Reactor Physics

Reactor physics
IAEA Education and Training
REACTOR PHYSICS
NSNI Department
Last update: 09/23/2004
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Summaries
1 Nuclear Physics (2 hrs)..................................................................................... 7 1.1 Atomic Nucleus .......................................................................................... 7 1.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 7 1.1.2 Equivalence Between Mass and Energy............................................... 8 1.1.3 Nuclear Masses .................................................................................... 9 1.2 Binding Energy........................................................................................... 9 1.3 Nuclear Forces ......................................................................................... 11 1.3.1 Nuclear Forces.................................................................................... 11 1.3.2 Energy levels....................................................................................... 12 1.4 Radioactivity ............................................................................................. 12 1.4.1 Laws of Radioactive Decay ................................................................. 12 1.4.2 Activity................................................................................................. 12 1.4.3 Half-Life............................................................................................... 13 1.5 Exercises .................................................................................................. 13 1.5.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 13 1.5.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 14 1.5.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 14 1.5.4 Question 4........................................................................................... 15 1.5.5 Question 5........................................................................................... 15 1.6 Supplements............................................................................................. 16 1.6.1 Example 1: Fusion Reaction ............................................................... 16 1.6.2 Example 2. Fission Reaction............................................................... 16 2 Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons (2 hrs) ...................................................... 17 2.1 2.2 Conservation of Energy ........................................................................... 17 Elastic Collisions...................................................................................... 17
2.3 Inelastic Collisions................................................................................... 19 2.3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 19 2.3.2 Fission Reactions................................................................................ 20 2.4 Exercises .................................................................................................. 20 2.4.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 20 2.4.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 21 2.4.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 21 3 Fission Reactions (2 hrs)................................................................................ 24 3.1 Fission....................................................................................................... 24 3.1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 24 3.1.2 Spontaneous Fission........................................................................... 24 3.2 3.3 Practical Fuels .......................................................................................... 24 Formation of Fissionable Material .......................................................... 25
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3.4 Fission Products ...................................................................................... 25 3.4.1 Fission Fragments............................................................................... 25 3.4.2 Fission Products.................................................................................. 26 3.5 Example on Energy Released per Fission ............................................. 27 3.6 Example on Reactor Power Consumption ............................................. 29 3.6.1 Reactor Power and Fuel Consumption ............................................... 29 3.6.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 29 3.7 Exercises .................................................................................................. 30 3.7.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 30 3.7.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 30 3.7.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 31 4 Production of Neutrons (2 hrs)....................................................................... 32 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Prompt Neutrons ...................................................................................... 32 Delayed Neutrons..................................................................................... 33 Photoneutrons.......................................................................................... 34 (n,2n) and (n,3n) Reactions ..................................................................... 35
4.5 Exercises .................................................................................................. 35 4.5.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 35 4.5.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 36 4.5.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 36 5 Cross Section (2 hrs) ...................................................................................... 38 5.1 Cross Section ........................................................................................... 38 5.1.1 Neutron Cross Sections ...................................................................... 38 5.1.2 Conclusions......................................................................................... 41 5.2 Neutron Flux ............................................................................................. 41 5.3 Exercises .................................................................................................. 42 5.3.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 42 5.3.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 42 5.3.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 43 6 Chain Reaction (1 hrs) .................................................................................... 44 6.1 6.2 6.3 Chain Reaction ......................................................................................... 44 Example of Chain Reaction with Natural Uranium ................................ 45 Types of Reactors .................................................................................... 49
6.4 Exercises .................................................................................................. 50 6.4.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 50 6.4.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 50 7 Neutron Moderation and Diffusion (3 hrs)..................................................... 51 7.1 7.2 Neutron moderation ................................................................................. 51 Moderating Mechanism ........................................................................... 52
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7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7
Moderating Power .................................................................................... 53 Diffusion equation.................................................................................... 54 Boundary Condition................................................................................. 56 Neutron diffusion in the moderator ........................................................ 57 Homogeneous bare reactor..................................................................... 59
7.8 Exercises .................................................................................................. 60 7.8.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 60 7.8.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 60 7.8.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 61 8 Steady State Reactor (3 hrs)........................................................................... 62 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Neutron life cycle ..................................................................................... 62 Four Factor Formula ................................................................................ 65 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems ........................................ 66 Nuclear Advantages of the Heteregeneous System.............................. 69
8.5 Exercises .................................................................................................. 71 8.5.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 71 8.5.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 72 9 Critical Size (2 hrs) .......................................................................................... 73 9.1 Neutron Leakage ...................................................................................... 73 9.1.1 The case of the sphere ....................................................................... 73 9.1.2 2. The case of the cylinder .................................................................. 73 9.1.3 CRITICAL SIZE................................................................................... 74 9.1.4 keff formula........................................................................................... 75 9.2 Reflector: Its Uses and Properties.......................................................... 76 9.3 Exercises .................................................................................................. 77 9.3.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 77 9.3.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 77 9.3.3 Question 3........................................................................................... 78 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 Neutron and Power Distribution (2 hrs) ..................................................... 79 Distribution of the Neutron Flux in the Reactor..................................... 79 Implications of the Non-Uniform Distribution of Flux ........................... 82 Power Peaking Factor.............................................................................. 85
10.4 Exercises .................................................................................................. 85 10.4.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 85 10.4.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 86 11 11.1 11.2 Reactivity and Its Effects on Reactor Power (1 hrs) ................................. 87 Criticality and Neutron Multiplication..................................................... 87 Reactivity .................................................................................................. 88
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11.3
The Effect of Reactivity on Neutron Multiplication................................ 89
11.4 The Effect of Reactivity on Neutron Flux and Reactor Power .............. 90 11.4.1 Course................................................................................................. 90 11.4.2 Example Problem 1............................................................................. 91 11.4.3 Example Problem 2............................................................................. 92 11.5 Exercises .................................................................................................. 93 11.5.1 Question 1........................................................................................... 93 11.5.2 Question 2........................................................................................... 93 12 Changes on Reactor Power Relative to Time (2 hrs) ................................ 94
12.1 The Effects of Neutron Life Time on Changes in the Reactor Power .. 94 12.1.1 Changes in reactor power relative to time ........................................... 94 12.1.2 The effects of neutron life-time on changes in reactor power.............. 94 12.2 12.3 Reactor Period.......................................................................................... 95 The Effect of Prompt Neutrons ............................................................... 95
12.4 The Effect of Delayed Neutrons on Power Changes ............................. 97 12.4.1 Course................................................................................................. 97 12.4.2 Discussion........................................................................................... 98 12.4.3 Example .............................................................................................. 99 12.5 12.6 Power Change Rate................................................................................ 100 Prompt Critical Condition ...................................................................... 101
12.7 Exercises ................................................................................................ 105 12.7.1 Question 1......................................................................................... 105 12.7.2 Question 2......................................................................................... 105 12.7.3 Question 3......................................................................................... 105 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Effect on Neutron Source (1 hrs).............................................................. 107 The Neutron Source ............................................................................... 107 Neutron Source Effect on the Overall Neutron Population................. 108 The Effect of the Neutron Source with the Reactor Out of Service ... 110 Neutronic and Thermal Power............................................................... 114
13.5 Exercises ................................................................................................ 114 13.5.1 Question 1......................................................................................... 114 13.5.2 Question 2......................................................................................... 115 14 14.1 14.2 Effect in Reactivity Due to Temperature Changes (2 hrs) ...................... 116 Operational Reactivity Effects............................................................... 116 Cause of Heat-Induced Reactivity Changes......................................... 118
14.3 Effects Produced in the Core as a Result of Increased Temperature 118 14.3.1 The effects of thermal expansion ...................................................... 118 14.3.2 Direct nuclear effect .......................................................................... 119 14.3.3 Indirect nuclear effect........................................................................ 120 14.4 Fuel Temperature Coefficient................................................................ 122
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14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8
Coolant Temperature Coefficient.......................................................... 123 Moderator Temperature Coefficient...................................................... 124 Practical Aspects ................................................................................... 124 Effects due to Void Formation .............................................................. 125
14.9 Exercises ................................................................................................ 125 14.9.1 Question 1......................................................................................... 125 14.9.2 Question 2......................................................................................... 125 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Fission Product Poisoning (2 hrs)............................................................ 126 Xe135 Build-Up ......................................................................................... 126 The Xenon Reactivity Worth in Equilibrium ......................................... 129 Xenon Accumulation During Reactor Shutdown................................. 130 Samarium-149......................................................................................... 131 Other Fission Products.......................................................................... 133
15.6 Exercises ................................................................................................ 134 15.6.1 Question 1......................................................................................... 134 15.6.2 Question 2......................................................................................... 134 16 16.1 Fuel Burnup (2 hrs).................................................................................... 135 Fuel Burn-up ........................................................................................... 135
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Nuclear Physics (2 hrs)

1.1 Atomic Nucleus
1.1.1 Introduction
Very briefly, an atom is formed by a nucleus made up of nucleons (neutrons and protons) and electrons in external orbits. The number of electrons and protons is equal to assure neutrality of atomic nuclei. While the size of an atom is of magnitude 10-10m, the size of nuclei is in the order of 10-15 m. There is experimental evidence that the shape of both may be considered approximately as spheres with diffuse boundaries. The masses of the most important building stones of atomic nuclei are about 10-27 kg for nucleons and about 10-31kg for electrons (see the Table 1-1).
Particle/Atom Electron Neutron Proton -particle

1 1H 1H 1H 2 3 4
Mass (amu) 5.485802610-4 1.008664 1.007276 4.001506 1.007825 2.014101 3.016049 4.002603 7.016004 8.005305 9.012182 10.012937 94.919358 138.918787 234.043595
2He 3Li
7 8 9
4Be 4Be 5B
10
95 38Sr 54Xe 90Th 139
234
Table 11 Masses of Selected Particles and Atoms Mass Units Source: Environmental Chemistry: Periodic Table of Elements
There are other elementary particles such as neutrinos (), photons (), -particles (2He4), etc. released from nuclei under certain conditions which do not play a role in reactor physics. The number of protons in the nucleus is known as the atomic number Z, and determines the chemical properties of the element.
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The number of neutrons is represented by the letter N. The total number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the mass number A = Z + N.
A nuclide X is characterized as follows: All elements with the same nuclear charge Z but different A are known as isotopes such as uranium (U): 92U234, 92U235, 92U238 representing the isotopes of natural uranium. Isobares are elements with the same mass number A but different Z such as 92U239, 93Np239 (neptunium), 239 (plutonium), etc. Correspondingly, isotones are elements with the same number of 94Pu neutrons N which are relatively rare. The neutron is not stable unless it is bound to a nucleus. A free neutron decays to a proton with the emission of a - (fast electron) and a (antineutrino). This process has a lifetime of about 12 minutes. The average lifetime of a free neutron in a reactor is a matter of milliseconds (10-3 s), thus neutron instability is of no consequence in reactor physics (Chapter 12.1).
1.1.2
Equivalence Between Mass and Energy
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent and convertible, one into the other according to:
E = mc2
Whereby: E = rest energy m = rest mass c = 3 108 m/s, speed of light
(1-1)
The electron volt (eV) is the unit of energy mainly used in nuclear physics. It is defined as follows: The electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it passes through an electric field, the potential difference of which is 1 volt. Its Joule (J) equivalence is as follows: 1 eV = 1.60210-19 J 1 keV = 103 eV 1 MeV = 106 eV
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1.1.3
Nuclear Masses
The masses of atoms are expressed in terms of atomic mass units (amu's). An amu is defined as being one twelfth of the mass of one neutral atom of the isotope 6C12 (1 amu = 1/12 m(6C12)). The equivalence of 1 amu = 1.6605810-27 kg is deduced as follows: The number of atoms or molecules in a mole (mass in grams equal to the atomic or molecular weight of the substance) is called Avogadro's number L, i.e. 6.0221023 atoms = 12 g C12 The mass of one atom 6C12 is m(6C12) = 12 g/6.0221023= 1.9926910-23 g Thus: 1 amu = 1/121.9926910-23 kg = 1.6605810-27 kg and its energy equivalent is 1 amu = 931.5 MeV. The most important element utilized in the conversion of nuclear energy is uranium (U). The elements used for this purpose are divided into two major groups, namely:

fissionable or fertile materials, which require high-energy neutrons to achieve fission; fissile materials, which are easily fissionable, even with low-energy neutrons.
Percentage of Isotopic Mass Weight (amu) Fissionable Thorium-232 100 232.038050 or Fertile 99.274 238.050782 Materials Uranium-238 Uranium-235 0.720 235.043923 Fissile Materials Uranium-234 0.0058 234.040945 Nuclides
Table 12 Nuclides Employed for the Conversion of Nuclear Energy
1.2 Binding Energy

The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleons. The difference is known as mass defect: m = Zmp + Nmn - m(Z,A) where mp and mn are the masses of an individual proton and neutron, respectively, and m(Z,A) is the mass of the nucleus concerned (see also Exercise 1).
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m is the mass that would be transformed into energy, if a nucleus is to be constructed by the necessary number of protons and neutrons. This same amount of energy would be needed to split a nucleus into its components. This quantity is taken as the measure of the energy needed to bind the nuclei. The energy equivalent of the mass defect is called the binding energyEB of the nucleus:
EB = ( Zmp + Nmn - m(Z,A))c2
(1-1)
Experience shows that the binding energy per nucleon in nuclei grows to about A = 60 (except in the case of some light nuclei) and then gradually decreases; i.e., the middle nuclei are more strongly bound than the light or heavy nuclei (see Figure 1).
Figure 1-1 Source: John R. Lamarsh: Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1983
Binding energy can be released either from light nuclei by fusion or from heavy nuclei by fission. When light elements fuse into larger groups, they lose mass, and heavy nuclei lose mass when they divide. Lets look at examples: 1)
1 0n
+ 1p1 1H2 +
(1-2)
(a -ray of 2.23 MeV is emitted)
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Since this energy escapes when the deuteron 1H2is formed, we say that the mass of the deuteron, expressed in units of energy, is 2.23 MeV less than the sum of the masses of the neutron and the proton. Separation between n and p can again be achieved if the system (deuteron) receives the binding energy via, for example, - bombardment of the deuteron. + 1H2 0n1 + 1p1 (E >>2.23 MeV) (1-3)
Binding energy is the energy required to separate the nuclide into its individual nucleons.
2) EB: EB:
2 1H
2 1H
3 1H
+ 1H1
(1-4)
2.23 MeV 2.23 MeV
8.23 MeV
(Binding energy for 1H1 is 0)
[8.23-2(2.23)] MeV = 4.02 MeV
This energy appears as kinetic energy of 1H3 and 1H1. See at the end of this chapter: Example of mass defect in a fusion reaction Example of mass defect in a fission reaction
1.3 Nuclear Forces

1.3.1 Nuclear Forces
Between particles equally charged there are repulsive Coulomb forces, and as the nucleus of the atom contains a large number of protons, each repels the others in accordance with Coulomb's Law. Clearly, there should also be other forces in the nucleus that attract. These are referred to as nuclear forces. They act between nucleons and drop rapidly to zero when separated from each other. When the number of protons increases, the long-term Coulomb forces grow faster than the attractive short-term nuclear forces. Heavy nuclei to remain stable require more neutrons, so that the attracting forces of all particles are superior to the repulsive Coulomb forces. For this reason, the n/p ratio grows gradually from 1 to 1. The nature of these forces, which bind the protons and neutrons in the nucleus is short-term, strong and charge independent. It is generally thought that the nucleons are bound in the nucleus by means of the continuous exchange of particles called mesons. (Exercises 3 and 4 provide more insight into the nature of nuclear forces). It may be observed that for stable nuclides with a low mass number, the neutron/proton ratio is near one. For heavy nuclides this n/p ratio rises progressively, maintaining stability up to a limit level, at which point they are no longer stable and may be formed artificially. This occurs in elements with mass number A larger than 238.
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1.3.2
Energy levels
It is said that a nucleus is in the ground state when the nucleons in the nucleus are at their lowest potential energy. Otherwise, the nucleus is excited within discrete energy states, as long as all constituents of the nucleus are bound, which are referred to as energy levels.
1.4 Radioactivity
1.4.1 Laws of Radioactive Decay
All nuclides which are heavier than Pb (Z=82), and a few light nuclei as well, are unstable and naturally radioactive. They decay, emitting either or - particles. In most cases, the resulting nucleus, or daughter, is produced in an excited state, which decays to the ground state by emission of one or more photons. Usually, but not always, this will happen instantaneously within 10-14 s of the formation of the daughter. A radioactive nuclide, or radionuclide, can also decay, by means of capturing an orbital electron (k capture). After abandoning the nucleus, the photons may be absorbed, emitting an electron from the orbit of the same atom. This emission of a secondary particle is known as internal conversion. In the following section, we will review the laws of radioactive disintegration.
1.4.2
Activity
Radioactive decay is governed by the laws of probability and is independent of the external environment such as pressure, temperature, chemical treatment, etc... The number of atoms in a radioactive substance that decay N within a certain interval of time, is proportional to the number of present atoms N and the interval of time t considered: -N = N Whereby: constant, known as the radioactive decay constant. It is characteristic of each nuclide and its dimension is time -1 (s-1; min-1). (1-6)
If in (1-6) we apply a small t and pass it to the first member
(1-7)
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N(t) = No e-t
with No = N (t=0)
(1-8)
The value A, which measures the decay speed of an active nuclide the minus sign is due to the fact that there are atoms that disappear), is called activity. Thus, activity is the number of atoms that disintegrate within a unit of time.
1.4.3
Half-Life
Half-life is defined as the time necessary for a significant number of atoms to reduce to half, and is represented by T. Mathematically speaking:
(1-9)
Connecting this equation with (1-7):
(1-10)
Half-life indicates the average lifetime of atoms. Following the corresponding mathematical analyses, and once a certain time lapse t has passed, we have the following:
(1-11)
Whereby: A0 = source activity at the initial time (t=0)e = natural logarithmic baseActivity is expressed in disintegrations per unit of time (disintegrations per minute; disintegrations per second). The unit of activity is called a Curie, [A] = Ci and it is equivalent to 3.71010 disintegrations per second. The SI unit of activity is Bequerel, [A] = Bq which is equivalent to 1 disintegration per second. 1 Ci = 3.71010Bq.
1.5 Exercises
1.5.1 Question 1
Derive an expression for the mass defect m
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Solution
m = Z(mp + me) + Nmn -(m(Z,A) + Zme)
where me is the mass of an electron. 1 The mass of the neutral 1H is equal to mp + me, therefore m(Z,A) + Zme represents the mass A m(ZX ) of the neutral atom. The mass defect of the nucleus is therefore
m = Zm(1H1) + Nmn - m(ZXA)

which differs slightly from
m = Zmp + Nmn- m(Z,A)

due to the binding energies of the atoms which, however, is not of importance for most applications.
1.5.2
Question 2
Give the expressions for the energy necessary to separate a proton, a neutron and an particle from a nucleus (separation energies Sp, Sn and S).
Solution
The energy necessary to separate a single nucleon form a specific nucleus (Z,N) is called separation energy S which corresponds to the ionization energy in an atom. Sp = [m(Z-1, N) + mp - m(Z, N)] c with and we obtain ditto for Sn = [m(Z, N-1) + mn - m(Z, N)] c Sn = EB(Z, N) - EB(Z, N-1)
2 2 2
EB(Z, N) = [Zmp + Nmn - m(Z, N)] c
EB(Z-1, N) = [(Z-1)mp + Nmn - m(Z-1, N)] c Sp = EB(Z, N) - EB (Z-1, N)
S = [m(Z-2, N-2) + m(2, 2) - m(Z, N)]c S = EB(Z, N) - EB(Z-2, N-2) - EB()
1.5.3
Question 3
Explain the nature of nuclear forces by taking into consideration that the binding energy per nucleon is approximately constant for mass numbers larger than 30 according to Figure 1.
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Solution
EB/A ~ const. results into EB ~ A, i.e. nuclear forces must have saturation characteristics which are well known as molecule binding between the two H-atoms of a H2-molecule from the atomic physics . As such forces act only between two particles; in analogy it was suggested a two-body force for the nuclear force caused by the exchange of a particle. This particle, the -meson (pion) was theoretically requested by Yukawa (1935) and experimentally found by Powell (1946).
1.5.4
Question 4
Give a rough estimate of the range of nuclear forces by using the meson mass and Heisenberg's uncertainty relation.
Solution
The 'mass uncertainty' caused by the mass of the pion (-meson) results according to with E = mc ~ 140 MeV and (Planck's constant) -24 into t = 4.7 10 s
2
with E = mc ~ 140 MeV and

2
(Planck's constant)
into Dt = 4.7 10-24 s As the pion can travel at the most with the velocity of light c, its range is which is in good agreement with the experiment.
1.5.5
Question 5
Estimate the age of archaeological wooden objects whose specific C14 activity is 3/5 of that of trees (of the same wood) cut down today (T(C14) = 5730 years).
Solution
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(years)
1.6 Supplements
1.6.1 Example 1: Fusion Reaction
The currently most important fusion reaction is:

3 1H
+ 1H2 2He4 + 0n1
or H3 (d,n) He4
(1-5)
Balance of masses: Masses before the reaction: = 3.016049 amu (H3) + 2.014101 amu (H2) = 5.030150 amu Masses after the reaction: = 4.002603 (He4) + 1.008664 (0n1) = 5.011267 amu
2 1H is
The mass defect m= 0.018883 amu is equivalent to 17.6 MeV. If the kinetic energy of the 1 MeV and the 1H3nucleus is stationary, then the sum of the energies of the emergent neutron and the -particle (2He4) will be 18.6 MeV.
1.6.2
Example 2. Fission Reaction
The binding energy per nucleon of the U238 is about 7.5 MeV, while it is about 8.4 MeV for a nucleus with A=119 (238/2). Thus, if a uranium nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei each with about half the uranium mass, there is a gain in the binding energy of the system. Binding energy before reaction 7.5 MeV per nucleon Binding energy after reaction 8.4 MeV per nucleon Mass defect = 0.9 MeV per nucleon Total mass defect = 238 0.9 MeV = 214 MeV. This process is called nuclear fission and it is the source of energy in nuclear reactors.
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Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons (2 hrs)

2.1 Conservation of Energy
Charged particles (protons) require high energy to enter the nucleus due to the repulsive Coulomb forces. Neutral particles such as neutrons and gamma quants interact very effectively with nuclei at low energies. The main reactions with neutrons can be divided as follows: elastic and inelastic collisions. This division is based on whether or not the kinetic energy is conserved in the collision. Nuclear reactions are governed by Conservation Laws, the most important of them being: Conservation of nucleons, charge, momentum and energy, i.e. the total number of nucleons, the sum of charges of the particles and total momentum of interacting particles before and after a reaction are the same. Conservation of energy means that the energy covering rest-mass energy (mc2) and kinetic energy (Ekin) of participating particles is conserved in nuclear reactions. For the reaction A(a,b)B follows: Ekin(a)+mac2+Ekin(A)+mAc2 = Ekin(b)+ mbc2+Ekin(B)+mBc2 Rearrangement in the form Ekin(b)+Ekin(B)-Ekin(a)-Ekin(A) = [(ma+mA)-(mb+mB)]c22 = Q (2-1)
The range in the kinetic energies of the particles before and after the reaction is equal to the difference of rest-masses of the particles before and after the reaction. The conservation of energy can be used to predict whether a reaction is energetically possible. A positive Q-value means that the reaction is exothermic and nuclear mass is converted into kinetic energy (Exercise 1). Negative Q-values in so-called endothermic reactions mean that kinetic energy is converted into mass and a threshold energy for the incoming particle is required.
2.2 Elastic Collisions

A neutron (n) with a certain velocity (1) collides with a target nucleus (A). Following the collision, the neutron leaves with a lower velocity (2), the nucleus A has a certain velocity , and since the kinetic energy is conserved, the kinetic energy received by A is equal to the kinetic energy lost by the neutron. This condition is the conservation of total kinetic energy. Consequently, the neutron loses velocity following the collision, or, in other words, it is moderated. The loss of energy will depend on the angle from which the collision is produced and the mass of the target nucleus (A).
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The maximum energy loss will occur when the neutron strikes the nucleus head-on and the minimum energy loss will take place when the neutron strikes the nucleus with a glancing blow. In reactors, generally speaking, the angle of incidence of neutrons in their path toward the target nucleus is random, as is the angle at which they exit. This process is thus known as "scattering". The term elastic, meanwhile, implies the conservation of kinetic energy. Thus, these collisions are referred to as "elastic scattering". As the target nucleus becomes comparable (in terms of mass) to the neutron, it may lose its entire energy in a single head-on collision. The interaction of the neutron with the nucleus can come in the form of a "billiard ball" type collision. The lighter the target nucleus, the greater is the proportion of energy lost by the neutrons in the collisions. We must, then, look for light elements so that the neutrons can be taken to thermal energy levels in the fewest number of collisions possible. After a certain number of collisions, the speed of the neutron is reduced to such an extent, that its average kinetic energy is approximately equal to that of the atoms or molecules of the medium with which it interacts. This energy depends on the temperature of the medium and is called thermal energy. Fast neutrons that have energies of about 2 MeV must be thermalized to about 0.025 eV. Neutrons with energies of less than 0.1 MeV are incapable of losing energy by inelastic collisions. In a thermal reactor, the majority of moderation processes takes place with neutrons with energies lower than 0.1 MeV, which means that elastic collision processes are predominant. Table 2-1 shows the number of elastic collisions a fast neutron needs to be thermalized in dependence of different elements.
H D H2O D2O C U
12 1238
18 25 20 36 115 2172
Table 21 Number of Elastic Collisions to Moderate Neutrons of 2 MeV to 0.025 eV
To choose an effective moderator, it is important to bear in mind in what state (solid, liquid or gaseous) it is found. Logically, in a gas there will be fewer probabilities of collisions, due to the lower density of material, i.e. a larger separation between the atoms or molecules of the gas.
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2.3 Inelastic Collisions

2.3.1 Introduction
There is no conservation of kinetic energy. The neutron enters the target nucleus and forms a compound nucleus. Kinetic and binding energy of the neutron are transformed into the excitation of the compound nucleus. As a result, the compound nucleus is in a highly excited state, unstable and will not be able to remain in this state for long (about 10-14 s). Reactions that may occur are as follows: 1. The neutron enters the U238 nucleus and the compound nucleus U239 is formed (compound nucleus whose lifetime is 10-14 s.). A neutron with a lower velocity (2) exits leaving the target nucleus in a lower excited state which emits a g-ray to reach the ground state. 2. The neutron enters and the compound nucleus O17 is formed, emitting a proton and forming N16.
1 0n
+ 8O16 7N16 + 1p1 or O16 (n, p) N16
(2-2)
This mechanism is called the charge exchange reaction of O16. These processes require neutron energies of more than 10 MeV. N16 is radioactive and emits high-energy photons (6 MeV), and thus represents a radiation risk at any place where O16 is irradiated with. N16 is also a -emitter with T = 7.3 s. In general, the compound nucleus emits a charged particle (proton or ) and forms a new element. Another interesting reaction is that of B10, some reactors have it in their primary circuits: B10 (n, ) Li7
3.
1 0n
+ 1H2 1H3 +
(2-3)
The neutron interacts with the H2 nucleus and the compound nucleus H3 is formed which is excited to emit a ray. Radioactive Tritium (H3) remains. This phenomenon is called radiative capture. This is a very common nuclear reaction with neutrons and can occur with nearly all nuclei and at nearly all energy levels.
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Radiative capture is important for two reasons: a. The capture of neutrons in a reactor is not desirable since it means that they are being spent. In general, we want to avoid neutron loss. The exception to this rule would be the formation of Pu239 (which is a useful fuel), via: U238 (n,) U239 Pu239. b. Products of corrosion are activated when they circulate in the coolant. Once deposited, they represent a radioactive risk.
2.3.2
Fission Reactions
In this reaction, the compound nucleus divides into two new nuclei and an average of 2 or 3 neutrons also appear. The fission reaction may conveniently be considered in terms of the liquid drop model of the nucleus. The short-range nature of the nuclear force suggests an analogy between the nucleus and a liquid drop where the molecules are strongly attracted only by those in their immediate neighbourhood. The undisturbed nucleus remains in a stable spherical configuration under both the attractive short-range nuclear forces which act throughout the nuclear volume and along the surface of the nucleus, and the Coulomb forces of repulsion between the protons which tend to push them apart and to disrupt the nucleus. Such a drop of nuclear matter can be disrupted into two fragments caused by a dynamic instability initiated by the energy of an absorbed neutron (Exercises 2 and 3).
2.4 Exercises
2.4.1 Question 1
Calculate the Q-value in the neutron reaction

1 0n
+ 5B10 3Li7 + 24
by using the atomic masses given in Table 1-2 of Module 1.:
Solution
The nuclear masses are derived by subtracting the appropriate number of electrons from the atomic masses: m(Z=5,A=10) = 10.010208 amu m(Z=3,A=7) = 7.014358 amu m(Z=2,A=4) = 4.001506 amu m = m(Z=5,A=10) + mn - m(Z=3,A=7) - m(Z=2,A=4) -3 = (11.018872 - 11.015864) amu = 3.008 10 amu -3 Q = 3.008 10 931.5 MeV = 2.801 MeV This is an exothermic reaction (Q > 0), with an energy release of 2.801 MeV
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2.4.2
Question 2
Give a semi-empirical interpretation for the binding energy curve per nucleon by using a simplified expression of the binding energy of a nucleus as given by the liquid drop model:
where the first term aVA (volume energy) indicates the proportionality of the binding energy to the total number of nucleons A. The other terms reduce the volume energy as follows: -aS A2/3 (surface energy) -aCZ2A-1/3 (Coulomb energy) reflects the fact that the nucleons at the surface have less immediate neighbours and they are less tightly bound
reduces the binding energy by the Coulomb repulsion between the protons
(asymmetry energy)
reflects a further reduction of the binding energy due to the neutron excess compared with a symmetric nucleus.
Solution
The rapid drop of EB for low A is associated with the surface energy term which plays a major role for small nuclei. The more gradual reduction at large A is associated with the Coulomb energy term. Figure 1 of Module 1, Section 2 can qualitatively be reproduced by:
The EB/A formula reproduces the binding energies for A>40 in the order of percents.
2.4.3
Question 3
Determine the number of protons Z0 for which the mass of nuclei m(Z,A) has a minimum for A=const. The expression for m(Z,A) using the binding energy of the liquid drop model reads Weizscker's mass formula m(Z,A) = Zmp + (A-Z)mn - aVA + aSA2/3 + aCZ2A-1/3 + aA(Z-A/2)2A-1 where the factor 1/c2 is in the constants included with
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aV = 17011 amu aS = 19641 amu aC = 767 amu aA = 99692 amu Discuss the result in the N/Z diagram.
Solution
The representation of these values in a Z,N-diagram results in the line of -stable nuclei in Figure 2, the bottom of the 'mass valley' assuming the mass number A is applied upwards on the Z,N plane.
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Figure 2-1 Z,N Diagram Source: John R. Lamarsh: Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 2nd Edition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company 1983
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Fission Reactions (2 hrs)

3.1 Fission
After this general look at reactions with neutrons, we will now turn to the detailed analysis of fission reactions.
3.1.1
Introduction
Within the context of capture, there is a process known as fission, in which a heavy nucleus (uranium, for example), is subjected to neutron bombardment and breaks into two fragments, such as Ba139 and Kr97, releasing an energy of approximately 200 MeV. This process is also accompanied by a release of neutrons. There are two types of fission: spontaneous and induced. An explanation of the two follows
3.1.2
Spontaneous Fission
Heavy nuclei (232 amu or more), on generally rare occasions, sometimes experience spontaneous fission, with no apparent external stimulus. Examples are uranium-235 and uranium-238, whose respective half-life periods for fission are 1.21017 years and 5.51015 years. Clearly, the fission produced in these cases is insignificant for energy production. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is important, since it represents an uncontrollable source of neutrons in a reactor, and it is, furthermore, possible to make use of it in the reactor startup stage (see also Exercise 3). An example of the use of this fission are the neutron sources of Cf252.
INDUCED FISSION
Certain heavy nuclei can be induced to fission, as a result of one neutron capture. Consequently, several high-energy (fast) neutrons are produced, which permit to maintain the chain reaction process.
3.2 Practical Fuels

The following are some fuels utilized in the generation of nuclear energy: uranium-233 (U233), uranium-235 (U235), uranium-238 (U238), plutonium-239 (Pu239), plutonium-241 (Pu241). U235, U233, Pu239 and Pu241 fission with low-energy thermal neutrons. When fission is produced with this type of neutrons, it is said to be thermal fission. The afore mentioned materials also fission with fast neutrons.
Thermal Energy
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Thermal energy is the energy of a free neutron which is in thermal equilibrium with the atoms or molecules that surround it. The neutrons of this type of energy are known as thermal neutrons and at 20C, the thermal energy is 0.025 eV.
3.3 Formation of Fissionable Material

The radiative capture of neutrons by the isotopes U238 and Th232 leads to the formation of the fissionable elements Pu239 and U233, depending on the reaction. We shall specifically consider U238, demonstrating its transformation into Pu. Uranium-238: This material possesses the property of non-fission with thermal neutrons, but it does achieve fission with fast neutrons with energies larger than 1.2 MeV. Given the aforementioned characteristics, it is usually referred to as a "fertile" material.
(3-1)
(3-2)
A significant portion of the total power produced by the fuel is due to plutonium. The only element capable of fissioning with thermal neutrons present in a natural context is U235. Hence, the importance of irradiating materials such as U238 and Th232 in reactors, in order to convert them into fissionable materials. Uranium-235 is found in natural uranium in a proportion of 0.72%, while the other 99.28% is Uranium-238. Uranium-233 does not exist in natural uranium and possesses the most desirable properties of all fissile nuclei, as we will see later. As we said earlier, during the period of operation of the reactor, Pu239 and Pu241 are formed. If the Pu239 does not fission, it can capture a neutron and form Pu240 (a fertile material) and Pu240, in turn, captures a neutron to form Pu241 (a fissile material).
3.4 Fission Products

3.4.1 Fission Fragments
The study of U235 fission with thermal neutrons has demonstrated that the compound nucleus fissions in more than 40 different ways, providing for about 80 fission fragments. Due to their high n/p ratio in relation to stability, these fragments are usually radioactive. The attached figure demonstrates the relative frequency with which the nuclear fragments are produced for nuclides of a specific mass number. The curve is known as the fission yield curve as 2 fragments are produced per fission; the area below the curve should add up to 200%.
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Figure 3-1 Fission Yield Curve Source: John R. Lamarsh: Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1983
It is probable to have mass numbers of 80 and 160, while the most probable values are 95 and 140. Symmetric fission fragments are very rare.
3.4.2
Fission Products
As we said before, fission fragments are generally radioactive and will seek to reduce their n/p ratio by means of successive decay (-,), until they reach stability. Shown below is a typical decay chain, in which the members of the chain are called fission products.
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0n
+92U
235
139 95 + 38Sr + 54Xe 139 55Cs 39Y 95 139 56Ba 95 40Zr
n+n
57La 95 139
(3-3) (3-4)
95
139 54Xe 95 38Sr
41Nb
42Mo
(3-5)
As a result of fission, there are approximately 300 known nuclides. Periods of semi-disintegration or half-life for fission products can vary from fractions of a second to thousands of years. The production of fission products in fuel has four important consequences: 1. Fission products must be maintained within the fuel to prevent their entering the heat transport system. As many of them have prolonged half-life spans, their presence in the primary coolant can create a radiation risk and hinder access to equipment, even during shutdown.
2. Considerable shielding is required around the reactor to prevent exposures by fission products.
3. The fuel element must be changed by means of remote control. Special precautions must be implemented for its handling and storage.
4. Some fission products have a great affinity with the neutrons, and thus poison the reactor. The most typical and significant cases are those of Xe-135 (xenon) and Sm149 (samarium).
3.5 Example on Energy Released per Fission

Approximately 200 MeV are released when a nucleus fissions. This value depends on the fissile nucleus and the fission fragments. Let's take, for example, U235, in which the fission is produced as follows:
(3-6)
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Total mass prior to the fission (1) is: 1.009 amu + 235.044 amu = 236.053 amu The high-yield fission products have respective mass numbers of 95 and 139. The masses corresponding to these mass numbers are 94.919 amu and 138.919 amu Thus, total mass following the fission is (2):
(3-7)
As we can see, the mass of the particles that interact is larger than the sum of the masses of the fission products. The mass defect, is: Dm = 236.053 amu - 235.855 amu = 0.198 amu According to Einstein's equivalence between mass and energy (Module 1, Section 1) the energy released per fission of one U235 nucleus is m = 0.198 931.5 MeV = 184.4 MeV ~ 200 MeV We have analyzed the logic behind the 200 MeV released with each fission. Table 1 shows the approximate distribution of this energy.
MeV Kinetic energy of light fission fragments Kinetic energy of heavy fission fragments Energy of instantaneous neutrons Energy of instantaneous g b particles of fission products g ray of fission products SUB-TOTAL Energy due to neutrinos TOTAL 100 67 7 7 5 6 190 11 201
Table 31 Distribution of the Energy Released by Fission
From the point of view of the reactor, we are interested in recoverable energy, and thus the energy released by neutrinos is considered lost. In this balance, not all of the energy emitted by the reactor is taken into account. For example, (n,) reactions with materials can provide up to 8 MeV.
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3.6 Example on Reactor Power Consumption

3.6.1 Reactor Power and Fuel Consumption
The following is an analysis of the amount of fuel used and the power generated by the Atucha I Nuclear Power Plant. We know that one fission produces about 200 MeV. Furthermore: 1 fission = 200 MeV = 200 1.60210-13 J Thus: 1 J = 3.11010 fissions 1 W = 1 J/s = 3.11010 fissions/s 1 MW = 3.11016 fissions/s How much do 3.11016 atoms of U-235 weigh? We already said that to produce 1 MW 3.11016 fissions/s are required. Here we designate the following: L = Avogadro number n = 3.11016 atoms.
If L = 6.0221023 atoms are equivalent to 235 g of U235, then 3.11010 atoms are equivalent to ~ 1.2110-8 g. Thus, we will need 1.2110-8 kg of U-235 per s and in one day we will need ~ 10-3 kg of U235 (Exercise 2).
3.6.2
Conclusion
With 1 g of U235 we can produce 1 MW for 1 day. We can see that the first requirement for energy production is to have a considerable supply of U235 to fission. If the fuel is natural uranium, we will need approximately 140 g to produce 1 MW per day remembering that U235 is present in a proportion of 0.72% in natural uranium.
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Up to now we have been assuming that U235 was totally fissioned, which, in practice, is not true, since about 17% is consumed in (n,) reactions. Thus, we would require 165 g of natural uranium to generate 1 MW per day. At this point we can calculate how much fuel of natural uranium we will need to produce 1100 MW per day. (We should clarify that we are referring to the thermal power of the reactor). Thus: 1 MWd 1110 MWd C = 181.5 kg That is to say, 181.5 kg of natural uranium are needed to produce 1100 MW per day. As we saw earlier, the operation of the reactor produces plutonium (Pu), which contributes significantly to energy production, and from this standpoint, the amount of fuel used will be smaller. To produce this energy continuously, it is necessary to maintain the fission speed, or, in other words, the chain reaction process must be maintained. 165 g of natural U C
3.7 Exercises
3.7.1 Question 1
What are the primary thermal fission fuels? Which are produced during reactor operation?
Solution
The primary thermal fission fuels ar U-235, U-233, Pu-239 and Pu-241. The fuels produced during reactor operation are U-233, Pu-239 and Pu-241.
3.7.2
Question 2
Calculate the amount of energy that is released in the complete fissioning of 1 kg of U235.
Solution
The required fission rate
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The number of nuclei/kg is
The energy release by fissioning this number of nuclei is
Fissioning this amount of U /y would be equal to a power of 13 7 8.210 J/3.15 10 s = 2.6 MW
235
3.7.3
Question 3
U235 has a half-life of about 31017 yrs for spontaneous fission. Estimate the rate of spontaneous fissioning for 1 g of U235.
Solution
The spontaneous fission rate of U
235
is somewhat less than one fission per hour per g.
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Production of Neutrons (2 hrs)

4.1 Prompt Neutrons
There are several types of neutron sources in a reactor in operation. Each of these plays an important role in controlling the reactor. We will discuss these neutron sources below: Prompt Neutron Production:
0n 1
+ 92U
235
(92U
236
)*
90 38Sr
+ 54Xe
144
+ 2n
(4-1)
The time elapsed between the absorption of a neutron and the production of the fission neutrons is 10-14 seconds (the lifespan of U236), or, in other words, practically zero. For this reason, these neutrons are called prompt neutrons. The number of neutrons emitted in the thermal fission of U235 varies between 0 and 5. Prompt neutron production figures for 1000 fissions run as shown in Table 4-1.
Number of Prompt Neutrons 0 1 2 3 4 5 Number of Cases per each 1000 Fissions 27 158 339 302 130 34
Table 41 Prompt Neutron Production
In reactor physics, we are interested in the average number of neutrons produced per fission. For thermal fissions the average number of prompt neutrons emitted per fission is 2.43 for U235. The following averages are for the Pu isotopes that appear during reactor operation: For Pu239 For Pu241 n = 2.89 n = 2.93
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4.2 Delayed Neutrons

When fission ceases, the emission of prompt neutrons also automatically ceases, but (some) fission fragments continue to emit neutrons via radioactive decay. Let's look at the following reaction:
0n 1
+ 92U
235
87 35Br
+ 57La
147
+ 2n
(4-2)
Br87 decays by means of - to 36Kr87, sufficiently excited to emit a neutron and become 36Kr86.
(4-3)
Figure 4-1
The neutron emitted is a prompt neutron, but it occurs some time after the original fission, since the Br87 must decay first. The Br87 is called the precursor. There are more than a score of precursors and they are divided into 6 groups in accordance with their half-life T. Let's look at the total proportion of delayed and prompt neutrons:
Thermal U
235
Fission
99.35% of n's are prompt 0.65% of n's are delayed
As we will see, the proportion of delayed neutrons has a very important effect on the control of the reactor. ( = 0.0065 U-235). Table 4-2 displays the characteristics of the delayed neutrons in thermal fission.
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Average half-life ~ T (s) 56 23 6.2 2.3 0.61 0.23 Total delayed neutrons Total fission neutrons Delayed neutrons fraction
U-233 5.710
-4 -4 -4 -4
U-235 5.210
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4
Pu239 2.110
-4 -4 -4 -4
Energy (MeV) 0.25 0.46 0.41 0.45 0.41
19.710 16.610 18.410 3.410 2.210 2.5
34.610 31.010 62.410 18.210 6.610 2.43
18.210 12.910 19.910 5.210 2.710 2.90
-4 -4
-4 -4
-4
0.0066 0.0025
0.0158 0.0065
0.0061 0.0021
Figure 4-2 Characteristics of the Delayed Fission Neutrons in Thermal Fission Number of Delayed Neutrons per Fission
Example on production of prompt neutrons and the effective delayed neutron fraction.
If 1000 thermal fissions are produced in U235, then we have
Hence, the proportion of delayed neutrons is = 0.65%, which means that the proportion of prompt neutrons is 99.35%.
4.3 Photoneutrons
Prompt and delayed neutrons are produced as a result of fission, while photoneutrons are a characteristic of D2O reactors or Be reflector:
(4-4)
These reactions are referred to as (,n), since one gamma photon interacts with a nucleus and expels a neutron.
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It is necessary to have with energy levels in excess of 2.23 MeV in order for this reaction to be possible, since the energy of the photon must be larger than the binding energy of the deuterium, which is 2.23 MeV. When the reactor has been operating for a certain period of time, the fuel accumulates a stock of fission products, whose decay via provides energy of over 2.23 MeV. This source of photoneutrons will continue to exist, even when the reactor is out of service, since the decaying fission products can still produce photoneutrons in the D2O present in the reactor core. This is a peculiarity of the D2O reactor or Be reflector (see Exercise 3). Another condition is the need to have high-energy . In the first startup stage, the photoneutrons are not yet present, since we are dealing with a new core. In subsequent startups, they will be of vital importance. (see Exercise 2).
4.4 (n,2n) and (n,3n) Reactions

These reactions usually proceed in two steps. First, the incident neutron is inelastically scattered by the target nucleus, then if the residual nucleus is left with an excitation energy above the binding energy of its least bound neutron, this neutron is free to escape from the system. The incident neutron must have an energy above the threshold for the (n,2n), usually 7 to 10 MeV. Examples of this reaction are in heavy elements U238 and H2, and Be9; in the last isotope the threshold is only 1.8 MeV. The (n,3n) reaction is similar to the (n,2n) reaction, and the third neutron will be emitted if the nucleus retains enough excitation energy after the emission of the second neutron. The threshold is about 11 MeV.
4.5 Exercises
4.5.1 Question 1
Irradiation of a Be-target with a beam of 10 MeV deuterons generates an intensive neutron source. Estimate the number of neutrons generated per second and 100 mA of deuterons with a yield of 510-3.
Solution
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The number of neutrons generated per second and 100 mA d-beam is 3.12 10 .
12
4.5.2
Question 2
In the interaction of photons with C13 nuclei neutrons and protons are detected. 1. formulate the reaction equation 2. estimate the energy to initiate the photo-nuclear reaction with following binding energies: EB(6C13) = 97.108 MeV, EB(5B11) = 76.205 MeV
Solution
1. g + C
13
B
13
11
+p+n
11
2. E(g) + E(C ) = E(B E(g) = E(B

11
+ p + n) where E(C ) = m(6C )c is the rest energy, etc.

13
13
13
+ p + n) - E(C )
2 2
with m(Z,N)c = (Zmp + Nmn)c - EB follows E(g) = (5mp + 6mn)c - EB(B ) + mpc + mnc - ((6mp + 7mn)c - EB(C )) E(g) = EB(C ) - EB(B ) = 20.902 MeV
13 11 2 11 2 2 2 13
4.5.3
Question 3
Gamma rays interacting with 1H2 or 4Be9 produce 'photoneutrons'. Formulate the reaction equations for each and calculate the threshold -energy E() with the atomic masses of Table 1-2.
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Solution
g + 1H p+n 2 2 2 2 E(g) + m(1H )c = mpc + mnc 2 2 E(g)/c = mp + mn - m(1H ) =(1.007276 + 1.008664 - 2.01355) amu Dm = 0.002388 amu 2 Dmc = 0.002388 amu 931.5 MeV E(g) =2.22 MeV 9 8 1 g + 4Be 4Be + 0n 2 9 8 E(g)/c + m(4Be ) = m(4Be ) + mn 2 9 8 E(g)/c = m(4Be )+ mn -m(4Be ) = (8.005305+1.008665 - 9.012182) amu E(g) = 0.001788 amu 931.5 MeV = 1.67 MeV For both deuterium and beryllium the neutron binding energy has a relatively low value.
2
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Cross Section (2 hrs)

5.1 Cross Section
5.1.1 Neutron Cross Sections
The interaction of the neutron with matter is described in terms of quantities called cross sections. They are defined as the interaction rate per atom in the target per unit of intensity of a neutron beam. To clarify this concept lets see the following experiment. Consider a thin target of area A and thickness X containing N atoms per unit of volume (NAX is the total number of target atoms). The target is placed in a mono directional beam of neutrons of intensity I (neutrons per unit of area and per second). It can be found that the rate at which neutrons interact is proportional to the beam intensity I, the atom density N, the area A and the thickness X. Reaction Rates = I N A X Where is the proportional constant known as cross section. It can be seen that has the dimension of an area, and usually is measure in units of barns (b), and 1 b = 10-24 cm2 This cross section, since the term refers to individual nuclei, is known as microscopic cross section, and is the area that represents the neutron cross section for a particular reaction. The neutron cross sections are of fundamental importance in the choice of materials to be used in a reactor. The symbols adopted to individualize the probabilities or neutron cross sections for the different types of reactions are as follows: f = fission cross section a = absorption cross section s = scattering cross section = radiative capture cross section In the case of U235, the values are as follows: f = 580 b for thermal energy, but f = 1 b for a neutron energy of 1 MeV. As shown in this example and in Figure 5-1, the neutron cross sections vary with the energy of the neutron that collides with the target nucleus, with fission for U-235 being about 500 times more probable for thermal neutrons than for fast neutrons.
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Figure 5-1
Table 5-1 shows the neutron cross sections for the thermal neutrons of different fuel isotopes.
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Fuel Isotope U U U U U U
233 233 233 233 233 233
f(b) 530.6 580.2 0 4.18 741.6 1007.3
(b) 47 98.30 2.71 3.40 271.3 368.1
a(b) 577.6 678.5 2.71 7.58 1012.9 1375.4
s(b) 10.7 17.6 ~10 ~10 8.5 12
Figure 5-2 Neutron Cross Sections for the Thermal Neutrons of Different Fuel Isotopes
Example of different materials and their cross sections. 1. Among the moderators utilized, the most important are: H2O, D2O and graphite.
Analyzing their sa and ss, we see that H2O is a better neutron scatterer than D2O and graphite, but, on the other hand, it is much more neutron-absorbent.
Material H2O D2O C (graphite) a(b) 0.664 0.0010 0.0034 s(b) 103 13.6 4.8
2. Currently used as neutron absorbers (due to their high sa levels) we have boron and cadmium. Some nuclear reactors utilizes boron as a liquid poison.
Material boron cadmium a(b) 759 2450 s(b) 4 7
3. As structural materials used in reactors, we have: Fe and Zr. Comparing the two, we see that Zr, in its alloy form called Zircaloy (which is about 90% Zr), provides, as in the case of some nuclear reactors, the best material for structural use, due to its low sa.
Material Zr Fe a(b) 0.18 2.53
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5.1.2
Conclusions
1. We said earlier that about 85% of all thermal neutrons absorbed in U235 cause fission, obtained as follows:
f/a = 580.2/678.5 = 85.5 % Fission
2. In the case of U233, we obtain the following:

f/a = 530.6/577.6 = 91.8 % Fission
3. In the case of natural uranium: We assume 758 thermal neutrons absorbed in natural uranium, of which, 418: cause fission only in the U235. Furthermore, in this case we have =2.43, thus:418 x 2.43 = 1016 fission neutrons. This means that for each neutron absorbed in natural uranium, we obtain an average of 1016/758 = 1.34 fission neutrons
5.2 Neutron Flux

Let us suppose we have a given volume of a determined material. There are inside n thermal neutrons per cm3 that are moving at a certain velocity v, and collide with the nuclei of this material N', doing so with a certain t, thus: Reaction rates = [RR] = number of interactions/second/cm3 = nvN't Whereby: n = neutron density, [n] = neutrons/cm3 N = material atomic density, [N'] = atoms/cm3 t = total cross section, [t] = b As t and N' are characteristics of each target material, their product determines a new concept, that of the macroscopic cross section.
= tN' [t] = cm cm-3 = cm-1

2
(see Exercise 1) The product of n (the neutron density) and v (its velocity) determine a new concept: neutron flux
= nv [] = neutrons/cm cm/s = neutrons cm s
3
-2
-1
RR = t
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Another important definition is the inverse of the cross section 1/t which is a distance, the mean free path lt that a neutron will travel before it interacts with the material. (see Exercises 2 and 3)
5.3 Exercises
5.3.1 Question 1
Calculate the macroscopic csattering cross section H20 in H2O for neutrons of a certain energy with the following microscopic cross sections for oxygen, O = 4.2 b, and hydrogen, H = 38.0 b, respectively.
Solution
The macroscopic cross section S for a compound or mixture of different components (A,B,C,...) is given by S = SA + SB + SC + ... therefore
3
As the number of water molecules per cm is
While the number of oxygen nuclei/cm is equal to N'H2O, the number of hydrogen nuclei/cm is 24 24 twice N'O = 0.0334510 , N'H = 0.0669010 Hence,
5.3.2
Question 2
An 1 MeV neutron beam with a flux = 5108 neutrons/cm2s strikes a thin C12 target with an area of 0.5 cm2 and a thickness of 0.05 cm. The neutron beam has a cross-sectional area of 0.1 cm2. At 1 MeV, the total cross section of C12 is 2.6 b. a) At what rate do interactions take place in the target? The density of C12 atoms is 0.080231024/cm3. b) What is the probability that a neutron will have a collision in the target?
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Solution
a) The reaction rate
RR = 5.2105 interactions/s b)
i.e. only about 1 % of the neutrons has a collision while traversing the target.
5.3.3
Question 3
Determine and compare the scattering (ls) and absorption (la) mean free paths for neutrons in graphite with the density of = 2.25 g/cm3 with s = 4.8 b and a = 3.410-3 b, respectively.
Solution
If the density and the atomic weight of the material are known, the volume density of the nuclei in graphite, N, can be derived in terms of the density , the atomic weight M, and Avogadro's number L. The mass per atom can be obtained either as the ratio r /N or M/L. Hence,
The absorption mean free path is considerable longer than the scattering mean free path. On the average, a neutron can travel over 1500 times as far before being absorbed than it can travel before making a scattering collision in graphite.
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Chain Reaction (1 hrs)

6.1 Chain Reaction
Two basic requirements must be filled in order to produce power in a reactor: The fission rate should be high. This rate must be continuously maintained.
The fission process may be repeated due to the fact that each fission releases neutrons. The condition for the maintaining of a chain reaction is that the neutron produced in a fission be capable of producing another fission. This process can be seen in the next figure.
Figure 6-1
Such a chain reaction can be described qualitatively by the multiplication factor, which is indicated by the symbol k and is defined as the ratio of the number of fission neutrons in one generation divided by the number of fissions neutrons of the preceding generation.
k=
number of fission neutrons in one generation number of fission neutrons in preceding generation
If k is equal to one the chain reaction progresses at constant rate and the system is critical If k is greater than one the chain reaction progress increases the fission neutrons and the system is supercritical If k is less than one the chain reaction progress decreases the fission neutrons and the system is subcritical In a nuclear reactor the fission chain reaction can proceed in a controlled manner, this control is done by varying the value of k through manipulation of the control rods . For example to increase the power, the operator will increase k to a value greater than 1 by removal of the control rods and the reactor becomes supercritical; when the desired power has been reached the operator returns the reactor to critical condition (k=1) by insertion of the control rods. To reduce the power the operator decreases k to a value less than 1 and the reactor becomes subcritical, and the power decreases. The definition of multiplication factor can also be understood as a neutron balance between the rate at which they are produced and the rate at which they disappear. Neutrons can disappear in two ways: they can be absorbed or they can escape from the surface of the reactor.
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k=
production rate (absorption + leakage) rates
If the production rate is greater than the sum of absorption and leakage rates the reactor is supercritical and if it is smaller the reactor is subcritical.
6.2 Example of Chain Reaction with Natural Uranium

Since more than one neutron is generally produced per fission (n = 2.43 for U235 with thermal neutrons), it would appear to be a simple matter to utilize one of them to produce another fission. We will see what happens in practice when we analyze the case of natural uranium. Suppose we take 100 fission neutrons in a block of natural uranium, of which, 70 are above the energy threshold for U238, which is equal to 1.2 MeV, and the remaining 30 neutrons are below this energy level.
Figure 6-2 Microscopic cross sections for U
235
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Figure 6-3 Microscopic cross sections for U
238
Figure 6-4 Microscopic cross sections for natural uranium.
In analyzing the 30 neutrons mentioned above (see graph), we see that the majority of them are scattered as a result of elastic collisions with U238(n,n)U238, producing a moderation of
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these neutrons, and with no considerable loss of energy, due to the great difference in masses. In (n,n')U238 reactions, the neutrons lose considerable energy, leaving the nucleus of the uranium excited. Following many collisions, the neutrons will drop to an energy level of under 100 keV. At these energy levels, the greatest probability of reaction is for (n,)U238, which exceeds the probability of fission by 40 times, so that less than one of the 30 neutrons in question will produce a fission, with the rest being captured by U238. The 70 neutrons whose energy level is above 1.2 MeV will undergo different reactions in direct proportion to their neutron cross sections. In the first collisions we have the following: 38 neutrons react as (n,n) U238 27 neutrons react as (n,n') U238 About 4 neutrons react as (n,f) U238, and approximately 1 neutron reacts as (n,) U238, with a slight probability of interaction with U235.
The 38 elastically scattered neutrons take part in a second collision with the uranium, whose possible reactions are approximately 2 neutrons (n,f)U238, 15 neutrons (n,n')U238 with energies of under 1.2 MeV, and 21 neutrons (n,n)U238 of 1.2 MeV. These 21 neutrons produce a third collision and those obtained from that collision produce another one and so on, following which, of the 100 initial neutrons, 8 produce fission with U238 and 2 with U235, with energy levels of about 0.14 eV. The values assigned in the distribution of the number of neutrons out of the 70 that surpass the threshold of U238 were obtained via the quantification of the neutron cross sections for each type of reaction, as seen in the previous Figure 6-2, Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-4. ~ 0.3 = value of reaction (n,n) U238 ~ 0.2 = value of reaction (n,n) U238 ~ 0.03 = value of reaction (n,f) U238
or, that is to say, 57% of the initial 70 neutrons produce an (n,n) U238 reaction. 70 57% = 38 (n,n') U238 neutrons In the case of the 27 (n,n') U238 reaction neutrons:
70 38% = 27 (n,n') U238 neutrons
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In the case of the 4 (n,f) U238 reaction neutrons:
70 6% = 4.2 (n,f) U238 neutrons
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing analysis (10 fissions) we obtain the number of new fission neutrons. 10 fissions 2.5 = 25 fission neutrons On analyzing the multiplication factor, that is to say, the relationship between available neutrons in the 1st generation and those obtained in the 2nd generation:
This is a value lower than k=1, which is a condition for the maintaining of the chain reaction. Thus, the system is described as being sub-critical.
SYSTEMS THAT PRODUCE CHAIN REACTIONS
We have already seen that it is impossible to maintain the chain reaction in a system using natural uranium alone, but there are ways of achieving this:
Fast Reactors
One way is to increase the quantity of U235 in relation to U238, so as to augment the probability of U235 fission at energies of under 1.2 MeV. If, for example, of the neutrons that enter this region, 32 produce fission in U235, the chain reaction can be maintained, or, that is to say:
8 neutrons fission with U 100 neutrons 32 neutrons fission with U
235 238
If we assume that = 2.5 we have 40 fissions x 2.5 neutrons/fission = 100 neutrons in the second generation and k = 1.
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This process is known as fuel enrichment, a process which has given birth to the development of fast reactors.
Thermal Reactors
Another way of maintaining the chain reaction is by adding material with a low atomic number to natural uranium. The main objective here is to slow down neutrons to a low energy level (0.025 eV), with a material that produces elastic scattering and does no possess appreciable absorption. This process of slowing down neutrons is known as moderation, and it takes neutrons to thermal energy levels at which the probability of fission with U235 is very high (about 580 barns, compared with 1.2 barns at 1 MeV), whereas at this same energy level, the probability of radioactive capture in U238 is 2.7 barns. Even considering the low U235 content in natural uranium, fission is more probable than capture. The materials that achieve this effect in neutrons are called moderators. The reactor which possesses a large mass of moderator and where the majority of the neutrons reach thermal energy levels (thermal equilibrium with the atoms of the moderator) are called thermal reactors.
6.3 Types of Reactors

The nuclear reactors can be classified according to different criteria. The next paragraphs present two conceptual classification: 1. Utilization of the reactor. The fission process produces neutrons and energy. Based on this, there are conceptually two types of reactors:
o o
Research Reactors, which use the neutrons generated from the fission, and Power Reactors, which use the energy generated from the fission.
2. Energy of the neutrons which cause the fission in the system. o Thermal Reactors, in which fissions are produced by neutrons that are approximately in thermal equilibrium with atoms in the system and have an energy below 0.3 eV. o Fast Reactors, in which fissions are induced by neutrons with an energy above 100 keV. o Intermediate Reactors, in which most of the fissions are produced by neutrons with an energy above thermal to about 10 keV.
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6.4 Exercises
6.4.1 Question 1
Describe what is meant when we say that the multiplication factor, k, is equal to 1.
Solution
If k=1, then the chain reaction is at equilibrium. The number of fission neutrons in one generation is equal to the number of fission neutrons in the preceding generation.
6.4.2
Question 2
Approximately how many neutrons are produced from the thermal fission of U235?
Solution
= 2.43
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Neutron Moderation and Diffusion (3 hrs)

7.1 Neutron moderation
PROPERTIES OF THE MODERATOR
In the previous module, we have seen the two possibilities for maintaining a chain reaction: Fuel enrichment in U235 Adding a moderator to Natural Uranium.
Within the field of thermal reactors, there are also those with enriched fuel. The enrichment of the fuel depends primarily on the desired power density. Let us briefly look at how this option has been developed.
NEUTRON MODERATION
The main objective of the moderator is easily expressed: The fission neutrons must be moderated to thermal energy levels without being absorbed. Let us first look at this aspect: The neutrons can be absorbed by the atoms of both the moderator and the fuel at all energy levels. In the case of the moderator, their absorption can be minimized via the selection of a material that carries out this function, considering its scapture, but this is not so easy in the case of the fuel. Let's look, then, at the influence of the different moderators on fuel. Influence of the moderator on fuel
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Figure 7-1
Let us assume that for both moderators to meet their objective, in case N 1, the moderator collides a large number of times and in case N 2, the moderator collides less often. As a consequence of the first case, before the neutron is thermalized, it spends a great deal of time in the resonant capture zone of the U238 fuel, thus reducing the possibility of the neutron's fissioning before it is absorbed. The U238 exhibits (n,) resonances between 5 and 100 eV.
Conclusions
It is of utmost importance that resonant captures be held to a minimum, and the way to achieve this is by ensuring that the amount of energy lost by the neutron through moderation be as great as possible. If we also have as few collisions as possible during the moderation process, we will have less absorption of neutrons by the moderator itself.
7.2 Moderating Mechanism

We have established that we want thermal neutrons to be involved in as few collisions as possible. Let's now look at how this can be achieved:
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We have two methods of moderation: inelastic scattering (n,n') and elastic scattering (n,n). The first of these is produced with high-mass nuclei and with neutron energies superior to a certain threshold (0.1 MeV). Thus, the nuclei of U235 and U238 in the fuel will be effective in the moderation of neutrons via inelastic collisions, up to certain energy levels. Elastic scattering is employed to complete moderation to thermal energy levels and, as we have already seen, it is necessary to add materials with low mass numbers: the lighter the material, the more energy the neutron loses, and the better the moderating properties of that material. In the theory of moderation a factor is defined, which is inversely proportional to the number of collisions necessary for the thermalization of a fission neutron:
(7-1)
is the average energy decrease per collision in the logarithm of the neutron energy. is independent of energy.
Element H D He Be C U Mass N 1 2 4 97 12 238 x 1.000 0.725 0.425 0.206 0.158 0.000838 N 18 25 43 86 114 2172
Table 71 and N for some elements
7.3 Moderating Power

It is obvious that we want the lowest possible number of collisions in order to thermalize the neutron, but this property is not sufficient in itself. A nucleus can be highly effective in moderating neutrons when they collide with it. But if the nuclei are widely separated from one another in the substance, there will be few collisions and this substance will not be an effective moderator, a condition which eliminates gases as a moderator. The substance must also have a large neutron cross section for elastic scattering. The macroscopic scattering cross section s = N s provides for these requirements. The effectiveness of a material as a neutron moderator is measured by means of the product s, known as Moderating Power, which takes into account the frequency of scattering collisions and the loss of energy per collision. This quantity, nevertheless, tells us nothing about the capacity of the material to absorb neutrons. There exist, for instance, materials that possess high moderating effectiveness, but which are also highly absorbent and thus cannot be employed as moderators.
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A reasonable indication of the quality of a moderator is its Moderating Ratio (MR).
(7-2)
Moderator Water Heavy Water Beryllium Graphite
Moderating Power 1.28 0.18 0.16 0.065
Moderating Ratio 58 21,000 130 200
Table 72 Moderating Power and Moderating Ratio for some moderators
H2O has excellent moderating properties and is used as shielding for fast neutrons. Its a is too high for it to be used as a moderator for natural uranium. Thus, if H2O is used, the fuel must be enriched. Be and Graphite have low values and can be used with natural uranium if the fuel is metallic. The British line used graphite as a moderator with metallic natural uranium in power reactors, but after 1960, the British switched to graphite and enriched UO2. The United States developed power reactors with H2O as a moderator in combination with enriched fuel. The Atucha I PP and CANDU reactors use D2O as a moderator, and due to this moderator's low , UO2 may be used as fuel.
7.4 Diffusion equation

This section shows a conceptual description of the diffusion equation. Several text books explain and deduce this equation in a detailed way. The diffusion equation is obtained from a balance equation between production, absorption and leakage in a given volume:
The Rate of change of number of neutrons = Rate of production - Rate of absorption - Rate of leakage.
In the steady state case the rate of change of neutrons is zero. Production rate is the source of neutrons (for example fission): S Absorption rate is the macroscopic absorption cross section times neutron flux:
a
Leakage rate is obtained integrating the net number of neutrons passing outward through surface A of the volume, this term is:
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div J
where J is the net current and can be obtained by the Ficks Law:
J=-D (7-4)
where D is the diffusion coefficient Finally the steady state diffusion equation is:
div D - a + S = 0 - 1/L = -S /D (7-5)
(7-6)
Where L is defined as L = D / a The quantity L is defined as diffusion length and L is called diffusion area.
Diffusion equation discussion
The discussion in this chapter ignores the energy spectrum of the neutrons for the sake of simplicity. In a nuclear reactor the neutrons from fission have a broad energy range that must be considered in order to develop an accurate representation of the flux. A common start to this approximation is to break the spectrum into two groups, a fast flux group and a thermal flux group. We derived earlier the steady state diffusion equation as:
- 1/L = -S /D
where is the Laplacian of the flux, and L = D / a
Since we are only looking at two groups, neutrons scattered from the fast group must enter the thermal group. Very little absorption takes place at the higher energy levels, hence this assumption can be made. If f is the transfer cross section for neutrons going from fast to thermal energies, then f f = those fast neutrons that slow down out of the fast group. The diffusion equation for the fast group then becomes:
Df - f f = 0
For the thermal group equation we have:
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If we define a new term = neutron age, this is a function of how long it takes a neutron to slow down, then we can solve the equation for T. Taking into account that both T and f depend on r, the distance from the source, we have a detailed differential equation that when solved results in:
Is this now a good approximation of the thermal flux? It is better than a one-group approximation, and a lot of the detail involved in deriving the equation was left out, but it is still lacking. For a good representation of a thermal reactor a model using a minimum of three to four groups is used. Detailed analysis requiring 30 groups or more are not uncommon. Each group breaks down the energy spectrum and its associated cross section data for a more detailed evaluation.
7.5 Boundary Condition

The neutron flux can be found solving the diffusion equation and with a certain boundary condition. The boundary condition at the interface between two different media is continuity of the flux and the component of the current normal to the surface. In many problems neutrons diffuse in a medium which has an outer surface. In this condition the boundary condition is defined as follows:
The flux is assumed to vanish at a small distance d beyond the surface
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Figure 7-2
The distance d is known as extrapolation distance or extrapolation length and can be calculated as d = 2.13 D
7.6 Neutron diffusion in the moderator

Many of the parameters determined in the design of a reactor depend on the path taken by the neutrons in the process of moderation and neutron diffusion in the moderator. Neutron diffusion via any material is the result of the scattering of the nuclei. Virtually no neutron collides with another, since neutron density is much lower than atomic density.
Figure 7-3
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A fission neutron born at point A is thermalized in 18.2/ collisions in order to reach point B. It can be demonstrated that the quadratic mean of the "feather flight" for distance AB is provided by the following formula:
(7-8)
Ls is known as the "moderation length" and is an important parameter in reactor physics.

D20 example
In the case of D2O, Ls = 11cm, thus, (AB) is approximately 725 cm, whereby AB is about 23 cm. This may be compared with the total average distance covered during moderation, which is the average number of collisions in the mean free path for elastic scattering. In the case of D2O, this value is approximately 100 cm.
Once the neutron has been thermalized at point B, it will continue to move around in the moderator until it is absorbed at point C. A relationship similar to (7-8) may be written as follows:
(7-9)
Whereby L is the "diffusion length".

Moderator H2O D2O* Be Graphite Ls (cm) 5.6 11.0 9.2 18.7 L (cm) 2.76 100 21 64.2
Table 73 Moderation and Diffusion Lengths * reactor grade
The moderation length determines the optimum distance between adjacent fuel channels in heterogeneous reactors. This distance is known as the lattice pitch, and the values seen in the previous table explain why H2O reactors are smaller than those moderated with D2O. The low L value for H2O is reflected in its high value, and it is easy to see that "overmoderating" a light-water reactor (i.e., making the lattice pitch as large as necessary) will signify a severe penalty in terms of neutron absorption. Thus, this situation must be born in mind. On the other hand, over-moderating a heavy water reactor by a few centimeters will make very little difference to the absorption level. value, and it is easy to see that "overmoderating" a light-water reactor (i.e., making the lattice pitch as large as necessary) will signify a severe penalty in terms of neutron absorption.
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The L values given in the table are, of course, applicable only to the moderator, since it is assumed that the thermal neutrons are eventually absorbed by the nuclei of the moderator. In the case of the fuel contained in the reactor, most thermal neutrons are absorbed by the fuel nuclei and the effective diffusion length is thus considerably reduced. Moderation length, meanwhile, will not be significantly affected, due to the fact that the contribution of fuel nuclei during the moderation process is practically negligible. Finally, it is worth noting that the fraction of neutrons that escape from the core (and which is referred to as "leakage") also depends on L and Ls. This point will be discussed in the next section.
7.7 Homogeneous bare reactor

Consider a critical fast homogeneous reactor, and it will be assumed that consists of one region. Usually such a system is said to be a bare reactor. The diffusion equation for such system is (we consider that the source is only from fission):
- a = - S = - f (7-10)
+ ( f - a) / D = 0 + B = 0
(7-11)
(7-12)
The last equation is known as the reactor equation and together with the boundary condition, not only determines the shape of the flux, but also leads to a condition for the criticality of the reactor. This equation can be solved for different geometries and has several solutions called eigenfunctions with its corresponding eigenvalues. However, if the reactor is critical all these functions except the first die out in time and the flux assumes the steady state shape of the first eigenfunction or fundamental.
Geometry Infinite Slab Rectangular parallelepiped Infinite cylinder Finite Cylinder Sphere Dimension Thickness a a*b*c Radius R R*H Radius R B (/a) (/a) + (/b) + (/c) Bx + By + Bz (2.405 / R) (2.405 / R) + (/H) BR + Bz (/R) Flux cos (B x) Cos(Bx x) Cos(By y) Cos(Bz z) J0(B r) J0(BR r) Cos(Bz z) sin (B r) / r
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Table 74 For different geometries Buckling B (first eigenvalue) and flux shape (first eigenfunction)
We can compare the equation (7-11) and equation (7-12) and we can see the only possible solution is when
B = ( f - a) / D (7-13)
and (for slab geometry)

B = (/a) (7-14)
The first term is called material buckling and the second is the geometrical buckling, and both must be equal to get a critical system. Then a homogeneous system with the following parameters: f as fission cross section, a absorption cross section, and D Diffusion coefficient will be critical only in a slab geometry of thickness A with A = ( * D / ( f - a))1/2 From equation (7-13) we can calculate the effective multiplication factor Keff (= 1) as:
Keff = 1 = f / (a + D B) = Kinf /(1 +LB) (7-15)
7.8 Exercises
7.8.1 Question 1
What is the main objective of the moderator?
Solution
The main objective of the moderator is to thermalize the fission neutrons without being absorbed.
7.8.2
Question 2
When considering a moderator material, do we want a material of less mass, equal mass, or greater mass than a neutron? Why?
Solution
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Equal mass, this provides for the maximum transfer of kinetic energy per collision, hence a minimum number of collisions to reach thermal energy.
7.8.3
Question 3
What is the minimum number of collisions to thermalize an average fission neutron? What is this based on?
Solution
18 collisions. This is based on collisions with hydrogen atoms (1 amu).
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Steady State Reactor (3 hrs)

8.1 Neutron life cycle
STEADY-STATE REACTOR
A reactor is said to be in a steady state when it operates at a constant power level. In a steady-state reactor, the number of fissions per second is constant, or in other words, the number of neutrons that cause fission from one generation to the next remain constant, which in turn implies that the multiplication factor, k, is equal to 1. A reactor that operates under these conditions is said to be Critical. It is important to point out that the reactor can be critical at any power level. If we manage to reduce neutron losses caused by leaks or captures without fission, we will have a greater number of neutrons with which to produce fissions. Thus, the number of fissions that occur in a given generation will be greater than in the preceding generation and k will be greater than 1 (k>1). In this case the power level increases and the reactor is said to be Supercritical. If, on the other hand, losses increase, the fissions produced in a given generation will be fewer than the ones for the previous generation and k will thus be less than 1 (k<1). This brings a decrease in power and in this case, the reactor is said to be Subcritical. Earlier, we estimated the value of k for the case of natural uranium without a moderator. Now, we shall approach the k multiplication factor more systematically, discussing all factors that affect the neutron balance in a steady-state reactor.
NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE
In a critical reactor, one neutron of each fission will cause exactly one more fission. The systematic cycle is seen below:
Of the 2.43 neutrons (typical value) produced in a fission, only one completes the cycle to maintain the chain reaction. The other almost 1.5 neutrons are lost via leakage or capture. In order to know when and how these neutrons are lost, as well as why they affect the value of k, let's analyze the neutron cycle detailed above.
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Figure 8-1 Neutronic cycle.
Analysis of the neutron cycle
Toward this end, we will start with N thermal neutrons and continue through the cycle step by step. 1. Fraction f of the thermal neutrons is absorbed by the fuel. Thus, f N neutrons are absorbed by the fuel. This f factor is called the thermal utilization factor and is defined as the ratio of neutrons absorbed by the fuel to the total number of neutrons absorbed in the reactor.
2. Not all the neutrons absorbed by the fuel will cause fission since some will be lost due to radioactive capture. Let's assume that a fraction a causes fission in U235, which gives us a f N fissions.
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3. Each fission will produce n fast neutrons, so that what will be produced is a f N fast neutrons of the original N thermal neutrons. Defining a = , as the thermal fission factor. This represents the N of fast neutrons produced for each thermal neutron absorbed by the fuel.
Note: represents the N of neutrons produced for each neutron that causes fission. Replacing, the equation remains: a f N = f N fast neutrons produced
4. Up to this point, we have been considering thermal fissions, but as we know, fast neutrons (with energies of more than 1.2 MeV) can cause fast fissions in U238 before the neutrons are moderated. Thus, it is given that the total number of neutrons will be greater than f N fast neutrons. The additional contribution increases the population of fast neutrons by a factor of . Thus, the total number of fast neutrons produced (in U235 and U238) will be: f N. where is known as the fast fission factor.
5. These fast neutrons are now thermalized, but some will escape from the reactor before they reach their resonant energy level. Pf is the fraction of fast neutrons that reach resonant energies without escaping from the system, thus:
Pf N f is the number of neutrons moderated to resonant energy levels.
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6. If fraction p avoids resonant capture, it is given that PF p f N is the number of neutrons that are moderated under resonant energy levels, and the remainder is lost to resonant capture. p = resonance escape probability. It is the measure of how many neutrons can go through resonances without being absorbed.
Disregarding neutron escape, it is given that p f N is the number of neutrons moderated to thermal energies from the original thermal N neutrons.
7. Let's have another look at the complete cycle. Many of the neutrons will escape while they are being moderated under resonant energies to thermal energies. Let's assume a PR is the fraction that will be thermalized. Hence, it is given that
whereby Pf = the probability of permanence during moderation, or "fast non-leakage probability".
8. Neutrons will also escape during the diffusion process (before being absorbed by the fuel), and Pt is the thermal non-leakage probability during diffusion. Thus, it is given that:
Pt Pf k N is the number of thermal neutrons prepared to begin the next cycle.
8.2 Four Factor Formula

As we have already seen, the critical condition is k Pf Pt = 1.
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If we disregard losses we have the case of an infinite (ideal) reactor, since in this case there would be no leakage of neutrons to the exterior. In practice, we can come fairly close to this situation in the case of a large reactor. For this situation, it is given that = keffective = Pf Pt = 1
For a finite sized reactor, critical condition is whereby:
(8-1)
B = buckling Ls= fast neutron moderation length. and:
(8-2)
whereby L = thermal diffusion length or, that is to say,
(8-3)
8.3 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems

We have already established the need for moderators in thermal reactors, but we have not discussed the location of the moderator and the fuel. There are only two possibilities: a) Homogenous systems: In this case, the moderator and the fuel are intimately mixed. b) Heterogenous systems: Here, the fuel is placed in the reactor in the form of rods or regular cells.
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM
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In this case, fission neutrons are in immediate contact with the atoms of the moderator, with moderation taking place by means of elastic scattering before the neutrons are absorbed by the nuclei of the fuel. As a consequence of this process, the neutron will not have the energy necessary to cause fission in U238 (fast fissions), hence the value of ~ 1 (fast fission factor). The value of does not vary since it depends on the composition of the fuel alone. In the case of Natural Uranium, = 1.34. Assuming that we are taking the case of an infinite reactor in its critical state:
=pf=1 (8-4)
It is already given that: =1 = 1.34 pf= /
Thus: p f = 1 / 1 1.34 = 0.746 This value for p f assures that the chain reaction will be maintained. If we wish to vary the value of p f, the way to do it is by changing the relationship of moderator to fuel in the homogenous mixture. Examples of homogenous systems include natural uranium and graphite, natural uranium and D2O, natural uranium and H2O and natural uranium and beryllium. Observing the Table 8-1, we see that when the Nm/Nc ratio (N of moderator atoms/ N of fuel atoms) is increased, p rises, due to the fact that thermalization of neutrons is improved, but f decreases due to increased neutron absorption in the moderator.
Nm / Nc 200 300 400 500 p 0.579 0.643 0.682 0.693 f 0.889 0.842 0.800 0.762 Table 81 Nm/Nc ratios p.f 0.515 0.541 0.546 0.528 k 0.683 0.718 0.725 0.701
The maximum value of the p f product obtained in the table is 0.546, resulting in a of 0.725. Thus the chain reaction cannot be maintained in a homogenous maximum mixture of natural uranium and graphite with the values cited above. A similar situation occurs in the case of natural uranium/H2O or beryllium
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In the case of natural uranium and D2O, the optimum Nm/Nc ratio obtained provides a maximum p f product of 0.81, which represents a maximum of 1.07.
due to factors such as leakage, The values cited do not take into account decreases in accumulation of fission products (poisons), etc., a fact which indicates that in order to reach a critical state, in practice, the size of the mixture must be very large.
THE EFFECT OF FUEL ENRICHMENT
What can be done to make such systems possible in practice? The answer is a rise in the value of . In practice (bearing in mind the factors mentioned above), a required. Thus, the value of must be: In the case of graphite: = / p f = 1.2/1.0.546 = 2.18 of approximately 1.1 to 1.2 is
In the case of D2O: = / p f = 1.2/1.0.81 = 1.48
The enrichment process implies increasing the concentration of U235 atoms in the fuel. That is to say, a real homogenous natural uranium-D2O system must have a U235 concentration of about 1.2% to provide ~ 1.5. A value of = 2.18 cannot be achieved in a system employing graphite. But since during enrichment we lower the quantity of U238, "p" increases, implying enrichment of 30%. We can conclude from this that it is practically impossible to achieve viable homogenous systems employing natural uranium, even in the case of natural uranium and D2O, the value of which is affected by neutron flight, poisons, burning, etc. Thus, in order to construct practical homogenous systems, enriched fuel must be employed.
HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS
Homogenous reactors have, in practice, been constructed. But their development has been paralyzed due to nuclear factors, which include: Heat transfer to the core. Fission product contamination. High levels of corrosion in uranium solutions. Problems related to critical levels outside of the core. Reactor dynamics. Circulation of the fuel outside of the reactor.
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Experimental homogenous reactors: HRE-I (USA) utilizes enriched uranium sulphate diluted in D2O, operates at 1.6 MWt and has been producing electricity since 1953. HRE-II operates at 5MW. In a heterogenous system, the fuel is placed as indicated in Figure 8-2.
Figure 8-2 Fuel placement in a heterogeneous system
Each rod is surrounded by moderator material, with fission occurring within the fuel and the neutrons being partially moderated via inelastic scattering until they escape from the fuel and initiate the principal process of moderation via elastic scattering with the nuclei of the moderator, until the neutron enters the fuel once again. The separation that exists between two fuel rod determines how many elastic scattering collisions will take place.
8.4 Nuclear Advantages of the Heteregeneous System

The value of increases slightly, since the neutrons to be emitted within the fuel rod can cause fast fission with U238 before escaping from the rod. This value is of between 1.02 and 1.03. The resonance escape probability "p" increases significantly on going from a homogenous to a heterogeneous system as a result of two effects:
Pitch: if the pitch is large, the majority of the neutrons will be moderated below
resonant energies before entering a fuel element. at energies of 6.7 eV has a peak absorption of 8000 barn. Therefore, absorptions at this energy level occur on the surface of the fuel rods, and thus, the interior atoms will "see" no neutrons of 6.7 eV consequently reducing the number of U238 atoms available for resonant capture.
Fuel Self-Shielding: the most significant resonance in the case of U
238
As a result of these two points, we obtain values of p = 0.9.
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The value of "f" decreases, due to the effect of fuel self-shielding for the absorption of thermal neutrons. Thus, the value of "f " will be less in a heterogenous system than in a homogenous one.
Figure 8-3
If we analyze f in further detail, we can define the thermal disadvantage factor.
Detailed Analysis of f
(8-4)
In the case of a homogenous system: as the moderator and fuel are intimately mixed,
(8-5)
In the expression of f, if we divide by Nc', we get the following:
(8-6)
In the case of a heterogeneous system the fuel is different from the moderator .
(8-7)
If in the expression of f we divide by c Nc:
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(8-8)
whereby, the expression m / c is the thermal disadvantage factor. Since c is less than , due to absorptions, the value of the thermal disadvantage factor is greater than 1. Consequently: fhom > fhet In general, when going from a homogenous system to a heterogenous system, the value of "p" increases much more than f diminishes.
8.5 Exercises
8.5.1 Question 1
What is the four factor formula? Define each term.
Solution
=ehpf
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8.5.2
Question 2
When we talk about a four factor formula what major assumption are we making with regard to the reactor (i.e. what is missing from the formula?)
Solution
In the four factor formula there is no leakage term. The reactor is considered to be infinite in size - no neutrons leak out.
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Critical Size (2 hrs)

9.1 Neutron Leakage
Up to now, we have discussed the different ways of increasing via the analysis of p f. As mentioned before, neutrons are also lost when they escape or are leaked from the reactor. Now we will analyze this in greater detail. Neutron leakages can be reduced in the following way: By increasing the size of the core. By using a reflector.
9.1.1
The case of the sphere
We know the volume of the sphere is V = 4/3r3 (the production and absorption are proportional to the core volume) and that the surface of the sphere is S = 4r (the leakage are proportional to the core surface) Table 9-1 shows what happens to the S/V relationship for the different values of the radius:
R 0.62 1.34 2.88 6.20 10.6 V 1 10 100 1000 5000 S 4.8 22.6 104 485 1410 S/V 4.8 2.3 1.0 0.5 0.3
Table 91 S/V relationship (sphere)
The S/V relationship diminishes as the radius increases and thus, the percentage of neutron leakages also decreases.
9.1.2
2. The case of the cylinder
We know that the volume of the cylinder is V = r h and that the surface area of the cylinder is S = 2r + 2rh. Table 9-2 shows what happens to the S/V relationship for different radius values if we maintain a constant height of h = 10:
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R 0.18 0.57 1.80 5.70 12.6
V 1 10 100 1000 5000
S 11.5 37.8 133 558 1790
S/V 11.5 3.8 1.3 0.6 0.4
Table 92 S/V relationship (cylinder)
Once again, we see that the S/V relationship diminishes when the cylinder increases in size (radius), with neutron leakage also diminishing. A similar calculation for a cube reactor will produce the same type of results as those above. It may also be observed that the volume for the S/V relationship is always less for the sphere than for the cylinder. It also follows that the cube has a larger S/V ratio for a given volume (assuming utilization of optimum values for the cylinder). We may conclude, then, that neutron leakage can be reduced by increasing the dimensions of the reactor.
9.1.3
CRITICAL SIZE
When the size of the reactor is such that the chain reaction is maintained, we refer to this as critical size. Of the three geometries considered, the sphere has the smallest critical size, while the cube has the largest. Spherical geometries are very difficult to construct. Therefore, most reactors are built in cylindrical form. The size of the reactor will have to be larger than the minimum critical size, in order to permit the burning of fuel and the accumulation of fission products, which absorb neutrons. = fp for an infinite reactor, and we define keff for a finite reactor with We defined leakage terms. Let's take a look at the keff formula at the 9.1.4. keff formula. Let's turn once again to the critical size of the reactor: For a given reactor design, the M are fixed. Thus, whether the reactor is to be subcritical, critical or supercritical value and depends on BM (the size of the reactor). When the size of the reactor increases, the value of B diminishes to the point in which BM is sufficiently small for the reactor to reach criticality. This is known as critical size, as we said earlier.
Critical size refers to the minimum critical size with new fuel. A reactor which achieves its exact critical size will not remain in a critical state for long due to the accumulation of poisons and the burn-up of fissile material. Thus, reactors are always built considerably larger than their minimum critical size.
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9.1.4
keff formula
(9-1)
We know that:
(9-2)
B = Buckling Ls = Fast Neutron Moderation Length L = Diffusion Length Pf and Pt depend on the size and shape of the reactor. In the case of the cylindrical reactor, for radius (R) and height (H), the following is given:
(9-3)
For a reactor of infinite size, B = 0, the probability of permanence will be Pf Pt = 1 and the critical condition will be 2). = 1. For a reactor of finite size, the critical condition will be eq. (9-
Neutron production takes place in the entire volume of the system. It is clear that the geometric configuration whose surface to volume ratio is minimum (for a given composition) will have the smallest critical mass. From eq. (9-2) we have:
(9-4)
disregarding B4L2Ls2 <<< 1, we have:
(9-5)
M = migration length that takes diffusion and moderation into account.
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For this assumption, it is given that the product of both probabilities of permanence (nonleakage probabilities) will be:
(9-6)
If we incorporate 1-Pf Pt, we get the proportion of escape:
(9-7)
Neutron escape diminishes in proportion with the decrease in B. This is the mathematical description of the sphere and cylinder argument provided above. A large reactor will, then, have a small B value and the escape factor will be lower.
9.2 Reflector: Its Uses and Properties

A reflector is a substance placed around the core of the reactor to make the neutrons return to the core (Figure 9-1). A good analogy is that a reflector is to neutrons what a mirror is to light.
Figure 9-1
The reflected neutrons are used to cause fission and the use of the reflector provides the following benefits: The critical size may be reduced using a reflector. If the size of the core is critical and a reflector is utilized, there are more available neutrons in the core. This means that the chain reaction may be maintained utilizing
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fuel with a higher accumulation of fission products and with a greater consumption of U235 nuclei. The two preceding points may be summarized by saying that by adding a reflector, the keff is increased. An additional benefit is that the use of a reflector produces a flattening in the distribution of neutron flux and thus, a better utilization of fuel, as we will see further along.
What properties should a substance have if it is to be used as a reflector? The ideal reflector should be the same as the ideal moderator. Light nuclei are the most effective in reflecting neutrons toward the core. The best reflectors are D2O/graphite/H2O. From the point of view of reactor design, the moderator-fuel ratio is of essential importance in achieving Keff > 1 or Keff = 1, no matter whether or not a reflector is employed. Thus, no great demands are placed on the reflector with regard to neutron absorption, but this is not the case with the moderator. Generally, in many Reflector savings reactors the reflector is an extension of the moderator.
The decrease in the critical dimensions of a reactor core as a result of the use of a reflector is called reflector savings. Thus if R0 is the radius of a spherical bare core and R is the radius of the core with the reflector present, the reflector saving is = R R0 If the reflector saving is known, the calculation of the critical size of a reflected core it is only necessary to calculate the critical size of the bare core, and the reflected size must be corrected by the reflector saving.
9.3 Exercises
9.3.1 Question 1
How can we reduce neutron leakage?
Solution
By increasing the size of the core and/or by using a reflector.
9.3.2
Question 2
Which geometry has the smallest critical size? Why don't we build a reactor in this geometry? What geometry is more common?
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Solution
The sphere has the smallest critical size, but a spherical geometry is very difficult to construct. Most reactor geometries are cylindrical.
9.3.3
Question 3
What are the three main benefits to a reflector?
Solution
Reduce the critical size, more available neutrons in the core for better fuel utilization and a flattening of the flux across the core.
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10
Neutron and Power Distribution (2 hrs)
10.1 Distribution of the Neutron Flux in the Reactor

In order for the power generated by the fission reactions to be maintained at a constant level, the fission rate must remain steady over the course of time. This means that the number of thermal neutrons that cause fission in one generation must be the same as those that cause fission in the next generation, and the next, and so on. Thus, the total number of neutrons in the reactor must remain constant. In point of fact, the f = fissions/s product must remain constant, but let us assume that factor f varies somewhat. In this module we will discuss the distribution of the neutron population.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEUTRON FLUX IN THE REACTOR
The thermal neutron flux is the quantity determined by the fission rate per cm3 f and thus, the power generated in the fuel. Due to the fact that the flux is different at each point of the reactor, its distribution or form is of utmost importance, since it will determine the distribution of power generated in the core. In general, the thermal neutron flux achieves its maximum value in the center of the reactor and falls to zero at the contour of the reactor, since no thermal neutrons are produced in this area. The distribution of the neutron flux depends greatly on the form of the reactor and since most reactors are cylindrical, we will discuss this form. Let's consider the flux distribution in two directions: Axial and Radial from the center of the reactor (Figure 10-1).
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Figure 10-1
The form of the flux along the axes is provided in the following expressions: Axial:
(10-1)
Along the contour of the core (Figure 10-2), it is given that Z = H/2 and Z = -H/2, thus, it is given that /2 = 0 , therefore:
Z = 0
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Figure 10-2
The distribution of the flux along the radius has a similar form. It is not exactly a cosine, but it is, nevertheless, fairly correct to express it as:
(10-2)
Figure 10-3
Along the contour (Figure 10-3), it is given that r = R. Therefore:
r = 0
One of the physical conditions is that must not drop abruptly to zero along the geometric contours, but that it do so at a given distance (d) (Figure 10-4).
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Figure 10-4
Combining both distributions, we find the flux as related to (z,r) at any given point in the reactor.
(10-3)
10.2 Implications of the Non-Uniform Distribution of Flux

1. As the neutron flux has a maximum value at the center of the reactor and drops to zero in the contours, the maximum power generated by the fuel will be produced in the center of the reactor and very little power will be generated in the fuel located in the outer areas. 2. The total power produced in the reactor will depend on the average thermal flux. Due to the type of distribution produced in a cylindrical reactor, the average flux is only 27.5% of the maximum flux.
3. The only way to increase the total power generated by the reactor is by increasing the average flux. If we maintain the same flux distribution, the only way to augment the average flux is by increasing the maximum flux (Figure 5). Nevertheless, this situation would increase the heat generated by the fuel in the center of the reactor and might not be acceptable due to the limits of the fuel and the heat extraction capacity of the system.
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Figure 10-5 Conclusion:
Total power is limited due to the low ratio between average flux and maximum flux. There are ways of increasing the average flux without augmenting the maximum flux. In this way we can generate more power with the same size of core. Hence the great interest demonstrated in flattening the distribution of flux, and there are different ways of doing this.
Case I: Reflector Effect
Figure 10-6
a: flux without reflector b: flux with reflector

a. A flattening of the thermal flux in the core is achieved, or, that is to say, the average flux/maximum flux ratio is increased. As seen in the figure above, the "hump" in the flux distribution is due to the leakage of fast neutrons into the reflector, where they are thermalized. Since the reflector contains no fuel to absorb the thermal neutrons, it behaves as (is equivalent to) a source of thermal neutrons.
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b. Due to the increased flux in the contours of the core, there is better utilization of fuel in the outer areas of the reactor, which contributes greatly to the total of generated power. Thanks to the benefits analyzed, the use of the reflector is widespread.
Case 2: Flattening Flux With Absorbers
In this case, control rods are inserted in the central area of the core, depressing the thermal flux and thus flattening flux distribution.
Figure 10-7
a: flux without reflector b: flux with control rods in

The control rods soak up part of the excess reactivity, which is found in the core and which is detrimental to the keff.
Case 3: Flattening of Flux Due to Zone Refuelling
Zone refuelling means that fuel in the central channels is left for a longer period of time than the fuel in the outer channels so as to achieve a high burn level. Thus the central fuel elements generate relatively fewer neutrons than the outer elements. See the example for the effect of flux flattening on a natural uranium core.
Example
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The expression for the power in a natural uranium core =
relates power expressed in MW(t) to the mass of natural uranium (expressed in ton), and the average thermal flux, expressed as (neutrons cm-2 s-1). It may be observed from the formula that there are enormous economic benefits to be gained from increasing the average flux without increasing the maximum flux. For the Atucha I PP the average flux is 53% of maximum power. Without any flattening, average f/Maximum f = 27%, or in other words, with approximately the same investment, we would produce only half of the installed capacity.
10.3 Power Peaking Factor

The thermal hydraulic design of the reactor core is done for the maximum power (not only for the average power), thus it is better to use a new quantity Power Peaking Factor which is defined as:
PPF = (maximum power density) / (average power density)

Table 10-1 shows the power peaking factor for different reactor geometries.
Geometry Infinite Slab Rectangular - Parallelepiped Infinite Cylinder Finite Cylinder Sphere Table 101 PPF 1.57 3.88 2.32 3.64 3.29
10.4 Exercises
10.4.1 Question 1
What is the advantage to flattening the flux across the core?
Solution
Maximum flux is the limiting condition on reactor power. Therefore it is desired to increase the ratio of average flux/maximum flux to increase power generation.
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10.4.2
Question 2
How does a reflector flatten the flux across the core?
Solution
The reflector acts to increase the effective thermal at the edge of the core and hence increases power production in the outer elements.
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11
Reactivity and Its Effects on Reactor Power (1 hrs)
11.1 Criticality and Neutron Multiplication

In earlier lessons, we have limited our discussion to a reactor operating at a constant power level. We carried out a precise balance between neutrons lost via absorption and leakage, and those produced by fission. As a result, the neutron population remained constant, and so too did the neutron flux () and neutron density. Now let's study what happens when we change the power level of the reactor.
CRITICALITY AND NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION
If the number of fissions in each successive generation remains constant, the reactor will remain critical. Suppose now, that the losses decrease, as a result, for example, of removal of the control rods from the core. In this case, we will have more fissions occurring in a given generation than in the previous one, and consequently, there will be a net multiplication of neutrons. Let's take a look at an extreme case of this type of neutron multiplication (extreme in the sense that we will not find such a high multiplication rate in practice within real reactors), that will serve to clarify this concept. In our example, the losses have been reduced to such an extent that the number of neutrons double with each new generation. (See figure. 11-1).
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Figure 11-1
In this example, we see that one neutron has multiplied to 8 following three generations (or, that is to say, 23). In this case, the k multiplication factor is equal to 2 since:
Having defined k, we can say that if k = 1, the chain reaction is maintained and the neutron population remains constant (it should not be forgotten that the reactor may be critical at any power level).
11.2 Reactivity
A reactor is critical when the effective multiplication factor (keff) is equal to 1. The factor that determines how subcritical or supercritical a reactor may be is the following quantity:
This is called reactivity. In practice, keff is always very close to 1. Thus,
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r ~ kef = keff - 1
UNITS
The changes implemented in a functioning reactor as a means of control are always very small and are expressed in %, , mk (milik), pcm (per 100000). Let's take a reactor with keff = 1.002. In this case we say that the reactor is 2 mk supercritical. And if it were keff = 0.997, we would say that it was 3 mk subcritical, since:
Thus: keff = 1.002 represents a reactivity of 0.2%, 2, 2mk or 200pcm. keff = 0.997 represents a reactivity of -0.3%, -3, -3mk or -300pcm.
11.3 The Effect of Reactivity on Neutron Multiplication

From the previously studied topic, the following expression emerges:
n = n0 k
N
(11-1)
with N being the number of generations and n0 the initial number of neutrons. Given this expression, we can calculate the following example.
Reactivity Example
keff = 1.00 N = 500 generations kN = (1,003)500 = 4.47 or that is to say: NN = n0 4.47 Differentiating eq. (11-1) with respect to dN and integrating:
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If the reactivity is small, ln k~ (k-1) = k, and then: ln n = N k + const n = n0 when N = 0, thus, n = ln n0. That is to say:
Then:
(11-2)
Returning to eq. (11-1), we had that in 500 generations, the gain is 4.47 times, and in 1000 generations it is about 20 times, and after 1500 generations, it will be more than 500 times. This type of gain is known as the exponential increase and is represented by eq. (11-2). As long as reactivity remains small, as is generally the case, expressions (11-1) and (11-2) are equivalent. That is to say:
11.4 The Effect of Reactivity on Neutron Flux and Reactor Power

11.4.1 Course
nN and n0 are the number of neutrons following the first N generations and are proportional to the average neutron density, average neutron flux and total power of the reactor. Thus, we can write the following: P = P0 . e NK If K is positive, we have more fissions than necessary to maintain the chain reaction. The neutron density will increase and we will have more neutrons available to cause other
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fissions. That is to say: density increases, the fission rate increases and, consequently, the power level increases.
THE EFFECT OF NEGATIVE REACTIVITY CHANGES
The same expression as before is applied, except for the sign. For example, if keff = 0.997, the K reactivity will be: K = -0.003 and the neutron population will, thus, decrease. That is to say: nN = n0 . e NK nN = n0 e 500(-0.003) nN = n0 . e -1.5 nN = n0 . 0.22 What this signifies is that neutron density, the neutron population, neutron flux and reactor power will have diminished by 22% following 500 generations.
11.4.2
Example Problem 1
Execute the curves corresponding to k1 = 1, k2 = 1.0005, k3 = 1.001, k4 = 1.002, k5 = 1.003. k1 = 0, k2 = 0.0005, k3 = 0.001, k4 = 0.002, k5 = 0.003 n = n0 eNK
N 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 k2 = 0.0005 1.0512 1.1618 1.2840 1.4190 1.5683 1.7332 2.0137 2.1170 k3 = 0.001 1.1051 1.3458 1.6487 2.014 2.459 3.004 4.055 4.481 k4 = 0.002 1.2214 1.8221 2.7282 4.055 6.049 9.025 16.446 20.085 k5 = 0.003 1.3498 2.459 4.4817 8.1661 14.879 27.110 66.680 90.010
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Figure 11-2
11.4.3
Example Problem 2
k = -20 mk. How many generations will we need to obtain 10% of initial power?
That is to say, 115 generations will be needed in order to obtain 10% of initial power.
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11.5 Exercises
11.5.1
Define reactivity.
Question 1
Solution
11.5.2
Question 2
If keff = 1.005, express the reactivity represented in each of the four common methods.
Solution
0.5 %, 5 , 5 mk, or 500 pcm.
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12
Changes on Reactor Power Relative to Time (2 hrs)
12.1 The Effects of Neutron Life Time on Changes in the Reactor Power
12.1.1 Changes in reactor power relative to time
We have already discussed how reactivity affects the multiplication of neutrons and thus the power of the reactor. We saw that the power level changed from one generation to the next, but that the power level is not as important as the speed of the change in this value. The speed with which the power level changes is the factor that determines whether it is easy or difficult to regulate a reactor and this is the aspect that we will study in this lesson.
12.1.2 The effects of neutron life-time on changes in reactor power

We have seen that neutron density, n, neutron flux, f, and the power level increase or decrease in a certain number of generations, depending on whether reactivity is positive or negative.
P(t) = P0 e kN (12-1)
This signifies that if we start with P0 and K, N generations later, the power level will be P, or, that is to say, this gives us the change in power relative to the number of generations, but not in terms of time. We need to know how long a generation lasts, since this is the deciding factor in how fast the neutrons multiply. In dealing with any given keff value, the smaller the time span between one generation and the next, the faster the neutrons multiply and the faster the power level will change over the course of time. The time span between generations is known as "neutron life-time". This includes the time lapse in which the neutron is absorbed by the nucleus and fissions (10-14 s), the time in which fast neutrons are moderated to thermal energies (MT), and the time until thermalized neutrons are absorbed to cause another fission (DT). If neutron life-time is L (in seconds), the time (t) required for N generations will be: t=LN and hence,
If we substitute in the equation P = P0eNK, we arrive at the following:
(12-2)
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This equation provides the power change relative to time. We can thus observe that the larger k is and the smaller L is, the faster the increase in power will be.
12.2 Reactor Period

In order to get an idea of the speed of the power change, we could take the time the power level takes to double, but due to the nature of the equation above, we will take the time in which the power level changes by an e factor. This lapse is called the reactor period and it is represented by the letter T in the earlier expression:
In order for this equivalency to be given,
Or that is to say,
Substituting this last in expression (12-2) we can formulate an expression in terms of reactor period, or in other words:
This equation demonstrates that the smaller the period, the greater the power change. The k or is a quantity controlled by the regulation system and can be modified within reasonable limits. Neutron life-time is a quantity that depends on the reactor and cannot be modified at will.
12.3 The Effect of Prompt Neutrons

We already know that fission reactions produce prompt and delayed neutrons and we have already said that the delayed neutrons play an important role in the regulation of the reactor. Lets see what would happen if all of the neutrons were prompt. In this case, L = 0.001 s for a natural uranium-D2O reactor (since tM = 50ms, tD = 1 ms and fission time is 10-14 s, and thus, tD predominates). For a K = 5 mk positive reactivity, the reactor period would be:
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The power level is:
If t = 1 s:
If the initial power level is Po = 100 MW, the Pf will be: P(1 s) = 100 148 MWt = 14 800 MW That is to say, in 1 second, the Po will increase by 148 times. b) Let's see what happens in the case of k = 0.5 mk. Let's see what happens in the case of k = 0.5 mk.
If t = 1 s
Thus, for an initial power level of Po = 100 MW, the P power will be: P(1 s) = 100 x 1.65 MWt = 165 MWt That is to say, the initial power increases 1.65 times in 1 s. These two examples demonstrate the speed at which the power level would increase if all neutrons were prompt. Reactor control would be impossible under these circumstances, since the power changes would happen too fast.
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In this case, we would also have a serious problem with the emergency systems, since the fastest protection system requires about a second to be effective and during this lapse, severe damage could be caused by the excessive power levels reached.
12.4 The Effect of Delayed Neutrons on Power Changes

12.4.1 Course
In the fission of U235, about 99.35% of the neutrons produced are prompt neutrons and the remaining 0.65% are delayed neutrons.
Yield i % Group (A) 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.0215 0.142 0.127 0.257 0.075 0.025 = 0.65 Table 121 Delayed neutron data for thermal fissions in U Half-life (T , s) 55.72 22.72 6.22 2.30 0.61 0.23 Neutron Life-Time (s) (B) 80.42 32.78 8.98 3.32 0.88 0.33
(A) . (B) 1.729 4.655 1.140 0.853 0.066 0.009 8.5

235
The delayed neutron fraction can be discussed as both an actual and effective fraction. See discussion in the 12.4.2. Neutron life-time is the average time from the formation of the precursor until a delayed neutron is emitted, or, that is to say,
In order to obtain
The average neutron life-time of delayed neutrons is about 13 sec, or in other words, this is about the time lapse we must wait for the average delayed neutrons to be released by their precursors. In order to obtain the average time for all prompt and delayed neutrons:
0.9935 10-14 s + 0.0065 13 s = 0.085 s
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In order to obtain the average neutron life-time for a given generation, we must add the diffusion time (tD) of the neutrons in the moderator:
L = 0.085 + 0.001 = 0.086 s

Thus, even though the delayed neutrons represent only a small portion of total neutrons generated via fission, the average neutron life-time of all neutrons is increased:
L = 0.001 s to 0.086 s equals a factor of 86

In order to simplify matters, let's assume that L = 0.1 s.
12.4.2
Discussion
act and eff are used to designate two different fractions of delayed neutrons. act refers to the fraction of neutrons that result from fission:
eff is the fraction of delayed neutrons that reach thermal energy and hence are absorbed by an atom of fuel to induce a fission event:
The value of act depends on the fuel. For the main fuels these are (Source ANL-5800)
Fuel U-233 U-235 U-238 Pu-239 --0.0021> Thermal Fission 0.0026 Fast Fission 0.0027 0.0065 0.0157 0.0021
For research reactors, where the percent enrichment is either 20% or 95%, the value of bact is given as 0.0065. In these cases, the fast fission of U-238 is negligible compared to the thermal fission of U-235. However, in power reactors with an enrichment of about 3%, act is a combination of these fissions at the beginning of life. This value is about 0.0070. Near the end of life, the value drops to about 0.0055 due to the formation of Pu-239. The leakage of prompt neutrons compared to the leakage of delayed neutrons is taken into account when determining eff. Prompt neutrons are born with an average energy of 2 MeV while the average energy of delayed neutrons is 0.5 MeV. Thus, in research and test reactors, where the core is finite in size, a larger percentage of prompt neutrons than delayed neutrons are lost in slowing down with the result that eff> act. In a TRIGA, for example, eff ~ 0.0073. For power reactors the values of eff and act are essentially the same. In this case the core is almost infinite in size and hence there is very little leakage of neutrons.
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12.4.3
Example
Example
k = +5 (or 5 mk)
In the case of t = 1 s, we have
Consequently, the power increases by 5% in 1 second. If k = +0.5 mk, we will obtain the following:
In the case of t = 1 s, we have:
In this case, the power level increases by 0.5% per second.
Example for the case of negative reactivity
This example leads us to a simplification that is not correct for reproduction of an increase in power immediately following a change in reactivity. Physically speaking, the reason is the following: the number of delayed neutrons that contribute to the chain reaction at any given time, is directly proportionate to the corresponding thermal flux just instants before, but the number of precursors that are being produced via fission is proportionate to the flux at that given instant. As we increase the keff > 1, the fission rate will increase and prompt neutrons will be generated immediately, so that for a short time, the reactor will perform as if all of the neutrons were prompt neutrons, and the flux will grow rapidly. This situation is known as prompt jump and it may be observed in the preceding figures.
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If we look at the last graph, we see that to remove a reactor rapidly from service, a great amount of negative reactivity is necessary in order to cause a major decline in initial power, before the delayed neutrons moderate the power reduction. When k = -30 mk, the power falls to a tenth of its initial value in 4 sec, but it takes 40 seconds to drop to 1/100 of its initial value.
Figure 12-1 Graphic representation of these two examples
The rise in power is much slower than in the case of the prompt neutrons and thus it is possible to implement protection and regulation systems.
12.5 Power Change Rate
This means that:
since
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therefore:
As 1/T is usually very small, it is generally preferable to work with larger periods. We can say, then:
From the equation
, it is given that:
Reactor Period Instrumentation
The reactor's instrumentation does not measure T, but rather, 1/T. It takes a proportionate signal of neutron density, sends it through a logarithmic amplifier and the output is differentiated with an
This differential is known as logarithmic velocity, and the voltage via the R resistor is proportionate to 1/T. For example, if T = 20 s, this implies that:
12.6 Prompt Critical Condition

The simple treatment of the reactor period and power changes resulting from a given reactivity only provide an approximation, which is not bad for small reactivities (0.5 mk or less) but is of no use with larger reactivities.
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Without getting into the mathematics of this subject, we will provide a physical explanation of what happens: Let's imagine a reactor with excess reactivity, that is to say, k = 8 mk or keff = 1.008. Let's consider the prompt and delayed neutrons separately. Let's assume we have exactly 100 neutrons, of which, 99.35% are prompt and 0.65% are delayed. This signifies that: 99.351.008 = 100.15 total new neutrons, since the keff takes the delayed neutrons into account, which means to say that of these 100.15 neutrons, 99.35% are prompt neutrons. 100.15 0.9935 = 99.50 prompt neutrons. Consequently, we can say that from 99.35 prompt neutrons, we go to 99.50 prompt neutrons, and if we continue with another example, we will obtain 99.65 neutrons. In the case of these prompt neutrons the prompt k (or the multiplication factor for prompt neutrons) will be:
Hence, the k reactivity will be: k = 0.0015 The neutron life-time will be L = 0.001 s for the prompt neutrons. The period T is:
Thus, if we take into account the prompt neutrons, it is given that in 0.67 seconds the power level goes to value e, since:
If we add the contribution of the delayed neutrons, the power level will grow at a faster rate and the period will be even shorter. What do we get if we utilize the previous formulas? It is given that if L = 0.1 s the period will be:
This is due to the fact that this very simple expression does not work for a case in which k > 1 mk.
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The prompt critical condition is that in which the chain reaction may be maintained only via prompt neutrons. If k = 1.0065, this indicates that k can only maintain the chain reaction with prompt neutrons. In other words if you add reactivity greater than or equal to , the delayed neutron fraction, the reactor will be prompt critical.
Of these 100 new neutrons, 99.35 will be prompt neutrons, and so on. Seen from another point of view, it is given that (1 - ): fraction of the prompt neutrons ( = 0.0065 for the case of U-235) (1 - ) = 0.9935 If we multiply (1 - ) by k (keff = k) we take into account the prompt part. k (1 - ) = 1 critical with prompt neutrons or, that is to say: k (1 - ) = k - k = 1 k-1=k
But since this signifies that when = , we have a prompt critical condition. In the case of U235, = 0.0065, and as = , a reactivity of 6.5 mk places us in a situation of danger since the dynamics of the reactor are governed by prompt neutrons. This analysis permits us to explain why the reactivities with which reactors normally operate are so small. The unit /=$ is known as "dollar", and the prompt critical condition is $ = 1. Thus, the regulation system for the reactor is designed to prevent reactivities in the neighborhood of 6.5 mk. There are fuels where this is not the case though. An example is the UZrH1.7 fuel used in TRIGA reactors. The reactor period is normally maintained at 25 s or more for power changes. Figure 12-2 shows the precise ratio of versus reactor period for the case of U235. For example, a reactivity of 0.7 mk corresponds to a period of T = 100 seconds.
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Figure 12-2
We should also have a look at what happens when Plutonium accumulates in the fuel. The yield of delayed neutrons is lower than in the case of U235 and as a result, the total proportion of delayed neutrons diminishes. In a power reactor with an enrichment of 3%, act ~ 0.0070 . Near the end of life, the value drops to about 0.0055 due to the formation of Pu-239. This situation causes faster changes in power level with the same amount of reactivity. For example, in conditions of equilibrium, a D2O reactor could reach prompt criticality with 4 mk. But since a safety limit is placed on the reactor period (i.e., T = 10 s) the reactor remains a safe distance form this condition.
Reactor Period Instrumentation
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TRIGA fuel is a UZrH1.7 matrix that allows for rapid transients in power operation without ill effects. In simplified terms, as the fuel temperature increases the hydrogen atoms go into a vibrational state with an energy level of 0.13 eV, and may go into a second state with an energy of 0.26 eV. Remember that thermal neutrons are at an energy of .025 eV. These vibrational states effectively de-thermalize the neutrons in the core (hardening of the neutron spectrum) and shutdown the reactor during a rapid power transient. The higher energy neutrons then are more likely to travel outside the fuel thus increasing the probability of absorption in the moderator and control rods.
12.7 Exercises
12.7.1 Question 1
What is meant by a reactor being "prompt critical" and why is this a problem?
Solution
A reactor is prompt critical when it is critical on prompt neutrons alone, there is no contribution from the delayed neutron faction. This creates an unstable state where reactor power can change at a rate faster than operator or safety systems can respond.
12.7.2
Question 2
If L = 0.1 s, and we insert +2 mk of reactivity, what is the reactor period?
Solution
12.7.3
Question 3
Based on the answer to exercise 2, how long will it take reactor power to go from 10 watts to 1000 watts?
Solution
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therefore
which becomes
Solving for
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13
Effect on Neutron Source (1 hrs)
13.1 The Neutron Source

t can be generally said that we always have a source of neutrons present in the reactor: the sole presence of spontaneous fissions (1 kg of natural uranium produces approximately 7 fissions/second). It is usually advisable to introduce an artificial neutron source in the start-up stage. Many research reactors maintain a secondary neutron source as well that is activated by reactor operation. This provides for a verification of source range instrument checks prior to a startup.
Common installed neutron sources.
Some common installed neutron sources are as follows: Primary source (prior to any reactor operation): neutron emitter
98Cf 252
Fission + 0n1 (spontaneous fission - 3% of decays)
alpha emitter (a, Be)

98 Cf 252 96 Cm 248
+ 2 (97% of decays)
4
60.5 d
96
Cm
244 2
+ 4 Be
4
9 6
12
+ 0n
18y + 4 Be
4 9 6C 12
+ 0n
Secondary Sources (after reactor operation) alpha emitter (, Be)

Po
210 82
84
Pb
4
206
+2
9
138 d
+ 4 Be
6C
12
+ 0n
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gamma emitter (, Be)

Sb
24 1
51
+ 52 Te
0
124
+0
60.2d
+ 4 Be
0
2 2 + 0n
4
In heavy water reactors, the production of photoneutrons via the g for energy levels of more than 2.2 Mev is important. This provides us with an intrinsic neutron source that persist even after the reactor is shut down.
0 0
+ 1H
1H
+ 0n
Light water reactors also have enough deuterium in the water to provide for adequate photoneutrons for startup.
13.2 Neutron Source Effect on the Overall Neutron Population

In a critical reactor with no source, the neutron population remains constant from one generation to the next. Let's assume that a neutron source that emits S0 neutrons per second is inserted in the core of the reactor. The neutrons will be multiplied by keff from one generation to the next. This means that after t seconds, t/L generations will be present.
Source Effect
S1
= S0L = the number of neutrons following the first generation
S2 = S0L keff + S0 L = the number of neutrons following the second generation
S3 = S0 L + (S0 L + S0L keff)keff + S0 L (1 + keff + keff) = the number of neutrons following the third generation Now, let's see what happens after N generations:
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SN = S0 L(1 + keff +keff2 +....+ keffN-1) We must find the sum of the series. keff SN - SN If we subtract (2) from (1), we have : S0 L(keffN - 1)
Thus,
We know that
Expressing this formula relative to time, we have:
Let's look at the derived equation:
(13-1)
The multiplication of neutrons in subcritical condition will have a definitive value. keff = Formula (13-1) remains in the form of 0/0. Let's see what happens physically: We have S0 L neutrons in the first generation. Since keff = 1, in the second generation we will have S0 L +S0 L. Following N generations, we will have S0 L N.
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Therefore, after t seconds, equivalent to (t/L) generations, the number of source neutrons will be:
the population of neutrons grows lineally over the course of time. A reactor startup performed this way is called a pull and wait as rods are removed from the core a small increment at a time. A long waiting period between each increment allows for subcritical multiplication to take place and ensures that criticality has not occurred. keff > 1: this is the case of very fast growth of the neutron population (with it being given that the series diverges). The rise in the neutron population will be governed by the reactor period and the neutron source will multiply according to the eq. (13-1).
13.3 The Effect of the Neutron Source with the Reactor Out of Service
What happens when a reactor that is operating at full power is suddenly taken to a subcritical level? In the absence of neutron sources, power would diminish to zero, governed by the speed of the delayed group with the longest neutron life-time. In the presence of a source, the neutron population will never drop below the value of equilibrium:
We can thus say that the final power level will be equal to:
In this case, P0 is the intensity of the source, expressed in watts, or, that is to say, the fission power produced by a source of S0 neutrons/s.
Example
The final power level of the reactor will depend on the quantity of (negative) reactivity inserted. P0 = 20 watts k = -40
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P0 = 30 watts Dk = -30
Figure 13-1
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Let's assume that we were working at a level of 100 MWt. This means going from 108 W to 103 W, that is to say, a factor of 105 or 5 decades. Going from 100 MWt to l000 Wt means a reduction of 5 decades. This, in point of fact, is an advantage, rather than a disadvantage, since the reactor's instrumentation can cover a range of 7 or even 8 decades. In a reactor that is out of service and has a neutron flux of 10-5 the normal power level will be on a scale with the instrumentation and can be brought back up to the full power level utilizing normal instrumentation. If the source is a photoneutron source, it will gradually drop to a given rate via the decaying of fission products that emit with energy levels of more than 2.2 MeV, which are capable of producing a (, n ) reaction with deuterium. Most of the fission products that decay with this energy have short half-lives. After a few hours this source term becomes very small. However, Ba-140 has a half-life of 12.8 days, decaying to La-140 which emits a 2.54 MeV gamma in a small percentage of disintegrations. Ru-106 with a half-life of one year decays to Rh-106 where a small percent of the disintegrations yield a a gamma with an energy of 2.9 MeV. After a couple of days, the (, n ) source will decline to about 1/1000 and only the group with the longest neutron life-time will remain effective
Different Reactor Start-ups
In the case of Atucha I NPP, the first start-up was carried out without any neutron flux signal in the source range (this is called a blind start-up). That is to say, the neutrons produced via spontaneous fissions were not sufficient to be detected with normal instrumentation (pulse channels). Procedures: The reactor was in a subcritical state, with all control rods in place, and poisoned with boron (~13 ppm boron). The first step was to progressively raise all control rods until they were completely extracted. This done, the next step was to start removing the boron. As seen in this chapter, by raising the effective keff the multiplication of
neutrons increased The pulse channels were in a state of readiness, and the reading was now reliable with 1 pulse/sec and an alarm limit of 10 pulses/s, and the dropping of the control rods (SCRAM) being produced if the rate were to raise suddenly to 100 pulses/s. The pulse channels were verified "in situ", using an artificial neutron source. When the concentration of boron (which was being extracted) reached 11.30 ppm, a rise in the count was observed in the pulse channels, the boron extraction was halted and the control bars were lowered in order to easily control the chain reaction. Once the critical condition of ~ 50 pulses/s was established, the limitation of 100 pulses/s was lifted and the neutron flux began to rise (approx power level of 1 MWt), in order to obtain a sufficiently intense source of for a build-up of photoneutrons. The reactor remained in operation for several hours, and then it was taken out of service. The intensity of the photoneutron source was sufficient to have a reading in the pulse channels at all times.
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In the case of the CANDU reactors, sensitive neutron detectors are placed in the core and thus, data is gathered on the existence of neutrons due to spontaneous fissions. These reactors also require a special start-up (using special instrumentation), but there is data on the neutron flux in the source range. In the case of RA-6 (90% U235), a critical approximation is carried out with the help of an artificial neutron source. The neutron source is introduced at the center of the core, so as to have information in the detectors. Later the filling of the core is initiated, increasing the number of fuel elements step by step in accordance with the subcritical technique until the critical size is reached.
The count (C) is proportional to M: C M, what is to say:
Then:
Each time a fuel element is added, the multiplication (count) is measured, and the inverse count versus the fuel element number is graphically represented. When we near keff ~ 1 (keff< 1), the curve is extrapolated to define the critical size. The number of fuel elements is raised to this value and verified to make sure that the prediction is correct, with the neutron source being extracted.
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13.4 Neutronic and Thermal Power

Up to now, we have continuously discussed thermal power. It is time, now, to clarify the difference between neutronic and thermal power. In this sense, it should be said that 100% thermal power corresponds to the power level of the reactor, which produces 100% of the inlet heat in the turbine cycle. One hundred percent of neutron power would be the average measure of thermal flux corresponding to the previously mentioned situation. That is to say, this is an indication of the fission rate, which is 100% thermal power. The relationship between neutronic and thermal power is not linear. The time responses are not the same. For example, 10% of the neutronic power corresponds to the neutron flux, which is exactly 1/10 of the 100% neutronic power, which indicates a tenth of the fission rate. This situation will not result in 10% of the thermal power, since there are a number of effects that do not change in the same way as the neutron flux. Some of these effects are: Loss of heat in the fuel channels. Loss of heat in the primary heat transfer system. Heat delivered by the main pumps. Heat delivered via the decaying of fission products.
The respective rate for neutronic and thermal power changes are not the same. Following a change of reactivity, first the neutron flux changes, then the temperature of the fuel, and finally, the heat transfer system. For these two reasons (non-linearity and different rates of response) the reactor monitors the neutron flow, or, that is to say, it measures the neutronic power.
13.5 Exercises
13.5.1 Question 1
Why do we have installed neutron sources?
Solution
The primary reason for an installed neutron source is to perform instrument checks prior to startup.
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13.5.2
Question 2
If a reactor has been shut down for a long period of time and the source count is very low/non-existent, how is the reactor started up?
Solution
The reactor is stated up using a pull and wait procedure to allow subcritical multiplication to build the source neutron count rate sufficiently.
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14 Effect in Reactivity Due to Temperature Changes (2 hrs)

14.1 Operational Reactivity Effects
Up to now, we have assumed that changes in reactivity were achieved via regulation of the system and we have analyzed the resulting power changes. In practice, there are inevitable reactivity changes, which occur when the reactor is operating. These reactivity changes must automatically be compensated for by the regulation system. This type of reactivity change is caused by the following: 1. When reactor power is increased, there is also a rise in the temperature of the fuel, the heat transfer fluid and the moderator. These temperature changes affect reactivity. 2. The accumulation of fission products, which depend on the level of power, absorbs neutrons and reduces reactivity. 3. Fuel burn-up: when fuel burns its composition changes (the number of atoms in U235 diminishes and Pu239 is produced). As these nuclides have different fission cross sections, reactivity changes are produced as a result of the burn-up process. The three effects mentioned above develop at different speeds. a. In a matter of seconds. b. In a matter of several hours. c. In a matter of weeks. Let's look at these effects separately, beginning with the effects of temperature. Lets consider the following case: The reactor has been critical for some time and a positive reactivity is inserted.
Let's see what happens with several different reactivity coefficients. Figure 14-1 shows the reactor power response to a small positive step perturbation of reactivity, assuming different temperature coefficients
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Figure 14-1 Reactor Power Response to a Small Positive Step Perturbation of Reactivity, Assuming Different Temperature Coefficients
When T is positive, the power level increases, and this increases the temperature, which again increases the temperature, and so on. In the absence of outside intervention, the power level will increase without limits. When T is negative, reactivity decreases as the temperature and power increase. If T is small and the reactor's heat extraction is fast, the power will reach a certain level at which the temperature reduces reactivity to zero. The reactor raises its power and remains critical. Most reactors respond this way to a reactivity jump. When T is large and negative, and heat extraction is not sufficiently fast, the rise in temperature that accompanies the initial rise in power can subsequently bring a drop in reactivity which will take the reactor to a subcritical level before the heat generated in the system has been extracted. In this case, the power level drops until the temperature and the power are stationary and reactivity is zero. Thus, reactors with positive T are unstable and those with negative T are stable with respect to changes in temperature.
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In reactors which operate on solid fuel, the temperature coefficient (T) is of great importance in terms of safety. This is due to the fact that the temperature of the fuel responds almost instantaneously to changes in power, while changes in the temperatures of the moderator and the coolant depend on the heat transfer provided by the fuel. Thus, the fuel T is often referred to as the prompt temperature coefficient.
14.2 Cause of Heat-Induced Reactivity Changes

Let's go back to keff = Pf Pt = f Pt P + ln Pf + ln Pt
ln keff = ln
when: T keff T + dT (T = temperature) keff + dkeff
Derivating with respect to the temperature, d/dT:
(14-1)
This is how the quantitative study is carried out. Later, we will provide some of the results of these calculations.
14.3 Effects Produced in the Core as a Result of Increased Temperature

14.3.1 The effects of thermal expansion
A. When the temperature increases, the density in the moderator and in the heat transfer system decreases. As a result, the neutrons can cover greater distances without being absorbed. The effect of this is an increase in neutron escapes. T density a and s L and Ls escape
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Escape
Pf and Pt
B. When the temperature rises, the fuel expands, reducing the quantity of coolant fluid, and with different situations arising for H2O and D2O: a. with a reduction in the quantity of H2O, neutron capture diminishes significantly, and there is an increase in . b. with a reduction in the quantity of D2O either of two situations can occur: if the reactor is over-moderated, there will be a rise in ; if the reactor is undermoderated, there will be a decline in .
If the fluid used to transfer heat is light water, neutron capture will diminish significantly whenever there is fuel expansion. In the case of heavy water, changes in density will have little effect on reactivity, since absorption is minimal.
14.3.2
Direct nuclear effect
In other chapters, we have mentioned resonant capture. We spoke of the strong neutron absorption capacity of U238 at certain neutron energies. Figure 14-2 shows this graphically.
Figure 14-2 Strong Neutron Absorption Capacity of U
238
at certain neutron energies
Resonance is determined by the relative speed of the neutron and the target nucleus. When the fuel heats up, the uranium atoms vibrate much more. A neutron that is under peak resonance when the uranium atoms are in repose, may now (with the heating up of the
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uranium) encounter an atom moving at a certain speed and take the relative speed to the resonant peak. Thus, the neutron that could have survived in the cold fuel is captured in the hot fuel. This situation reflects a broadening of the resonant peak, as shown in the figure. In other words, there will be a loss of reactivity when the fuel heats up.
14.3.3
Indirect nuclear effect
The thermal energy of the neutrons increases along with the temperature. For example, if we heat up the moderator, all of the molecules in it will be more energetic. The process of moderating neutrons via elastic collision is produced if the energy level of the molecules in the moderator is lower than the energy of the neutrons. Thus, the thermal energy of the neutrons is practically determined by the temperature of the moderator (although, in point of fact, the coolant and the fuel are also involved here). Thus, by increasing the temperature of the moderator, we will also increase the thermal energy of the neutrons. This will have an effect on reactivity, since the microscopic cross section (a) and the fission cross section (f) depend on the energy of the neutrons, and the overall relationship of fissions to absorptions is sensitive to variations in the energy level of thermal neutrons.
a) fuel = macroscopic cross section for fuel fuel = average neutron flux in fuel f = thermal utilization factor That is to say, if the temperature of the moderator increases, so too does that of the neutrons, and, consequently, neutron energy also increases. As the thermal energy of the neutrons increases, the absorption cross section of the fuel decreases and the neutron flux in the fuel thus increases. As the fuel increases, so too does the thermal utilization factor (f).
This is the case of a heterogeneous reactor in which the materials of the reactor act as 1/n absorbers for low-energy neutrons, or, that is to say, is proportional to 1/v. If this were the case of a homogenous reactor, and all materials acted as 1/v, we would observe no change, since the relative absorption of neutrons in the fuel, moderator, etc. would not be affected. b) When the materials in the core do not act as 1/v absorbers, the relative absorption of neutrons will change and not only f will be affected.
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Figure 14-3
The fission cross section, f, in U235 decreases more rapidly than 1/v, as seen in the graph, in accordance with the energy levels of the neutrons. Thus, it is given that when the temperature rises, so too does neutron energy and the corresponding decrease in f diminishes the thermal fission factor for U235 (), and therefore, reactivity () is also reduced.
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Furthermore, there is a resonance at 0.3 eV in the fission cross section of Pu239. When the temperature rises, there will be a greater quantity of neutrons at resonant energy levels. As a result, there will be an increase in (Pu239) (the thermal fission factor for Pu239), and reactivity will thus augment. Whether either of these effects results in positive or negative reactivity depends on the level of fuel burn-up. As a rule, fresh fuel and a low burn-up level will produce negative reactivity, while high burn-up levels will produce positive reactivity. Since the temperature changes are produced in different time spans in the fuel, coolant and moderator, and as variations can occur independently of one another, we will analyze them separately. [It should be recognized that in a small research reactor the only temperature effect that is significant is in the fuel. Typically the moderator and coolant do not change temperature enough to have a great effect. The discussion that follows relates primarily to a power reactor or high power (several megawatts and above) research reactor.] In order to obtain quantitative values, we should evaluate expression (1), but here we will discuss results and concepts.
14.4 Fuel Temperature Coefficient

The fuel temperature coefficient (FT) exercises two main effects: 1. A rise in fuel temperature, as we saw before, increases the resonant capture rate. 2. A rise in the temperature of the fuel increases the temperature of the neutrons, affecting the reaction rate, as we saw in the section on indirect nuclear effects. The overall result is that the fuel temperature coefficient is always negative, even when the numerical value for fresh fuel is greater than that for the core in a state of equilibrium.
Fuel temperature coefficient and the six factor formula.
keff = fpPtPf [Here we are looking at the effects on the six factor formula based solely on fuel effects such as in a small research reactor where moderator and coolant temperature changes are minimal.] Where is the fast fission factor and is the reproduction factor, both of which are fuel dependent and do not change appreciably with temperature. f = thermal utilization factor; The microscopic cross sections for absorption for many of the materials in the reactor vary inversely as the square root of the temperature. Thus as temperature increases the changes in cross sections exerts a negative effect on reactivity. p = resonance escape probability or the fraction of neutrons that are not absorbed as they slow down through a number of resonance peaks in U-238. These peaks are primarily in the 5-100 eV region where the absorption cross section increases by orders of magnitude. If the temperature of the U-238 is increased, the relative motion
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between the neutrons and the atoms of U-238 causes the peaks to broaden (Doppler effect). This increases the probability that a neutron will be absorbed and hence decreases p since the neutrons spend a greater time above thermal energy as they are slowing down. Pf = fast non-leakage probability; The value of Pf varies inversely as the buckling and the neutron age. Buckling depends on the size of the core and the use of reflectors while the neutron age depends on the moderator. In cores that are designed to be under-moderated, as the temperature of the moderator is increased, the neutron age increases which decreases the value of Pf. Pt = thermal non-leakage probability; The value of Pt varies inversely as the buckling and the thermal diffusion length. This factor behaves the same as Pt.
A negative fuel temperature coefficient (FT) is highly advantageous, thanks to the selfregulation that this produces in the reactor, in the sense that a small reactivity inserted in the reactor will be compensated for by the rise in fuel temperature and the subsequent reduction in reactivity that this will bring.
FT (pcm/C) Fresh Core Atucha I (nat U core D2O mod) Pickering (CANDU) -1.3 -1.5 Equilibrum Core -0.4 -0.4
14.5 Coolant Temperature Coefficient

Regarding the coolant temperature coefficient (CT), there are two main aspects to be borne in mind: 1. The rise in neutron thermal energy. 2. The drop in coolant density. The procedure for analysis is similar to that employed before: The majority of the contributions to CT does not change appreciably with burn-up, except for the term
which is negative with fresh fuel and positive when the core is in equilibrium.
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CT(pcm/C) Fresh Core Atucha I (nat U core/D2O mod) -0.6 Equilibrum Core +6.0
14.6 Moderator Temperature Coefficient

With regard to the moderator temperature coefficient (MT), there are two main aspects to consider: 1. Changes in the density of the moderator. 2. A rise in the temperature of the neutrons. The temperature of the moderator has a much greater effect on the neutron spectrum than the temperature of the coolant and fuel do. It can be said that the temperature of the moderator is the base temperature. Thus, it may be deduced that the moderator temperature coefficient should be a larger absolute value than the TC or the TR, and in fact, this is the case.
MT (pcm/C) Fresh Core Atucha I (nat U core/D2O mod) Pickering (CANDU) -17 -7 Equilibrum Core -5 +8
The Atucha values in the table are design values. Currently (in a situation practically equivalent to core equilibrium), we have MT = -10 pcm/C; therefore, the variation in the temperature of the moderator is important in the regulation of the reactor.
14.7 Practical Aspects

We have already mentioned the advantages of negative coefficients. However, it is not the algebraic sum that interests us, but the time constants. For example, a reactor with a FT = -1 pcm/C and a CT = +1.5 pcm/C will be stable, since the temperature of the fuel changes instantaneously. The change in temperature of the coolant, meanwhile, takes 7 or 8 seconds due to heat transmission. The moderator temperature change will take even longer and will have no effect. Another point of interest for the designers, with regard to temperature coefficients, is to know the T for all possible conditions, since this is one of the few design paths possible for obtaining feedback. The operator, meanwhile, is interested in energy production, and must thus be aware of these effects so that they do not cause operation failures and the subsequent energy losses they can bring.
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Let's analyze a typical case of operation for Atucha I PP in order to see how temperature coefficients are applied in practice.
14.8 Effects due to Void Formation

The most important case is that of the formation of a void in the coolant. In a boiling water reactor this is a normal and evaluated circumstance. In a pressurized water reactor this situation is known as a loss of coolant. Reactivity increases the loss of coolant and thus, it is important, from the point of view of safety, to know the magnitude of its effects. The coolant can boil as a result of the following: Low pressure (a broken pipe or pump failure). Low flow level (a broken pipe or pump failure). Excessive power (flux distortion or failure of the regulation system).
In this case, the coolant fluid will be replaced by steam and the channels (some or all of them) will remain empty. The severity of this emergency situation will depend basically on the speed with which reactivity increases, although total reactivity can be of equal importance. For instance, in the light-water-cooled Gentilly reactor, loss of coolant could bring a great change in reactivity. Assuming the reactor operates with a fresh core, loss of coolant in half the core would lead to +37 mk. This highly significant change is due mainly to a reduction in absorption as a result of the loss of light water. In heavy water reactors the change is not so drastic, but it is still important. In the Douglas Point reactor, the rise in reactivity would be +8 mk for a fresh core if the entire core were emptied.
14.9 Exercises
14.9.1 Question 1
Why do we desire a negative temperature coefficient? Solution

A negative temperature coefficient allows for a more controllable feedback mechanism for reactor operation. This provides for a stable reactor response to temperature changes.
14.9.2
Question 2
Of the three temperature coefficients discussed, which on responds the quickest? Solution
The fuel temperature coefficient.
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15
Fission Product Poisoning (2 hrs)
15.1 Xe135 Build-Up

As we already know, temperature changes bring short-term effects. That is to say, once a power change is produced it is rapidly manifested as a change in reactivity via a change in temperature. But there are also long-term reactivity changes, which occur as a result of variations in the composition of the fuel. These variations are due to the following: a. Accumulation in the fuel of fission products, which absorb neutrons. b. U235 burn-up and the accumulation of Plutonium. Let's analyze the changes in reactivity resulting from point (a). All fission products may be analyzed as poisons, since, to a greater or lesser degree, they all absorb neutrons. But Xe135 is the most important poison, due to its enormous capture cross section (c), whose value is approximately 3106 barns. This Xe135 cross section is much greater than the capture cross sections of any of the other fission products. It is also significantly greater than the f for U235 of 582 barns. Therefore, we will consider Xe135 in particular.
Percent Yield as Fission Productucs and by Fission Product Decay (%) 6.4 ~ 0.01 ~ 0.08 1.1 ~ 0.01 ~ 0.6 ~ 0.6 <0.0001
Isotope Xe-135 Gd-157 Gd-155 Sm-149 Cd-113 Sm-151 Eu-151 B-10
Absorption cross section (barns) 2.7 x 10 2.5 x 10 6.1 x 10 4.2 x 10

6
2.0 x 10 1.0 x 10 7.7 x 10
3.8 x 10
Table 151 Predominate Uranium-235 Fission Product Poisons
Xe
135
BUILD-UP
Xe-135 is produced in the fuel in one of two ways: (1) Directly, via fission (about 5% of the Xe-135 produced).
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(2) Indirectly, via the decaying of I-135, which is a direct product of decay fission of Te-135.
About 95% of the Xe135 formed is produced in this way. As the half-life of Te135 is very small compared with the half-life of I, it is considered that the Te135 formed decays immediately into I135. Xe-135 disintegrates by two means: (3) Via negative beta decay to Cs135.
(4) Via neutron capture (of a thermal neutron)
The Cs135 and the Xe136 have low neutron cross sections, and are thus not considered. Summarizing:
Figure 15-1
In order to understand the accumulation of Xe-135, we will use the analogy of a vessel that is filled with water (Figure 15-2). Let's assume that the two vessels are empty, that is to say, that there is no Xe135 or I135 in the fuel . Let's also assume that the reactor has been started up and that it is operating at a constant power level. Let's further suppose that the I135 is produced directly. When the reactor starts up, I135 and Xe135 are produced, thus water will pass to the iodine vessel and some water will pass via line 1 to the Xenon vessel (direct formation of about 5%). At the same time that the level of the iodine increases, the water flows via line 2 to the Xenon vessel (negative beta decay of the iodine). There comes a moment in which the level of the iodine vessel remains constant. It is then said that the I135 has reached equilibrium concentration (it decays at the same speed that it is formed).
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Figure 15-2 Analogy of a vessel filled with water The accumulation of Xe

135
is represented by the accumulation of water

135
in the lower vessel and I
by the water in the lower vessel.
Figure 15-3 demonstrates the accumulation of I135 over the course of time. Meanwhile, the Xenon vessel is filling by way of the iodine vessel (via line 2) and via direct line 1, and the water is being lost via lines 3 and 4, which represent the removal of Xe135 by means of decay and neutron capture. Nevertheless, the water flows into the Xenon vessel faster than the rate of the losses, and the level rises. But the faster it rises the faster the fluid will run out through lines 3 and 4. Consequently the Xenon vessel will fill more slowly. In other words, the greater the level of the Xenon vessel the slower the growth of this level.
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Figure 15-3 Accumulation of I135 over the course of time
At a certain level, the water will flow out at the same rate that it flows in and the Xe135 level will remain constant. That is to say, the level of the Xe135 will continue to grow until its removal (via decay and capture) increases to such an extent that it is precisely balanced with the rate of production. At this point, the Xenon concentration will remain constant. This concentration is known as the Xe135 equilibrium concentration. The equilibrium concentration of Xe135 depends on the neutron flux. If, for example, the reactor operates at half-power, only half the amount of I135 will be produced and the removal of Xenon via decay will also be half. This is equivalent to having the two valves in the previous figure closed halfway, instead of having them completely open. It takes about two days (45 hours) to reach equilibrium. But accumulation in the first part of this time lapse is fairly rapid. In a typical power reactor, the Xe135 reaches 50% of its equilibrium value in about 10 hours, and 90% in about 24 hours of operation at a constant power level.
15.2 The Xenon Reactivity Worth in Equilibrium

The atoms of Xe135 capture neutrons and thus, a reactor that is critical without Xe135 will be subcritical with it. This reduction in reactivity is called the "Xenon reactivity worth". The presence of the Xenon in equilibrium implies that we must have quite a lot of excess reactivity in the system in order for the regulation system to be able to compensate for the reactivity loss that this signifies.
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15.3 Xenon Accumulation During Reactor Shutdown

One of the main problem with Xe135 starts when the reactor is withdrawn from service. Let's assume that the reactor has been operating at full power for some time, and that the Xenon concentration is in equilibrium, when we take the reactor out of service (the control rods drop, for instance). Lets see what happens to the Xenon. Once the flux has fallen to very low levels, we can assume that there is no direct production of Xenon via fission, and that there is no removal of Xenon via neutron capture (supposing that the thermal flow is zero). Taking our previous analogy, to represent withdrawal of the reactor from service, the two valves are closed and the Xe135 continues to be formed by means of the decaying of I135 and disappears via negative beta decay to Cs135. The final result is that Xe135 is being produced at a faster rate than it is being removed. This result in a growth of the Xe135 concentration level following the shutdown. But the decay of I135 will gradually diminish (since there is no production of Iodine). Eventually, the rate of Xenon removal will be equal to the rate of its formation and later, the removal rate will predominate. The result may be observed in Figure 15-4.
Figure 15-4
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The assumption is that power drops directly to zero, but in reality, of course, this is not the case. If a reactor has insufficient excess reactivity in the core to compensate for the Xe peak following shutdown they are in a condition call a Xe precluded startup. The inverse also applies if, for example, power increases are analyzed. The immediate effect is a gain in reactivity, due to the rise in the Xenon burn-up. Meanwhile, more I135 will start to be produced, and will dominate over the course of time. In a large, loosely coupled reactor such as a power reactor a phenomenon known as xenon oscillations can take place. Xenon oscillations do not normally occur in research reactors as the cores are generally small and closely coupled.
15.4 Samarium-149
Of all stable fission products, Samarium-149 is the most important poison. Figure 15-5 shows how the neutron cross section is much smaller than that of Xe-135 (4.2104 b at thermal energies).
Figure 15-5
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This is produced as a result of the decay of the fission fragment Nd149.
It does not decay as in the case of Xe135. That is to say, it is stable and the only removal process is via the capturing of a neutron.
Sm
149
ACCUMULATION
Let's use the same analogy as in the case of Xe135 and compare the two.
Figure 15-6
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At first there are no poisons present. In other words, the vessels are empty. With operation of the reactor, first Pm will start to fill to equilibrium, then Sm will reach equilibrium condition. The loss of as a result of the Sm149 load is approximately = -5.
BUILD UP OF Sm
149
FOLLOWING REACTOR SHUTDOWN
Let's see what happens when we close the two valves. The level in the Sm vessel starts to rise over the course of time, reaching its maximum level when the Pm vessel has passed over all of its water. Figure 15-7 shows the typical Sm149 transitory.
Figure 15-7
CONCLUSION
The equilibrium value of Sm149 ( ~ -5) is less than that of Xe135 ( = -27). Though smaller, it must, nevertheless, be borne in mind in the design.
15.5 Other Fission Products

Xe135 and Sm149 are the two most important poisons of all fission products, due to their high neutron cross sections. But there is a considerable number of fission products with smaller cross sections that combine to produce significant changes in reactivity over the long term. These changes are normally considered as reactivity variations resulting from fuel burn-up.
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15.6 Exercises
15.6.1 Question 1
Why is Xe135 important? How is it produced and how is it destroyed?
Solution
Xe is a predominant fission product with a very high cross section for absorption. This creates 135 a significant reactivity effect in the core that must be compensated or. Xe is produced both 135 directly from fission and from the decay of I . Xenon is removed from the core by burnup (absorbing neutrons) and by decay.
135
15.6.2
Question 2
True or False: When a reactor is shut down following extended high power operation there is a samarium peak that can preclude startup of the reactor.
Solution
False. Xenon will peak after a shutdown due to I
135
decay.
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16
Fuel Burnup (2 hrs)
16.1 Fuel Burn-up

Fuel composition changes significantly as a result of reactor operations. In the long-run, this situation changes the , the dynamics of the reactor, the distribution of the neutron , and the need to redistribute/reload fuel into the core. Reactivity changes over the long-run, and thus: fissile atoms of U235 are burned and U238 is changed into fissile Pu239. The burn-up rate depends on the neutron f and therefore:
This gives us the destruction rate for the material via neutron capture. The a product is equivalent to the decay constant, whereby ln 2/a is the half-life. Let's assume that = 0.521014 n/cms and a = 680 b (U235). Thus,
The higher the the faster the fuel consumption. Fortunately, the U235 consumption is compensated for in part by the formation of Pu239, as we saw in earlier lessons. Since Pu239 is produced via the capture of 1 neutron by U238, and since the concentration of U238 does not change significantly during the fuel life cycle, we may assume that the Pu239 is formed at a constant rate. Thus, as more and more Pu is formed, the fuel absorbs more and more neutrons (f = 742 b; (n,) = 271 b), there will come a moment when the production rate will be equal to the absorption rate (capture and fission). The Pu239 nuclei that absorb neutrons ((n,)) may be transformed into Pu240 (with properties similar to those of U238) and when this material absorbs a neutron, it will be transformed into Pu241, which, as we have seen, is fissile (f = 1007 b and (n,) = 368 b). Therefore, following a period of operation, the fuel will have three different fissile nuclei: U235, Pu239 and Pu241. The effect of the plutonium production is a function of the initial U235 enrichment. In a core that is enriched to 20% or greater the effect is minimal. In a natural uranium core or one only enriched to several percent U235 the effect can be substantial over the life of the core. Later in life in this type of core a significant fraction of the core thermal power can be coming from fission of plutonium. Core burnup is compensated for by initial loading of the fuel to allow for burnup and the need for excess reactivity. Control rods compensate for this as well as the use of burnable poisons in the fuel meat that will have diminished effect over time. A burnable poison effectively balances out the loss in reactivity due to fuel burnup with a gain in reactivity due to burnable poison depletion.
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Discussion on fuel burnup for a natural uranium/D20 moderated core.
Let's look at the results in the following figure: See figure 16-1
Figure 16-1
This change in fuel composition will mainly affect and and will have little effect on and p, which are dependent on the concentration of U238 in the fuel. Nor, as analyzed, will it change significantly over the course of time. (Nevertheless, the accumulation of Pu240 will increase p, which will be compensated for via the appearance of fissile Pu241 atoms). In the following graph, we may observe how reactivity varies as a result of burn-up. See figure 16-2
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Figure 16-2
Initially, the burn-up of U235 is replaced by a certain number of atoms of Pu239, which causes a rise in reactivity . This is explained by the fact that the f of Pu239 is greater than that of U235. For high levels of U235 burn-up, the burn-up continues, but the accumulation of Pu239 begins to slow down (that is to say, it reaches equilibrium), and as a result, the number of fissile nuclei diminishes and reactivity drops. When the reactivity reaches ~ 10, fuel replacement is initiated. Why do the dynamics of the reactor change? We saw earlier that delayed neutrons influence neutron life-time, L = 0.086 s for U235. For Pu239 fissions, it is given that L = 0.034 In the case of fuel equilibrium, we have about the same amount of U235 and Pu239. Therefore: L ~ 0.06 s. Thus, the same reactivity level gives us a shorter period and, hence, the rise in power will be faster for the equilibrium core than for the fresh core. As we saw earlier, fuel burn-up produces changes in the neutron in the reactor. Since the is greater in the center, the burn-up rate will also be greater in the center and there will be a greater depression there than in the periphery. These changes in affect the fuel reload program.
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Reactor physics

IAEA Education and Training

Last update: 09/23/2004

IAEA Education and Training

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7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

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The Effect of Reactivity on Neutron Multiplication................................ 89

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14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8

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Nuclear Physics (2 hrs)

Particle/Atom Electron Neutron Proton -particle

95 38Sr 54Xe 90Th 139

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Equivalence Between Mass and Energy

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1.2 Binding Energy

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EB = ( Zmp + Nmn - m(Z,A))c2

(a -ray of 2.23 MeV is emitted)

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2.23 MeV 2.23 MeV

[8.23-2(2.23)] MeV = 4.02 MeV

1.3 Nuclear Forces

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If in (1-6) we apply a small t and pass it to the first member

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Connecting this equation with (1-7):

Derive an expression for the mass defect m

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m = Zm(1H1) + Nmn - m(ZXA)

m = Zmp + Nmn- m(Z,A)

EB(Z, N) = [Zmp + Nmn - m(Z, N)] c

EB(Z-1, N) = [(Z-1)mp + Nmn - m(Z-1, N)] c Sp = EB(Z, N) - EB (Z-1, N)

S = [m(Z-2, N-2) + m(2, 2) - m(Z, N)]c S = EB(Z, N) - EB(Z-2, N-2) - EB()

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with E = mc ~ 140 MeV and

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The currently most important fusion reaction is:

+ 1H2 2He4 + 0n1

Example 2. Fission Reaction

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Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons (2 hrs)

2.2 Elastic Collisions

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Table 21 Number of Elastic Collisions to Moderate Neutrons of 2 MeV to 0.025 eV

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2.3 Inelastic Collisions

+ 8O16 7N16 + 1p1 or O16 (n, p) N16

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Calculate the Q-value in the neutron reaction

by using the atomic masses given in Table 1-2 of Module 1.:

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IAEA Education and Training

IAEA Education and Training

IAEA Education and Training

Fission Reactions (2 hrs)

3.2 Practical Fuels

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3.3 Formation of Fissionable Material

3.4 Fission Products