof
exchangingagluon,thequarksretaintheirfractionalelectricchargeand
fractionalbaryonnumber,butareabletoexchangetheircolourcharge.The
gluon,onbeingemittedbythefirstquark,carriesawaytheoriginalcolour
chargeofthatquark.Butthequarkcannotbeleftcolourless,soatthesame
timeasitlosesitsoriginalcolour,itisinvestedwiththecolourofasecond
quark.Thegluon,onarrivingatthesecondquark,cancelsoutthisquark's
originalcolourcharge,whiletransferringtoitthecolourchargetakenfromthe
firstquark.Thenetresultisthatthequarkshaveswappedcolourcharge.
Forthesetransformationstooccur,thegluonmustpossessbothacolour
chargeandacomplementarycolourcharge.Forinstancethegluon, ,will
havechargesrand .Itcantakepartinthefollowingtransformations:
Withtherebeingthreecolourchargesandthreecomplementarycolours,that
makesfor33=9differentpossiblecombinationsofacolouranda
complementarycolour.Thesesplitupintoanoctetandasinglet.(Recallthe
octetandsingletwecameacrosswhenassigningthemesonstoSU(3)
representations.)Thesingletstateforthegluonswouldcorrespondtoamixture
ofr ,b andg .Beingcolourneutral,itwouldnotinteractwiththequarks,
andforthatreasonweneglectit.Whichleavestheoctet,i.e.eightgluonsinall.
Gluons,likephotons,aremassless.Butunlikephotons,whicharenot
themselveselectricallycharged,gluonsaswehavejustnoteddocarry
colourcharge.Theythereforenotonlyinteractwithquarks,butalsowith
themselves.Thisdramaticallychangesthecharacteroftheforcetheytransmit.
Whereastheelectricforcegetsweakerthefurtheraparttheelectriccharges
(fallingoffastheinverseofthesquareofthedistancebetweenthem),the
colourforcehasthesamevalueregardlessoftheseparation(apartfromwhen
thecolourchargesareveryclose,whentheforcebecomesalmostnonexistent

Page236
ratherlikeanelasticbandbecomingslackwhenitsendsareclose).Thus,
whenquarksareclosetogether,thereisverylittleforcebetweenthem.But
increasetheseparation,andtheforceattainsaconstantvalue.
Withthisinmind,letusreturntothequestionofwhynoisolatedquarksare
found.Supposeweweretotryandseparatetwoquarks.Becauseofthe
constantforcebetweenthem,ittakesmoreandmoreenergytoincreasetheir
separation.Eventuallyyoureachthepointwhereyouhaveputsomuchenergy
intostretchingthebondbindingthetwoquarksthatthereisenoughthereto
createaquarkantiquarkpair.Andthat'swhathappens:thebondsnapsanda
pairiscreated.Theantiquarkofthenewpairgoesoffwiththeejectedquark
toformameson,whilethequarkofthenewpairisleftbehindinthehadronto
taketheplaceoftheoldquark.Thesituationisrathersimilartowhathappens
whenonetakesabarmagnetandtriestoisolatethenorthpolefromthesouth
pole.Snappingthemagnetinhalf,newnorthandsouthpolesaregenerated,
leavinguswithtwobarmagnetswearenoclosertothegoalofhavingan
isolatedpole.Insimilarvein,breakingthebondbetweenthequarksdoesnot
resultinanisolatedquark.
Wehavetalkedabouttheprotonandneutronasbeingcolourneutral.Andyet
thereisaforceofattractionbetweenthem.Itisthisforcethatcountersthe
electrostaticrepulsionbetweenthepositivelychargedprotonsinanucleus,and
isresponsibleforthenucleusstickingtogether.Tounderstandhowthisstrong
forcebetweennucleonscomesabout,letusrecallhowatomsformcomposite
moleculesinspiteofbeingthemselveselectricallyneutral.ThissocalledVan
derWaal'sforcearisesthroughtheelectronsofeachatomrearranging
themselvessothattheyarepartlyattractedtothenucleusbelongingtothe
otheratom.Thusisgeneratedanexternalremnantforcecapableofbindingthe
atomstogether.Inthesameway,thequarkswithinanucleoncanadjust
themselvesinsuchawayastoproduceanexternalforcecapableofattracting
theconstituentsoftheneighbouringnucleonthisdespiteeachnucleon
havingnonetcolourcharge.Thusweseethatthestrongforceoperating
betweennucleonsistobe

Page237
regardedasa'leakage'ofthemorefundamentalgluonforceoperatingbetween
theconstituentquarks.
Thestrong,orgluonforcethereforetakesitsplaceasoneofthedifferenttypes
offorcefoundinnature.Asregardsthegravitational,electric,andmagnetic
forces,thesearelongrangeforcesandsogiverisetoeasilyobservable
macroscopiceffectsplanetaryorbitsandtheemissionofradiowaves,to
mentionbuttwoobviousexamples.Thestrongforce,ontheotherhand,is
shortranged,actingoverdistancesofonly10
15
mthosecharacteristicof
thesizeofthenucleus.Itwastheshortrangednatureofthisforcethatmadeit
thatmuchmoredifficulttounravel.
Iwantnowtointroduceyoutoafurtherforce:theweakforce.Itisnotweak
inthesenseofitsintrinsicstrengthbeinglessthanthatofelectricandmagnetic
forcesitappearsweakbecauseitoperatesoveranevenshorterdistancethan
thestrongforce:only10
17
m.Despitethisrestrictedrange,however,ithasan
importantroletoplay.Forinstance,thereisachainofnuclearreactions
wherebyhydrogen,H,canbeconvertedintohelium,He,withthereleaseof
energy.TheyoccurintheSunandarethesourceofitsenergy.Theweak
interactionisresponsibleforthefirstofthesereactions:
where isahighenergyphotoncalledagammaray,
2
Hisadeuteron
consistingofaprotonandneutron,and
e
isaneutrino.
Theweakforceisalsoresponsibleforthedecayofthefreeneutron:
where isanantineutrino.
Incidentally,youmightbewonderingwhatallthistalkofa'force'hastodo
withparticlestransformingintoeachother.Ishouldperhapsexplainthat
wheneverparticlesaffecteachotherinanywaywhatsoeverphysicists
talkofthisasbeingduetoa'force'or'interaction'.

Page238
Thisappliesnotonlytochangesinmotion(thedaytodaycontextinwhichwe
thinkofforcesoperating),butalsotochangestotheidentityofparticles.
AsImentionedearlier,unlikethehadrons,neithertheelectronnortheneutrino
feelthestrongforce.Thisisbecausetheycarrynocolourcharge.Theneutrino
doesnotevenexperiencetheelectricforceitcarriesnoelectricalcharge.The
factthatneutrinosneverthelessdotakepartininteractionswithotherparticles
showsthatwemustbedealingwithanothertypeofinteractiontheweak
force.
Wesaytheeandthe
e
are'electrontypeleptons',havingelectrontypelepton
number+1.Eachoftheseparticleshasitsantiparticle,e
+
and respectively,
andthesehaveelectrontypeleptonnumber1.Thisleptonquantumnumberis
conservedininteractionsinmuchthesamewayasthebaryonnumber,B,isin
thecaseofhadronsasyoucancheckwiththeabovereactions.Because
theysharethesameleptonnumber,thereisnodifferencebetweentheeand
e
,
asfarastheweakforceisconcerned.
Whydowespeakofelectrontypeleptons?Becausethereareothertypesof
lepton.Thereisthemuon, ,anditsmuontypeneutrino,
m
andthetau,T,
withitstautypeneutrino,
n
T
.Thesehavetheirownrespectivetypeoflepton
number,whichalsoneedstobeconservedinreactions.Inthiswaywecome
tothinkoftheleptonsasformingthreedoublets.
Thequarksalsocomeindoublets.Justasearlierwesaidthattheprotonand
neutronformedanisospindoublet(differentlychargedstatesofthesame
particle,thenucleon),sotheuanddquarks(fromwhichthepandnare
made)formadoublet.Thesamegoesfortheotherquarks:sformsadoublet
withc,andtteamsupwithb.
Infact,thereisalinkbetweenthequarkisospindoubletsandthelepton'weak
isospin'doublets.Theygotogetherinthreegenerations,asinTable2.
Likethestronginteraction,theweakinteractionalwaysconservesquantities
suchaselectriccharge,baryonnumber,andleptonnumber.However,unlike
thestronginteraction,itdoesnothaveto

Page239
conservequarkflavour.So,forexample,thedecayoftheneutron(u,d,d)into
aproton(u,u,d)isduetoadquarkchangingitsflavourandbecomingthe
somewhatlighteruquarktheexcessenergybeingemitted.Thesame
appliestohadronscarryingtop,bottom,charm,andstrangeness.Soonafter
theircreationinahighenergycollision,theirt,b,c,orsquarktransformsintoa
lighterquarkofdifferentflavour.Forinstance,thedecayofthestrangeparticle,

(s,u,d):
involvesthesquarkchangingintoauquark.Thisiswhyitisimpossibleto
accumulatesuppliesofthenewparticlesnosooneraretheycreatedthanthey
rapidlydecaybackdowntothelightestparticles.Thatiswhythematterthat
makesupourworldisalmostexclusivelymadeofthetwolightestquarks,u
andd,togetherwiththeelectron.
Tolearnmoreabouttheweakforce,wemustretraceourstepsalittle.WhenI
firstspokeofthevariousforcesinnature,Ilistedtheelectricandmagnetic
forcesseparately.Thatwasindeedhowtheywereoriginallyviewed
differenttypesofforce.IttookthegeniusofJamesClerkMaxwell,workingin
the1860s,todrawtogetheralltheknownelectricalandmagneticphenomena,
andrecognisethattheycouldallbeexplainedintermsofasingleforcethe
electromagneticforce.
Table2Thegenerationsofquarkandleptondoublets
Generation First Second Third Charge

u c t
2/3
Quarks

d s b 1/3
e

T

1
Leptons

e m
n
T
0

Page240
Thisprocessofunifyingforceswasnot,however,tostopthere.Steven
Weinberg(1967)andAbdusSalam(1968),buildingonearlierworkby
SheldonGlashow,wereabletoproduceaneleganttheorywhichaccounted
fortheelectromagneticandweakforcesintermsoftheirbeingbutdifferent
manifestationsofasingleforcetheelectroweakforce.
Forthistobepossible,theweakforce,incommonwiththeotherforceswe
havebeenconsidering,hadtobemediatedbytheexchangeofsomeformof
particle.Thetheorypredictedthattherewouldbethreeofthem:theW
+
,W

,
andZ

.Atthetime,nosuchparticleswereknown.
Thetheorywastriumphantlyvindicatedin1983bytheirsuccessfuldiscovery.
Liketheothernewparticles,theywerefoundtobeunstable,decayingfor
exampleinthefollowingways:
ThedecaysoftheZ

provedtobeparticularlyinteresting.Notonlycanit
decayinto( ,)butalsointo( ),( ),oranyothertypeof
neutrino/antineutrinopairthatmightexistbeyondthethreecurrentlyknown
types.Themoredecaychannelsopentoit,thequickertheZ

willdecay.Thus,
thelifetimeoftheZ

providesasensitivemeansofestimatinghowmanytypes
ofneutrino/antineutrinocombinationstheremustbe.Themeasuredlifetime
indicatestherearebutthreetypesofneutrinothethreewehavealready
discovered.Fromthisitfollowsthereareonlythreeleptondoublets.
Furthermore,becausetheleptondoubletsaregroupedwiththequarkdoublets
toformgenerations,itseemsreasonabletoinferthattherearelikelytobeonly
threequarkdoublets.Inotherwords,thenumberofquarkflavoursislimitedto
six.Thisisimportant.Adisturbingfeatureofthequarkshadbeenthateach
newlydiscoveredtypewasheavierthanitspredecessors:u(5MeV)d(10
MeV)s(180MeV)c(1.6GeV)b(4.5GeV)andt(180GeV).Heavy
quarksmeanheavyhadronstocontainthem.Andtheheavierthehadron,the
moredifficultitistoproduce.Thishadcausedconcernthattheremightbe
flavourswecouldneverlearnaboutbecausewephysicallydidnot

Page241
havetheresourcestoproducethem.(Howbigasynchrotroncanonebuild
beforetheentiregrossnationalproductoftheplanethasbeenswallowedupin
thehighenergyphysicsbudget?!)However,thankstotheZ

,thishasceased
tobeaproblemwenowhavegoodgroundsforbelievingtheretobeonlythe
sixalreadyknownflavours.
Thus,theinventoryofelementaryparticleslookslikethis:
(i)Sixquarksandsixleptons
(ii)Twelveintermediaryparticles,madeupofeightgluons,thephoton,W

,
andZ

.
ThuswearriveatthesocalledStandardModelofparticlephysicsa
theorythatsummarisesallwehavebeensayingabouttheconstituentsofnature
andtheforcesbetweenthem.Itisacrowningachievement.Allexperiments
carriedouttodateareinagreementwithit.
Whatofthefuture?
Animportantlineofinvestigationconcernstheunificationofforces.Justasthe
electricandmagneticforceswereunited,andtheresultingelectromagnetic
forcewaslaterunitedwiththeweakforce,perhapstheelectroweakforceand
thestrongforcewillonedaycometoberecognisedasdifferentmanifestations
ofacommoninteraction.Ithasbeenfoundthatasonegoestohigherand
higherenergies,thestrengthsofthestrongandweakforcereduce,whilethat
oftheelectromagneticforceincreasestheyappeartobeconverging.
Accordingtocurrentlyfavouredtheory,alltheseforcesbecomeofcomparable
strengthatanenergyofaround10
15
GeV.Shouldthisprovetobethecase,
wewouldthenknowthatwearedealingwithasinglegrandunifiedforce.(I
apologisefortheoverthetopname,butthatiswhatitiscalled!)
Oneproblemisthat10
15
GeVisanenergywecanneverhopetoproducein
thelaboratory(thesynchrotronwouldbejusttoolarge).Atpresentthelimiton
energywecanachieveis10
3
GeV.Butallisnotlost.Thoughsuchhighenergy
conditionsareunattainable,thereareexpectedtoberesidualeffectsmanifest
atordinaryenergies.

Page242
Forinstance,onesuggestedtheoreticalschemewouldresultintheproton
decayingoveralongperiodoftime,viathemode
Searchesarebeingmadeforsuchsignsofinstabilityintheproton.Butnone
hasbeenfoundtodate.Nevertheless,protondecayisthoughttobeoneofthe
wayswemightbeabletoexploreaspectsofgrandunificationwithouthaving
toreproduceultrahighenergyconditions.
Ishould,however,pointoutthat,althoughweareunabletoachievesuch
conditionsinthelaboratory,therewasatimewhenthoseconditionswere
manifest.IrefertothestateoftheUniverseimmediatelyaftertheinstantofthe
BigBang.Atthattime,theUniverseconsistedofadensemixoffundamental
particles,movingaboutatrandom,andcollidingwitheachother.The
temperaturewasenormousmeaningthattheparticlecollisionswere
characterisedbyexceptionallyhighenergiesthekindofenergieswehave
beentalkingabout.
Thus,weenvisageanearlystateoftheUniverse('early'meaningaround10
32

s!),inwhichthetemperaturewas10
27
Kandtheparticleenergieswere10
15

GeV.Atthattime,thestrong,electromagnetic,andweakforceswereofequal
strength.AstheUniverseexpanded,itcooled.Therewasnowlessenergy
availabletothecollisionsanditbecamemoredifficulttocreatetheheavier
particles.Thisinturnmeantthevariousforcesbegantoacquiretheirdistinctive
natures.Wecallthis'spontaneoussymmetrybeaking'.
Letmegiveananalogy.Whenwatercoolsbelowitsfreezingpoint,it
undergoesaphasechangeicecrystalsform.Whereasintheliquid
condition,alldirectionsareequivalent,thecrystalhaswelldefinedaxes.This
meansthatoncrystallization,ithastopickoutcertaindirectionsinspacefor
theseaxes.Butthereisnothingparticularaboutthesedirectionsthechoiceis
quitearbitrary.Asecondcrystalformingelsewhereinthewaterwillalmost
certainlyadoptsomeotherorientation.So,althoughtheaxesareavery
obviousfeatureofthecrystal,theirdirectionscarrynoultimatesignificance.
Theyobscurethefactthatatthefundamentallevel,alldirectionsareequivalent

Page243
thereiscompleterotationalsymmetry.Wesaythatthisoriginalsymmetryof
thewaterhasbeenrandomly,or'spontaneously'brokenitisnowhidden.
Thesameholdswiththeforces.Asthemixofinteractingparticlescools,ittoo
undergoesakindof'phasechange'.Theverydifferentfeaturesofthestrong,
weak,andelectroweakforcesbecomeevidentthesebeingthedifferences
thatmaketheforcesappearsodistinctiveatthelowenergiesthatcharacterise
mostofourexperience.ButasIhavesaid,thereisnothingprofoundinthese
differencestheymustnotblindustotheunderlyingsymmetrytheyhavein
commonthatofthegrandunifiedforce.
Unfortunately,Iseemytimeisrunningout.ThereissomuchmoreIcouldsay.
Forinstance,Ihavesaidnothingaboutthequestionofwhytheelementary
particleshavethemassestheydo.Anotherfascinatingtopicisthatof
magneticmonopoles.Asyouknow,thesecannotbecreatedbybreaking
magnetsinhalf.Butthatdoesn'tpreventthembeingproducedbysome
alternativemeans.ThispossibilitywasfirstsuggestedbyPaulDirac,butisnow
predictedbythegrandunificationtheory.
AsforwaysofextendingthescopeoftheStandardModel,atheoryknownas
supersymmetrylookspromising.Itraisesthequestionofwhetherthe
distinctionbetween,ontheonehand,exchangedintermediaryparticles(such
asgluons,photons,WsandZs),andontheother,theparticlesdoingthe
exchanging(quarksandleptons)isasclearcutaswehavepresentedthem.
FinallyIoughttomentionsuperstrings.Thisisbasedontheideathatthe
fundamentalparticlesquarksandleptonsalthoughtheyappearpoint
like,arenotinfactpoints,buttiny'strings'.Theyareexpectedtobeincredibly
smallnomorethan10
34
minlengthbutimportantly,theyarenotsimple
pointsaswehavebeenassuming.
Asyouwillappreciate,withtheselastfewtopicsweareventuringintothe
realmofspeculation.Whetheranyofthemwill,inthefullnessoftime,gain
acceptanceandbecomeasestablishedastheStandardModelistoday,no
onecansay.Weshalljusthavetowaitandsee.

Page244
17
Epilogue
Ithadbeenahot,sunnydayidealforsittingoutinthegarden.Butevening
wasnowdrawingin.Withthelightfading,MrTompkinsputdownthebook
hewasreading.
'Whatareyoudoing?CanIlook?'heaskedMaud,whowassittingalongside
him,sketching.
'HowmanytimeshaveItoldyou?Idon'tlikeshowingmyworkuntilit's
finished,'shereplied.
'You'llstrainyoureyesinthislight,'headded.
Shelookedup.'Ifyoumustknow,I'mtryingoutideasforthesculpture.'
'Whichsculpture?'
'Theoneforthelab.'
'Whatlab?Whatareyouonabout?'
'Thelabwevisited...'Shepaused.'Ohdear.Iforgottotellyou.Sorry.It
waswhenyouwerewiththenursehavingyourdressingputon.Igotchatting
withthisMrRichterheadofPublicRelations.Justpassingthetimeuntilyou
cameback.Ijokinglytoldhimheneededasculpturefortheforecourt
outsidetheVisitors'Centre.Hesaidhehadoftenthoughtthathimself.Igotto
tellinghimaboutmywork.Heseemedparticularlyinterestedinthe
scorchingwiththeblowtorch.Hethoughtthatmightbeusefulingetting
acrossasenseofhightemperatures,highenergies,violentcollisionsthat
sortofthething.Thesculpturewouldhavetosymbolisethesortofworkthat
goesonthereitcouldn'tjustbeanyoldsculpture.'

Page245
'So,doyoumeanyou'vegotacommission?'askedMrTompkinsexcitedly.
'GoodHeavens,no,'smiledMaud.'Itdoesn'tworklikethat.Ihavetodo
sketches,comeupwithideas,workoutanestimate.Theymighttryother
people.We'lljusthavetosee.HeseemedintriguedthatIhadaninterestin
physics.Hethoughtitshouldhelpmecomeupwithsomethingrelevant.Andof
courseheknowswhomyfatheristhatmighthelptoo!'shelaughed.
Shelaidasidehersketchpad.Togethertheygazedupatthefirsteveningstars.
'Doyoueverwonderwhetheryoudidtherightthinggivingupphysics?'Mr
Tompkinsasked.
Shethoughtforamoment.'Avisitlikethat'sboundtomakeonethink.Cutting
edgeofscience,andallthat.But,no.Notreally.OhIamsureIwouldhave
hadagreattimeworkinginaplacelikethatallveryfascinatingand
glamorous.ButIdon'tknow.Workinginbigteamsonexperimentsthat
havetobedesignedandcarriedoutoverfive,sixorsevenyears...Idon't
thinkIhavethepatienceforthatsortofthing.'
'Istillcan'tgetoverhowbigitwastheaccelerator,'MrTompkinsmused.
'Funnythoughtthat:thesmallertheobjectyouwanttolookat,thebiggerthe
machinehastobe.'
'Ithinkit'sfunnythatinordertoexaminethesmallestbitsofmatter,youmight
havetolooktotheentireUniverse.Andviceversa:thekeytounderstanding
theUniverseistolookatthepropertiesofitssmallestconstituents.'
'Howdoyoumeanexactly'?
'Wellallthatbusinessaboutspontaneoussymmetrybreakingintheearly
Universe.That'salltodowiththeinflationarytheorythereasonwhythe
densityintheUniverseisclosetocritical.YouknowItoldyouaboutit.Don't
sayyou'veforgotten.'
'No,no.Irememberthat.ButI'mnotsureIgettheconnection...'Mr
Tompkinslookedblank.

Page246
Shecontinued.'RememberwhatDadsaidaboutthephasechangewhenthe
forcestookontheirdistinctivecharacterisics.Itwasabitlikeicecrystals
forming.'
Henodded.
'Well,oneofthethingsthathappenwhenicefreezesisthatitexpands.Itwas
thesamewiththeUniverseasitcooled,therecamethephasechange,andthe
Universewentintoastateofsuperfastexpansionwhatwecall'inflation'
beforeitsettleddowntothetypeofexpansionweseetoday.Theinflationary
periodlastedonly10
32
second,butitwasabsolutelycrucial.Itwasduringthat
timemostofthematterintheUniversecameintobeing...'
'Sorry,'MrTompkinsinterrupted.'Mostofthematter...?ButIthoughtall
thematterwascreatedattheinstantoftheBigBang.'
'No.Onlyalittlematterexistedfromtheverybeginning.Mostofitcameinto
beingashortwhileafterthatinstant.'
'Buthow?'
'Well,youknowhowenergyisgivenoutwhenwaterchangestoicethe
latentheatoffusion.That'showitwaswiththeinflationaryphasechangeittoo
releasedenergyenergythatwenttowardstheproductionofmatter.And
what'smore,themechanismforproducingthatmatterwassuchthatitwas
gearedtoproduceexactlytherightamounttogivecriticaldensity.Andyou
knowwhatthesignificanceofcriticaldensityis.'
'ItgovernsthefutureoftheUniverse,'repliedMrTompkins.'Thegalaxieswill
slowdowntoahalt,butonlyintheinfinitefuture.'
'That'sright.So,thekeytounderstandingboththeoriginsofthematterofthe
Universe,andthelongtermfutureoftheUniverse,liesinunderstanding
elementaryparticlephysicsthephysicsofthesmall.Notonlythat,butwe
knowthatforthedensitytobecriticalmostofthematteroftheUniversehas
tobedarkmatter.Whatthatconsistsofwedon'tknowasyet.Itmightbethat
neutrinoscontributebyhavingamassitcouldbethatitpartlyconsistsofsome
unknownmassiveweaklyinteractingparticlesleftoverfromtheBigBanginter

Page247
actions.Wecanonlyhopetoanswerthosequestionsbylookingtohighenergy
physics.'
'Iseewhatyoumean.'
'Andthecrossfertilisationoperatesintheothersensetoo.Theonlywayof
examiningthebehaviouroffundamentalparticlesatgrandunificationenergies,
istofindoutwhattheyweredoingintheearlyBigBangduringtheoneand
onlytimeinthehistoryoftheUniversewherethoseenergieswere,oreverwill
be,attained.'
MrTompkinsthoughtforamoment.
'Itreallyisextraordinarythewayeverythingislinkedtogether,'hemurmured
contentedly.'AllthethingsIhavelearnedoverthelectureseriesareconnected:
fundamentalparticlesandcosmologyhighenergyphysicsandrelativitytheory
fundamentalparticlesandquantumtheory.Whatanextraordinaryworldwe
livein.'
'Andyoumighthaveaddedcosmologyandquantumphysicstoyourlist,'said
Maud.'Remember,quantumphysicshasitsgreatesteffectsonthesmallest
scales,andtheUniverseitselfbegansmall.Quantumphysicswasinchargein
theverybeginning.
'Takethecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiation.Atfirstsightitappearsto
beuniformthesameinalldirections.Butnotquite.Ifitwerecompletely
uniformitwouldmeanthematteremittingitwouldhavebeenuniform.That
can'tberight.Withoutatleastadegreeofinhomogeneityinthedensityofthe
matterdistribution,therewouldbenocentresaroundwhichgalaxiesand
clustersofgalaxiescouldlaterform.Infact,thereareinhomogeneities.They
occuratthelevelofonepartin10
5
.Verysmall,butvital.Itisthesethatsetthe
patternforthelargescalestructureoftheUniverseintermsofclustersand
superclustersofgalaxies,andthegalaxiesthemselves.
'Nowthecrucialquestionis:Whatgovernedthedistributionofthoseoriginal
inhomogeneities?Well,becauseoftheexceedinglysmallsizeoftheUniverseto
beginwith,it'sthoughttheymusthaveoriginatedinquantumfluctuations.That
wouldbereallyfasci

Page248
natingifitturnedoutthatthepatternsofthetiniestquantumfluctuations
werereflectedinthelargescalestructureoftheentireUniverse...'
Hervoicetrailedoff.Thesoundofgentlesnoringcomingfromtheothersun
loungertoldhertherewasnopointincontinuing.

Page249
Glossary
024901.gif
A
Accelerator:amachinethataccelerateselectricallychargedparticlesusing
electricfields .Oftenthepathoftheparticlesisbentintotheformofacircleby
magneticfields.Seesynchrotron.
Alphaparticle:aheliumnucleus,consistingoftwoneutronsandtwo
protonsboundtogether.
Antiparticle:foreverytypeofparticlethereisanantiparticleofthesame
massandspin,buthavingoppositevaluesforcertainotherpropertiessuchas
electriccharge,baryonnumber,strangeness,leptonnumber,etc.
Atom:anucleussurroundedbyacloudofelectrons.
B
Baryon:ahadronconsistingofthreequarks.
Baryonnumber(B):aquantumnumberassignedtoelementaryparticles,
suchthatquarkshaveB=+1/3,andantiquarksB=1/3.
BigBang:thegenerallyacceptedtheorythattheUniverseoriginatedsome12
billionyearsagoasapointofenormousenergydensitysincethenithasbeen
expandingandcooling.
Blackhole:aregionwherehighlycondensedmatterhascreateda
gravitationalfield sostrongthatevenlightcannotescape.
Bottom(b):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksare
presentwithbottomflavour .
C
Charge:particlescarrydifferentkindsofcharge(electric,colour,weak),
thesebeingresponsibleforthewaytheparticleinteractswithotherparticles.
Charm(c):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksarepresent
withcharmflavour .
Chemicalelements:Thereare92differentnaturallyoccurringchemical
elements,eachcharacterisedbyitsowntypeofatom.Theseatomsdifferin
thenumberofelectronstheypossess,andthenumberofprotons and
neutronsinthenucleus.

Page249
Glossary
024901.gif
A
Accelerator:amachinethataccelerateselectricallychargedparticlesusing
electricfields .Oftenthepathoftheparticlesisbentintotheformofacircleby
magneticfields.Seesynchrotron.
Alphaparticle:aheliumnucleus,consistingoftwoneutronsandtwo
protonsboundtogether.
Antiparticle:foreverytypeofparticlethereisanantiparticleofthesame
massandspin,buthavingoppositevaluesforcertainotherpropertiessuchas
electriccharge,baryonnumber,strangeness,leptonnumber,etc.
Atom:anucleussurroundedbyacloudofelectrons.
B
Baryon:ahadronconsistingofthreequarks.
Baryonnumber(B):aquantumnumberassignedtoelementaryparticles,
suchthatquarkshaveB=+1/3,andantiquarksB=1/3.
BigBang:thegenerallyacceptedtheorythattheUniverseoriginatedsome12
billionyearsagoasapointofenormousenergydensitysincethenithasbeen
expandingandcooling.
Blackhole:aregionwherehighlycondensedmatterhascreateda
gravitationalfield sostrongthatevenlightcannotescape.
Bottom(b):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksare
presentwithbottomflavour .
C
Charge:particlescarrydifferentkindsofcharge(electric,colour,weak),
thesebeingresponsibleforthewaytheparticleinteractswithotherparticles.
Charm(c):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksarepresent
withcharmflavour .
Chemicalelements:Thereare92differentnaturallyoccurringchemical
elements,eachcharacterisedbyitsowntypeofatom.Theseatomsdifferin
thenumberofelectronstheypossess,andthenumberofprotons and
neutronsinthenucleus.

Page250
Colourcharge:thesourceofthecolourforcebetweenquarksandgluons.
Therearethreetypesofcolourcharge,usuallydenotedred,greenandblue.
Colourforce:theforcebetweenquarksandgluons.
Conservationlaw:alawofphysics,statingthatthetotalamountofsome
quantity(e.g.electriccharge,baryonnumber,etc.)remainsunchangedinan
interactionbetweenparticles.
Cosmicbackgroundradiation:thecooleddownremnantoftheBigBang
fireball.Itisintheformofthermalradiation,atmicrowavewavelengths,
correspondingtoatemperatureof2.7K
Criticaldensity:theaveragedensityofmatterintheUniversethatwould
marktheborderlinebetweenthetwopossiblescenariosforthefuture:
expansionforever,oranexpansionthatonedaywillbefollowedby
contraction.Iftheinflationtheoryiscorrect,thedensityoftheUniversehas
thiscriticalvalue(10
26
kgm
3
).
D
Darkmatter:agenerictermcoveringmatterintheUniversethatis
nonluminous.Itspresencecanbededucedfromastudyofthemotionsofthe
galaxiesandclustersofgalaxies.
Detector:equipmentthatallowsonetoviewthepathstakenbycharged
particles.Thetracksmightbemarkedoutbydropletsinacloudchamber,
bubblesinabubblechamber,sparks,scintillations,etc.dependingonthe
techniqueused.Moderndaydetectorsincorporatearangeofmethods
suitableforidentifyingdifferenttypesofparticle.
Deuteron:thenucleusofdeuteriumatypeofhydrogenwherethenucleus
consistsofaprotonandneutron,ratherthantheusualsingleproton.
Diffraction:apropertywhichdistinguisheswavelikebehaviour.Waves,on
passingthroughanapertureinabarrier,extendoutwardsandoverlapintothe
geometricshadow.
E
Electriccharge:thepropertyofparticleswhichisresponsiblefortheelectric
forcesbetweenthem.Itcomesintwoforms:positiveandnegative.Like
chargesrepel,unlikechargesattract.Protons,forexample,carryoneunitof
positivecharge,electronshaveoneunitofnegativecharge.
Electron:thelightestchargedlepton,aconstituentofatoms.
ElectronVolt(eV):aunitofenergyequivalenttothatenergyacquiredbyan
electrononbeingacceleratedthroughapotentialdifferenceofoneVolt.
Electromagneticforce:theelectricandmagneticforcesexperiencedby
electricallychargedparticlesarenowknowntobedifferentmanifestationsofa
commonforce:theelectromagneticforce.

Page250
Colourcharge:thesourceofthecolourforcebetweenquarksandgluons.
Therearethreetypesofcolourcharge,usuallydenotedred,greenandblue.
Colourforce:theforcebetweenquarksandgluons.
Conservationlaw:alawofphysics,statingthatthetotalamountofsome
quantity(e.g.electriccharge,baryonnumber,etc.)remainsunchangedinan
interactionbetweenparticles.
Cosmicbackgroundradiation:thecooleddownremnantoftheBigBang
fireball.Itisintheformofthermalradiation,atmicrowavewavelengths,
correspondingtoatemperatureof2.7K
Criticaldensity:theaveragedensityofmatterintheUniversethatwould
marktheborderlinebetweenthetwopossiblescenariosforthefuture:
expansionforever,oranexpansionthatonedaywillbefollowedby
contraction.Iftheinflationtheoryiscorrect,thedensityoftheUniversehas
thiscriticalvalue(10
26
kgm
3
).
D
Darkmatter:agenerictermcoveringmatterintheUniversethatis
nonluminous.Itspresencecanbededucedfromastudyofthemotionsofthe
galaxiesandclustersofgalaxies.
Detector:equipmentthatallowsonetoviewthepathstakenbycharged
particles.Thetracksmightbemarkedoutbydropletsinacloudchamber,
bubblesinabubblechamber,sparks,scintillations,etc.dependingonthe
techniqueused.Moderndaydetectorsincorporatearangeofmethods
suitableforidentifyingdifferenttypesofparticle.
Deuteron:thenucleusofdeuteriumatypeofhydrogenwherethenucleus
consistsofaprotonandneutron,ratherthantheusualsingleproton.
Diffraction:apropertywhichdistinguisheswavelikebehaviour.Waves,on
passingthroughanapertureinabarrier,extendoutwardsandoverlapintothe
geometricshadow.
E
Electriccharge:thepropertyofparticleswhichisresponsiblefortheelectric
forcesbetweenthem.Itcomesintwoforms:positiveandnegative.Like
chargesrepel,unlikechargesattract.Protons,forexample,carryoneunitof
positivecharge,electronshaveoneunitofnegativecharge.
Electron:thelightestchargedlepton,aconstituentofatoms.
ElectronVolt(eV):aunitofenergyequivalenttothatenergyacquiredbyan
electrononbeingacceleratedthroughapotentialdifferenceofoneVolt.
Electromagneticforce:theelectricandmagneticforcesexperiencedby
electricallychargedparticlesarenowknowntobedifferentmanifestationsofa
commonforce:theelectromagneticforce.

Page251
Electromagneticradiation:theradiationemittedwhenanelectrically
chargedparticleisaccelerated.
Electroweakforce:theelectromagneticandweakforcesarenowknown
tobedifferentmanifestationsofacommonforce:theelectroweakforce.
Equivalenceprinciple:statestheequivalenceofaccelerationandgravitation.
Thisleadstotheobservation,forexample,thatallobjectsfallequallyfast
undergravity.ItisafeatureinEinstein'sgeneraltheoryofrelativity.
Elementaryparticles:thefundamentalparticlesfromwhichallmatterisbuilt.
Strictlyspeakingthetermappliestoquarksandleptons,butmorelooselyitis
usedinconnectionwithprotons,neutrons ,otherbaryonsandmesons.
Energystates(discrete):accordingtoquantumtheory,aparticlehasan
associatedwave,thewavelengthofwhichgovernstheparticle'smomentum,
andhenceitsenergy.Thiswave,likeanyotherwave,cantakeononlycertain
valuesofitswavelengthwhenconfinedtoacertainregionofspace.Thus,a
confinedparticle(e.g.anelectroninanatom)cantakeononlycertain
discretevaluesforitsenergy.
Entropy:apropertyusedinthermodynamicsasameasureofthedisorderof
asystemofparticles.
Eventhorizon:animaginarysurfacedrawninspacearoundablackhole,
suchthatanythinginsidethatsurface,includinglight,canneverescape.
Exchangeforces:theforcesbetweenelementaryparticlesarisethroughthe
exchangeofintermediaryparticles.Thustheelectromagneticforceisdueto
theexchangeofphotons ,thecolourforcebetweenquarksfromthe
exchangeofgluons.
Exclusionprinciple:theprincipleenunciatedbyPaulithatnotwoelectrons
canoccupythesamestate.
Expandinguniverse:sincetheBigBang,theUniversehasbeenexpanding.
TheclustersofgalaxiesrecedefromeachotheraccordingtoHubble'sLaw,
wherebythegreaterthedistancetothecluster,thegreateritsspeedof
recession.
F
Field:aphysicalquantity,thevalueofwhichvariesfrompointtopointin
space,andpossiblyintime.Twoparticlesinteractwitheachotherthrough
experiencing,attheirownlocation,thefieldgeneratedtherebytheother.
Thereare,forexample,electromagnetic,weakandstrong(colour)fields.
Flavour:thequalitythatdistinguishesthedifferenttypesofquark:up,down,
strange,charm,topandbottom.

Page251
Electromagneticradiation:theradiationemittedwhenanelectrically
chargedparticleisaccelerated.
Electroweakforce:theelectromagneticandweakforcesarenowknown
tobedifferentmanifestationsofacommonforce:theelectroweakforce.
Equivalenceprinciple:statestheequivalenceofaccelerationandgravitation.
Thisleadstotheobservation,forexample,thatallobjectsfallequallyfast
undergravity.ItisafeatureinEinstein'sgeneraltheoryofrelativity.
Elementaryparticles:thefundamentalparticlesfromwhichallmatterisbuilt.
Strictlyspeakingthetermappliestoquarksandleptons,butmorelooselyitis
usedinconnectionwithprotons,neutrons ,otherbaryonsandmesons.
Energystates(discrete):accordingtoquantumtheory,aparticlehasan
associatedwave,thewavelengthofwhichgovernstheparticle'smomentum,
andhenceitsenergy.Thiswave,likeanyotherwave,cantakeononlycertain
valuesofitswavelengthwhenconfinedtoacertainregionofspace.Thus,a
confinedparticle(e.g.anelectroninanatom)cantakeononlycertain
discretevaluesforitsenergy.
Entropy:apropertyusedinthermodynamicsasameasureofthedisorderof
asystemofparticles.
Eventhorizon:animaginarysurfacedrawninspacearoundablackhole,
suchthatanythinginsidethatsurface,includinglight,canneverescape.
Exchangeforces:theforcesbetweenelementaryparticlesarisethroughthe
exchangeofintermediaryparticles.Thustheelectromagneticforceisdueto
theexchangeofphotons ,thecolourforcebetweenquarksfromthe
exchangeofgluons.
Exclusionprinciple:theprincipleenunciatedbyPaulithatnotwoelectrons
canoccupythesamestate.
Expandinguniverse:sincetheBigBang,theUniversehasbeenexpanding.
TheclustersofgalaxiesrecedefromeachotheraccordingtoHubble'sLaw,
wherebythegreaterthedistancetothecluster,thegreateritsspeedof
recession.
F
Field:aphysicalquantity,thevalueofwhichvariesfrompointtopointin
space,andpossiblyintime.Twoparticlesinteractwitheachotherthrough
experiencing,attheirownlocation,thefieldgeneratedtherebytheother.
Thereare,forexample,electromagnetic,weakandstrong(colour)fields.
Flavour:thequalitythatdistinguishesthedifferenttypesofquark:up,down,
strange,charm,topandbottom.

Page252
Frequency:thenumberofoscillationsorcyclesofaperiodicmotionina
givenunitoftime.
Freezeoutmix:therelativeabundancesofthedifferenttypesofatomic
nucleithatemergedfromtheBigBangwhenthedensityandtemperature
decreasedtothepointwherefurtherprimordialnucleosynthesisceased
sometimesreferredtoasthe'primordialnuclearabundancies'.
G
Galaxy:agravitationallyboundcollectionoftypically100billionstars.There
areabout100billiongalaxiesintheobservableUniverse.
Gammaray:averyhighfrequencyformofelectromagneticradiation.
Generation:consistsoftwoquarksassociatedwithtwoleptons.Thereare
threegenerations:(u,d,e

,v
e
)(c,s,

,v
m
)and(t,b,
t

,v
t
).
Gluon:aparticlethattransmitsthestrongcolourforce.Ithaseightpossible
colouredstates.
Grandunification:theproposalthattheelectromagnetic,weak,andstrong
forcemightbedifferentmanifestationsofasingleforce.
Gravitationalpotentialenergy:thatcomponentofaparticle'senergythat
derivesfromitspositionwithinagravitationalfield.
Gravitationalredshift:theshiftinfrequency whenelectomagnetic
radiationmovesupagravitationalfield ,forexamplewhenemittedoutwards
fromthesurfaceofastar.Thereisashifttotheblueendofthespectrumwhen
radiationtravelsdownagravitationalfield.
H
Hadron:thecollectivenamegiventoparticlesthatexperiencethestrong
nuclearforce,e.g.protons andpions .
HeatDeathoftheUniverse:thesuggestionthatallstarswilleventually
exhaustthenuclearfuelsthatkeeptheirfiresgoing,atwhichtimetheUniverse
willhavebecomecoldandlifeless.
Helium:thesecondlightestchemicalelement,itsatomspossessingtwo
electrons,anditsnucleusbeingknownasanalphaparticle.
Heisenberg'suncertaintyrelation:statesthatonecannotsimultaneously
measurewithcompleteprecisionboththeposition,q,andthemomentum,p,
ofaparticle(eveninprinciple).Theproductoftheuncertaintiesisafinite
quantityofatleasttheorderofPlanck'sconstant,h:
Highenergyphysics:thephysicsofelementaryparticles,socalled
becauseoftheneedtousehighenergybeamsofparticles.
Hydrogen:thelightestchemicalelement,havingbutoneelectronanda
nucleusconsistingofasingleproton.
I
Inflationtheory:atheorywhichholdsthat,duringthefirst10
32
secondafter
theinstantoftheBigBang,theUniverseunderwentaphase

Page252
Frequency:thenumberofoscillationsorcyclesofaperiodicmotionina
givenunitoftime.
Freezeoutmix:therelativeabundancesofthedifferenttypesofatomic
nucleithatemergedfromtheBigBangwhenthedensityandtemperature
decreasedtothepointwherefurtherprimordialnucleosynthesisceased
sometimesreferredtoasthe'primordialnuclearabundancies'.
G
Galaxy:agravitationallyboundcollectionoftypically100billionstars.There
areabout100billiongalaxiesintheobservableUniverse.
Gammaray:averyhighfrequencyformofelectromagneticradiation.
Generation:consistsoftwoquarksassociatedwithtwoleptons.Thereare
threegenerations:(u,d,e

,v
e
)(c,s,

,v
m
)and(t,b,
t

,v
t
).
Gluon:aparticlethattransmitsthestrongcolourforce.Ithaseightpossible
colouredstates.
Grandunification:theproposalthattheelectromagnetic,weak,andstrong
forcemightbedifferentmanifestationsofasingleforce.
Gravitationalpotentialenergy:thatcomponentofaparticle'senergythat
derivesfromitspositionwithinagravitationalfield.
Gravitationalredshift:theshiftinfrequency whenelectomagnetic
radiationmovesupagravitationalfield ,forexamplewhenemittedoutwards
fromthesurfaceofastar.Thereisashifttotheblueendofthespectrumwhen
radiationtravelsdownagravitationalfield.
H
Hadron:thecollectivenamegiventoparticlesthatexperiencethestrong
nuclearforce,e.g.protons andpions .
HeatDeathoftheUniverse:thesuggestionthatallstarswilleventually
exhaustthenuclearfuelsthatkeeptheirfiresgoing,atwhichtimetheUniverse
willhavebecomecoldandlifeless.
Helium:thesecondlightestchemicalelement,itsatomspossessingtwo
electrons,anditsnucleusbeingknownasanalphaparticle.
Heisenberg'suncertaintyrelation:statesthatonecannotsimultaneously
measurewithcompleteprecisionboththeposition,q,andthemomentum,p,
ofaparticle(eveninprinciple).Theproductoftheuncertaintiesisafinite
quantityofatleasttheorderofPlanck'sconstant,h:
Highenergyphysics:thephysicsofelementaryparticles,socalled
becauseoftheneedtousehighenergybeamsofparticles.
Hydrogen:thelightestchemicalelement,havingbutoneelectronanda
nucleusconsistingofasingleproton.
I
Inflationtheory:atheorywhichholdsthat,duringthefirst10
32
secondafter
theinstantoftheBigBang,theUniverseunderwentaphase

Page253
ofsuperfastexpansionbeforesettlingdowntoitspresentrateof
expansion.Briefthoughtheinflationperiodwas,itensuredthatthedensity
oftheUniversewouldassumethecriticaldensityvalue,andhence
determinedtheultimatefateoftheUniverse.
Interferenceofwaves:whenthepeaksandtroughsofmorethanonebeam
ofwavesoverlapinthesameregionofspace,thedisturbancesaddtogether.If
thepeaksofonebeamcoincidewiththepeaksoftheother(thetwosetsof
troughsalsocoinciding),theresultinginterferenceiscalledconstructive
interferenceifthepeaksofonecoincidewiththetroughsoftheother(and
viceversa),thereisdestructiveinterference.Interferencegivesriseto
distinctivepatternsintheresultantintensityofthewaves,whichcanbeusedas
evidenceforbehaviouraswavesratherthanasparticles.
Ions:atomsthathavegainedorlostanelectronfromtheirnormal
complement,andsohaveoverallnegativeorpositiveelectriccharge
respectively.
Isospin(I
z
):aquantumnumberpossessedbyelementaryparticlesand
relatedtotheirelectriccharge.Itiscalledthisbecauseitbehaves
mathematicallyinamanneranalogoustospininquantumtheory.
L
Lengthcontraction:accordingtoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity,an
objectmovingrelativetoanobserverbehavesasthoughitslengthhasbeen
contractedalongthedirectionofmotion.
Lepton:thecollectivenamereferringtoparticlesthatexperiencetheweak
force,butnotthestrongnuclearforce.Inotherwords,theydonotcarry
colourcharge.Theyconsistoftheelectron,themuonandthetauparticles,
togetherwiththeirassociatedneutrinos.
Leptonnumber:aconservedquantumnumberassociatedwithleptons.
Therearethreeleptonnumberscorrespondingtothethreetypesoflepton.
M
Magneticmonopole:aparticlewhichhasbeentheoreticallypredicted,butas
yethasnotbeenfound,carryingbutonemagneticpole(eithernorthorsouth).
Mass:anintrinsicpropertyofparticlesthatdeterminesitsresponsetoan
acceleratingforce.Sometimesreferredtoasinertialmass.
Matrixmechanics:analternativeformulationofquantumtheory.Itisbased
ontheuseofmatrices.
Maxwell'sDemon:ahypotheticalcreaturewhoseparatesfastfromslow
movingparticlesinanattempttodefythesecondlawofthermodynamics
thelawwhichrequiresentropyalwaystoincrease.
Meson:ahadronconsistingofaquarkandanantiquark.
MilkyWay:thenamegiventoourgalaxy.

Page253
ofsuperfastexpansionbeforesettlingdowntoitspresentrateof
expansion.Briefthoughtheinflationperiodwas,itensuredthatthedensity
oftheUniversewouldassumethecriticaldensityvalue,andhence
determinedtheultimatefateoftheUniverse.
Interferenceofwaves:whenthepeaksandtroughsofmorethanonebeam
ofwavesoverlapinthesameregionofspace,thedisturbancesaddtogether.If
thepeaksofonebeamcoincidewiththepeaksoftheother(thetwosetsof
troughsalsocoinciding),theresultinginterferenceiscalledconstructive
interferenceifthepeaksofonecoincidewiththetroughsoftheother(and
viceversa),thereisdestructiveinterference.Interferencegivesriseto
distinctivepatternsintheresultantintensityofthewaves,whichcanbeusedas
evidenceforbehaviouraswavesratherthanasparticles.
Ions:atomsthathavegainedorlostanelectronfromtheirnormal
complement,andsohaveoverallnegativeorpositiveelectriccharge
respectively.
Isospin(I
z
):aquantumnumberpossessedbyelementaryparticlesand
relatedtotheirelectriccharge.Itiscalledthisbecauseitbehaves
mathematicallyinamanneranalogoustospininquantumtheory.
L
Lengthcontraction:accordingtoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity,an
objectmovingrelativetoanobserverbehavesasthoughitslengthhasbeen
contractedalongthedirectionofmotion.
Lepton:thecollectivenamereferringtoparticlesthatexperiencetheweak
force,butnotthestrongnuclearforce.Inotherwords,theydonotcarry
colourcharge.Theyconsistoftheelectron,themuonandthetauparticles,
togetherwiththeirassociatedneutrinos.
Leptonnumber:aconservedquantumnumberassociatedwithleptons.
Therearethreeleptonnumberscorrespondingtothethreetypesoflepton.
M
Magneticmonopole:aparticlewhichhasbeentheoreticallypredicted,butas
yethasnotbeenfound,carryingbutonemagneticpole(eithernorthorsouth).
Mass:anintrinsicpropertyofparticlesthatdeterminesitsresponsetoan
acceleratingforce.Sometimesreferredtoasinertialmass.
Matrixmechanics:analternativeformulationofquantumtheory.Itisbased
ontheuseofmatrices.
Maxwell'sDemon:ahypotheticalcreaturewhoseparatesfastfromslow
movingparticlesinanattempttodefythesecondlawofthermodynamics
thelawwhichrequiresentropyalwaystoincrease.
Meson:ahadronconsistingofaquarkandanantiquark.
MilkyWay:thenamegiventoourgalaxy.

Page254
Molecule:thesmallestunitofachemicalsubstance,consistingofseveral
atomsboundtogether.
Momentum:massmultipliedbyvelocity.
Muon:aleptonbelongingtothesecondgeneration.
N
Neutrino:electricallyneutralparticle,withsmallorpossiblyzeromass.There
arethreevarieties,oneforeachtypeoflepton.
Neutron:electricallyneutralconstituentparticleofatomicnuclei,consisting
itselfofthreequarks.
Nuclearfission:thebreakup,orfission,ofheavyatomicnucleiintolighter
typesofnuclei.
Nuclearfusion:thebuildupofmorecomplexatomicnucleithroughthe
fusionoflighternuclei.
Nucleon:generictermforneutronsandprotons theconstituentparticles
ofatomicnuclei.
Nucleosynthesis:thenuclearfusionprocessesbywhichtheatomicnuclei
ofthechemicalelementsweremade.Primordialnucleosynthesistookplace
duringtheviolentconditionsofthefirstfewminutesoftheBigBangstellar
nucleosynthesisistheongoingfusionofnucleiinthehotinteriorsofstarsand
explosivenucleosynthesisoccursbrieflyduringasupernovaexplosion.
Nucleus:thecentralpartofanatom,consistingofneutronsandprotons .
P
Pairproduction:theprocesswherebyahighenergyphotonproducesan
electronandapositron.Thetermalsoreferstothesimultaneousproduction
ofaquarkandantiquark,protonandantiproton,etc.
Particle:asomewhatloosetermthatrefersbothtohadrons(suchasprotons
andpions )andtothefundamentalentitiesquarksandleptons.
Photoelectriceffect:theprocesswherebyhighenergyphotons ofultraviolet
lightejectelectronsonstrikingmetalsurfaces.
Photon:aparticle,orquantum,oflight,andofotherformsof
electromagneticradiation.Theexchangeofphotonsisresponsibleforthe
electromagneticforce.
Pion:thelightestmeson.Thechargedformdecaysintoamuonandneutrino
theelectricallyneutralpiondecaysintotwophotons .
Planck'sconstant(h):afundamentalphysicalconstantthatappears,for
example,inHeisenberg'suncertaintyrelation.Ithasthevalueh=6.626
10
34
Jouleseconds.
Positron:theantiparticleoftheelectron.
Potentialbarrier:apositivelychargedparticleapproachinganucleuswillat
firstexperienceanincreasingrepulsiveelectrostaticforceduetothe

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Molecule:thesmallestunitofachemicalsubstance,consistingofseveral
atomsboundtogether.
Momentum:massmultipliedbyvelocity.
Muon:aleptonbelongingtothesecondgeneration.
N
Neutrino:electricallyneutralparticle,withsmallorpossiblyzeromass.There
arethreevarieties,oneforeachtypeoflepton.
Neutron:electricallyneutralconstituentparticleofatomicnuclei,consisting
itselfofthreequarks.
Nuclearfission:thebreakup,orfission,ofheavyatomicnucleiintolighter
typesofnuclei.
Nuclearfusion:thebuildupofmorecomplexatomicnucleithroughthe
fusionoflighternuclei.
Nucleon:generictermforneutronsandprotons theconstituentparticles
ofatomicnuclei.
Nucleosynthesis:thenuclearfusionprocessesbywhichtheatomicnuclei
ofthechemicalelementsweremade.Primordialnucleosynthesistookplace
duringtheviolentconditionsofthefirstfewminutesoftheBigBangstellar
nucleosynthesisistheongoingfusionofnucleiinthehotinteriorsofstarsand
explosivenucleosynthesisoccursbrieflyduringasupernovaexplosion.
Nucleus:thecentralpartofanatom,consistingofneutronsandprotons .
P
Pairproduction:theprocesswherebyahighenergyphotonproducesan
electronandapositron.Thetermalsoreferstothesimultaneousproduction
ofaquarkandantiquark,protonandantiproton,etc.
Particle:asomewhatloosetermthatrefersbothtohadrons(suchasprotons
andpions )andtothefundamentalentitiesquarksandleptons.
Photoelectriceffect:theprocesswherebyhighenergyphotons ofultraviolet
lightejectelectronsonstrikingmetalsurfaces.
Photon:aparticle,orquantum,oflight,andofotherformsof
electromagneticradiation.Theexchangeofphotonsisresponsibleforthe
electromagneticforce.
Pion:thelightestmeson.Thechargedformdecaysintoamuonandneutrino
theelectricallyneutralpiondecaysintotwophotons .
Planck'sconstant(h):afundamentalphysicalconstantthatappears,for
example,inHeisenberg'suncertaintyrelation.Ithasthevalueh=6.626
10
34
Jouleseconds.
Positron:theantiparticleoftheelectron.
Potentialbarrier:apositivelychargedparticleapproachinganucleuswillat
firstexperienceanincreasingrepulsiveelectrostaticforceduetothe

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positiveelectricchargesontheprotons inthenucleus.Closerinstillit
comeswithinrangeoftheattractivestrongnuclearforce,which
eventuallycomestodominate,givinganoverallattraction.Thusthe
particle'sapproachislikethatofcomingupagainstandthensurmountinga
barrier.
Probabilityclouds:aloosetermreferringtothemathematicalprobability
distributionsthatspecifythelikelihoodoffindinganatomicelectroninvarious
regionsaboutthenucleus.
Probabilitywaves:thenamegiventothemathematicalwavesusedto
determinetheprobabilityoffindingaquantuminanygivenregionofspaceat
agiventime.
Proton:positivelychargedconstituentparticleofatomicnuclei,consisting
itselfofthreequarks.
Q
Quantum:aparticlethatiseitheroneofthefundamentalconstituentsofmatter
(e.g.aquarkorlepton),oranintermediaryparticle(suchasagluonor
photon)responsibleforthetransmissionofaforce.
Quantumnumber:aproperty,suchasbaryonnumberorleptonnumber
possessedofelementaryparticles.Itgenerallyhastobeconservedin
reactionsbetweenparticles.
Quantumtheory:ourmodernunderstandingofthebehaviourofanything
smalltypicallyofatomicdimensionsorless.Sometimescalledquantum
mechanics,orwavemechanics,itincorporatestheneedtodescriberadiation
intermsofwavebehaviourasitmovesfromonelocationtoanother,butin
termsofparticlebehaviourwhenitinteractswithmatterwiththeexchangeof
energyandmomentum.
Quark:thefundamentalconstituentofallhadrons.Therearesixvarietiesor
flavours,pairedoffintothreegenerations.
Quasar:agalaxypossessingahighlyactiveandluminouscentre.Quasars
formedearlyintheUniverse'shistory,andcanbeobservedtodayatgreat
distancesbecauseofthetimeithastakenfortheirlighttoreachus.
R
Radioactivenucleardecay:thespontaneoustransformationofaheavy
nucleusintolighterparticles.
Redgiantstar:alatestageinthedevelopmentofastar,suchasourSun,
whenitswellsupinsizeanditssurfacebecomesred.
Relativity,generaltheory:Einstein'stheorywherebygravitationalforcesare
treatedmathematicallyascurvaturesofspacetime.
Relativity,specialtheory:Einstein'stheoryinwhichspaceandtimeare
incorporatedintoafourdimensionalspacetime.Itleadstomarkedlydifferent
effectsfromthoseexpectedofclassicalphysicswhenspeedsclosetothatof
lightareinvolved.

Page255
positiveelectricchargesontheprotons inthenucleus.Closerinstillit
comeswithinrangeoftheattractivestrongnuclearforce,which
eventuallycomestodominate,givinganoverallattraction.Thusthe
particle'sapproachislikethatofcomingupagainstandthensurmountinga
barrier.
Probabilityclouds:aloosetermreferringtothemathematicalprobability
distributionsthatspecifythelikelihoodoffindinganatomicelectroninvarious
regionsaboutthenucleus.
Probabilitywaves:thenamegiventothemathematicalwavesusedto
determinetheprobabilityoffindingaquantuminanygivenregionofspaceat
agiventime.
Proton:positivelychargedconstituentparticleofatomicnuclei,consisting
itselfofthreequarks.
Q
Quantum:aparticlethatiseitheroneofthefundamentalconstituentsofmatter
(e.g.aquarkorlepton),oranintermediaryparticle(suchasagluonor
photon)responsibleforthetransmissionofaforce.
Quantumnumber:aproperty,suchasbaryonnumberorleptonnumber
possessedofelementaryparticles.Itgenerallyhastobeconservedin
reactionsbetweenparticles.
Quantumtheory:ourmodernunderstandingofthebehaviourofanything
smalltypicallyofatomicdimensionsorless.Sometimescalledquantum
mechanics,orwavemechanics,itincorporatestheneedtodescriberadiation
intermsofwavebehaviourasitmovesfromonelocationtoanother,butin
termsofparticlebehaviourwhenitinteractswithmatterwiththeexchangeof
energyandmomentum.
Quark:thefundamentalconstituentofallhadrons.Therearesixvarietiesor
flavours,pairedoffintothreegenerations.
Quasar:agalaxypossessingahighlyactiveandluminouscentre.Quasars
formedearlyintheUniverse'shistory,andcanbeobservedtodayatgreat
distancesbecauseofthetimeithastakenfortheirlighttoreachus.
R
Radioactivenucleardecay:thespontaneoustransformationofaheavy
nucleusintolighterparticles.
Redgiantstar:alatestageinthedevelopmentofastar,suchasourSun,
whenitswellsupinsizeanditssurfacebecomesred.
Relativity,generaltheory:Einstein'stheorywherebygravitationalforcesare
treatedmathematicallyascurvaturesofspacetime.
Relativity,specialtheory:Einstein'stheoryinwhichspaceandtimeare
incorporatedintoafourdimensionalspacetime.Itleadstomarkedlydifferent
effectsfromthoseexpectedofclassicalphysicswhenspeedsclosetothatof
lightareinvolved.

Page256
S
Spacetime:thefourdimensionalcontinuumintowhichspaceandtimeare
incorporated,asdescribedbythespecialtheoryofrelativity.
Spectra:adisplayofelectromagneticradiationrevealingitsconstituent
wavelengths.Becauseonlycertainvaluesofenergyarepermittedto
electronsinatoms,theradiationemittedbytheelectrons,astheypassfrom
oneenergyleveltoanother,exhibitsspectracharacterisedbydiscretewave
lengthsthosecorrespondingtotheenergydifferencesbetweentheinitial
andfinalstates.
Spectroscope:adevicefordisplayingelectromagneticradiationaccording
toitsconstituentwavelengths.
Speedoflight,(c):light(andallothermasslessparticles)travelataspeedin
vacuumof300,000kilometrespersecond.Accordingtothespecialtheoryof
relativity,thisisthesameforallobserversinuniformrelativemotion.(The
speedcandifferfromthisvalueinthepresenceofagravitationalfield ,orwhen
lightpassesthroughmaterials.)
Spin:theintrinsicangularmomentumpossessedbycertainparticles.
Spontaneoussymmetrybreaking:asituationinwhichanunderlying
symmetryinaphysicalsystembecomeslostinmovingtowardsastateof
lowerenergy.Forexample,liquidwaterissymmetricasregardsdirectionin
space,butoncoolingtoformicecrystals,certaindirectionsaresingledoutfor
thealignmentofthecrystallineaxes.Butthereisnodeepsignificancetothese
directionstheyareadoptedrandomly,orspontaneously.Theymaskthefact
thatwateritselfisfundamentallysymmetric.Likewise,thestrong,
electromagneticandweakforcesarebelievedtopossessasymmetrythat
onlybecomesapparentinsituationsofhigherenergythanthosenormally
encountered.
StandardModel(orStandardTheory):theoveralltheoryofquarksand
leptons,andoftheforcesbetweenthem,asdescribedinthisbook,and
generallyacceptedasourcurrentbestunderstandingofhighenergyphysics.
SteadyStateTheory:forsometimeapopularrivaltheorytotheBigBang.
Itheldthatasfastasgalaxiesrecededfromanyregionofspace,theirplace
wastakenbyspontaneouslycreatednewmatter.Thisgatheredtogetherto
formnewstarsandgalaxies,which,intheirturn,recededintothedistance.In
thismanner,theUniverseretainedthesamegeneralcharacteristicsindefinitely.
Thetheoryhasnowbeenabandonedinthefaceofoverwhelmingevidencein
favouroftherehavingbeenaBigBang.
Strangeness(s):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksare
presentwithstrangenessflavour .

Page256
S
Spacetime:thefourdimensionalcontinuumintowhichspaceandtimeare
incorporated,asdescribedbythespecialtheoryofrelativity.
Spectra:adisplayofelectromagneticradiationrevealingitsconstituent
wavelengths.Becauseonlycertainvaluesofenergyarepermittedto
electronsinatoms,theradiationemittedbytheelectrons,astheypassfrom
oneenergyleveltoanother,exhibitsspectracharacterisedbydiscretewave
lengthsthosecorrespondingtotheenergydifferencesbetweentheinitial
andfinalstates.
Spectroscope:adevicefordisplayingelectromagneticradiationaccording
toitsconstituentwavelengths.
Speedoflight,(c):light(andallothermasslessparticles)travelataspeedin
vacuumof300,000kilometrespersecond.Accordingtothespecialtheoryof
relativity,thisisthesameforallobserversinuniformrelativemotion.(The
speedcandifferfromthisvalueinthepresenceofagravitationalfield ,orwhen
lightpassesthroughmaterials.)
Spin:theintrinsicangularmomentumpossessedbycertainparticles.
Spontaneoussymmetrybreaking:asituationinwhichanunderlying
symmetryinaphysicalsystembecomeslostinmovingtowardsastateof
lowerenergy.Forexample,liquidwaterissymmetricasregardsdirectionin
space,butoncoolingtoformicecrystals,certaindirectionsaresingledoutfor
thealignmentofthecrystallineaxes.Butthereisnodeepsignificancetothese
directionstheyareadoptedrandomly,orspontaneously.Theymaskthefact
thatwateritselfisfundamentallysymmetric.Likewise,thestrong,
electromagneticandweakforcesarebelievedtopossessasymmetrythat
onlybecomesapparentinsituationsofhigherenergythanthosenormally
encountered.
StandardModel(orStandardTheory):theoveralltheoryofquarksand
leptons,andoftheforcesbetweenthem,asdescribedinthisbook,and
generallyacceptedasourcurrentbestunderstandingofhighenergyphysics.
SteadyStateTheory:forsometimeapopularrivaltheorytotheBigBang.
Itheldthatasfastasgalaxiesrecededfromanyregionofspace,theirplace
wastakenbyspontaneouslycreatednewmatter.Thisgatheredtogetherto
formnewstarsandgalaxies,which,intheirturn,recededintothedistance.In
thismanner,theUniverseretainedthesamegeneralcharacteristicsindefinitely.
Thetheoryhasnowbeenabandonedinthefaceofoverwhelmingevidencein
favouroftherehavingbeenaBigBang.
Strangeness(s):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksare
presentwithstrangenessflavour .

Page257
Strongnuclearforce:thedominantforcebetweenhadrons.Itisresponsible,
forexample,forbindingnucleonsinthenucleus.Itisnowregardedasa
'leakage'ofthemorefundamentalcolourforceoperatingbetweenthequarks
thatmakeupeachofthenucleonsinmuchthesamewayastheforce
bindingatomstoeachotherinamoleculeisa'leakage'oftheelectrostatic
forceoperatinginsideeachatombetweenitselectronsandnucleus.
Supernova:theexplosivedisintegrationofaverymassivestar,sometimes
leadingtothecollapseofitsinnercoretoformablackhole.
Superstring:therecentlypostulatedideathatquarksandleptonsarenot
pointlikeentitiesasisgenerallyassumed,butconsistofextremelytiny
vibratingstrings.
supersymmetry:accordingtothisidea,theexchangedparticlesthatactas
transmittersofforce(e.g.gluonsandphotons ),andtheparticlesthatdothe
exchanging(e.g.quarksandleptons)arenotasdifferentintheirproperties
androlesasiscommonlysupposed.
SU(3)representation:afeaturearisingoutofgrouptheorythebranchof
mathematicsthatdescribessymmetry.Itisfoundtoberelevanttothe
classificationofthehadrons,givingrisetooctetsanddecupletsofclosely
relatedparticles.Suchsymmetricrepresentationsreflecttheunderlyingquark
structureofthehadrons.
Symmetry:justasacircleisasymmetricfigurebecauseitcanberotated
withoutproducingachange,soaphysicaltheoryisspokenofaspossesinga
symmetryifsomeoperationcanbeperformedonitthatleavesitunchanged.
Synchrotron:atypeofparticleacceleratorinwhichthestrengthsofthe
acceleratingelectricforcesandtheguidingmagneticforcesareadjusted
synchronouslytomatchthechangingcharacteristicsoftheaccelerated
particles.
T
Taulepton:thechargedleptonbelongingtothethirdgeneration.
Timedilation:accordingtoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity,anobject
suchasaspacecraftorradioactiveparticle,movingrelativetoanobserver,
behavesasthoughitstimeprocesseshavesloweddown.
Top(t):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksarepresent
withtopflavour .
U
Unifiedtheories:attemptstoaccountforavarietyofforcesasdifferent
manifestationsofacommonforce.Forexample,theelectrostaticandmagnetic
forcesarebutdifferentaspectsoftheelectromagneticforcethatinturn
combineswiththeweakforcetoyieldtheelectroweakforce.

Page257
Strongnuclearforce:thedominantforcebetweenhadrons.Itisresponsible,
forexample,forbindingnucleonsinthenucleus.Itisnowregardedasa
'leakage'ofthemorefundamentalcolourforceoperatingbetweenthequarks
thatmakeupeachofthenucleonsinmuchthesamewayastheforce
bindingatomstoeachotherinamoleculeisa'leakage'oftheelectrostatic
forceoperatinginsideeachatombetweenitselectronsandnucleus.
Supernova:theexplosivedisintegrationofaverymassivestar,sometimes
leadingtothecollapseofitsinnercoretoformablackhole.
Superstring:therecentlypostulatedideathatquarksandleptonsarenot
pointlikeentitiesasisgenerallyassumed,butconsistofextremelytiny
vibratingstrings.
supersymmetry:accordingtothisidea,theexchangedparticlesthatactas
transmittersofforce(e.g.gluonsandphotons ),andtheparticlesthatdothe
exchanging(e.g.quarksandleptons)arenotasdifferentintheirproperties
androlesasiscommonlysupposed.
SU(3)representation:afeaturearisingoutofgrouptheorythebranchof
mathematicsthatdescribessymmetry.Itisfoundtoberelevanttothe
classificationofthehadrons,givingrisetooctetsanddecupletsofclosely
relatedparticles.Suchsymmetricrepresentationsreflecttheunderlyingquark
structureofthehadrons.
Symmetry:justasacircleisasymmetricfigurebecauseitcanberotated
withoutproducingachange,soaphysicaltheoryisspokenofaspossesinga
symmetryifsomeoperationcanbeperformedonitthatleavesitunchanged.
Synchrotron:atypeofparticleacceleratorinwhichthestrengthsofthe
acceleratingelectricforcesandtheguidingmagneticforcesareadjusted
synchronouslytomatchthechangingcharacteristicsoftheaccelerated
particles.
T
Taulepton:thechargedleptonbelongingtothethirdgeneration.
Timedilation:accordingtoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity,anobject
suchasaspacecraftorradioactiveparticle,movingrelativetoanobserver,
behavesasthoughitstimeprocesseshavesloweddown.
Top(t):thequantumnumberthatspecifieshowmanyquarksarepresent
withtopflavour .
U
Unifiedtheories:attemptstoaccountforavarietyofforcesasdifferent
manifestationsofacommonforce.Forexample,theelectrostaticandmagnetic
forcesarebutdifferentaspectsoftheelectromagneticforcethatinturn
combineswiththeweakforcetoyieldtheelectroweakforce.

Page258
Grandunificationseekstounitetheelectroweakforcewiththestrong
force.Ultimatelyitishopedfurtherunificationwillincorporategravity.
V
Valancyelectron:anelectronlooselyboundontheperipheryofanatom,
capableofbeingpartlyattractedtothenucleusofaneighbouringatom,thus
producingabindingforceholdingtheatomstogetherasamolecule.
W
Wavefunction(Y):amathematicalexpressionusedinquantumtheoryfor
describingthemotionofaparticle.Itisusedtoevaluatetheprobabilityof
findingtheparticleinagivenregionofspaceatagiventime,withparticular
valuesofitsotherattributes.
Wavelength:thedistancebetweenadjacentpeaks,orbetweenadjacent
troughs,inawavetrain.
WandZparticles(WZ):particlesthattransmittheweakforcebetween
hadronsandleptons.TheWparticlesareelectricallychargedtheZis
electricallyneutral.
Weakforce:oneofthefundamentalforcesinnature,responsible,for
example,forcertaintypesofradioactivenucleardecay.Itistransmitted
betweenhadronsandleptonsbytheexchangeofWandZparticles.
Whitedwarfstar:thehotwhiteinnercorerevealedwhenastarliketheSun
haspassedthroughitsredgiantstageofdevelopment,andsheditsouter
layers.Intimeitcoolsdowntobecomeacoldcinder.
X
Xrays:penetratingelectromagneticradiationofshortwavelength.
Z
Zeropointenergy:thelowestenergythatcanbepossessedbyaphysical
system.Accordingtoquantumtheorythisenergyhastobefinitenotzero.
Anelectroninanatom,forinstance,hasaconfinedpositioninspace.Such
partialknowledgeofpositionprecludesthepossibilityofknowingthe
momentumoftheelectronprecisely(throughHeisenberg'suncertainty
relation).Thismeansthatthemomentumoftheelectron,andhenceits
energy,cannotbeknowntobepreciselyzero.