Characterization of Optical Fibers

DIPLOMARBEIT
Characterization of Optical Fibers in the Mid-Infrared
ausgefhrt am Institut fr u u Nachrichtentechnik und Hochfrequenztechnik der Technischen Universitt Wien a von
Martin Dirnwber o
Stzenweg 2 a 2211 Pillichsdorf Matrikelnummer 9325512
Wien, im Mai 2005
Betreuer:
Dr. Martin Pfennigbauer Prof. Dr. Walter R. Leeb
Zusammenfassung
Diese Diplomarbeit befasst sich mit Fasern, die zur Ubertragung von elektromagnetischen Wellen mit Wellenlngen im Bereich von 2 20 m konzipiert sind. Der Einsatz von Fasern a an Stelle von Freistrahloptik in optischen Instrumenten ist, neben geringerem Gewicht und Platzbedarf, vor allem aufgrund der Mglichkeit der exiblen Strahlfhrung von Vorteil. o u Teile dieser Arbeit sind in das Projekt Phase Cap Phasing Cababilities for Fiber-Optic Devices eingeossen, das vom Institut fr Nachrichtentechnik und Hochfrequenztechnik der u Technischen Universitt Wien fr die Europische Weltraumorganisation ESA durchgefhrt a u a u wird. Das Ziel dieses Projektes ist es, Einsatzmglichkeiten von Fasern in Weltrauminstruo menten zu untersuchen. Wellenfhrung innerhalb des erwhnten Wellenlngenbereiches lsst sich durch verschiedene u a a a Wellenleiterstrukturen (Fasern mit solider Kern-Mantel Struktur, hohle Wellenleiter sowie mikrostrukturierte Fasern) und mit verschiedenen Materialien (Fluorid, Chalcogenid, Germanat, Saphir, Silberhalid) realisieren. Der erste Teil der Arbeit beinhaltet eine Beschreibung der verschiedenen Faserstrukturen, Materialien und Wellenleitungsmechanismen. Im zweiten Teil werden Parameter beschrieben, die eine Charakterisierung jener Fasereigenschaften ermglichen, die fr den Einsatz in Weltrauminstrumenten bedeutend sind. Die o u Fasern werden hierbei hinsichtlich ihrer mechanischen, thermischen und optischen Eigenschaften beschrieben. Es wurde eine Suche nach den fr den Wellenlngenbereich 2 20 m erhltlichen Fasern u a a durchgefhrt. Der dritte Teil meiner Diplomarbeit enthlt Informationen uber den Preis der u a Fasern, die Hersteller, sowie einen Uerblick uber die von den Herstellern angegebenen Param eter. Im vierten Teil werden Messmethoden fr die wichtigsten der zuvor behandelten Parameu ter beschrieben, da viele hinsichtlich der gewnschten Einsatzbereiche wichtige Parameter von den Herstellern nicht oder nur teilweise angegeben werden, und weiters fr Fasern fr diese u u Wellenlngenbereiche keine standardisierten Messmethoden existieren. Besonderes Augena merk wurde dabei auf die Durchfhrbarkeit dieser Messungen mit der im optischen Labor des u Institutes fr Nachrichtentechnik und Hochfrequenztechnik vorhandenen Ausstattung gelegt. u
Summary
The topic of this thesis is bers transmitting light of wavelenghts within 2 20 m. Using bers instead of bulk optics in optical instruments enables exible beam guiding as well as mechanical advantages of reduced weight and space consumption arise. Parts of this work have been used for the project PhaseCap Assessment of Phasing Capabilities for Fiber-Optic Devices, performed by the Insitute of Communications and RadioFrequency Engineering of Vienna University of Technology for the European Space Agency ESA. The aim of this project is to investigate possible elds of application for bers in space instruments. Waveguiding within the wavelength range of 2 20 m can be realized with various structures (bers with solid core-cladding structure, hollow waveguides, and microstructured bers) and materials (Fluoride, Chalcogenide, Germanate, Sapphire, Silver Halide). The rst part of this thesis contains a description of ber structures, materials, and waveguiding mechanisms. Parameters allowing to characterize bers, especially concerning employment in space borne applications, are specied in part two. The bers are characterized by their mechanical, thermal, and waveguiding properties. In part three of this thesis the results of a comprehensive market survey are presented. Information of all infrared bers (that can transmit light above 2 m) presently oered, as well as information about the vendors, and a comparison of parameters of these bers is given. Part four comprises descriptions of measurement methods for parameters important for deployment of bers in space instruments. A lot of parameters are not given by the vendors and there are a no standardized measurement methods for bers transmitting light above 2 m. Technical feasibility of this methods with labaratory equipment, presently available in the optical labaratory of the Institute of Communications and Radio-Frequency Engineering, was especially taken into account.
Danksagung
Ich mchte mich bei allen bedanken, die zum Gelingen dieser Diplomarbeit beigetragen haben. o Ich bedanke mich bei meinen Eltern, Rosa und Martin Dirnwber, die mir das Studium der o Elektrotechnik ermglicht haben, fr ihre Untersttzung. o u u Herzlichen Dank an Herrn Prof. Dr. Walter Leeb, Vorstand des Institutes fr Nachrichtenu und Hochfrequenztechnik, fr die zahlreichen Anregungen und Hilfestellungen in Bezug auf u diese Diplomarbeit. Mein ganz besonderer Dank gilt Herrn Dr. Martin Pfennigbauer, fr die ausgezeichnete Betreuu ung, die vielen Ratschlge und aufschlussreichen Diskussionen, sowie seine kollegiale Untera sttzung bei der Durchfhrung meiner Diplomarbeit. u u Ich danke Herrn Dr. Oswald Wallner und Herrn DI Franz Fidler fr ihre Hilfe, sowie meinen u Studienkollegen fr aufschlussreiche Diskussionen und ihre Hilfe bei technischen Problemen. u Martin Dirnwber o
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Infrared bers advantages and applications 1.2 Fiber types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Solid-Core Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Crystalline Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Hollow Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Photonic Crystal Fibers . . . . . . . . 1.3 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Identication of ber parameters 2.1 Physical parameters . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Mechanical parameters . . 2.1.3 Thermal parameters . . . 2.2 Waveguiding parameters . . . . . 2.2.1 Transmission parameters 2.2.2 Wavelength parameters . 2.2.3 Fiber coupling . . . . . . 2.2.4 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . 3 Market survey 3.1 Fibers oered . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Fiber vendors . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Comparison of bers oered . 3.3.1 Chalcogenide Fibers . 3.3.2 Flouride . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Polycrystalline . . . . 3.3.4 Other IR bers . . . . 3.3.5 Standard single mode bers for 1.5 m . . . 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 12 14 18 20 22 24 25 26 27 27 28 29 31 31
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4 Measurement methods 4.1 Attenuation vs. wavelength . . 4.1.1 Cut-back technique . . 4.1.2 Taper-based technique 4.2 Attenuation vs. bending radius 4.3 Minimum bending radius . . .
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Cut-o wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Transmitted power technique . . 4.5 Mode eld diameter . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Theoretical background . . . . . 4.5.2 Far-eld scan . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 Near-eld scan . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 Variable aperture technique . . . 4.6 Eective numerical aperture . . . . . . 4.7 Output divergence angle . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Coupling eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Chromatic dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1 Non-Fourier-transform methods . 4.9.2 Fourier-transform methods . . . 4.10 Temperature coecient of optical length 4.11 Coeecient of elasticity . . . . . . . . . 5 Outlook
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32 32 34 34 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 44 47 50 52 53 53 54 55 56 58 60 62 64 66 67 69 70 71 73 75 76 77
A Data sheets A.1 IR Photonics: MID-infrared single mode ber . . . . . . A.2 IR Photonics: MID-infrared multi mode ber . . . . . . A.3 ARTPhotonics: CIR ber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.4 ARTPhotonics: PIR ber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.5 CeramOptec: Optran MIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.6 Beijing S-Fiber Technology: Infrared Fiber . . . . . . . A.7 Amorphous Materials: C1, C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.8 Polymicro: HWCA, HWEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.9 Hitachi: hollow ber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10 CoreActive: IRT-SU, IRT-SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.11 Photran LLC: Sapphire optical ber . . . . . . . . . . . A.12 Infrared Fiber Sensors: Spectral grade Silverhalide bers A.13 Infrared Fiber Systems: HP ber . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.14 Infrared Fiber Systems: SG ber . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.15 FiberLabs Inc.: SMFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.16 FiberLas Inc.: MMFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography
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ii
Chapter 1
Introduction
The research done in this thesis is part of the project PhaseCap Assessment of Phasing Capabilities for Fiber-Optic Devices for the European Space Agency on using bers designed to guide light within the wavelength range of 2 20 m in space borne applications. In this chapter, I will point out which advantages could arise by using bers, especially in spaceapplications, as well as other elds of applications for infrared bers. There are bers of dierent structures and materials to cover this large wavelength-range. I will provide a classication and description of these dierent ber types.
1.1
Infrared bers advantages and applications
For components taken to space it is important to have low weight and space consumption. Concerning these facts, ber-optic components are potentially superior to bulk optics for special applications. Besides from mechanical properties, advantages also arise due to the bers waveguiding mechanism that allows for exible beam guidance. Furthermore, bers could also be deployed advantageously as modal wavefront lters, optical path delay length control, or for multiaxial beam combining [1]. There are various elds of application for infrared bers, each one requiring special ber properties: In nulling interferometry, an extrasolar planet orbiting a star (with a light intensity higher than that of the planet by several orders of magnitude) can be detected by interferometrically combining light received from spatially separated antennas. A certain dierence in optical path length between the two interferometer-arms (depending on the wavelength of the incoming light) is used for nulling the light emitted by the star by means of destructive interference. High precision, exible and low mass imaging instruments based on phasing can be realized with bers [2]. In spectroscopy, the spectrum of light is determined. The use of a ber-bundle allows for scanning large areas of the sky (integral eld spectroscopy) or obtaining spectral information of many objects simultaneously by connecting each ber of the bundle to a separate detector. To enable high packing density of the bers the cladding diameter should be chosen not too large [2].
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Another eld of application for infrared bers is radiometry, where temperature radiation is measured. At room temperature thermal radiation has its maximum at a wavelength of about 10 m. Therefore bers guiding light in the mid-infrared have used.
1.2
Fiber types
Fibers can be categorized by structure, guiding-type, and material. Figure 1.1 shows a classication of ber types by structure: solid-core bers, hollow waveguides, and micro-structured bers (so-called photonic crystal bers). Figure 1.2 gives a rough overview of attenuation and range of transmission for dierent types of bers. In the following, I will provide a description of the dierent types.
Infrared Fiber
Solid Core Hollow Waveguide
Attenuated Total Reflection
Photonic Crystal Fiber

Index Guiding Bandgap Guiding Bragg Fiber
Guiding Type
Structure
Index Guiding
Leaky Guide
Material
Glass
Crystalline Single Crystal Poly crystalline

Silver Halide Chalcogenide Polyetherimide Chalcogenide Polyethersulfone
Heavy Metal Fluoride
Chalcogenide Sapphire Silver Halide
Sapphire
Ag/AgI
Germanate
Figure 1.1: Classication of infrared bers.
1.2.1
Solid-Core Fibers
Waveguiding in solid-core bers obeys the principle of total reection of light propagating inside the core. Total reection is caused by a dierence in index of refraction between core- and cladding-material. Fibers transmitting light of wavelengths above 2 m can be manufactured of glass or crystalline mateials. In Silica bers, transmission range is limited by multiphonon absorption for large wavelengths and by Rayleigh scattering for short wavelengths. The transmission range of bers can be increased when shifting multiphonon absorption towards higher wavelengths by employing heavy metal oxides, as in Fluoride bers and Germanate bers. Flouride: Fluoride bers show the lowest attenuation of all bers transmitting in the midinfrared. Interpolating intrinsic losses caused by Rayleigh-scattering and multiphonon absorption results in a theoretic value of attenuation of 0.24 dB/km at a wavelength of
Figure 1.2: Comparison of attenuation and wavelength-range of dierent types of infrared bers (from [3]).
2.55 m, whereas the lowest measured value is about 0.45 dB/km [3]. Physical properties of Fluoride bers are inferior to those of Silica bers. They are less durable and have less strength (Youngs modulus EFluoride = 54 GPa, ESilica = 73 GPa). Furthermore, the operating temperature range of Fluoride bers is much lower because of the low glass transition point of Fluoride (TZBLAN = 265 C, TSilica = 1175 C). Most popular Fluoride glasses used for ber fabrication are Fluorozirconate (ZBLAN: ZrF4 BaF2 LaF3 AlF3 NaF) and Flouroaluminate (AlF3 ZrF4 BaF2 CaF2 YF3 ). Germanate: Better physical properties are shown by Germanate bers, which have glass transition temperatures up to 680 C and an excellent durability. These bers are based on GeO2 and can guide light up to wavelengths of about 3 m. Chalcogenide: Chalcogenide bers are usually based on one or more of the Chalcogene elements Sulde, Selenide and Telluride. They are stable, durable, and insensitive to moisture. In contrast to most infrared bers, they can not transmit visible light. Most of the Chalcogenide glasses show rather large values of the thermo-optic coecient which limits power handling capabilities of the ber [3].
1.2.2
Crystalline Fibers
Single-Crystal: Fibers made of sapphire show a transmission range of about 0.5 3 m. Sapphire is an uniaxial crystal which gives the ber excellent physical properties. It is very hard and has a melting point higher than 2000 C. Youngs modulus is much higher than for any other ber (ESapphire = 430 GPa), and the thermal expansion coecient is about 10 times higher than that of Silica-bers. Additionally, growth techniques for manufacturing this bers need suciently more time than manufacturing of other bers [3]. Polycrystalline: There are a lot of halide crystals allowing for transmission in the infrared but only silver- and thallium-halides have physical properties that allow extrusion into
a ber. Silver-halide bers are better than thallium-halide bers for some reasons and will be described in the following. Attenuation can be as low as 0.2 dB/m at 2.55 m and transmission is possible nearly up to 20 m. Disadvantages are low melting point, aging of the ber, and photo sensitivity of the crystals. Additionally, they are corrosive to many metals. Due to these facts, the bers need a special coating as well as special connectors (e.g. gold). Moreover the tensile strength of this bers is very low (Esilver-halide = 0.14 GPa) and exceeding a certain bending-radius can lead to permanent damage and therefore higher attenuation of the aected region [3].
1.2.3
Hollow Waveguides
In hollow waveguides, light is propagating through an air core. Therefore, advantages of high laser-power-thresholds, low insertion loss, and no end-reections arise. Furthermore, hollow waveguides show low beam divergence. Losses are indirect proportional to a3 , where a gives the bore radius. Drawbacks are high bending losses, which are indirect proportional to the bending radius R. Hollow waveguides can be realized as ATR-guides1 or as Leaky-guides [3]. ATR-guides: The refractive index of the inner wall material of ATR-guides is less than one. Together with the air-core (ncore = 1) a structure like in usual bers (ncore > nclad ) is achieved. Waveguiding works due to attenuated total reection of light propagating inside the core. Such a waveguide can be realized for instance with sapphire [3]. Leaky guides: In contrast to ATR-guides the refractive index of the inner wall material of leaky guides is greater than one. Waves are guided due to reection on the metallic inner wall. To minimize loss the inner wall of the waveguide is covered with a dielectric layer. The most popular structure is the Hollow Glass Waveguide (HGW), with inner layers of silver covered with silver iodide (see Figure 1.3). At 10 m, losses are less than 0.5 dB/m
Silver iodide lm Silver lm Glass substrate Polymer coating
Figure 1.3: Structure of a Hollow Glass Waveguide (from [4]).
for a HGW having a bore radius larger than 400 m. HGWs are nearly single-mode (in waveguides with a bore radius less than 300 m only the LP01 -mode propagates), because higher order modes suer high attenuation and so in practice only the lowest order modes propagate.
1
(ATR . . . attenuated total reectance)
1.2.4
Photonic Crystal Fibers
A novel kind of waveguides are Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCF). At present time PCFs transmitting above 2 m are at an experimental stage and not commercially available. Figure 1.4 shows index-guiding and bandgap-guiding PCFs.
Figure 1.4: Cross sections of photonic crystal bers: index-guiding (left, from [5]) and bandgapguiding (right, from [6]).
Index guiding: Waveguiding is realized as in solid-core bers by creating a dierence in index of refraction between the core (solid, n > 1) and the cladding (microstructured) region. This is achieved by manufacturing a cladding region with air-holes which lower the eective index of refraction. By varying size and number of the air-holes, the refractive index of the cladding area and thus also the dierence of the refractive index of the core and the cladding, can be chosen very precisely. Fibers with a high numerical aperture (up to 0.7) as well as bers supporting single-mode operation over a wide wavelength range, or highly nonlinear bers can be manufactured [7]. Bandgap guiding: By using special structures it is possible to create areas within a material, where light of a certain wavelength can not propagate. Such areas are realized around a hollow core so that light is conned to the core after being coupled into it. Due to the hollow core, high power levels can be transmitted without ber damage or nonlinearities. There are no Fresnel reections at the ber ends [7].
1.3
Outline
Parameters allowing to characterize bers are specied in Chapter 2. They are divided into physical parameters and waveguide parameters. In Chapter 3 the results of a comprehensive market survey are presented. Information of all infrared bers (transmitting light above 2 m) oered presently, as well as information about the vendors, and a comparison of parameters of these bers is presented. Chapter 4 gives a description of measurement methods for parameters important for deployment of bers in space instruments. Technical feasibility of this methods with presently existent labaratory equipment was especially taken into account.
Chapter 2
Identication of ber parameters

The aim of this chapter is the identication of ber parameters relevant and performancecritical for the possible applications mentioned in Chapter 1. Due to the dierent designs and guiding mechanisms of various infrared bers, like step-index bers, photonic crystal bers, hollow bers, Bragg grating bers, etc., the detailed mathematical expressions of some ber parameters may be dierent. If not stated otherwise, the remainder of this document will refer to step-index bers, which is appropriate for an application-oriented specication of important parameters.
2.1
2.1.1
Physical parameters
Dimensions
Core/cladding diameter: The core diameter, dco , is twice the radial distance from the ber axis to the point where the index of refraction takes on the value it has in the cladding. The cladding diameter, dcl > dco , is twice the radial distance from the ber axis to the point where the index of refraction becomes dierent from that in the cladding. Both parameters are usually given in m. Index-of-refraction-prole: The radial prole of the index of refraction determines the waveguiding properties of the ber. In order to obtain wave guidance, the index of refraction in the core, nco , usually has to be higher than the index of refraction in the cladding, ncl . The index-of-refraction-prole for step-index bers as a function of the radius r reads nco : 0 < r < dco /2 n= . (2.1) ncl : dco /2 < r < dcl /2 The ratio = n2 n2 co cl 2n2 co (2.2)
is known as the relative refraction index dierence. If single-mode operation is aimed at, the upper bound for the core diameter is dco < V 1 n2 n2 co cl , (2.3)
with a normalized frequency V = 2.405. 6
CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS
Core-cladding concentricity error: The radial distance between the geometric center of the core and the cladding is dened as core-cladding concentricity error. Maximum ber length: The maximum length of ber, Lmax , which can be produced in one piece is limited. Especially for infrared bers, this length can be quite short (e.g. a few meters).
2.1.2
Mechanical parameters
Hardness: The hardness measures the resistance of the berss material to indentation. It can be measured on the Mohs and Vickers scale. The latter is a more quantitative measure, which measures the impression made using a pyramid-shaped diamond forced into the surface of a material. The result is given as the Vickers hardness number VHN = 1854 P d2 (2.4)
in kg/mm2 , where P is the load in grams and d is the mean length of the indentation in microns. Mohs scale characterizes the scratch resistance through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer. On this scale quartz (SiO2 ) has a hardness of 7, whereas diamond (C) has a hardness of 10. Hardness of a ber material comes into play when preparing a ber facet: In general, with a hard material it is easier to prepare a well-dened, smooth surface by polishing. It is also more scratch-resistant. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of a ber is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it can be subjected to before it breaks. Tensile strength is measured in units of force per unit area, i.e. Newton per square meter ([N/m2 ] or [Pa]). Coecient of elasticity: The relative elongation when subjected to an axial force (provided the material is in the elastic region) is described by the coecient of elasticity Youngs modulus E, 1F L = , (2.5) L EA where L is the absolute elongation, L is the ber length, F is the applied force, and A is the cross sectional area of the ber. The coecient of elasticity is therefore given in N/m2 . Minimum bending radius: When bending a ber with less than the minimum bending radius, it breaks.
2.1.3
Thermal parameters
Operating temperature range: The operating temperature range denes lower and upper temperature limits within which the ber can be operated. Thermal expansion coecient: The thermal expansion coecient gives the relative elongation per temperature unit of a ber, L = T , L (2.6)
where L is the absolute elongation, L is the ber length, and T is the temperature change. The thermal expansion coecient is given in K1 . Thermo-optic coecient: The thermo-optic coecient (given in K1 ) describes the change of the index of refraction of a material due to a temperature change, dn/dT . This eect also depends on the wavelength and on the absolute temperature. If light of high intensity is transmitted via the ber, the thermo-optic eect can lead to self-focusing and therefore to an additional intensity increase. This may lead to thermal damage of the ber.
1 Temperature coecient of optical length: The parameter L d(nL) describes the temperdT ature dependence of the optical length, which is the product of the refractive index of the bers material n and the geometrical length L of the ber.
Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of a ber is equivalent to the quantity of heat that passes in unit time through unit area of unit length of ber, when its opposite faces are subject to unit temperature gradient. Thermal conductivity is measured in [Wm1 K1 ]. Laser damage threshold: The maximum light intensity (given in W/m2 ) which can be transported over a ber without damaging it is dened by the laser damage threshold.
2.2
2.2.1
Waveguiding parameters
Transmission parameters
Mode eld radius: The mode eld radius w0 is the radial dimension, where the intensity of the fundamental mode drops to 1/e2 = 0.135 of its peak value. Close to single-mode cuto, the modeeld radius is only slightly larger than the core radius. Two octaves above the cuto wavelength it increases substantially [8]. Fiber attenuation vs. bending radius: Generally, the ber attenuation increases with decreasing bending radius. The bend loss coecient B for the fundamental mode LP01 , given in dB/m, as depending on the bend radius R is given by [9, 10] 2 (n2 n2 (1 + b)2 ) 10 2 3 R co cl B = exp 2 2 , (2.7) 2 ln 10 3/2 d2 (n2 n2 ) RK1 (dco /2) 3k ncl (1 + b)2 co co cl where k = 2/ is the wave number, b is the ratio of the integrated eld in the core to the total integrated eld of the LP01 mode, K1 is a modied Hankel function, and with the abbreviation = n2 k 2 b2 2 (1 + 2/b) . (2.8) cl The total attenuation of a ber is then total = + B , (2.9)
where is the attenuation coecient of the straight ber. Figure 2.1 shows B over R for a ber with dco = 9.3 m, = 0.4% at = 1550 nm.
Figure 2.1: Bending loss coecient B as a function of bending radius R.
Birefringence: Imperfections of the ber geometry or mechanical stress cause unintended birefringence. However, birefringence can also be a desired ber property, e.g. for polarizing or polarization maintaining bers. In a birefringent ber, two principal axes for linear polarized eigenmodes exist, allowing for propagation of decoupled waves at dierent velocities. Beat length: The beat length LB of a ber is dened as the distance after which two components of a eld polarized parallel and normal to the optical axis, and therefore experiencing dierent propagation constants due to birefringence, have a phase shift of 2. After a length of L the phase shift amounts to = 2 L . LB (2.10)
The beat length depends on the wavelength and on the refractive indices of the two principal axes, LB = , (2.11) |ne no | where ne and no are the indices of refraction parallel and normal to the optical axis of the birefringent ber. The beat length of a standard ber may be in the range of several meters.
2.2.2
Wavelength parameters
Cut-o wavelength: Every mode of a ber except the fundamental mode experiences a certain wavelength above which it can not propagate. The cut-o wavelength of a ber,
10
c , is dened as the wavelength above which only one mode the fundamental mode represents a valid solution for the wave equation. The cut-o wavelength for a step-index ber is given by dco c = n2 n2 , (2.12) co cl V with a normalized frequency of V = 2.405. Since in practice the transition from single-mode to multi-mode operation is not abrupt, experimenters dene the cut-o wavelength as that wavelength where the power propagating in the ber is by 0.1 dB higher than the power of the fundamental mode. Fiber attenuation vs. wavelength: To determine the wavelength range of a ber, the ber attenuation (), usually given in dB/km, is presented in a diagram as a function of the wavelength. The shape of this curve depends on the ber geometry and material. Normalized frequency: The normalized frequency of a ber is dened by V = dco n2 n2 . co cl (2.13)
For single-mode operation, the normalized frequency must not be higher than 2.405. The design criterion for a step-index ber to be solely single-mode above a desired wavelength c is dco n2 n2 0.766c . co cl (2.14)
2.2.3
Fiber coupling
Acceptance angle: When coupling into a ber, the angle between incident light beams and the ber axis must be lower than = arcsin n2 n2 co cl (2.15)
in order to provide wave-guiding due to total reection at the core-cladding boundary. Numerical aperture: The numerical aperture is the sine of the acceptance angle, NA = n2 n2 . co cl (2.16)
Eective numerical aperture: Due to imperfections during the manufacturing of the ber, the actual numerical aperture may be slightly dierent from the theoretical one. In this case it is called eective numerical aperture. Reective loss: When coupling light into or out of a ber, losses occur due to reections at the ber facet as a consequence of index-of-refraction dierences of the propagation media within and outside the ber (so-called Fresnel losses). The reectivity of a beam entering the ber parallel to the ber axis is given by R= (nm nco )2 , (nm + nco )2 (2.17)
where nm and nco are the indices of refraction of the medium outside the ber and the ber core, respectively.
11
Coupling eciency: When coupling into a ber (be it from free-space or from another ber) the ratio of guided light power to total available light power is called coupling eciency. The easiest way to couple a free-space beam into a ber is to use a lens as a focussing element. In a breadboard setup with an approximately Gaussian input beam optimum coupling is obtained, if the lens matches the modeeld radius w0 of the beam in the focal plane to the modeeld radius of the eld propagating in the ber [11, 12]. For xed lens and waveguide parameters, the coupling eciency changes signicantly with changing wavelength. The maximum coupling eciency can be obtained at singlemode cuto, i.e. for V = 2.405, [13]. This theoretical maximum coupling eciency1 between the LP01 mode propagating in the ber and an Airy function at the input plane of the ber amounts to = 0.786 [14]. Additional reective loss, due to the Fresnel reection (2.17) at the ber facet (see above), reduces this coupling eciency unless an antireective coating is used. Output divergence angle: Optical waves exiting a single-mode ber will experience diraction, depending on the mode eld radius and the wavelength. Assuming a Gaussian intensity prole within the single-mode ber, the full output divergence angle reads = 2 . w0 (2.18)
In case of a multi-mode ber the output divergence angle is best characterized via the bers numerical aperture. It is just twice the acceptance angle (see above).
2.2.4
Dispersion
Dispersion: The velocity of waves in a ber depends on the wavelength. This leads to a relative delay of signal components at dierent wavelengths, corresponding to a temporal spread of the signal. This eect, called dispersion, compounds of chromatic dispersion (wavelength-dependent index of refraction and radial extension of the eld in the ber) and mode dispersion (due to propagation velocity dierences of dierent modes). Dispersion vs. wavelength: The chromatic dispersion coecient, given in ps/(kmnm), is presented in a diagram as a function of the wavelength. Zero dispersion wavelength: The zero dispersion wavelength is the wavelength for which the chromatic dispersion coecient vanishes.
For calculating this coupling eciency not an approximation but the exact eld was used for the bers fundamental mode.
Chapter 3
Market survey
From November 2004 to January 2005 I performed a thorough market survey concerning optical bers in the mid-infrared spectral range, with emphasis on the wavelength range from 2 to 12 m. Manufacturers and distributors for various types of bers were contacted and asked for oers and detailed specications. While the focus was the European market, I eventually performed a world-wide survey. As outlined in Chapter 1, I distinguish between solid-core bers, hollow waveguides, and photonic crystal bers. The major information sources for my search were the Internet, the Laser Focus World Buyers Guide [15], and personal knowledge.
3.1
Fibers oered
Table 3.1 gives an overview of the IR bers oered and provides main parameters as well as the price and delivery time. From some companies oering several types of bers (e.g. bers with dierent dimensions) I only asked for exemplary oers. To allow a comparison with the characteristics of standard bers, I added information provided by three representative manufacturers of telecom bers.
12
type
material
product
vendor
price
data sheet
solid-core ber 85 105 115 135 2680f 26 26 26 26 24
Chalcogenide
EUR/m 96
delivery time [weeks] 3
CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY
Fluoride
C1 C2 CIR ber CIR ber CIR ber CIR ber IRT-SU IRT-SE Bejing ber 1 Bejing ber 2 Bejing ber 3 Bejing ber 4 SM uoride MM uoride TFF MM uoride GFF SG ber MID IR MM ber MID IR SM ber 153 46 46e 1 8 10 <1 226 1325 2338c 306 421 230383j
wavelength range [m] 2 10 0.7 7 26 26 26 26 25 29 16 2 12 2 12 2 11 0.5 3.7 0.7 2.5 0.5 4 0.45 5 0.3 4.5 0.3 4.5 A.7 A.7 A.3 A.3 A.3 A.3 A.10 A.10 A.6 A.6 A.6 A.6 A.15 A.16 A.16 A.14 A.2 A.1
Germanate
polycrystalline silver halide
HP ber HP ber HP ber HP ber Optran MIR Optran MIR silver halide silver halide PIR ber PIR ber PIR ber
745
single-crystal - sapphire
190 230 270 506h 387g
26 26 26 23 12
hollow waveguide
photonic crystal ber telecom ber
Silica Silica
1 3a 1 3a 1 3a 1 3a 4 16 4 16 3 18 2 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 0.3 3 3 12 2.9 12 1.45 1.65
A.13 A.13 A.13 A.13 A.5 A.5 A.12 A.12 A.4 A.4 A.4 A.11 A.9 A.8
Hitachi ber HWEA/HWCA HC-1550-02 SMF-28e SM 09/125 AllWaveFiber
core/cladding diameter [m] 100/ to 1000/ 100/ to 1000/d 250/300 340/400 400/440 500/550 50/170 to 700/800 50/170 to 700/800 50/400 50/600 100/600 50/400 8.5/122 190/200 140/200 to 400/530 100/ to 700/ 50/ to 1000/ 9/125 6.5/125 150/ 250/ 450/ 700/ 200/300 to 860/1000 300 1000b 900/1000 750 750, 1000 1000i 450/500 630/700 900/1000 150 425b 700 300 1000 10.9 9/125 9/125 9/125 Amorphous Materials Amorphous Materials ARTphotonics ARTphotonics ARTphotonics ARTphotonics CorActive CorActive Beijing S-Fiber Techn. Beijing S-Fiber Techn. Beijing S-Fiber Techn. Beijing S-Fiber Techn. FiberLabs FiberLabs FiberLabs Infrared Fiber Systems IRphotonics IRphotonics Le Verre Floure Infrared Fiber Systems Infrared Fiber Systems Infrared Fiber Systems Infrared Fiber Systems CeramOptec CeramOptec Infrared Fiber Sensors Infrared Fiber Sensors ARTphotonics ARTphotonics ARTphotonics Photran Hitachi Cable Polymicro Technologies Crystal Fibre A/S Corning j-ber ofs 0.03 0.026 0.044k <1
Table 3.1: Overview of all ber oers resulting from the market survey performed.
13
according to diagram in data sheet no cladding c minimum purchase length 100 m d not available before mid 2005 e oer for ber with core diameter 160 m f oer for ber with core/cladding diameter 50/170 m including connectors and coating g HWEA ber, optimized for Er:YAG, oer by Optronis GmbH h oer for ber with core diameter 250 m i square waveguide j minimum purchase length 10 m k oer from Mattig-Schauer (Austria)
14
3.2
Fiber vendors
Tables 3.2 and 3.3 present detailed contact information on ber manufacturers and vendors, while Table 3.4 contains information on companies where I was unable to make contact. Chalcogenide bers with dimensions 400/500 m, produced by ARTphotonics, are oered by JT Ingram Sales & Marketing Co. for the price of 333 EUR for 2 m, including SMA connectors and protective tubing. Photran single-crystal sapphire bers with a core diameter of 250 m and PTFE (Polytetrauoroethylene) buer are oered by Laser Components (Germany) for the price of 823 EUR/m. Polycrystalline bers with dimensions 400/500 m and 630/700 m, produced by ARTphotonics, are oered by JT Ingram Sales & Marketing Co. for the price of 449 EUR and 525 EUR for 2 m, respectively, including SMA connectors and protective tubing. ARTphotonics additionally oers square PIR bers with core/cladding dimensions from (450/500 m)2 for the price of 240 EUR/m to (900/1000 m)2 for 240 EUR/m and bare core PIR bers with diameters from 500 m to 1000 m, for 130 EUR/m to 210 EUR/m. ARTphotonics bers are additionally oered by FiberWare. The prices of all PIR bers oered apply for products with moderate quality of core/cladding boundary, corresponding to an attenuation of 0.2 0.8 dB/m at a wavelength of 10.6 m. I could not get in contact with Beijing S-Fiber Technology (China) who, on their homepage, claim to produce chalcogenide bers. It is neither possible to send an email to the addresses posted on the homepage nor to get in contact by phone. Autex (Japan) did not respond to my mails. It is probably a distributor for Polymicros (USA) hollow bers. I also did not succeed to get in contact with OmniGuide Communications Inc. (USA), probably a manufacturer of hollow core photonic bandgap bers. In the search for photonic crystal bers designed for the mid-infrared, I also contacted Crystal Fibre A/S (Denmark) but they responded that they only work with silica. The distributor Oxford Electronics (UK) has a chalcogenide ber in his program but cannot oer it at this time. The ber section of Saphikon (France) was moved to Photran (USA). BlazePhotonics Ltd. (UK) is now owned by Crystal Fibre A/S (Denmark).
company USA
address
country
Amorphous Materials Inc.
URL e-mail www.amorphousmaterials.com

GregWhaley@amorphousmaterials.com
3130 Benton Garland, Texas 75042 Germany USA
phone fax phone: +1-972-494-5624 (G. Whaley) fax: +1-972-272-7971 (G. Whaley)
ARTphotonics GmbH
CeramOptec Industries Inc.
Schwarzschildstr. 6 D-12489 Berlin 515A Shaker Rd. East Longmeadow, MA 01028
RayHiltonjr@amorphousmaterials.com www.artphotonics.de info@artphotonics.de www.ceramoptec.com SalesEngineering@CeramOptec.com cheryl.smith@ceramoptec.com
CeramOptec GmbH Canada
Germany
CorActive High-Tech Inc.
Siemensstr. 44 53121 Bonn 2700, Jean-Perrin, Suite 121 Quebec (QC) Canada, G2C 1S9 USA Denmark
phone: +49-30-6789-4153 fax: +49-30-6789-4156 phone: +1-800-934-2377 +1-860-747-4487 (C. Smith) fax: +1-413-525-1112 +1-860-793-4909 (C. Smith) phone: +49-228-979670 fax: +49-228-9796799 phone: +1-418-845-2466-219 (D. Beiko) fax: +1-418-845-2609 (D. Beiko)
Corning Inc.
www.coractive.com sales@coractive.com info@coractive.com david.beiko@coractive.com www.corning.com/opticalber
Crystal Fibre A/S
One Riverfront Plaza Corning, NY 14831 Blokken 84, DK-3460 Birkerd
FiberLabs Inc.
2-1-15 Ohara, Kamifukuoka, Saitama, 356-8502 Japan Japan Germany USA
Japan
phone: +1-607-786-8125 fax: +1-607-786-8344 phone: +45-4348-2800 (General) +45-4348-2820 (R. Kristiansen) fax: +45-4348-2801 (R. Kristiansen) phone: +81-49-278-7829 (B. Inoue) fax: +81-49-263-9328 (B. Inoue)
Hitachi Cable, Ltd.
www.crystal-bre.com contact@crystal-bre.com rek@crystal-bre.com www.berlabs.co.jp info@berlabs.co.jp inoue@berlabs.co.jp www.hitachi-cable.co.jp

hongo.akihito@hitachi-cable.co.jp
Infrared Fiber Sensors
Infrared Fiber Systems Inc. Canada
1-6-1 Ohtemachi, Chiyodaku, Tokyo 100-8166 Japan Im Gillesbachtal 33 52066 Aachen 2301-A Broadbirch Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20904
phone: fax: phone: fax: phone:
www.ifs-aachen.de/42.0.html kuepper.ifs@t-online.de www.infraredbersystems.com info@infraredbersystems.com

alextchap@infraredbersystems.com
IRphotonics Inc.
248 Rue Corot Suite 212 Ile des Soeurs (Verdun) Montreal, Canada, H3E-1K9
+81-294-25-3837 (A. Hongo) +81-294-43-7487 (A. Hongo) +49-241-65609 (L. Kuepper) +49-241-65617 (L. Kuepper) +1-301-622-9546 +1-301-622-7131 (A. Tchap) fax: +1-301-622-7135 phone: +1-514-578-5060 (E. Georion) fax: +1-514-578-0177
www.irphotonics.com info@irphotonics.com egeorion@irphotonics.com
15
Table 3.2: Contact information for ber vendors. Telephone numbers and email addresses of persons with whom a personal contact was established are printed in bold face.
company Germany France
address
country
j-ber GmbH
Le Verre Floure
Im Semmicht 1 D-07751 Jena Campus KerLann F-35170 Bruz, Brittany USA USA
phone fax phone: fax: phone: fax: +49-3641-352-100 +49-3641-352-101 +33-2-9905-3130 (G. Maze) +33-2-9905-953 (G. Maze)
ofs
Photran LLC
2000 Northeast Expressway Norcross, Georgia 13446 Poway Road, PMB #150 Poway, CA 92064 USA
Polymicro Technologies, LLC. Germany USA Germany Austria Germany UK
18019 N. 25th Avenue. Phoenix, Arizona 85023-1200 USA
phone: +1-888-342-3743 +1-770-798-5555 phone: +1-858-748-0850 +1-619-507-4455 (L. Rothrock) fax: +1-858-748-0854 (L. Rothrock) phone: +1-602-375-4100 fax: +1-602-375-4110
URL e-mail www.j-ber.com info@j-ber.com leverreuore.com info@leverreuore.com sales@leverreuore.com www.ofsoptics.com ofs@ofsoptics.com www.photran.com sales@photran.com rothrock@znet.com www.polymicro.com
berware GmbH
JT Ingram Sales & Marketing Co. Laser Components GmbH
Bornheimer Str. 4 09648 Mittweida 316 Harlequin Ct, Oviedo, Fl 32765
Mattig-Schauer GmbH
Optronis GmbH
Oxford Electronics Ltd
Werner-von-Siemens-Str. 15 82140 Olching Matznergasse 34 1140 Wien Honsellstr. 8 D - 77694 Kehl Pyramid House, 59 Winchester Road, Four Marks, Hampshire GU34 5HR
phone: fax: phone: fax: phone: fax: phone: fax: phone: fax: phone: fax:
+49-3727-613335 +49-3727-613336 +1-561-573-6533 +1-253-663-2608 +49-8142-2864-0 +49-8142-2864-11 +43-1-984-8383-62 (R. Binder) +43-1-984-8383-50 (R. Binder) +49-78-519126-34 (D. Schoch) +49-78-519126-10 (D. Schoch) +44-1420-561200 +44-1420-561300
www.berware.de oce@berware.de www.jtingram.com/ Jim@jtingram.com www.lasercomponents.com info@lasercomponents.com www.mattig-schauer.at r.binder@mattig-schauer.at www.optronis.com schoch@optronis.com www.oxford-electronics.com sales@oxford-electronics.com
16
Table 3.3: Contact information for ber vendors, continued. Telephone numbers and email addresses of persons with whom a personal contact was established are printed in bold face. Distributors are listed below manufacturers, separated by an empty line.
company Japan China
address
country
Autex
Beijing S-Fiber Technology
phone fax phone: fax: phone: fax: +81-3-3226-6321 +81-3-3226-6290 [+86-10-83522482] [+86-10-63586031] phone: +1-617-551-8444 fax: +1-617-551-8445
OmniGuide tions Inc.
Communica-
16-5 Tomihisa-cho, Shinjyuku Tokyo 162-0067, Japan A#1006, Tianyuan Apartment No.36, South GuangAnMen Road, Xuanwu District, Beijing, Post Code: 100054 One Kendall Square Building 100, 3rd Floor Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
URL e-mail www.autex-inc.co.jp [sales32@autex-inc.co.jp] www.s-ber.com.cn [s ber@sohu.com] [sunhuimail@vip.sina.com] www.omni-guide.com information@omni-guide.com
17
Table 3.4: Contact information for ber manufacturers and vendors I failed to get in touch with.
18
3.3
Comparison of bers oered
In the following more detailed information on the bers listed in Table 3.1 is presented [2]. Figure 3.1 shows the attenuation of the dierent bers for three representative wavelengths, Fig. 3.2 provides an overview of the corresponding useful wavelength ranges. In the subsections to follow I list the detailed properties as extracted from the data sheets copied in Appendix A.
2 1.8
w. . . 3 m
1.6 1.4 [dB/m] 1.2 1 0.8

u
. . . 5 m . . . 10.6 m
0.6
u u u u u
0.4 0.2 0
' E' E' E' E
C 1 IR C2 IR ber T B ei IR SU jin T B g -S ei F E ji ib B ng er ei F ji ib 1 B ng er e F SM ijin ib 2 g er M Flu Fib 3 M o er r M Flu ide 4 M o Fl rid ber uo e T ri de FF m G id S F IR G F m id MM be r IR O pt SM be ra r n si MI PIR ber lv er R c b o si lv hal re/ er er id e clad ge ha rm li be r a de si nat b ng e e le H r cr P ys ta ber l b H er W E H HW A it ac C hi A b er C
u u u u u
chalcogenide
uoride
polycrystalline
other
Figure 3.1: Attenuation coecient for dierent wavelengths of the bers oered.
C1
C2
CIR ber
IRT-SU
IRT-SE
chalcogenide
Beijing Fiber 1
Beijing Fiber 2
Beijing Fiber 3
Beijing Fiber 4
c T
SM Fluoride ber
MM Fluoride TFF
ouride
MM Fluoride GFF
SG ber
mid IR MM ber
mid IR SM ber
c T
PIR ber
Optran MIR
polycrystalline
silver halide ber
c silver halide ber T germanate HP ber
other
Figure 3.2: Wavelength ranges of the mid-infrared bers oered.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 [m] 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
single crystal ber
HWEA
HWCA 18
Hitachi ber
19
3.3.1
product material company A.3 core/clad 1.5 6 50/170 to 700/800 2.4 dual coat acrylate A.10 core/clad 25 A.10 core/clad 29
Chalcogenide Fibers
data sheet in subsection structure wavelength range cut-o wavelength core/cladding diameter [m] [m] [m] 100/ to 1000/ 2.8 1 @ 100a 8 @ 500a 10 @ 750a 40 @ 1000a 7 to 127 1 @ 100a 17 @ 500a 30 @ 750a 40 @ 1000a 2.4 100/ to 1000/ 200/250 to 700/800 2.4 double polymer
C1 As-Se-Te Amorphous Materials A.7 core/clad 2 10
C2 As2 S3 Amorphous Materials A.7 core/clad 0.7 7
CIR Fiber As2 S3 /As-S ARTphotonics
IRT-SU Sulphide CorActive
IRT-SE Selenide CorActive
50/170 to 700/800 2.7 dual coat acrylate
core refraction index coating material minimum bending radius @ ber diameter
[mm] @ [m]
operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength @ @ @ @ 100a 500a 750a 1000a
[ C] [107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa]
[W] 0.2 0.4 @ 5.25 0.2 0.4 @ 9.27 4 5 @ 10.6 0.2 0.4 @ 5.25
235 3 916 483 469 427 5 100a 500a 750a 1000a 5.25 m
241 0.9 841 @ 386 @ 310 @ 303 @ 100 @
laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths
[dB/m] @ [m]
0.3 0.2 @ (2 4)
0.26 <0.2
0.30 < 0.5
core diameter
20
product material Beijing S-Fiber Technology A.6 core/clad 16 50/400 50/600 100/600 50/400 Beijing S-Fiber Technology A.6 core/clad 2 11
Beijing Fiber 1 As-S/As-S
Beijing Fiber 4 As-Se/As-Se
company
[m] [m] [m]
Beijing Fiber 2 As-Se-Te/As-SeTe Beijing S-Fiber Technology A.6 core/clad 2 12
Beijing Fiber 3 GeSeTe/Ge-AsSe-Te Beijing S-Fiber Technology A.6 core/clad 2 12
[mm] @ [m] [ C] [107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa]
data sheet in subsection structure wavelength range cut-o wavelength core/cladding diameter core refraction index coating material minimum bending radius @ ber diameter operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths [dB/m] @ [m] 0.5 0.2 @ 2.4 <0.5 @ (1.83.7)a <1 @ (4.5 6)a 0.5 <0.5 @ 8 <1 @ (3.7 5.7)a <1.5 @ (7 10)a 0.5 3 @ 10.6
0.5 <1 @ 4
according to the diagram in the datasheet
21
3.3.2
Flouride
product
singlemode Fluoride ber HMFG-ZBLAN FiberLabs Inc. A.16 core/clad 0.7 2.5 190/200 140/200 to 400/530 A.16 core/clad 0.5 4 HMFG Infrared Fiber Systems A.14 core/clad 0.45 5 100/ to 700/
SG ber
material company
multimode Fluoride ber TFF HMFG FiberLabs Inc.
multimode Fluoride ber GFF HMFG FiberLabs Inc.
data sheet in subsection structure wavelength range cut-o wavelength core/cladding diameter [m] [m] [m]
A.15 core/clad 0.5 3.7b 2.3c 8.5/122
core refraction index coating material UV curable resin jacket 20 @ 190a
minimum bending radius @ ber diameter [ C] [107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa]
[mm] @ [m]
UV curable resin jacket 20 @ 150a
polymeric buer coating 5 @ 100a 10 @ 200a 40 @ 400a 250
operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths 0.21 < 0.03 @ (0.5 2.6)b < 0.06 @ (2.5 3.5)b < 0.5 @ (3.5 4.1)b 0.65 < 0.03 @ (0.7 2.6)b < 0.05 @ (2.6 3.5)b < 0.5 @ (3.5 4.2)b
[dB/m] @ [m]
0.28 <0.05 @ (1.5 2.5)b < 0.2 @ (2.5 2.8)b
0.22 0.05 @ 2.5
core diameter according to the diagram in the datasheet c calculated from ber diameter and numerical aperture
22
product HMFG Le Verre Floure core/clad 2.5 6.5/125
material company A.2 core/clad 0.3 4.5 50/ to 1000/
mid infrared multimode ber HMFG IRphotonics
mid infrared singlemode ber HMFG-ZBLAN IRphotonics
A.1 core/clad 0.3 4.5 3.5c 9/125
core refraction index coating material
[mm] @ [m] [ C] [107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa] 20 to 80 100 250 480
UV cured, dual acrylate, other 4 @ 125 20 to 80 100 250 480
UV cured, dual acrylate, other 4 @ 125
0.3
minimum bending radius @ ber diameter operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths [dB/m] @ [m] 0.3 0.5 @ (2.94, 2.78, 2.07, 2.8)
0.3 0.5 @ (0.5 4.5)
core diameter according to the diagram in the datasheet c calculated from ber diameter and numerical aperture
23
3.3.3
product
PIR ber
Optran MIR
Optran MIR
material
Spectral Grade Silver Halide Fibers silver halide
Polycrystalline
company A.4 core/clad 4 18 300 1000 750 750a 1000 1000a 2.20 A.5 core/clad 4 16 A.5 core 4 16
silver halide: AgCl:AgBr ARTphotonics Infrared Fiber Sensors A.12 core 2 18
silver halide: AgCl:AgBr CeramOptec
silver halide: AgCl:AgBr CeramOptec
Spectral Grade Silver Halide Fibers silver halide: AgCl:AgBr Infrared Fiber Sensors A.12 core/clad 3 18 900/1000 2.20
core refraction index coating material
10 FDb
10 FDb
[ C]
300/500 to 900/1000 2.15 PEEK (PolyEther EtherKetone) 10 FDb 270 to 140 2.10 polycarbonate or Tefzel 100 FDb 60 to 110
200/300 to 860/1000 2.10 polycarbonate or Tefzel 100 FDb 60 to 110
[107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa] [kW/cm2 ] 100 10d 0.5e > 100 12d 0.25e 0.1 0.5 @ 10.6 100 10d 0.13 0.35e < 0.5 @ (9 12.5)f < 1 @ (5 13)f
> 110
minimum bending radius operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths
[dB/m] @ [m]
< 0.42c < 0.6 @ 3.5 < 0.3 @ 5 < 0.2 @ 10.6
> 110 12d < 0.26c < 1 @ 3.5 < 0.6 @ 5 0.1 0.3 @ 10.6
square FD . . . ber diameter c if ber length is greater than 2 m d cw CO2 Laser e eective NA f according to diagram in data sheet
24
3.3.4
type product GeO2 Infrared Fiber Systems A.13 core/clad 1 3b A.11 core 0.3 3 150 425 300 1000
d
Germanate HP Fiber
hollow waveguide HWEA
hollow waveguide HWCA
hollow waveguide Hitachi ber
material Photran LLC A.9 hollow 3 12 700d
single crystal ber sapphire optical ber Sapphire hollow silica waveguide ErYAG Polymicro Technologies A.8 hollow 2.9 12 300 1000
d
Other IR bers
company
data sheet in subsection structure wavelength range cut-o wavelength core/cladding diameter 150/ to 700/ acrylate 20 30 60 80 @ @ @ @ 150 250 325 425 acrylate
[m] [m] [m]
hollow silica waveguide CO2 Polymicro Technologies A.8 hollow 2.9 12
hollow silica waveguide Hitachi Cable
core refraction index coating material minimum bending radius @ ber diameter polyimide 5 @ 150a 25 @ 400a 40 @ 500a
[mm] @ [m]
[C]
[107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa] [W] 2800 20c 0.25 0.7 @ 2.94 0.3 1 @ 2.96 1e 2f @ 2.96
1000 @ 10.6 m 0.5e 2.0f @ 10.6 < 1.5 @ (4.5 5.8) < 2.5 @ (7 12)g
operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths
[dB/m] @ [m]
core diameter according to diagram in data sheet c @ 10 Hz d inner core diameter e 1000 m inner core diameter f 300 m inner core diameter g measured with incoherent light (< 0.48 dB/m for CO2 laser)
25
3.3.5
product
SMF-28e
Singlemode Optical Fiber 09/125 Silica j-ber core/clad core/clad Silica ofs
AllWaveFiber
Silica Corning core/clad [m] [m] [m] 1.26 9/125 1.19 1.33 9/125 1.47a 1.26 9/125 1.47a
hollow core photonic bandgap ber HC-1550-02 Silica Crystal Fibre A/S microstructured 1.45 1.65 10.9b
[ C] [107 /K] [105 /K] [MPa] 60 to 85 60 to 85 700 700
60 to 85
700
material company data sheet in subsection structure wavelength range cut-o wavelength core/cladding diameter core refraction index coating material minimum bending radius @ ber diameter operating temperature range thermal expansion coecient thermo-optic coecient tensile strength laser damage threshold numerical aperture ber attenuation @ wavelengths [dB/km] @ [m] 0.14 0.35 @1.31 0.20 @.155 0.37 @1.31 0.24 @1.55 0.34 @1.31 0.21 @1.55
0.12 100 @(1.45-1.65)
eective group index of refraction inner core diameter
26
Standard single mode telecommunication bers and photonic crystal bers for 1.5 m
Chapter 4
Measurement methods
In this chapter measurement methods for the following ber-parameters are described: Attenuation vs. wavelength Attenuation vs. bending radius Minimum bending radius Cut-o wavelength Mode eld diameter Eective numerical aperture Output divergence angle Coupling eciency Chromatic dispersion Temperature coecient of optical length Coecient of elasticity When selecting measurement methods I paid special attention to the feasibility of performing the experiments with the equipment available in the optical labaratory of the Institute of Communications and Radio-Frequency Engineering.
4.1
Attenuation vs. wavelength
Attenuation of bers can be characterized by the attenuation-coecient (), which gives the attenuation per unit length [dB/m], as: P (z) = P (0) 10
z 10
(4.1)
where P (0) is the power directly at the beginning of the ber and P (z) is the power at the length z of the ber.
27
CHAPTER 4. MEASUREMENT METHODS
28
The attenuation coecient is not dened for the total transmitted power, but for the power carried by a certain mode. In general, dierent modes experience dierent attenuation coecients. Therefore, and due to mode-coupling, the attenuation coecient depends on the ber-length z. However, after a certain ber-length, a steady-state or equilibrium mode distribution (EMD) is established, which means that the ratio of power carried by the each mode relative to a reference mode, no longer depends on the ber-length z. Provided such an EMD can be obtained, the loss-coecient of the total transmitted power can be measured [16]. A steady-state distribution emerges after a certain ber-length, either when the power carried by higher order modes is attenuated to a negligible extent (because of the higher for these modes) or due to mode coupling, if present in considerable strength. Since the test bers are very short (a few meters), this is not feasible. There are two methods for obtaining an EMD in short ber pieces: In the mechanical method an EMD is established by enforcing strong mode-coupling with mode-scramblers or by using mode lters. The optical method is based on a limited launch numerical aperture, which means to create an input-beam, which lls only 70% of the core diameter and 70% of the numerical aperture of the ber, so that the excitation of higher-order modes, leaky modes, and cladding modes is avoided. The optical method suits best for the measurement of, usually short, IR-bers, due to certain limitations of the mechanical method in measurement of short bers. Attenuation measurement of singlemode bers can be done by the well known cut-back technique, whereas the attenuation coecient of multimode bers can be measured best by the taper based technique, where a hollow glass taper is used to create an EMD in the ber under test.
4.1.1
Cut-back technique
The cut-back technique is the reference test method for attenuation measurement recommended by the ITU [17]. It is preferable for attenuation measurement of singlemode bers. First step is to measure the output-power of the ber P2 . Then the ber is cut to the cut-back point (which could be 2 m from the launching point, for instance), and the outputpower P1 at the cut-back point is measured, without changing the launching conditions. So the measurement is independent from the launching conditions. The attenuation coecient can then be calculated as P1 10 log , (4.2) = z P2 where z is the length ber piece cut o. The measurement can be done either for some specic wavelengths or over a wavelength-range. Figure 4.1 shows a measurement-setup for measuring over a wavelength-range. The wavelength is selected by a monochromator. The signal is modulated and a chopper is used, together with a lock-in amplier, to improve the signal to noise ratio. By coupling with a ber or by a suitable system of optics it can be assured that only the fundamental mode is excited in the ber. The propagation of higher-order modes through the cut-back length, is prevented by by a mode lter (higher-order modes can be removed by a bend of the ber, for example), while cladding modes are removed by a cladding mode stripper. The measurement should be done at the same temperature for all wavelengths.
29
Figure 4.1: Measurement setup for the cut-back method (from [17]).
4.1.2
Taper-based technique
The following is based on the article: Attenuation Measurement of Infrared Optical Fibers by Use of a Hollow-Taper-Based Coupling Method by Ilko K. Ilev et. al. [18]. In the measure-
Figure 4.2: Measurement setup for the taper-based technique (from [18]). ment setup shown in Figure 4.2, the optical method is used to create an EMD-state and the attenuation coecient is determined through power measurements in front of the input-end and behind the output-end of the ber. In this setup a hollow taper is used, due to certain advantages, as explained in the following. The taper is made of Pyrex-glass with 3.5 mm input diameter, and 250 m output diameter, and a length of 120 mm. This ensures a cone angle of less than 1 , so that grazing incidence is achieved. Therefore, reectance coecients are very high (close to 100%), and also wavelength-independent, so that measurements can be performed over a wide wavelengthrange. In contrast to a conventional lens there are no problems in nding the optimum point
30
for coupling in.
Figure 4.3: Intensity distribution at the input (a) and at the output (b) of the taper (from [18]).
The taper has a very low output numerical aperture (about 0.033) and its output diameter should be chosen smaller than the ber core, to satisfy the conditions for a limited launch numerical aperture. Furthermore, the taper forms a smooth, Gaussian-shaped, laser beam prole (inside the taper occurs an intensive conversion of higher order modes into leaky modes because of the grazing incidence). Figure 4.3 shows the measured intensity distribution at the input and at the output of the taper. Altogether, the use of the taper ensures that lower-order modes are excited predominately, and thus a proper EMD-state is achieved. In order to conrm this, Figure 4.4 shows the far-eld intensity distributions measured after a 1 m hollow ber, using taper-to-ber coupling and lens-to-ber coupling. The output-intensity after taper-to-ber coupling shows low-order modes around the ber-axis, while the output-intensity after ber-to-lens coupling is strong multimodal.
Figure 4.4: Far-eld intensity distributions measured after a 1 m hollow ber, using taper-tober coupling (a) and lens-to-ber coupling (CaF2 -lens, focal length f=100 mm) (b) (from [18]).
The attenuation coecient can be calculated after measuring the power P0 at the taper output, and the power at the ber output P1 , as: = 10 P0 log z P1 (4.3)
A broadband, tunable laser-source has to be used to measure the attenuation coecient in dependence on the wavelength. If the attenuation of solid-core bers is measured, a correction
31
for the Fresnel-reections R at both ber-ends has to be done. For that purpose the Fresnelrelation (see Section 2.2.3) can be used (n gives the index of refraction of the ber): R= n1 n+1
2
(4.4)
If the ber is sucient long, a cut-back measurement can be done instead of this correction. For measurements made with a uoride-glass ber with a core diameter 250 m, a length of 1 m, and an attenuation of about 1 dB/m, the dierence of the attenuation-coecient measured with the conventional cutback-method, and the attenuation-coecient measured with the taper-based method was as low as 0.05 dB/m.
4.2
Attenuation vs. bending radius
The bending-induced attenuation can be determined as follows: First the power P1 at the output-end of the straight ber is measured. Then a part of the ber with the length Lw is wound up on a cylinder with the radius r0 and the power P2 is measured at the output-end of the ber. The bending-induced attenuation in [dB/m] is then B (r0 ) = 10 P1 log . Lw P2 (4.5)
A diagram attenuation vs. bending can be obtained by using several cylinders with dierent diameters and measuring B for each value of r0 .
4.3
Minimum bending radius
The minimum bending radius of a ber can be determined using the setup shown in Figure 4.5. The distance D, between the two face-plates, is slowly decreased, until the ber breaks. The breaking-point Dbreak could be determined by use of an acoustic sensor. Since the ber is
Figure 4.5: Schematic diagramm of the bending technique for breaking bers (from [19]).
32
not bent to a semi-circle by this device, the bending radius at the breaking-point Rbreak (this point is exact between the two face-plates, at D/2), is less than Dbreak /2. It can be calculated from [19]. 1 Dbreak d Rbreak = , (4.6) 1.198 2 where d is the overall ber diameter (including any coating material). Because the strength of the ber is not distributed uniformly over the ber-length (due to material imperfections), a series of measurements should be done, followed by a statistical evaluation of the obtained results.
4.4
Cut-o wavelength
The cut-o wavelength c depends not only on ber geometry and refractive indices of core and cladding, but also on length, bending, and mechanical stress of the ber. With respect to these facts, cut-o wavelength is dened as the wavelength, where the power propagating through the ber is by 0.1 dB higher than the power transported by the fundamental mode, if the ber is 2 m long and has a loop with a radius of some 140 mm [17].
4.4.1
Transmitted power technique
Assuming that the same power of the LP01 mode and of the LP11 mode is coupled into a ber, the power Ptest (), measured at the output of this ber, will decrease signicantly if the wavelength of the light goes beyond c , because the LP11 mode can only propagate for c . In the transmitted power technique the cut-o wavelength is determined from that change of Ptest (). In order to remove the inuence of the wavelength-dependent attenuation of the ber on the determination of c , the power Ptest (), measured at the output-end of the ber under test, is referred to the power Pref (), measured at the output-end of a reference ber, as R() = Ptest () Pref () . (4.7)
The testber should have a length of 2 m, and a loop with a radius of 140 mm. As a reference ber either the same ber with an additional loop (single bend attenuation), or a multimode ber (power-step) can be used (see Figure 4.6). Single bend attenuation Within the single bend attenuation method the reference power Pref () is measured as a function of the wavelength at the output-end of the testber, in which an additional loop was inserted. The radius r of this loop has to be small enough to ensure, that the power intensity transmitted by the LP11 mode is radiated o, so that only the fundamental mode LP01 can propagate in the reference ber. At wavelengths near c , R() gives the ratio of the power transmitted over the testber (i.e. the power transmitted by the LP01 mode for > c , and by the LP01 mode and the LP11 mode for c ) to the power transmitted over the reference ber (that is the power transmitted by the fundamental mode LP01 ). The cut-o wavelength can then be determined as the lowest wavelength, for which R() = 0.1 dB (see Figure 4.7). Figure 4.8 shows that the exact value of the loop radius r does not aect the determination of c .
33
testfiber Ptest launching system cladding mode stripper testfiber PD
(a)
additional loop
Pref PD
launching system
cladding mode stripper
(b)
multimode fiber launching system cladding mode stripper Pref PD
Figure 4.6: Measurement setup: Single bend attenuation (a), power step (b) (from [20]).
The measurement of a Fluoride ber is reported in [22]. The intensity P1 has been measured from the straight ber, and Pref has been measured from the same ber having a loop with r = 40 mm. The advantage of the single bend attenuation method is that there is no change in coupling between the two measurements. Power step In the power step method Pref () is measured at the output-end of a multimode ber, in order that both, the LP01 mode and the LP11 mode can propagate in the reference ber [21]. The spectral attenuation characteristic of this ber should be similar to that of the testber. At wavelengths near c , R() gives the ratio of the power transmitted over the testber (i.e. the power transmitted by the LP01 mode for > c , and by the LP01 mode and the LP11 mode for c ) to the power transmitted over the reference ber (that is the power transmitted by the LP01 mode and the LP11 mode). Cut-o wavelength can then be determined as the lowest wavelength, where R() is 0.1 dB above its minimum value (see Figure 4.9) [17]. Measurement setup The wavelength-range of the light source has to be large enough for cut-o wavelength determination, and the linewidth should not extend 10 nm (FWHM). The signal to noise ratio can be improved by modulating the source in combination with a lock-in amplier. The coupling should ensure that the same amount of power is carried by the LP01 mode and the LP11 mode. This could be done by coupling in with a multimode ber, or by coupling in with a large spot size and numerical aperture [17]. If the power step method is used, leaky modes should be avoided, because they can induce ripples in R(), and thus complicate the determination of the cut-o wavelength.
34
Figure 4.7: R() for r = 30 mm (from [21]).
Figure 4.8: R() for r=10, 20, 30, 50 mm (from [21]).
4.5
Mode eld diameter
The mode eld diameter (MFD) characterizes propagation properties of singlemode bers, as are, e.g., loss due to macrobendings, microbendings, or connectors. Additionally, cut-o wavelength or chromatic dispersion can be determined if the spectral behavior of the MFD is known. The mode eld diameter can be determined from a scan of the near-eld or far-eld, of the light exciting the ber, or from several measurements of the far-eld power behind a circular aperture (located behind the output-end of the ber) with dierent diameters at each measurement (variable aperture technique).
4.5.1
Theoretical background
The MFD can be determined either in the near-eld or in the far-eld (see Figure 4.10). The
35
Figure 4.9: Power Step Method: R() (from [17]).

farfield plane nearfield plane
0 r
0 P
Figure 4.10: Near- and far-eld geometries (from [23]).
near-eld MFD, dn , can be calculated according to the Petermann I denition
dn = 2 2
r3 dr
0
(4.8)
E 2 (r) r dr
0
where E 2 (r) gives the radial intensity distribution in the near-eld, whereas the far-eld MFD, df , can be calculated using Petermann II denition
2 2 df = w
F 2 (p) p3 dp , with w =
0
, F 2 (p) p dp
(4.9)
36
where p = k sin() with k = 2 , and F 2 (p) gives the intensity distribution in the far-eld [23]. The far-eld MFD can be calculated from F 2 (), after substituting p in (4.9):
2
df = 2 2
F 2 () sin3 () cos()d . F 2 () sin() cos()d (4.10)
0
2
The intensity in the far-eld F 2 (p) can be derived from the near-eld intensity E 2 (r) by use of the Hankel transform1 . Therefore, the near-eld MFD can be calculated from the intensity-distribution in the far-eld (4.11), and the far-eld MFD can be calculated from the intensity-distribution in the near-eld (4.12).
2
dn = 2 2
dF (p) dp
p dp (4.11)
df = 2 2
E 2 (r) r dr
0 0 dE(r) dr 2
(4.12) r dr
F 2 (p) p dp
0
The near-eld MFD is at least equal the far-eld MFD: df dn . For Gaussian intensity n distributions2 both MFD denitions are equal df = dn = 2 2w, and at r = d2 the intensity 1 drops to e2 of its maximum [23]. It is important for the measurement of the MFD, that only the fundamental-mode is propagating inside the ber. This can be guaranteed by a mode-lter, or by a sucient small loop of the ber.
4.5.2
Far-eld scan
The far-eld intensity F 2 () as a function of is scanned by a exible detector (see Figure 4.11), and the MFD can then be calculated using (4.10). The detector should be moved in
fiber cladding mode filter
LD
Figure 4.11: Measurement setup: Far-eld scan (from [23]). xed steps not greater than 0.5 and the dynamic range of the measurement has to be at least
1 2
F (p) =
E(r)J0 (rp)rdr =
2 r 2 2w
1 H{E}(p) 2
E(r, w) = Ae

R photodiode
37
50 dB. The angular region in the far-eld, covered by the active area of the detector, must not be too large. That can be assured by placing the detector at a distance R from the ber end d greater than 40 b , where d is the expected MFD, and b is the diameter of the active area of the detector [17].
4.5.3
Near-eld scan
The near-eld intensity E 2 (r) at the output-end of the ber is magnied by a suitable lens, and then scanned by a exible detector (see Figure 4.12). The far-eld MFD can be calculated through (4.12). The active area of the detector must not be too large and the detector has to be adjustable precisely. Furthermore, the aperture of the lens should be at least 0.5 to avoid spatial cutos [17].
LED mode stripper
fibre under test
40 x OBJ
4.5.4
In the variable aperture technique the far-eld power P ( 0 ) of the light exiting the ber is measured for the circular area 0 , where is the angle between the light-beam and the ber axis (see Figure 4.13). The measurement of P ( 0 ) is performed by placing a circular
P x
Figure 4.13: Variable Aperture Technique (from [23]).
aperture with the radius x = D tan 0 in the distance D from the output-end of the ber, and

Scanning fibre detector
Figure 4.12: Measurement setup: Near-eld scan (from [23]).
Variable aperture technique
38
focusing the light passing the aperture onto a detector (see Figure 4.13). The center of the aperture has to be located on the ber-axis z. The measurement is performed for at least 12 dierent apertures corresponding to angles in the range of 0.02 sin 0 0.25 ( 0.4 for dispersion shifted bers). It is not necessary to perform measurements for higher values of 0 , since the intensity of the light is very low for higher values of . The MFD can then be calculated as df = D
0
P (x) x 1 dx 2 + D 2 )2 Pmax (x
1 2
(4.13)
where P (x) = P ( 0 ) and Pmax is the power measured from the setup with the largest aperture used in the measurements. Equation (4.13) can be obtained by integrating (4.10) and assuming small angles [17].
4.6
Eective numerical aperture
The eective numerical aperture NA is dened as the sine of the angle , at which the fareld intensity of the light exciting the ber has dropped to 5% of its maximum value (see Figure 4.14). It can be determined by the far-eld method. First step is to aquire the far-eld
Figure 4.14: Determination of the numerical aperture from far-eld radiation pattern (from [24]). intensity pattern I() of the ber output end as a function of (see Section 4.5.2). The ber should be 2 m long, and excited by an overlled launch in order excite all possible guided modes. This means, that the launch spot intensity is uniformly distributed over the core, and the launch numerical aperture exceeds the numerical aperture of the ber [24]. The numerical aperture can then be calculated as NA = sin 2 , (4.14)
where is the angular region where the output intensity is higher than 5% of its maximum value (see Figure 4.14). The theoretical numerical aperture could also be determined from the measured index of refraction prole of the ber, as described in [24].
39
4.7
Output divergence angle
The output divergence angle characterizes the diraction of light leaving a ber. The output divergence angle of a singlemode ber can be determined as follows: The radial distances r1 and r2 , at which the light-intensity drops to 1/e2 of its maximum value, are measured at the
L1 L2
Figure 4.15: Measurement of the output divergence angle. distances L1 and L2 from the ber-end, using the results of a far-eld scan (see section 4.5.2). Then the output divergence angle can be calculated from tan = r 2 r1 L2 L1 . (4.15)
It is essential that only the fundamental mode propagates in the ber. This can be realized by means of a ber loop. If the mode eld diameter df is known, only one measurement (r1 at the distance L1 from the ber-end) has to be performed, and can be calculated from r1 tan = L1
df 2
r1
fiber
r2
(4.16)
The output divergence angle of a multimode ber can be calculated from the numerical aperture NA of the ber (see Section 4.6), as = arcsin(NA) . (4.17)
4.8
Coupling eciency
The coupling eciency can be determined by making two measurements: First the power P1 of the light (this can be a free space beam or light guided in a ber) that should be coupled in, is measured. Then the light is coupled into the ber and the power P2 at the output-end of this ber is measured. It has to be assured that neither cladding modes nor leaky modes can propagate as far as to the output-end of the ber. This could be done by a cladding
40
mode stripper and a ber loop (with a diameter small enough to remove leaky modes and large enough not to increase the bers attenuation). When taking the inuence of the ber attenuation , given in [dB/m], into account, the coupling eciency reads = 10
Lb /10 P2
P1
(4.18)
where Lb is the length of the ber. In order to keep this inuence small the piece of ber used for this measurement should be as short as possible. Since the coupling eciency changes signicantly with wavelength, the measurements have to be performed separately for desired specic wavelengths or, more general, over a wavelength-range.
4.9
Chromatic dispersion
Principle turning point analysis center wavelength against air-path length shift of center wavelength for increase of optical path-length Fourier-transformation of the interferogram
Method direct techniques non-Fourier-transform methods indirect techniques Fourier-transform methods
Table 4.1: Overview of measurement techniques of chromatic dispersion [25, 26] Chromatic dispersion of bers can be measured with various methods. However, interferometric methods, where the ber is in one the arms of the interferometer, have to be used to obtain accurate results if only very short pieces of ber are available (e.g. a few meter), as it is the case for most of the bers designed for transmitting light with wavelengths above 2 m. These methods can be divided into non-Fourier-transform methods and Fourier-transform methods (see Table 4.9). In non-Fourier-transform methods the output-intensity of the interferometer is measured at several wavelengths, either at constant or at variable dierences between air-path-length and ber-path-length. A tunable laser source or a monochromator is necessary to perform wavelength dependent measurements. In Fourier-transform methods, measurements are done over a broad spectral range, without selecting discrete wavelengths, for varying dierences between air-path-length and ber-path-length. Chromatic dispersion D() and dispersion slope S() coecients of the ber can be determined from the eective group index of the ber ng (), from the eective index of refraction of the ber n(), as well as from the group propagation time b () in the ber, as [27, 25]: D() = S() = dng () 1 db () d2 n() = = c d lb d c d2 d3 n() 1 dD() = + D() . d c d3 , (4.19) (4.20)
4.9.1
Non-Fourier-transform methods
The following text is based on the article Interferometric Chromatic Dispersion Measurements on Short Lengths of Monomode Optical Fiber by P. A. Merritt et al. [25].
41
Within this measurement method the light of a source is split-up into two beams, which then propagate either through the air-arm or through the ber-arm of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (see Figure 4.16). After superimposing the two beams, the intensity Iout () is obtained at the detector. It is signicantly depending on the wavelength of the light, as well as on the dierence in optical path length between the air-arm and the ber-arm. Figure 4.17 shows Iout () at a certain optical path length dierence as a function of the wavelength. Chromatic dispersion can be extracted from measurements of Iout (), either at a constant optical path length dierence (direct techniques), or at varying optical path length dierences (indirect techniques). Theoretical background The principle conguration of the interferometer is shown in Figure 4.16. One arm of the interferometer contains the device under test, i. e. a short ber piece with length lb about 1 m, of which the chromatic dispersion is measured, while the other path leads through air. The interference fringes shown in Figure 4.17, from which the chromatic dispersion will be extracted, are a consequence of dierent propagation properties in the air and in the ber. There are also air-paths in the ber-arm, lair, ber-arm , which have to be subtracted from the length of the air-arm, in order to obtain the path-length, corresponding to the ber-path length, and therefore, contributing to the interference fringes: lair = lair-arm lair, ber-arm . (4.21)
The dierence in optical length between the ber-path and the air-path, OPD (optical path length dierence), is then OPD = lair n() lb . (4.22) At a xed wavelength , a change in air-path length of L, leads to a change in optical path length dierence of OPD.
airarm
fiber coupler testfiber variable air path
broadband source
fiberarm
Figure 4.16: Simplied measurement setup with a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer [25].
The light emitted by the source is split up by a beamsplitter, then propagates through the two arms, and is nally combined by a second beamsplitter. Superimposing the intensity of the ber-path Ib () and of the air-path Iair (), we obtain the output-intensity of the interferometer Iout () = Iair () + Ib () 2 Iair () Ib () cos 2 (lair lb n()) . (4.23)

mono chromator detector
42
Expanding for the eective index of refraction of the ber a taylor series around dn n() = n + ( ) d we get Iout () = Iair () + Ib () 2 Iair () Ib () cos 2 lb dn d ( )2 d2 n + 2! d2 2 lair lb n dn d .

( )2 d2 n 2! d2
( )3 d3 n 3! d3
+ ...,

(4.24)
( )3 d3 n + 3! d3
+ ...

(4.25)
Here is the so called center-wavelength, at which the group propagation time is equal in both arms of the interferometer. This is equivalent to setting zero the rst term inside the cosine-function of (4.25): 1 1 air b = lair lb c c n dn d =0 ,

(4.26)
ng ()
where c is the velocity of light in vacuum. Around this wavelength, Iout () is cosinusoidal with decreasing cycle duration, moving both above and below . A schematic representation is shown in Figure 4.17. The envelope of this function is due to the spectral characteristic of the source. Techniques for extracting dispersion coecient and slope coecient from these
Iout
Figure 4.17: Schematic representation of Iout around (from [25]). interferometric fringes can be divided into direct and indirect techniques. Direct techniques use data measured at a constant optical path length dierence (OPD), whereas indirect techniques require data measured at varying optical path length dierences. Direct techniques Chromatic dispersion can be obtained by determining two wavelengths 1 and 2 of minima of Iout (), which are separated by M intensity cycles of Iout (), and which are located on the
43
same side of (turning point analysis; see Figure 4.17). Consequently, 2M is added to the argument of the cosine in (4.25), and (4.27) can be obtained by subtracting the argument of the cosine in Iout (2 ) from the argument of the cosine in Iout (1 )3 : (1 )2 (2 )2 1 2
A
1 d2 n 2! d2
(1 )3 (2 )3 1 2
B
1 d3 n 3! d3
2M lb
(4.27)
Chromatic ber dispersion is characterized by (4.19) and part A of (4.27). It can be calculated either directly from (4.27) by neglecting part B, and thus assuming S()| D()| , or more accurate by determining another two wavelengths of minima of Iout (), which yields another equation of the form of (4.27). We then obtain two equations with two unknown variables, from which D() and S() can be calculated by employing (4.19) and (4.20). To determine the wavelengths of the minima of Iout () the wavelength-spectra should be smoothed to remove noise, and then dierentiated. Indirect techniques Chromatic ber dispersion can be determined by measuring the center-wavelength as the air-path length is varied (lair = lair + lair ). Following (4.26), the group propagation time in the ber b at the wavelength = reads 1 b () = air = (lair + lair ) . (4.28) c The chromatic dispersion coecient of the ber can be calculated as (cf. (4.19)) D() = 1 db () lb d . (4.29)
The chromatic dispersion coecient can be obtained for a specic wavelength ( = 0 + /2), by measuring the shift of the center-wavelength , after an incremental increase of the optical path length dierence OPD. Since the change of the group propagation time of the ber b = OPD/c, the chromatic dispersion coecient of the ber is given by (see (4.19)) D 0 + 2 Resolution The following resolutions can be obtained by extrapolating the values of ber-pieces of 1 m length: Using the indirect technique of dierentiating group delay data leads to a resolution value of 2 ps/(nmkm). More accurate results are obtained using direct techniques. Turning point analysis gives a resolution of 0.8 ps/(nmkm). Measurement setup The setup is based on the Mach-Zehnder interferometer shown in Figure 4.16. Some additional components are necessary to allow for automatic measurements. The complete measurement setup as suggested in [25] is shown in Figure 4.18.
3
1 1 OPD = lb lb c
(4.30)
Here we assumed that the Taylor expansion is conned to the rst three terms.
44
Figure 4.18: Measurement setup (from [25]). (P. . . polarizer, /4. . . quarter-waveplate, /2. . . half-waveplate, MS. . . mirror, BS. . . beamsplitter, GT. . . Glan-Thompson polarizer, IF. . . interference lter, OS. . . optical shutter, PZTM. . . piezoelectric translated mirror, APD. . . avalanche photodiode detector, SF. . . spatial lter, TF. . . test ber)
A LED with full width half maximum bandwidth of 50 nm is used as a broadband light source. The output beam is spatially ltered by a singlemode ber before entering the interferometer. The beam exiting the interferometer passes a monochromator where the wavelength is selected in 0.2 nm steps, and then the intensity is measured by an avalanche photodiode. Due to the low light level after the input ber, synchronous detection is used to increase the signal to noise ratio. A HeNe-Laser beam is aligned coaxially to the LED beam for path-length stabilization, which is done by piezoelectric controlled mirror movement. An additional mirror together with a shutter is used to measure the spectral prole of the LED simultaneously. The measurement is performed over a wavelength range from 780 910 m in 0.2 nm steps.
4.9.2
Fourier-transform methods
The description of the following method is based on the article: Three Ways to Implement Interferencial Techniques: Application to Measurements of Chromatic Dispersion, Birefringence, and Nonlinear Susceptibilities by P.-L. Francois et al. [26]. The output-intensity, obtained by the experiment described in section 4.9.1, depends on the wavelength and the air-path length lair . In the following method, the intensity is measured over the whole wavelength-range of the broadband source at once. From the measured interferograms the chromatic dispersion of the ber can be extracted by use of Fourier-transformation. By integrating (4.23) over the whole frequency spectrum we obtain the proportion
Iout (lair )
0
R() cos
2 (lair lb n()) d
(4.31)
Source characteristic and transfer functions of the ber-path and of the air-path are combined
45
in the real valued function R(). After substituting the argument of the cosine-function 2 2 [lb n() lair ] = ()lb lair = ()lb lair c where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and = fundamental-mode in the ber, we obtain
2
(4.32)
n() is the propagation constant of the lair d c
Iout (lair )
0
R() cos ()lb
(4.33)
Eventually, the phase of the cosine-function is also changed by eects like abberation. If these phase-changes are not negligible, the substitution ()lb := ()lb + () has to be done4 . Since the elds arriving at the detector are real quantities, R() is a symmetric function and () = (). Therefore, (4.33) can be written as
Iout (lair )
R() ej[()lb c lair ] d
(4.34)
which is equivalent to the inverse Fourier-transform: Iout (lair ) F1 R() ej()lb lair c . (4.35)
Therefore ()lb can be determined from the Fourier-transform of Iout (lair /c) up to an additive constant. The variations of the eective index of refraction n() can then be obtained from n() = 2 (), and chromatic dispersion can be calculated as (of (4.19)) D() = d2 n() d2 d2 () = = = 2 2 2 c d c d 2c d2 d d d d2 = + = 2 + 2 . 2c d d 2c d d (4.36)
Zero-dispersion wavelength corresponds to the inexion point of the variations of the eective index of refraction. Measurement technique The measurement setup is shown in Figure 4.19. The broadband source is realized by a halogen lamp, and the subsequent lter ensures > 1.2 m. A lock-in amplier together with a chopper is used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Lead-in ber and mixing ber are singlemode bers. Even if several modes are transmitted over the test ber, only the fundamental LP01 mode contributes to the interferences, because there is little transfer from higher order modes in the testber to the LP01 mode in the mixing ber. Iout (lair ) is measured, while lair is changed in steps of 0.2 m. Figure 4.20 shows measured interferograms for dierent types of bers5 . The amplitude of the Fourier-transform of Iout (lair ), and the variations of the eective index of refraction, which is derived from the phase of the Fourier-transform of Iout (lair ), are shown in Figure 4.21. The wavelength-region of interferences, and thus the region in which
46
halogen lamp chopper
leadin fiber
testfiber
variable air path
Figure 4.19: Measurement setup [26].
QC Fiber
SEGCOR fiber
50
100
150
200
200
400
600
800 0
Variation of lair [ m]
Figure 4.20: Measured interferograms of QC ber, SEQCOR ber, and uoride glass ber (from [26]).
6
effective index variations (105 ) effective index variations (105 ) effective index -5 variations (105 ) 6 4 2 0 1.3 Amplitude
8
Amplitude
Amplitude
4 2 0
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.7
Wavelength [ m] (a)
Wavelength [ m] (b)
Figure 4.21: Amplitudes of the Fourier-transform of Iout (lair ) and variations of the eective index of refraction, derived from the phase of the Fourier-transform of Iout (lair ), of QC ber (a), SEQCOR ber (b), and uoride glass ber (c) (from [26]).
chromatic dispersion can be determined, can be seen from these diagrams. A comparison of the dispersion-spectra obtained with the Fourier-transform method, and the dispersionspectra obtained from measurements with non-Fourier-transform methods (see [26]), is shown in Figure 4.22.
4 The eects of aberrations of the optics on the phase are represented by (); this substitution has to be done in the functions derived from (4.33) too. 5 dispersion-attened (quadruply-clad) QC ber, dispersion-shifted (segmented core) SEQCOR ber, and a uoride glass ber

200
1.6 1.8 2.0
fiber coupler

mixing fiber computer detector lockin amplifier
fluoride glass fiber 400 600 800 1000
4 0 1.6 1.8 2.0
Wavelength [ m] (c)
47
ps km nm
10
SEGCOR
fluoride fiber
Dispersion
QC
10
20
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Wavelength [ m]
Figure 4.22: Comparison of the dispersion-spectra obtained with the Fourier-transform method (thick lines) and the dispersion-spectra obtained with mode delay measurements from the interferogram-envelopes (thin lines) (from [26]).
A dierent measurement-setup for Fourier-transform measurements using ber-couplers instead of bulk optics is presented in [28].
4.10
Temperature coecient of optical length
The following is based on the article: Heterodyne Interferometric Measurement of the ThermoOptic Coecient of Single Mode Fiber by S. Chang et al. [29]. In the described method the temperature of a ber Fabry-Perot interferometer (FFPI), built up from the test-ber, is varied, in order to determine the temperature coecient of 1 optical length L d(nL) , from the temperature dependent output-signal and the wavelength of dT the source. The authors of the article claim that measurements with the common used method of the angle of minimum deviation (AMD) [30] are only accurate to the order of 104 K1 , whereas temperature coecients of optical length of bers are about one or two decades lower, so that the described method has to be used in order to obtain accurate results. The interferometer is fabricated from the ber, of which the temperature coecient of optical length shall be determined. Its length is 12 mm and the end-faces are coated with single layer TiO2 , with a reectivity of 3 4%. The interferometer is surrounded by a tube, in contact with a thermo-electric cooler for temperature control. Figure 4.23 shows the measurement-setup. The light-source is a strained layer quantum well DFB diode laser module, providing a stable output wavelength (1558 nm) with 0.8 MHz line width. There is also an isolator integrated in this module. The laser is modulated by a very weak rf-current, with a modulation frequency of m = 280 MHz, which yields a modulation index 1. The spectrum of the obtained signal contains three components, which are the carrier frequency 0 , and two side-band frequencies 0 + m , and 0 m . The optical eld
48
Figure 4.23: Setup for interferometric measurement of the thermo-optic coecient (from [29]).
at the output of the laser diode is E(t) E0 J0 ()ej0 t + J1 ()ej(0 +m )t + J1 ()ej(0 m )t , (4.37)
where Jk () with k {0, 1} is the Bessel function. The signal propagates through a 2 2 coupler, with 50% coupling ratio, into a Fabry-Perot interferometer sensor. Index matching oil at the other output-end of the coupler ensures, that no light is reected back from that end-face. The eect of the resonator on the signal is represented by the complex reection functions Tk (k ) = ek jk with k = 0 + km , k = 0, 1 , (4.38) 1 the
where k is the amplitude attenuation and k is the optical phase shift at k . For signal leaving the interferometer is Er (t) E0 T0 (0 )ej0 t + T1 (1 ) ej1 t T1 (1 ) ej1 t 2 2 .
(4.39)
Via the coupler the signal arrives at the photodetector, where the intensity is given by
2 I(t) E0 e0
e1 cos(0 1 ) e1 cos(1 0 ) cos(m t) . (4.40)
+ e1 sin(1 0 ) e1 sin(0 1 ) sin(m t)
The output of the photodetector is amplied, and ltered by a bandpass with center frequency m . Afterwards it is mixed with the signal modulating the source. The signal at the output of the mixer is
2 V (t) E0 e0
e1 cos(0 1 ) e1 cos(1 0 ) cos(m t) sin(m t) . (4.41)
+ e1 sin(1 0 ) e1 sin(0 1 ) sin2 (m t)
49
It is then ltered by a lowpass in order to obtain dc-signal related to the phase shift dierence between the carrier and the side bands 1 2 . (4.42) V (k , k ) E0 e0 e1 sin(1 0 ) e1 sin(0 1 ) 2 The amplitude attenuation and the phase shift caused by the interferometer are ek = r (1 cos k )2 + sin2 k (1 r2 cos k )2 + (r2 sin k )2 and (4.43)
k = arctan
sin k r2 sin k + arctan 1 cos k 1 r2 cos k
(4.44)
The output signal V (k , k ) becomes zero, if 1 = 1 and sin(1 0 ) = sin(0 1 ). This is the case, if the resonators resonance frequency is equal to the carrier frequency 0 . The phase shift of the signal after a round-trip in the resonator, and thus the resonance frequency of the resonator, can be modied by changing the resonator temperature T , because the refractive index n as well as the resonator length L/2 is depending on the temperature: nL nL = 2 . (4.45) c Both simulation and experimental results show that the output signal oscillates periodically with the temperature (see Figure 4.24). Dierences between simulation and experimental =
Figure 4.24: Output signal V (k , k ) vs. temperature: The results of the theoretical simulation are shown by the line, and the experimental results are shown by dots (from [29]). results arise from doping material dierences in the simulation model and the measured ber. During one oscillation period T , the signal in the resonator experiences a 2 phase change, so that together with (4.45) the following equation is obtained: d(nL) T = 0 . (4.46) dT The obtained results have to be related to L, in order to make them independent of the used resonator length and the temperature coecient of optical length is 1 1 d(nL) T = 0 L dT L . (4.47)
50
The temperature coecient of optical length can be calculated from the oscillation period T and the wavelength of the carrier 0 . With a measured oscillation period of T = 6.51 C the temperature coecient of optical length is 9.92 106 K1 for a Corning singlemode ber with n = 1.4488. The temperature coecient of optical length of a Amorphous Materials chalcogenide glass ber, calculated from data provided by the manufacturer, is 9.58 105 K1 , and of a sapphire ber, calculated from data from [3], is 2.3 105 K1 . For measurements at higher wavelengths, as it is necessary for infrared bers, the coating of the resonator has to be changed.
4.11
Coeecient of elasticity
The coecient of elasticity (Youngs modulus E) can be determined by a tensile test. The F tensile stress = A0 , applied to ber in axial direction, is continuously increased until the ber breaks, while the elongation L of the ber the ber is measured. With the strain = l l0 l = l0 l0 (4.48)
of a ber, a stress-strain diagram as shown in Figure 4.25 can be obtained [31]. The force applied to the ber is given by F , while A0 and l0 are the original cross sectional area and length of the ber. If the applied stress is less than E , it is proportional to the strain of the
Figure 4.25: Stress-strain curve (from [31])
ber by the factor of E. Therefore Youngs modulus can be calculated from the linear part of the diagram as E=
F A l l0
(4.49)
Some coecients of elasticity of infrared bers are: ESapphire = 430 GPa, EFluoride = 54 GPa, Echalcogenide = 21.5 GPa, and Esilver-halide = 0.14 GPa [3]. Therefore, applying 25% of
51
its tensile strength to a 1 m chalcogenide ber (see Section 3.3.1) would result in an elongation of 25 MPa l = 1 m = 0, 0012 m . (4.50) 21.5 GPa
Chapter 5
Outlook
With the data obtained from the market survey (see Chapter 3), the bers which t best to the requirements of the applications described in Chapter 1 have been selected, and samples of a few meter of each of those bers have been bought. The next step will be the verication of the characteristics provided by the vendors in the datasheets and the measurement of the parameters which have not been specied by the vendors, using the measurement methods described in Chapter 4. As a rst measurement, the transmission and the output intensity distribution of a hollow glass taper for attenuation measurement of multimode bers, as described in Section 4.1.2, has been determined.
52
Appendix A
Data sheets
A.1 IR Photonics: MID-infrared single mode ber
53
APPENDIX A. DATA SHEETS
54
A.2
IR Photonics: MID-infrared multi mode ber
A.3
ARTPhotonics: CIR ber
Advanced 55 Research & Technology in
CIR-fiber
Chalcogenide IR-glass fiber

Chalcogenide InfraRed (CIR-) glasses based on As-S-composition are the best for fiber optic in 2 6 m range of spectra. Thereby CIR-fibers transmit IR-radiation in the gap between silica glass fibers (0.2 2.4m) and Polycrystalline InfraRed (PIR-) fibers (4 18m). CIR-Fibers are drawn in core-clad structure with double polymer coating and characterized by a low optical losses and high flexibility. The innovative glass purification process provides the attenuation spectra free from OHabsorption band at 3m and thus it enables CIR-fibers to be used for Er:YAG laser power delivery
FEATURES
..... high transmittance from 2 m up to 6 m ..... suitable for Er:YAG - laser power delivery ..... optical losses 0.2 dB/m at 2 - 4 m ..... double polymer coating for high flexibility ..... durable cables with SMA-connectors
APPLICATIONS
Flexible delivery for Er:YAG - laser flexible IR-imaging systems remote non-contact pyrometry in the 200-600K range fiber probes for remote process IR - spectroscopy
FIBER SPECIFICATION
Transmission range .................................1.5 - 6 m Core/Clad structure .................................As2S3/As-S Core/Clad diameter .................................200-700 / 300-800 m Numerical Aperture..0.3 Core refractive index ...............................2.4 Protective coating ....................................Double polymer Ambient temperature range.....................280 400 K
1000
800
Attenuation, dB/km
600
400
remote IR spectroscopy 1.5 - 6m flexible pyrometry & IR-imaging Er:YAG-laser power delivery
200
0 2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
4,5
5,0
5,5
6,0
Wavelength, m
56
A.4
ARTPhotonics: PIR ber
F PIR - fibers
Polycrystalline Core/Clad fiber for Mid-infrared spectrum (4-18m) from a Silver Halide solid solution
The development of specialty fibers for the Mid-Infrared region has resulted in a unique product Core / Clad Polycrystalline Infra-Red (PIR-) fibers. PIR fibers are non-toxic, very flexible, transparent across a broad spectral region 4 18 m and capable of operating over the wide temperature range of 270 C up to +140 C. They are manufactured in a core/clad structure of superior quality from pure AgCl: AgBr solid solution crystals using an innovative vacuum extrusion method. They possess by no aging effect compared to an alternative bare core fiber. The range of F-PIR-fiber cables are available with a durable PEEK polymer jacket and terminations using either an SMA type connector with a Ti or polymer ferrule or special one, manufactured on customer request. A wide variety of different optical coupling units can also be designed & fabricated for specialized customer requirements.
Attenuation, dB/km
High transmittance from 4 m up to 18 m. Suitable for CO2 - laser power delivery up to 50 W. Low Attenuation at 10.6 m (0.1-0.5 dB/m). Fiber diameters from 0.3 to 1.0 mm (on request). Fiber lengths up to 20 m (for 0.5 mm diameter). No aging effect
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Flexible delivery system for CO and CO2 laser. 0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 Flexible IR-imaging systems. Wavelength, m Remote non-contact pyrometry in the 100-600K range. Fiber probes for remote in-line, in-vivo and process IR - spectroscopy.
14,0
16,0
Fiber diameter (standard) ................................... 400/500, 630/700, 900/1000 m Transmission range............................................. 4-18 m Attenuation at 10.6 m....................................... 0.1-0.5 dB/m Refractive index ................................................. 2.15 Effective NA....................................................... 0.25 Laser Damage Threshold for cw CO2-laser........ >12 kW/cm Melting point ...................................................... 415C Tensile strength .................................................. >100 MPa Minimum Bending Radius (fixed)...................... 10[Fiber Diameter] Minimum Elastic Bending Radius...................... 100[Fiber Diameter]
57
F PIR - cables
CABLE SPECIFICATIONS
Core/clad PIR-fibers are protected by a loose PEEK-jacket (PolyEtherEtherKetone) to provide stiff, flexible and hermetic protection against mechanical, photoinduced and chemical damage over a wide temperature range (up to 250C) Standard fiber/cable diameters are listed below. Other fiber diameters in 0.3 1.5mm range are also available upon the request for special fabrication: Fiber core/cladding diameter *) (m) 400 / 500 630 / 700 900 / 1000
*)
Jackets inner/outer diameter (m) 750 / 1590 1400 / 3175 1400 / 3175
other diameter are available in 300 1000 m range on request (10m min order)
Cable termination with a special Ti-ferrule SMA-connector: for low power (spectroscopy & radiometry) applications for high laser power delivery free standing fiber end standard cable length 1m & 2m PIR-fiber end-surface treatment: Cutting.....................low cost, high performance - standard Polishing..................for special application, including AR-coating on request SMART...................for reduced reflection of high CO2-laser intensity on request
OPTIONS
accessory kits for remote spectroscopy with FTIR, QCL and TDL-spectrometers pig-tailing of IR-detectors: TE- & LN-cooled MCT, PbSe, thermopiles, etc.
1 PIR 400/500 after 2.5 year storing (red) 2 PIR 600/700 after 2.5 year storing (purple) 3 PIR 400/500 after 1 month storing (green)
Attenuation at 10.6m in core/clad PIR-fibers measured within 28 months storage after extrusion
PIR 600/700
PIR 400/500
OPTRAN MIR FIBERS

Innovative Fiber Optics...Every Step of the Way
58
A.5
CeramOptec: Optran MIR
CeramOptec is unique in its ability to manufacture fiber optic CO2 laser delivery systems and MIR optical fiber commercially. CeramOptecs flexible fiber optic delivery systems for CO2 lasers offer an advantage over articulated armsthe typical delivery system for CO2 laserswhich are often rigid and cumbersome. Optran MIR optical fibers are the finest quality laser fibers for everything from medical treatments to FT-IR spectroscopy (4 16 m).
Features

Optimized for CO and CO2 lasers Low attenuation in the MIR region Non-brittle and very flexible Non-hygroscopical material High numerical aperture Reliable coupling accessories available Core/Clad or Bare Core design Applications Medical CO2 Laser Delivery Industrial/Scientific FT-IR spectroscopy Pyrometry Laser marking Remote, non-contact, temperature control IR imaging Laser surface treatment Physical Properties Crystal of solid solution: Specific weight: Melting point: Tensile strength: Work temperature: Minimum bend radius: Optical Properties Transmission range: Refractive index (core): Practical NA:
Optran MIR
3.0 Attenuation (dB/m) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Wavelength (um)
Transmission 80% 90%
AgCl : AgBr 6.39 g/cm3 412 100 MPa -60 to +110C R = 100 x fiber
Damage threshold (CO2 CW): Reflective loss (l = 10.6 m)
4 to 16 m 2.1 0.5 (bare core) 0.35 (core/clad) 0.25 (core/clad) 0.13 (core/clad) 10 kW/cm2 25%
59
Bare Core Product Code MIR 300 MIR 500 MIR 700 MIR 1000 Core (m) 2% 300 500 700 1000 Loose Tube (m) 2% 700 1000 1500 2000 Max. Length (m) 20 10 10 10
Core/Clad Product Code MIR 200/300 BPLC MIR 400/500 BPLC MIR 600/700 BPLC MIR 860/1000 BPLC Core (m) 2% Clad (m) 2% 200 300 400 500 600 700 860 1000 Jacket (m) 5% 400 700 900 1300 Max. Length (m) 10 10 10 5
Optran MIRBare Core Design

Mixed Silver Halide Surrounding Air Functions as Cladding Loose Polymer Tube (Polycarbonate or Tefzel)
Optran MIRCore/Clad Design

Mixed Silver Halide Mixed Silver Halide Loose Polymer Tube (Polycarbonate or Tefzel)
Notes: NA is measured at the 95% intensity angle. CeramOptec strives to ensure the accuracy of all information provided; however, we imply no warranties and disclaim any liability in connection with the use of this information. Tefzel is a registered DuPont product.
Please contact our Sales Engineering representatives: North America CeramOptec Industries, Inc. 515A Shaker Road; East Longmeadow, MA 01028 Tel: 800-934-2377 413-525-0600 Fax: 413-525-1112 Email: salesengineering@ceramoptec.com West Coast Office Tel: 408-362-0100 Fax: 408-629-1657 Email: salesengineering@ceramoptec.com Europe CeramOptec GmbH Siemensstr. 44; 53121 Bonn, Germany Tel: +49 (0) 228-979670 Fax: +49 (0) 228-9796799 Email: info@ceramoptec.de
Innovative Fiber Optics...Every Step of the Way CeramOptec was founded in 1986 and today is a global leader in the production of stock and custom silica / silica, plastic-clad silica, and hard polymer-clad silica optical fibers; fused capillary tubing; DPSS lasers; diode modules; and low loss bundles and assemblies for UV, VIS, and IR transmission, medical laser delivery, sensors, plasma fusion, and spectroscopy. With several facilities worldwide, we are able to provide our customers with local, prompt, and reliable service and products. By maintaining complete control over the entire manufacturing processfrom preform manufacturing to finished fiber productwe are able to provide the highest quality control, custom solutions, and competitive pricing to our customers. Please visit http://www.ceramoptec.com for more information. CeramOptec is a subsidiary of biolitec AG. Please visit http://www.biolitec.com for more information.
2003 CeramOptec Industries, Inc. ML-127 REV. A (05/03)
60
A.6
Beijing S-Fiber Technology: Infrared Fiber
61
IR Fibers
containing ultra violet.
62
A.7
Amorphous Materials: C1, C2

TABLE 1 PROPERTIES OF AMI CORE GLASSES AND FIBERS CORE GLASS As-Se-Te (Cl) 136 170 23.5 Value 2.82 2.81 +3 As S (C2)
2 3
Glass Transition Temperature C Softening Point C Thermal Expansion L/Lx106/C Refractive Index @ 4 m @ 10 m Thermal Change in Index xl05/ C
180 208 21.4 Value 2.41 2.38 0.9
Fiber Absorption From Transmission / Maximum Laser Power Transmitted. @ 5.25 m, db/m @ 9.27 m, db/m @ l0.6 m, db/m 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 4-5 5<10 w 5<10 w 5w 0.2-0.4 > 100 w -------
Bend To Break Radius (cm) / Tensile Strength (psi) @ 40 Mpa/s Strain Rate lOOO m Core 750 m Core 500 m Core <l00 m Core 4 1 0.8 0.1 62,000 68,000 70,000 133,000 4 3 1.7 0.1 44,000 45,000 56,000 122,000
( Measurements courtesy of Tom Loretz of CES)

file:///E|/projects/phasecap/TN3/Faserdatenblaetter/f9.htm (3 of 6)17.01.2005 17:46:20

IR Fibers
63
Numerical Aperture* 0.6-0.7 ( 40-50) O.5-O.6 ( 35-40) (Measured at the 90 % point using variable iris while detecting energy from a heated surface. Large value results because of Fresnel reflection I refraction at oblique angles of incidence by the high refractive index core glass.)
IR Fibers

Products > Optical Fibers > HOLLOW SILICA Waveguide (HSW), IR Applications
64
A.8
Polymicro: HWCA, HWEA
HOLLOW SILICA Waveguide (HSW) - IR Applications

Hollow Silica Waveguide: Usage Guide and Test Process Overview
HW
Characteristics
r r r r r r r
Wavelength Range 2.9 m past 10.6m High Laser Damage Threshold: > 1000W of 10.6m Strong and Flexible Non-Toxic: Sterilizable * Low Insertion Loss No End Reflection Transmission Optimized for CO2 or Er:YAG wavelengths
* The end manufacturer is responsible for bio-compatibility and sterilization testing and validation studies.

Polymicro Technologies > Products and Technologies > Optical Fibers > HOLLOW SILICA Waveguide, IR Applications
65
Terminations Available
Poly-Lok:
r r r
Removable, reusable connectors, ideal for prototyping SMA (905), SMA (906), STII, and FC (STII and FC not available for 1000m bore) Not for permanent installations
Permanent SMA (905), SMA (906), STII, and FC:

r
Waveguide protrudes 1 to 2 mm from connector endface
This product is licensed and manufactured under the following patents: US: 5,440,664; 5,567,471; 4,930,863; 5,497,440; and 5,605,716; Israel: 86296; 105956; and 111904; Europe: 0344478.
LEGAL NOTICES | PRIVACY POLICY Wed, 26 May 2004 15:35:28 GMT
Copyright Polymicro Technologies, LLC. 1995 - 2003. All Rights Reserved 18019 N. 25th Avenue. Phoenix, Arizona 85023-1200 USA 602-375-4100 Main 602-375-4110 Fax
66
A.9
Hitachi: hollow ber
ZnSe Lens f=1 Lamp Chopper controller Lock-in Amp Computer Plotter Monochromator
ZnSe Lens f=1.5 Detector (HgCdTe)
15
Transmission Loss (dB)
10
10
12
Wavelength (m)
Infrared spectral attenuation of the hollow fiber
67
A.10
CoreActive: IRT-SU, IRT-SE
Mid-Infrared Transmission Optical Fiber

CorActive delivers a full range of Infrared Transmission (IRT) optical fibers to address the beam delivery requirements for wavelengths in the mid-Infrared spectrum from 2.0 to 9.0 m. CorActives family of Infrared Transmission Fiber products have been designed specifically to provide ultra low loss optical transmission in the mid-Infrared spectrum. The high optical quality and low loss characteristics of CorActives IRT optical fibers will enable performance enhancements of many existing applications that have relied on free space optics, low quality fiber or other beam delivery methods. A proprietary optical fiber manufacturing method ensures that fiber impurities and optical defects are removed prior to fiber drawing. This ensures the lowest loss and highest quality optical transmission of mid-IR wavelengths in the 2.0 to 9.0 m range.
Ultra Low Loss High Nonlinearity Robust Mechanical Properties High Power Capacity Bend/Polarization Insensitive Rare Earth Doping Available
Designed for Military Applications by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
CorActive IRT Product Features and Benefits

IRT Product Features Superior Beam Quality Proprietary Manufacturing Process High Power Capacity Consistent Reproducibility Broad Product Family Customer Benefits World leading fiber quality enables new fiber based mid-IR applications Ensures highest optical quality by eliminating impurities and defects Enables high power beam delivery of mid-IR wavelengths Reduces manufacturing costs and increases production yield Ensures the most effective fiber choice for your application
IRT Fiber Applications CorActives IRT optical fiber has been designed for high performance and demanding applications such as:
- Infrared Counter Measure (IRCM) - Er:YAG Laser Beam Delivery (3.0 m) - IR Imaging Fiber Bundle (FLIR) - IR Spectroscopy
Leading Low Loss IR Fiber

Spectral Attenuation
8 Attenuation (dB/m) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 Wavelength (um) IRT-Se IRT-Su
Superior High Power Handling

Peak Power Density: 1.1 GW/cm2 (27kW)
2 1.5
Pout (W)
1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Pin (W)
APPENDIX A.
Mid-Infrared DATA SHEETS Transmission Optical Fiber

Fiber Specifications
IR Transmission Fiber
Core/Clad Structure Materials
68
IRT-SU Sulphide
IRT-SE Selenide
Optical Properties
Transmission Wavelength Range (m) Core Refractive Index Numerical Aperture (nominal) Nominal Attenuation (dB/m) 2-5 2.4 0.26 <0.2 2-9 2.7 0.30 <0.5
Physical & Geometric Properties

Core Diameter (m) Cladding Diameter (m) Cladding Non-circularity (%) Core/Clad Concentricity Error (m) Protective Coating Composition 4-700 3% 80-800 3% <2 <5 Dual Coat Acrylate
Environmental Properties
Chemical Insensitivity Insoluble in water, concentrated hydrochloric acid, non-oxidizing acids, gasoline, toluol, alcohol and acetone
Advanced Cable Manufacturing Process

In our continuing effort to bring our customers the best service possible, CorActive utilizes a proprietary cable manufacturing process, which ensures optimal Anti-Reflective coating application.
IRT Cable Sheathing
FC High Reliability Connector
Printed in Canada
Copyright 2004
CorActive High-Tech Inc.
All rights reserved

Sapphire Fiber Specifications
69
A.11
Photran LLC: Sapphire optical ber
The Sapphire Fiber Advantage

q
Biocompatiable, nontoxic, USP Class VI approved passes both implant and elution test protocols High transmission from visible to beyond 3 micron wavelength. Flexible - bend radius as low as 20mm for 150 micron fiber diameter. High Strength - 400,000 psi/2.8 GPa - use of PTFE buffer further improves durability and handling. High laser damage threshold (1200 J/em2) and high melting point (2053C) enable high repetition rates and average power.
Sapphire Optical Fiber Specifications

(Typical Specifications)
Fiber Core Diameter (microns) Buffer Diameter (microns) Effective NA Transmission (per meter) Minimum Bend Radius (mm) Length-Maximum Standard Length-Maximum Special Order 150 400 0.12 80% 20 2 meters 4 meters 250 450 0.12 80% 30 2 meters 4 meters 325 650 0.12 80% 60 2 meters 4 meters 425 750 0.12 80% 80 2 meters 4 meters
file:///E|/projects/phasecap/TN3/Faserdatenblaetter/f14.html (1 of 2)18.01.2005 15:38:50
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A.12
Infrared Fiber Sensors: Spectral grade Silverhalide bers
Core/Clad Fibers
Fiber diameter Transmission range Attenuation at 10.6 m Attenuation at 5 m Attenuation at 3.5 m Eective NA (L>2 m) Laser Damage Threshold for cw CO2-laser No ageing 900/1000 m (other diameters on request) 3 18 m 0.1 0.3 dB/m < 0.6 dB/m < 1 dB/m < 0.26 12 kW/cm2
Core Only Fibers

Fiber diameter Transmission range Attenuation at 10.6 m Attenuation at 5 m Attenuation at 3.5 m Eective NA (L>2m) No ageing 750 m 750 m and 1 mm 1 mm (other diameters on request) 2 18 m < 0.2 dB/m < 0.3 dB/m < 0.6 dB/m 0.42
Refractive index (core) Melting point Tensile strength Minimum Inelastic Bending Radius Minimum Elastic Bending Radius
2.2 420 C >110 MPa 10 Fiber Diameter 100 Fiber Diameter
71
A.13
Infrared Fiber Systems: HP ber
Applications: Dentistry Dermatology Ophthalmology General Surgery Orthopedics
Features: GeO2 based glass High Power Handling Excellent Flexibility and Strength Glass Clad No Bending Loss Low Optical Loss Non-Toxic
A key component to the Er:YAG, YSGG or Ho:YAG mid-infrared laser system is the optical fiber, which is used to transmit the laser power from the laser to the patient. Since conventional silica glass fibers cannot transmit in the infrared, a special fiber (HPTM fiber) made from Germanium Oxide (GeO2) based glass was developed by IFS, Inc. Fiber can handle up to 20 Watts of laser power for applications in dermatology, dentistry, ophthalmology, orthopedics and general surgery and is being sold worldwide to numerous laser companies. There are no other reliable fibers on the market for these types of applications and with todays production volumes, IFS is a leading supplier of specialty HPTM fiber for mid-infrared medical lasers.
me ] [ Up ] [ HP Fiber Specs ]
72
Typical Specifications
Input Power @10 Hz 20.0 W (at least)
Loss at 2.94
0.70 dB/m
Loss in visible region
1.00 dB/m (or less)
Output NA
0.12 (@ input NA=0.08)
Max acceptance NA
0.25
Available Core sizes
100 700
Toxicity
Passes Agar Overlay cytotoxicity and Dermal Sensitization tests
Core Size Minimum Bend Radius

150
m m m
0.5 cm
400
2.5 cm
500
4.0 cm
[ Home ] [ Up ]
Infrared Fiber Systems, Inc. * Phone: (301)-622-9546 * Fax: (301)-622-7135 * info@infraredfibersystems.com
73
A.14
Infrared Fiber Systems: SG ber
Features: Low Optical Loss Multispectral Transmission Good Flexibility and Strength Glass Clad No Bending Loss Perfect Matrix for Rare-Earth Doping Applications: IR Imaging Fiber Lasers Fiber Ampliers Temperature Sensing Remote Spectroscopy IFS oers Heavy Metal Fluoride glass bers (SGTM ber) for use in a variety of industrial and scientic sensor systems such as temperature sensing and remote chemical analysis. These bers transmit from the ultraviolet through 5 m in the mid-infrared. They can be furnished as single bers, cables or bundles. Infrared imaging bundles have been supplied to the Navy and to NASA as well as to the private companies. We have also developed ber optic probes for use with our AOTF spectrometer for remote and in-situ sensing applications.
74
Typical Specifications Optimal Transmission Range
0.45 m to 5.0 m
Minimum Loss at 2.5 m Max Operating Temperature
0.05 dB/m
250 oC
Output NA
0.22 100 700 m
Available Core sizes
Core Size Minimum Bend Radius 100 mm 0.5 cm 1.0 cm 4.0 cm
200 m 400 m
[ Home ] [ Up ]
Infrared Fiber Systems, Inc. * Phone: (301)-622-9546 * Fax: (301)-622-7135 * info@infraredfibersystems.com

English
Fluoride Fiber SMFF
75
Japanese
A.15
FiberLabs Inc.: SMFF
Fluoride Glass Fiber - SMFF(Single Mode Fluoride Fiber) & Fiber-Module => SMFF(Single Mode Fluoride Fiber)
Rare earth doped SMFF enable to get high efficiency emissions easily, and are used for fiber lasers, optical amplifiers, and so on. Fiber module with pig-tail of silica fibers are also available.
Loss Spectra & Wavelength of Emission
SMFF Typical Fiber Parameters Concentration ppm mol Core Diameter um 2 ~ 12 Cladding Diameter um 123+/-3 Custom Fiber Price (US$) $8,000~ $20,000 /lot Fluoride Fiber in Stock
Dopant
NA 0.15 0.20 0.27
Pr,Nd,Ho,Er, Tm,Yb, etc.
500 ~ 30,000
=> Fluoride Fiber Module

Fiber module with pig-tail of silica fibers can be easily connected to other silica fibers. The hermetic sealed module can be used under the condition of high temperature and high humidity. Operating Temperature -10 ~ 45 C
Insertion Loss Less than 1.5dB
Return Loss Less than -50dB
Output Fiber SMF
Size(mm) 15(H)X150(W)X100(D)
Request Sheet (Information, Quotation, Order, etc.)

HOME / Products / About FiberLabs / R&D / Information / Site-Map Copyright(C) FiberLabs Inc. All Rights Reserved.
file:///E|/projects/phasecap/TN3/Faserdatenblaetter/f20.htm18.01.2005 16:54:21
76
A.16
FiberLas Inc.: MMFF
Fluoride Fiber MMFF
English Japanese
Fluoride Glass Fiber - MMFF(Multi Mode Fluoride Fiber) => MMFF(Multi Mode Fluoride Fiber)
MMFF have a broad transmission wavelength range from visible to infrared rays. There are two types of MMFF, depending on the applications. GFF series, which have longer transmission wavelength up to 4.0um, are suitable for IR spectrum guides. TFF with higher NA are appropriate for NIR spectrum transmission. In addition to the form of resin jacket fibers, single core and bundled cables are also available.
Loss spectra
GFF-xxx
*500nm to 4.0 um transmission range *20mm bend radius for GFF-150 (proof test) *Custom-made fibers available
TFF-190
*700nm to 2.5um transmission range *20mm bend radius(proof test) *Customized fiber bundles available
DCFF Typical Fiber Parameters
Part #
Core Diameter Cladding Diameter (um) (um)
Buffer (um)
NA
Jacket
Price (US$)
GFF-160/200-450 GFF-240/300-450 GFF-320/400-550 GFF-400/500-650 TFF-190/200-450
160 240 320 400 190
200 300 400 500 200
450 +/-10% 450 +/-10% 0.28 550 +/-10% 650 +/-10% 450 +/-10% 0.65 UV Curable Resin Jacket
$60.00/m $125.00/m $200.00/m $300.00/m $60.00/m Fluoride Fiber in Stock
Bibliography
[1] M. Pfennigbauer, F. Fidler, W. Leeb, and U. Johann, TN1: Survey of instrument opportunities, Contract ESA/ESTEC/18514/04/NL/PA, Technical Note 1, 30.11.2004. [2] M. Pfennigbauer, F. Fidler, W. Leeb, and M. Dirnwoeber, TN3: Market survey, Contract ESA/ESTEC/18514/04/NL/PA, Technical Note 3, 2004. [3] J. A. Harrington, Infrared ber optics, Handbook of Optics, Vol.3, ed. M. Bass, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. [4] J. A. Harrington, Hollow-glass waveguides have unique properties, Laser Focus World, pp. S8S10, August 2004. [5] Crystal Fibre A/S. (2005, March). [Online]. Available: http://www.crystal-bre.com/ products/airguide.shtm [6] Crystal Fibre A/S. (2005, March). [Online]. Available: http://www.crystal-bre.com/ products/nonlinear.shtm [7] J. Eichenholz, Photonic-crastal bers have many uses, Laser Focus World, pp. S5S7, August 2004. [8] O. Wallner, W. R. Leeb, and R. Flatscher, Design of spatial and modal lters for nulling interferometers, Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4838, 668-679, 2003. [9] D. Marcuse, Curvature loss formula for optical bers, Journal of Optical Society of America, Vol. 66, pp. 216-220, 1976. [10] A. J. Harris and P. F. Castle, Bend loss measurements on high numerical aperture singlemode bers as a function of wavelength and bend radius, J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 3440, 1986. [11] W. D. Heacox and P. Connes, Optical bers in astronomical instruments, The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, Vol.3, pp. 169-199, Springer-Verlag, 1992. [12] M. Nisoli, S. Stagira, S. D. Silvestri, O. Svelto, S. Sartania, Z. Cheng, G. Tempea, C. Spielmann, and F. Krausz, Toward a Terawatt-Scale Sub-10-fs Laser Technology, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 414-420, 1998. [13] O. Wallner, Modal ltering of optical waves, Doctoral Thesis, Institute of Communications and Radio-Frequency-Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, 2004. [14] O. Guyon. (2002) Wide eld interferometric imaging with single-mode bers. [Online]. Available: http://www.edpsciences.org/articles/aa/abs/2002/19/aa2299/aa2299.html 77
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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[15] Optoelectronics Industry Sourcebook 2004 Buyers Guide. Nashua, New Hampshire USA: LaserFocusWorld, 2004. [16] D. Marcuse, Principles of Optical Fiber Measurements, 1st ed. USA: Academic Press, Inc., 1981. New York, New York
[17] ITU-T G.650.1: Denitions and test methods for linear, deterministic attributes of singlemode bre and cable, Prepublished Recommendation, International Telecommunication Union, 2004. [18] I. K. Ilev, R. W. Waynant, and M. A. Bonaguidi, Attenuation measurement of infrared optical bers by use of a hollow-taper-based coupling method, Applied Optics, vol. 39, no. 19, pp. 31923196, July 2000. [19] M. J. Matthewson, C. R. Kurkjian, and S. T. Gulati, Strength measurement of optical bers by bending, Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 69, no. 11, pp. 815821, November 1986. [20] G. Cancellieri, Single-Mode Optical Fiber Measurement: Characterization and Sensing, 1st ed. Norwood, Massachusetts USA: Artech House, Inc., 1993. [21] D. L. Franzen, Determining the eective cuto wavelength of single-mode bers: An interlaboratory comparison, Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. LT-3, no. 1, pp. 128 134, February 1985. [22] Y. Ohishi, S. Mitachi, and S. Takahashi, Fabrication of uoride glass single-mode bers, Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. LT-2, no. 5, pp. 593596, October 1984. [23] M. Artiglia, G. Coppa, P. di Vita, M. Potenza, and A. Sharma, Mode eld diameter measurements in single-mode optical bers, Applied Optics, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 11391152, August 1989. [24] D. L. Franzen, M. Young, A. H. Cherin, E. D. Head, M. J. Hackert, K. W. Raine, and J. G. N. Baines, Numerical aperture of multimode bers by several methods: Resolving dierences, Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 896901, June 1989. [25] P. A. Merritt, R. P. Tatam, and D. A. Jackson, Interferometric chromatic dispersion measurements on short lengths of monomode optical ber, Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 7, pp. 703716, 1989. [26] P.-L. Francois, M. Monerie, C. Vassallo, Y. Durteste, and F. R. Alard, Three ways to implement interferencial techniques: Application to measurements of chromatic dispersion, birefringence, and nonlinear susceptibilities, Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 500513, March 1989. [27] G. P. Agrawal, Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, 3rd ed. New York USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. [28] Y. Noh, D. Kim, S. Oh, and U. Pack, Lasers and electro-optics, 1999. cleo/pacic rim 99. the pacic rim conference on, vol. 3, 1999, pp. 599600.
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[29] S. Chang, C.-C. Hsu, T.-H. Huang, W.-C. Chuang, Y.-S. Tsai, J.-Y. Shieh1, and C.-Y. Leung, Heterodyne interferometric measurement of the thermo-optic coecient of single mode ber, Chinese Journal of Physics, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 437442, June 2000. [30] D. Gettemy, W. Harker, G. Lindholm, and N. Barnes, Some optical properties of KTP, LiIO3 , and LiNbO3 , Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 22312237, November 1988. [31] G. Fasching, Werkstoe fuer die Elektrotechnik, 3rd ed. Vienna Austria: Springer-Verlag Wien New York, 1994.

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Characterization of Optical Fibers

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DIPLOMARBEIT

Characterization of Optical Fibers in the Mid-Infrared

Stzenweg 2 a 2211 Pillichsdorf Matrikelnummer 9325512

Wien, im Mai 2005

Dr. Martin Pfennigbauer Prof. Dr. Walter R. Leeb

Infrared bers advantages and applications

Photonic Crystal Fiber

Crystalline Single Crystal Poly crystalline

Heavy Metal Fluoride

Chalcogenide Sapphire Silver Halide

Figure 1.1: Classication of infrared bers.

Silver iodide lm Silver lm Glass substrate Polymer coating

Figure 1.3: Structure of a Hollow Glass Waveguide (from [4]).

(ATR . . . attenuated total reectance)

Photonic Crystal Fibers

Identication of ber parameters

with a normalized frequency V = 2.405. 6

CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS

CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS

CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS

Figure 2.1: Bending loss coecient B as a function of bending radius R.

CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS

CHAPTER 2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBER PARAMETERS

solid-core ber 85 105 115 135 2680f 26 26 26 26 24

delivery time [weeks] 3

CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY

polycrystalline silver halide

190 230 270 506h 387g

photonic crystal ber telecom ber

1 3a 1 3a 1 3a 1 3a 4 16 4 16 3 18 2 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 0.3 3 3 12 2.9 12 1.45 1.65

Hitachi ber HWEA/HWCA HC-1550-02 SMF-28e SM 09/125 AllWaveFiber

CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY

Amorphous Materials Inc.

URL e-mail www.amorphousmaterials.com

3130 Benton Garland, Texas 75042 Germany USA

CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY

CeramOptec Industries Inc.

Schwarzschildstr. 6 D-12489 Berlin 515A Shaker Rd. East Longmeadow, MA 01028

RayHiltonjr@amorphousmaterials.com www.artphotonics.de info@artphotonics.de www.ceramoptec.com SalesEngineering@CeramOptec.com cheryl.smith@ceramoptec.com

CeramOptec GmbH Canada

CorActive High-Tech Inc.

www.coractive.com sales@coractive.com info@coractive.com david.beiko@coractive.com www.corning.com/opticalber

Crystal Fibre A/S

One Riverfront Plaza Corning, NY 14831 Blokken 84, DK-3460 Birkerd

2-1-15 Ohara, Kamifukuoka, Saitama, 356-8502 Japan Japan Germany USA

Hitachi Cable, Ltd.

www.crystal-bre.com contact@crystal-bre.com rek@crystal-bre.com www.berlabs.co.jp info@berlabs.co.jp inoue@berlabs.co.jp www.hitachi-cable.co.jp

Infrared Fiber Sensors

Infrared Fiber Systems Inc. Canada

phone: fax: phone: fax: phone:

www.ifs-aachen.de/42.0.html kuepper.ifs@t-online.de www.infraredbersystems.com info@infraredbersystems.com

www.irphotonics.com info@irphotonics.com egeorion@irphotonics.com

company Germany France

CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY

Polymicro Technologies, LLC. Germany USA Germany Austria Germany UK

18019 N. 25th Avenue. Phoenix, Arizona 85023-1200 USA

JT Ingram Sales & Marketing Co. Laser Components GmbH

Bornheimer Str. 4 09648 Mittweida 316 Harlequin Ct, Oviedo, Fl 32765

Oxford Electronics Ltd

CHAPTER 3. MARKET SURVEY

company Japan China

Beijing S-Fiber Technology

OmniGuide tions Inc.

URL e-mail www.autex-inc.co.jp [sales32@autex-inc.co.jp] www.s-ber.com.cn [s ber@sohu.com] [sunhuimail@vip.sina.com] www.omni-guide.com information@omni-guide.com