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Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Thinking Cognition refers to all mental activities associated w/thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people. We organize concepts into category hierarchies. (i.e. cab drivers organizing cities into geographical sectors, then subdivide them into neighborhoods, then into blocks) We form some ideas by definition. We form ideas by developing prototypes=a mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate w/a category. The more closely something matches our prototype of a idea, the more readily we recognize it as an example of the idea. (i.e. a bird is a robin & penguin) Move away from our prototypes, and category boundaries may blur (i.e. is a 17 yr old female a girl or woman?) Concepts/ideas speed and guide our thinking, but don't always make us wise.

Solving Problems Some problems we solve by trial & error. (i.e. Thomas Edison) For other problems, we use algorithms=step by step procedures that guarantee a solution. They can be laborious and exasperating. (i.e. searching every supermarket aisle for guava juice=will guarantee results) Another simpler way to solve problems is by using heuristics=a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone that algorithms. (i.e. check the bottled beverage section for the juice=speedier but results not guaranteed)

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Sometimes, we have a sudden flash of insight=a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts w/strategy-based solutions. OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING CONFIRMATION BIAS=a tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. We seek evidence verifying our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them. This is a major obstacle to problem solving! (i.e. Iraq war for WMD created a judgement flaw) A major obstacle to problem solving is fixation=inability to see a problem from a new/fresh perspective, by employing a different mental set. Once we incorrectly represent a problem, its hard to restructure how we approach it. If the solution to the matchstick problem eludes you, you may be experiencing fixation An example of fixation is mental set=a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful or worked for us in the past. MAKING DECISIONS AND FORMING JUDGMENTS When making each days 100s of judgments and decisions, we seldom take the time and effort to reason systematically. We just follow our intuition. When acting quickly, mental shortcuts called heuristics often do help us overcome analysis paralysis. Intuitive judgments are instantaneous. Representativeness Heuristic To judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent particular prototypes is to use the representativeness heuristic=judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant info. (the trucker poem reader vs scholar whos slim/short). the representativeness heuristic influences many of our daily decisions. To

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judge the likelihood of something, we intuitively compare it with our mental representation of that category. If the two match, the fact usually overrides other considerations of statistics or logic. Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic=operates when we base our judgments on the mental availability of information. Anything that enables info to pop into mind quickly and w/little effort--its recency, vividness, or distinctiveness-can increase its perceived availability, making it seem commonplace.

Overconfidence Our use of intuitive heuristics when forming judgments, our eagerness to confirm the beliefs we already hold, and our knack for explaining away failures combine to create overconfidence=a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments. People overestimate what their performance was, is, or will be. People who err on the side of overconfidence live more happily, find it easier to make tough decisions, and seem more credible than those who lack self-confidence.

The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perspective=clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. It often fuels social conflict, as it did in one study of people w/opposing view of capital punishment. Once people have explained to themselves why they believe a child is gifted or learning impaired tend to ignore evidence undermining that belief. Prejudice persists. Once beliefs form and get justified, it takes more compelling evidence to change them than it did to create them.

Intuition Intuition=is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted w/explicit, conscious reasoning. Intuition also feeds our gut fears and prejudices. Our cognitions instant, intuitive reactions enable us to react quickly and usually adaptively. Thanks to our fast and frugal heuristics that enable us intuitively assume fuzzy objects are far away. Our learned

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associations also spawn the intuitions of our 2-track mind (if a stranger looks familiar whod harmed you; you react warily. the learned association surfaces as a gut feeling)

Intuition cont. The wisest of all were those whose attention was distracted for a time. This enabled their minds to process the complex info unconsciously and to arrive at a more satisfying result. (sleep on it) Intuition is recognition. Its analysis frozen into habit. Intuition, fast, automatic, unreasoned feeling and thought, harvests our own experiences and guides our lives. Fear We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear. (human emotions) 2. We fear what we cannot control. (driving yes; flying no) 3. We fear what is immediate. (death by flying vs death by smoking) 4. We fear what is most readily available in memory. (images of 9/11 but not of those children dying from hunger)
1.

Check your fears against the facts and resist those who serve their own purposes by cultivating a culture of fear. By doing so, we can take away the terrorists most omnipresent weapon; fear. The Effects of Framing Framing=the way we present an issue, how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Politicians know how to frame their positions on public assistance (welfare vs aid to the needy) (merchants mark up prices, then lower to appear like a great sale).

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Those who understand the power of framing can us it to influence our decisions.

LANGUAGE pg 302 Framing shows the striking effect and power of language=our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them as we think and communicate. Childrens language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start w/o language. By 4 mo. babies can discriminate speech sounds and read lips. This marks the period of development of babies receptive language; their ability to comprehend speech. Productive language; their ability to produce words, matures after their receptive language. Before 4 mo. babies enter the babbling stage=they spontaneously utter a variety of sounds; unrelated to household language (such as ah-goo). By the time they are 10 mo old, their babbling has changes so that a trained ear can identify the language of the household. Around the 1st birthday and before 2, most children enter the one-word stage=the child speaks mostly in single words. By their second birthday, most have entered the two-word stage=uttering 2 word sentences in telegraphic speech=early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs. After age 2, rapid development of speech, complex sentences. Explaining Language Development Skinner: Operant Learning-- language development w/familiar learning principles, such as associations (sights of things w/the sounds of words);

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imitation (of words and syntax modeled by others); and reinforcement (w/smiles & hugs when the child says something right). He argued that babies learn to talk in many of the same ways that animals learn to peck keys and press bars. (vocal musculature became susceptible to operant conditioning) His emphasis on learning helps explain how infants acquire their language as they interact w/others. Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar--Linguist Chomsky argued that children acquire untaught words and grammar at a rate too extraordinary to be explained solely by learning principles. His emphasis on our built-in readiness to learn grammar rules helps explain why preschoolers acquire language so readily and use grammar so well. Critical Periods Childhood seems to represent a critical (or sensitive) period for mastering certain aspects of language. Around age 7, a window in the mind closes, and children who have not been exposed to either a spoken or a signed language gradually lose their ability to master any language. When a young brain doesn't learn any language, its language-learning capacity never fully develops. After the window for leaning language closes, learning a second language seems more difficult. The older the age at which one emigrates into a new country, the harder it is to learn its language. Language Influences Thinking Linguist Ben Lee Whorf theory that language determines the way we think is the linguistic determination=hypothesis that language determines the way we think. Different languages impose different conceptions of reality: Language itself shapes a mans basic ideas. Many bilinguists have reported using different senses of self, depending on which language they are using. A similar personality change occurs as people shift between the cultural frames associated w/English and Spanish. Our words may not determine what we think, but they do influence our thinking. We use our language in forming categories. Words also influence our thinking about colors.

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It pays to increase your word power, by introducing new words teaches new ideas and new ways of thinking. Bilingual advantage (word power) in bilingual children, learn to inhibit one language while using the other, are also better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information. Language links us to9 one another and connects us to the past and the future. Thinking in Images pg 308-309 Non-declarative (procedural) memory=a mental picture of how you do it. We often think in images. Artists (composers, poets, mathematicians, athletes & scientists) think in images. Mental rehearsal can also help you achieve an academic goal. Its better to spend your fantasy time planning how to get somewhere than to dwell on the imagines destination. Much of our information processing occurs outside of consciousness and beyond language. Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thoughts. Animal Thinking & Language pg 309-313 Animals are smarter than we think. Evidence of animal cognition (said Kohler) showed that there is more to learning than conditioning. Apes have exhibited foresight. Some animals display a surprising numerical ability (the parrot). Animals communicate. Intelligence Intelligence is a socially constructed concept: Cultures deem intelligent whatever attributes enable success in those cultures. Intelligence=the mental ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. Charles Spearman believed we have one general intelligence (g). He believed people often have special abilities that stand out. He helped develop factor analysis=a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performances that underlie a persons total score.

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He noted that those who score high in one area, such a verbal intelligence, typically score higher than average in other areas, such as spacial or reasoning ability. A common skill set (the g factor) underlies all of our intelligent behavior,, from navigating the sea to excelling in school. Several distinct abilities tend to cluster together and to correlate enough to define a small general intelligence factor. Gardners Eight Intelligences He views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in packages. He finds evidence for this in studies of people w/diminished (brain damage) or exceptional abilities (savants). Savant syndrome=a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as musical, computation, or drawing. These folks often score low on intelligence tests but have an island of brilliance. About 4 in 5 people w/savant syndrome are males, and many also have autism, a developmental disorder. Gardner argues that we don't have an intelligence but rather multiple intelligences. He identifies a total of eight. Linguistic Logical-mathematical Musical Spacial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal (self) Interpersonal (other people) Naturalist A general intelligence score is therefore like the overall rating of a city-which tell you something but doesn't give you much specific information about its schools, streets, or nightlife. General intelligence scores predict performance on various complex tasks, in various jobs, and in varied countries, g matters (common skill set). The recipe for success combines talent with grit: Those who become highly successful are also consciences, well-connected, and doggedly energetic.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Anders Erickson reports a 10 year rule: A common ingredient of expert performance in chess, dancing, sports, computer programming, music, and medicine is about 10 years of intense, daily practice.

Sternbergs Three Intelligences pg 316 Robert Sternberg agrees that there is more to success than traditional intelligence and multiple intelligences.He proposes a triarchic theory of 3 not 8, intelligences. 1. Analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence-assested by intelligence tests; these tests predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly. 2. Creative intelligence-reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas. 3. Practical intelligence-required for everyday tasks-ill-defined w/multiple solutions. Sternberg & Gardner agree that multiple abilities can contribute to life success and that the differing varieties of giftedness add spice to life and challenges for education. Intelligence & Creativity Pierre de Fermat ( a 17th century mischievous genius)--his most famous challenge=Fermats last theorem-baffled the greatest mathematical minds. Andrew Wiles solved the theorem w/creativity=the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Studies suggest that a certain level of aptitudea score of about 120 on a standard intelligence test-is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. Intelligence tests, which demand a single correct

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answer, require convergent thinking. Injury to the left parietal lobe damages this ability. Sternberg and his colleagues have identified 5 components of creativity: Expertise--a well-developed base of knowledge, furnishes the ideas, images, and phrases we use as mental building blocks. Imaginative thinking skills--provide the ability to see things in novel ways. to recognize patterns, and to make connections. A venturesome personality--seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles. Intrinsic motivation--being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures A creative environment--sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas. Emotional Intelligence pg 318 Many creative people network effectively w/peers because they are adept at processing and managing social information, a skill some rationally smart people lack. Such skills are an aspect of social intelligence. Emotional intelligence=the abilities to perceive emotions (recognize them in faces, music, and stories); understand emotions (to predict them and how they change and blend); manage emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations); and use emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking. People who score high are some better at their job performance because they can override immediate impulses and delay gratification in pursuit of long-range rewards. They are emotionally in tune w/others, thus succeeding in careers, marriages, and parenting situations where academically smarter (but emotionally less intelligent) people fail. Assessing Intelligence Alfred Binet was commissioned in 1904 by Frances minister of public education to study the problem of bias among teachers. Their goal became measuring each childs mental age=a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated w/a certain chronological age. To measure mental age, Binet & Simon tested a variety of reasoning and problem-solving questions on

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Binets two daughters and then on bright and backward Parisian schoolchildren. Lewis-Terman: The Innate IQ He established new age norms for CA schoolchildren. He also extended the upper end of the tests range from teenagers to superior adults.He gave his revision the name it retains today--The Stanford-Binet=wildly used American revision on Binets original intelligence test. German William Stern derived the famous intelligence quotient, or IQ=defined as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus IQ=ma/ca x 100). The average score for a given age is assigned a score of 100. The original IQ formula worked fairly well for children but not for adults. Most current intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, no longer compute an IQ. Instead they represent the test-takers performance to the average performance of others the same age. David Wechsler: Verbal and Performance Subtests Psychologist Wechsler created what is now the most widely used intelligence test, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) w/ a version for school-age children (WISC). The WAIS=the most widely used intelligence test contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. It yields separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. striking differences among these scores can provide clues to cognitive strengths or weaknesses that teachers or therapists can build upon. Principles of Test Construction pg 320-323 To be widely accepted, psychological tests must meet 3 criteria: They must be standardized, reliable, and valid. The Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests meet these requirements. Standardization: the process of defining meaningful scores relative/compared to a pretested group. Peoples scores tend to form this bell-shaped curve. On an intelligence test, we call the midpoint, the average score, 100.

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Reliability: yielding consistent scores, to check scores-people are retested. If the two scores generally agree, or correlate, the test is reliable. The higher the correlation between the test-retest or the split-half scores, the higher the tests reliability. Validity: the extent to which the test actually measures or predicts what it promises. (see content validity and predictive validity) Content validity=meaning the test taps the pertinent behavior or criterion (i.e. road test for a drivers license). Because it samples the tasks a driver routinely faces. Predictive validity=the success with which a test predicts their behavior it is designed to predict; its assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. Intellectual disability(formally known as mental retardation) a child must have both a low test score and difficulty adapting to the normal demands of independent living. Males outnumber females by 50%. Down Syndrome=is a disorder of varying severity caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 in the persons genetic makeup. The Flynn effect=overall intelligence test performance had been rising during the 20th century; therefore tests have been periodically restandardized. Genetic & Environment Influences on Intelligence Intelligence runs in families. Identical twins are virtually similar in test scores & gray matter volume. Chromosomal regions important for intelligence that seemingly influence variations in intelligence and learning disabilities. Many genes are involved or polygenetic. Environmental influences--even if we were all raised in the same intellectually stimulating environment, we would have differing aptitudes because of our genetic differences. Mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane w/age, until the correlation approaches zero by adulthood. Genetic influences- not environmental ones- become more apparent as we accumulate life experiences. Biology and experience intertwine in their influence on intellectual development. Studies show that adoption enhances the intelligence scores of mistreated or neglected children. Among the poor, environmental conditions can override genetic differences, depressing cognitive development. Unlike children of affluence, siblings w/in impoverished families have more similar intelligence scores. Having less qualified teachers predicted lower achievement scores. Malnutrition also plays a role.

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relieve infant malnutrition w/nutritional supplements, and povertys effect on physical and thinking development lessens. Schooling and Intelligence Schooling also pays dividends, boosting childrens chances for success by developing their cognitive and social skills. Schooling and intelligence interact, and both enhance later income. Project Head Start (1965); a US government funded preschool program serves poverty level families. Superior achievements in fields from sports to science to music arise from disciplined effort and sustained practice. Heritability We credit heredity w/50% of the variation in intelligence among people being studied. Heritability never pertains to an individual, only to why people differ from one another. Heritability=the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. differences among people due to genes can vary from study to study; environmental differences are more predictive of intelligence scores. Genes & environments work together. Gender Similarities & Differences pg 328-330 In science as in everyday life, differences, not similarities , excite interest. Spelling: females are better Verbal Ability: females excel at verbal fluency and remembering words Nonverbal memory: females have an edge in remembering and locating objects Sensation: females are more sensitive to touch, taste, and odor. Emotion-detecting ability: females are better emotion detectors Math & Spacial aptitudes: on math tests, males & females obtained nearly identical average scores. Males scores higher in math problem solving. The average male edge seems most reliable in spatial ability tests like the one which involves speedily rotating 3-demential objects b in ones mind.

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Exposure to high levels of male sex hormones during the prenatal period does enhance spatial abilities. Spatial abilities skills help when doing certain types of geometry problems, fitting suitcases into a car trunk, and playing chess. Greater male variability--a particular tendency for males mental ability scores to vary more than females. Boys are therefore, more often found in special education classes. They talk later. They stutter more. Ethnic Similarities & Differences pg 331 Bell curve for whites=100 bell curve for blacks=85 Israeli Jews outscore Israeli Arabs Heredity contributes to individual differences in intelligence. Genetics research reveals that under the skin, the races are remarkably alike. Individual differences w/in a race are much greater then differences between races. Race isn't a neatly defined biological category. Cultures rise and fall over centuries; genes do not. That fact makes it difficult to attribute a natural superiority to any race.

The Question of Bias Two meanings of bias-a test may be considered biased if it detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also performance differences caused by cultural experiences. Lacking the experience to answer questions about their new culture, many were classified as feeble-minded. In this popular sense, intelligence tests are biased. The scientific meaning of bias is different. It hinges on a tests validity-on whether it predicts future behavior only for some groups of test-takers. For example, if the US SAT accurately predicted the college achievement of women but not of men, then the test would be biased. Test-Takers Expectations

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Expectations and attitudes can influence our perceptions and behaviors. We find this effect in intelligence testing. Equally capable men and women took a difficult math test, women didn't perform as well as men--except when they had been led to expect that women usually do as well as men on the test; otherwise women felt apprehension. Stereotype threat=a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Minority students in university programs that challenge them to believe in their potential have likewise produced markedly higher grades and had lower dropout rates.

TERMINOLOGY