ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

1 Big Bang theory of the start of the Universe Primordial atom, which exploded ~ 12 billion years ago

2 Start of the formation of the earth ~ 4.7 billion years Accretion of dust and gases, possibly by impact from another body. Heating up of the Earth to ~ 1000 deg C caused by three processes 1. Friction:-Bombarding by bodies and interparticle friction 2. Gravitational compaction 3. Radioactive Decay:- Disintegration of radioactive elements, K, U, Th

3 The melting of the core Silicates were the first to melt, and these were in the mantle. Next was iron. Thus was the start of the process of formation of concentric shells round a core

4 The melting of Iron Perhaps 10s million years of radioactive decay, leads to increase of temperature of ~ 2000 deg C

Melting of iron when the melting point was reached, led to the differentiation of iron, and its settlement to the centre of the Earth by gravity. Thus the lighter fraction came to the surface Alloys of Iron & Nickel formed the inner core, due to their high melting point

5 The formation of crust There may have been a liquid magma ocean, which cooled to form a crust at about 4.5 billion years, which is the age of the oldest known rocks. At the stage of solidification, surface processes could now start, such as chemical and physical breakdown in the process of weathering. The first continental rocks ie of granitic composition appear at ~ 4 billion years

6 Convection Convection within the core ( ie below the crust led to the efficient method of cooling, Convection. At this stage, parts of the core cool. This is the mantle, and the outer iron core. The inner Iron/Nickel core solidified

7 Gases to the surface Water, formed from the release of oxides and hydroxides of K Al Si compunds in the interior, to the surface as vapour Todays lavas contain H2O vapour, H, HCl, CO, CO2, N. Some water vapour may have been reduced to O & H Hydrogen combined to form NH3, NH4, with free H escaping out of the atmosphere as it still does Oxygen combined to form oxides ( O only freed to atmosphere very much later with the introduction of algae )

EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

1. Meteorites Composition is of two kinds:Stony, ie from the outer core and composed of silicate Iron, ie from the inner core, composed of iron & nickel Study of meteorites of different geological agea, and from all over the Earth, reveals a consistent age of 4.5 billion years. We assume that meteorites formed as the debris from other bodies in the solar system, and that this is the age of the formation of the Earth, or at least the time of the differentiation of the materials into silicates, iron etc

2. Materials from within Igneous rocks Molten rocks emanate from within in some parts of the Earth. Some lavas which are thought to come from deep within, contain olivine, of which much of the mantle is thought to be composed Eclogite This is a very high temperature and pressure rock, composed of pyroxenes, known to have been formed deep within the crust, and thought to be of similar composition to the mantle rocks

3. Geophysics Whilst we can actually see, feel and test meteorites and materials from within, geophysics uses the physical properties of Earth materials to infer the structure and composition of the Earth. The most important tools used in the Geophysical investigation of the structure of the earth are Gravity, Magnetic, and Seismic. It is important in any interpretation of geophysics, that cross plotting of results is carried out, as two different materials may have the same geophysical signature

Gravity Earths gravity varies over the surface, due to variation in the shape ie radius, altitude, and rock type ( density ) in the near surface ( due to the inverse square rule )

Magnetic The idea of a bar magnet is too simplistic, and we infer that electrical currents are a better explanation of the earths field. The analogy is the self exciting dynamo. This accounts for the magnitude,

changes, and reversals in the field

Seismic Seismic events are initiated in the near surface, and subject the Earth to bursts of energy which travel through the it Natural, by to fracture of rock, or by nuclear tests Analysis of the different types of wave, if, and how they travel, give important clues as to Earths interior ( See Later, Earthquakes & Seismicity )

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

STATISTICS It is not important that you learn these statistics, only that you have a feel for the magnitudes, and their relativity
RELIEF Height Ave Max Depth Max Ave 11,035m 3,808m Marianas trench 8848m 840m Mt Everest

SIZE AND SHAPE Equatorial semi axis (radius) Polar semi axis ( radius) Mean radius 6378 km 6357 km 6371 km

The Earth is elliptical and pear shaped AREA Lands Oceans and Seas Ice sheets and glaciers TOTAL MISCELLANEOUS Radius km 3.8 1.6 35 8 2881 3473 Volume km x 106 1370 25 6210 2660 898,000 175,500 SG 1.03 0.9 2.8 2.9 4.53 10.72 Mass kg x 1024 0.005 1.41 0.023 17.39 7.71 4068 1881 106 km2 149 361 15.6 % of total 29.2 70.8

510

Atmosphere Oceans/Seas Ice shelf/Glaciers Continental Crust Oceanic Crust Mantle Core

WHOLE

6371

1,083,230

5.517

5976

COMPOSITION

Radius Km

SG

Temp 103 oC

P wave V Km/s

Composition

Crust Oceanic Continental

10

2.9

Solid, basic ( silica poor ) SIMA ( Predom Si- & Mg- ) Solid, acidic, ( silica rich ) SIAL ( Predom Si- & Al- )

35

2.7

The crust is separated from the mantle below, by the Mohorovic Discontinuity The crust exhibits isostasy on the mantle

Mantle

2881

4.5

<4

7-13

Solid Olivine, & high temp silicates

The upper mantle is composed of a thinner and brittle layer, called the Lithosphere The lower mantle is composed a thicker and plastic layer, called the Lithosphere

Outer core
3473

4-5 10. 7 5-6

8-10 11

Liquid Fe Solid Fe/Ni alloys

Inner core

EARTHQUAKES & SEISMICITY

ORIGIN OF SEISMICITY
Seismic events are vibrations initiated in the near surface, from a focus, and subject the Earth to bursts of energy which travel through the it. As we shall see most earthquakes are caused by movement along faults ( San Andreas Fault in California, San Francisco Earthquake of 1905 ). The point on the Earths surface above the focus ( or hypocentre ) is called the epicentre

Along a fault, which is a planar surface, a displacement occurs, which exerts stress along the fault, where additional slippage occurs, to release strain. The earthquake is the elastic rebound or springing back of the rock

Small earthquakes ( tremors ), called foreshocks, precede the main event, and aftershocks often follow

Most major earthquakes are caused in areas of active tectonism, and a minor amount in generally stable areas, possible as a result of deep seated plutonic movement. Minor tremors can occur anywhere in the world There is no fixed definition of an active fault. Even faults which have not moved for 3m years may become active again

LOCATION OF SEISMICITY
Geographical Location Decreasing Intensity 1. Circum Pacific ( 85% of seismic energy released here ) 2. Alpine/Himalayan mountain system 3. Ocean ridges 4. Continental rift zones 5. Stable continental areas ( predominantly minor )

Depth Shallow, Intermediate, Deep, Focus Focus Focus < 70km 70-300km > 300km

EARTHQUAKE WAVES

P Waves Body waves Primary, compressional, alternately compressional/dilational Fastest waves & therfore are the first arrivals, ~ 5.5 km/s, slow in liquids ~ 1.5km/s

S Waves Secondary, Surface wave Sinusoidal w/ ground heave Can only travel through solid ( Granite ~ 3 km/s )

Surface waves

Love Waves Snake like with lateral displacement Slower than P or S but faster than Rayleigh

Rayleigh Waves Sinusoidal w/ ground heave Slower than P S or Love

These are only the basic waves. Others are generated at interfaces, eg PS, PPS, PKP etc

Noting the above, reflect on how earthquake waves may help in the elucidation of the Earths interior

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
Measurement by seismographs, stations throughout the world, by triangulation ie 3 stations required to locate the epicentre eg Eskdalemuir, Scotland.

MAGNITUDE, Richter or Modified Richter Scale Measure of total energy Largest amplitude recorded on seismograph Logarithm scale ie M6 is 10x M5 and each unit increase is ~ 30 times the amount of energy M4 generates only minor damage, M8 is catastrophic

INTENSITY, Mercalli Scale Assessment of damage at that specific location, on a scale of I XII Thus there will be a fall of off intensity radially I XII Only felt under favourable circumstances Total damage: Waves seen in the ground, objects thrown into the air

FREQUENCY Measured in Hertz ( Cycles per second )

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
DIRECT 1. Fault Diplacement, ie change in position of land 2. Tectonic Uplift/Subsidence 3. Ground Shaking

INDIRECT 1. Ground failure eg unconsolidated materials become weak and non load bearing 2. Tsunami. The tidal wave ( misnomer ). Literal transaltion is the Harbour wave, as a 1m amplitude, 100km wavelength wave in very deep ocean will become eg 30m high in shallow water 3. Seiche. This is a change in inland bodies of water over a period of hours or days 4. Fire, explosion, chemical leak, disease etc

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
Direct Effects damage dependent on Wave amplitude Duration of vibrations Number of events ( fore-, main and after- shocks ) Nature of ground Design of structures

Indirect effects very variable

VOLCANISM
GENERAL
Molten rock in the subsurface is called magma The area of molten rock within surrounding solid rock, is called the magma chamber. Magma erupting out onto the surface is said to be extruded, and thus lavas are extrusive. Rocks which have solidified in the subsurface are classified as intrusive. Intrusive rocks are further classified into those which have cooled at shallow depth hypabyssal, and those which have cooled at great depth, plutonic

THE ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Magmatic Differentiation (Fractionation ) Magma in the Earth's mantle is taken as the starting material from which igneous rocks crystallise. This magma is typically mafic (eg basalt) in composition. To account for observation, this magma must differentiate into the types observed. These processes are Fractional crystallization, Partial melting and crystal settling.

These processes are aided by the following mechanisms:

Convection within the body, allowing removal of partial melts Thermal variation within the chamber, which causes diffusion of ions Variation in chemical concentration eg oxygen % will affect crystallization Mixing of different melts in the same, and a different chamber, will produce different crystallization products Variation in the magma source, where, although the primordial type is basalt, different combinations of igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic rocks may be assimilated into the melt. Where large amounts of sedimentary rocks are assimilated for example, granitic composition is produced by the large amount of quartz ( SiO2 ) available. Thus it is that generally, continental assimilation produces granitic rocks, whilst in the mid oceans the rocks are basaltic. ( exceptions do exist eg Basalt may be found in continental areas )

THE ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ( contd )

Fractionation processes allow the formation of igneous rocks which fall into three basic families, each associated with a certain geological setting: Calc-alkaline : Plagioclase; K-feldspar; Quartz; Mica; Amphibole; Pyroxene.( See later that this is characteristic of plate convergence and subduction zones. ) Mafic / Ultramafic : Calcic plagioclase; Pyroxene; Olivine. .( See later that this is characteristic of mid-ocean ridge areas) Alkaline : Na & K Feldspar; Feldspathoids; Biotite; NO Quartz. These rocks are less abundant, but form. ( See later that this is characteristic of rifts and intraplate regions)

LOCATION OF ACTIVE VOLCANOS

79% 1% 13% 4% 3%

Pacific Indian Ocean Atlantic Mediterranean & Asia Minor Others

ORIGIN OF VOLCANICITY
1. Mid Ocean ridges ( eg Mid Atlantic Ridge )

Eruptions on sea floor along ocean ridges, and ocasionally above sea level eg Iceland Submarine flows are usually basaltic, producing pillow lavas Lavas capture magnetism eg magnetic reversals

2. Adjacent to ocean trench /mountain ridge

(eg S American Andes )

Andesitic to granitic composition ( relatively rich in silica )

3. Within continental areas

( eg E African Rift System )

4. Hot spots related to convection cell geometry

( eg Hawaii )

VOLCANIC MATERIALS
Nature of eruption and material extruded is predominantly dependent on magma composition, predominantly silica and dissolved gases Other factors in the nature of eruption are: Erupting environment ( air, deep water, shallow water etc ) Groundwater, as this can flash vapourize Rate of pressure release eg Slow ascent allows gas to escape Confining environment, eg Weight and contiguity of overburden

LAVA FLOWS Basalts flow far and fast ( less viscous, low in silica ), ~ 10-300m/hr Hawaian terms ( basaltic lava ) " Pahoehoe "- ropey lava " Aa "- Rough & jagged Acidic are more viscous and generally do not flow over a wide area, except nuee ardentee , a superfluidized gassy acidic lava, which acts like an avalanche eg 200km/hr

GASES Gases account for 1-5% by weight in the magma. Dissolved gases increase fluidity: In basalts this happens easily, so quiescent eruptions. Acidic lavas contain more gases and are potentially more explosive Typical composition:70% H2O 15% CO2 5% N & S compounds Also Cl, Ar, H2 PYROCLASTICS " Fiery fragments " varying from bombs to very fine sand sized ash Hot ashes may weld into welded tuffs Pumice is frothy, lighter than water lava

VOLCANIC FEATURES

VOLCANOES
Increasing Violence

Icelandic or Fissure

Hot fluid eruptions from fissures up to 25 km long, effusive, basaltic

Hawaiian

Similar to Icelandic, basaltic, but fissures on top lead to gentle slope formation (Shield volcanoes)

Strombolian

Small & conical, Fairly weak explosions

Vulcanian

Ash explosion is followed by thick sluggish lava flow. Alternating layers build up a strato volcano or composite cone

Pelean

Extremely destructive due to high speed ash, Mobilisation caused by fluidization of the gases, and their expansion

Plinian

Extremely explosive eg Vesuvius AD 79 ( believed to be in imminent danger of eruption now )

VOLCANIC FEATURES (contd)

ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC FEATURES Caldera Collapse due to reduced pressure and volume

Parasitic Cone Fumaroles

Flank eruption Vents with escaping gases

Cinder Cones Composite Cones (Stratovolcano) Lahars

Built of pyroclastics ~ 300m high Different phases of viscous and

pyroclastic eruption Saturated volcanic ash and debris

VOLCANIC HAZARD
PRIMARY HAZARD Lava flows Ash flows Lateral blast Ash falls Gas release

SECONDARY HAZARD Mudflows Lahars are saturated ash deposits, run in stream beds Floods Fires Human ( Physical/psychological Famine Climate )

CONTINENTAL DRIFT & PLATE TECTONICS

EARTH TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES
When viewed from space the major features of the earth's surface appear to be the continents and ocean basins. Mountain ranges occur as linear features, extending for thousands of kilometres in some continental areas. If, however, we imagine the waters of the oceans to be removed, we should be aware of the great ocean ridge system and, on a rather smaller scale, the deep ocean trenches.

The plot illustrating the distribution of topographic levels on the earth's surface shows two dominant levels: Continents (average height c.1km) forming c. 40% of the earth's surface Oceans (average depth c. 4km) forming c. 60% of the earth's surface.

The proportion of the earth's surface occupied by the extremes of height (>3km.) and depth (>5km) are very small, forming only about 1 % of the total.

EARTH TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES (contd)

Mountain ranges, ocean ridges and trenches form the major topographical anomalies: Mountain ranges c.300-800 km. across; the cordilleran belt of the western Americas and the Alpine-Himalayan belt are the major mountain belts of the continental areas. Another type of mountain belt forms the series of island arcs, found mainly around the northern and western margins of the Pacific and along the north eastern margin of the lndian Ocean. The topographical relief of these island arc systems is as great , if not greater, than those of the continental ranges, but because they are partially submerged, they appear less significant Ocean ridges These are more significant volumetrically than the continental mountain ranges; They rise, on average, about 2-3 km above the general level of the ocean floor and typically measure 500-1000 km across. They occupy about 30% of the surface area of the oceans.

Ocean trenches These form discontinuous features situated near continental margins, (e.g. western South America), or bordering the convex side of island arcs, (e.g. those of the north western Pacific). They are generally about 100-150 km. across and extend to depths 23 km. deeper than the average ocean depth. The deepest trenches are over 11 km. below sea level.

TOPOGRAPHIC & EVENT PATTERNS

Oceanic rocks are on average younger than continental rocks. The oldest oceanic rocks are 200 my, whereas many parts of the continent are > 1000my

The pattern of vulcanicity is closely related to that of seismic activity

Ocean ridges are characterized by volcanic activity, and shallow earthquake activity

The Pacific Ocean is ringed by explosive volcanoes, the Ring of Fire , and associated with seismicity

Ocean trenches are characterized by explosive volcanoes which are located on the landward side, and intense earthquakes on the ocean side, with the foci moving deeper in the landward direction

Mountain belts are active seismic areas

Areas between mountain belts, ocean ridges and ocean trenches are predominantly quiescent areas ( No major earthquakes )

TECTONISM
The earth is a "geologically active" planet; its major surface features, continents, oceans and the great mountain ranges, owing their existence and ever changing forms to "tectonic" activity. Tectonism is the activity caused by, and associated with, activity at and around, plate margins Continental crust can be traced back at least 2,500 my, and consists of stable zones, known as cratons, and mobile belts Continental masses are made up of former mobile belts which have stabilised since the process began, probably ~ 3,800 my ago Orogenesis is the process of mountain building. An Orogeny is a phase of mountain building ( which may last 10s of m years )

EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT 1620 Francis Bacon noticed similarities between America & Africa Suess formed the idea of Gondwanaland supercontinent, composed of India, Africa, S America and Eurasia 1910 Wegener postulated that 200my ago, Gondwanaland & Eurasia were joined to form Pangea, with areas of poor fit explained by prescence of primeval ocean, the Tethys Today Satellites can accurately chart the amount and direction of movement of the plates

1880

SEA FLOOR SPREADING From research starting about a hundred years ago, using depth sounding and sea bed samples, the following information had been found:An axial ridge is present in the Mid Atlantic, and other oceans This ridge is at a shallower depth in the centre of the ridge, and slopes away from it A rift valley is present in the axial ridge Sediment thickness increase away from the axial ridge in a parallel and mirror form. Thus the magnitude of magnetism varies with the depth of sediments above the igneous material Dating of samples reveals sediments and igneous rocks of < 200 my over all the earths oceans Hess in the 1960s developed the idea of the convection currents acting as the driving force for this spreading The actual rate of spreading varies, but is typically 4 cm/yr

POLAR WANDERING CURVES When an igneous rock cools, it takes on the magnetism of the earths field at that time Magnetic minerals, such as magnetite therefore point to the magnetic north pole at that time, as a compass. We know that this is constantly changing Using triangulation it is thus possible to pinpoint the position of the pole at any time, and a plot of the path of the wandering of the pole over time can be made For any stable area, therefore, a polar wandering curve can be made up The shape of the curves for the American and Eurasian stable continental areas is similar, for the period from the Cambrian to the Triassic ( 550 my 230 my )and when the Atlantic Ocean is closed ( ie the continents are fitted together ), the curves actually overlay, suggesting that they were once joined into a stable unit

MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER It is now known that the Earths field reverses every ~ half million years, from a normal to a reversed mode ( where a compass would point to the South Pole, rather than to the north as it does today ) Where the reversed field is present, the total present field will be less Thus when a magnetometer is traversed over the igneous rocks of the ocean floor, strips of weaker and stronger magnetic field are plotted ( Vine & Matthews 1963 ) These strips have the following characteristics Parallel with the axial field Mirror image about the axial field Offset due to fractures

CONCLUSION There is a detailed and accurate fit of the continents, eg Africa and S America, even when there has been 200my and 4000km separation. There is thus a lack of distortion within the continents Ocean floors are paved with magnetic anomaly stripes, which have maintained their pattern for 10s my, throughout the spreading process

Tectonically active areas are formed into belts around the earth, and are associated with seismicity and volcanism

In the early 1960s all these parts of the evidence came together to form the unifying theory of PLATE TECTONICS, which became generally accepted in the 1970s

PLATES & PLATE BOUNDARIES

There are ~ 20 plates, of varying sizes, which comprise the crust of the Earth These plates are in constant motion over the surface of the Earth, with crust being gained and lost continually The theory of plate tectonics is the major breakthrough in the twentieth century in Geoscience, which is vital to understanding the mechanisms of the Earth, and accounts for:- eg Volcanism Seismicity Mountain building ( orogeny ) Ocean trenches Sedimentary basins

The search for all types of minerals is greatly facilitated by the understanding of plate tectonics The understanding of sedimentary basins is vital to the exploration for petroleum

There are three types of plate boundary:1. Convergent 2. Divergent Subduction, crust lost Ocean floor spreading, crust formed Destructive Constructive

3. Transform

Rectilinear to ocean ridge, crust neither formed or destroyed

Conservative

HISTORICAL AND FUTURE CONTINENTAL DRIFT

We believe that plate tectonics has been active for most of the Earths history Today eg, S America is moving away from Africa at about 10 cm/yr In 100 million years Los Angeles may well be in Alaska The East African rift is likely to further develop into an inland sea ( like the present day Red Sea, and thence into an open ocean, like the Indian Ocean The Mediterranean Sea should close as Africa continues to move closer towards Europe Australia may move northward to join Asia

THE WILSON CYCLE

This is the cycle of destruction and renewal of ocean basins, and named after the Canadian geologist, J Tuzo Wilson There is Earths crust that is 4.5 b years old, but the oceanic crust is everywhere less than 200 my The cycle takes about 200my and is generally as follows:The birth of a new ocean basin is initiated by rifting, under possibly a hot spot generated by a convection current This rift eventually becomes an open ocean with sea floor spreading Subduction at its margins occurs, and outpaces the generation of oceanic crust, so that the basin closes Thus a collision occurs of the continents, resulting in a suture and hence a stabilisation of the two plates

MOUNTAIN CHAINS, CRATONS & BASINS

MOUNTAIN CHAINS These are due to the intense lateral/horizontal movements of plates and result in crumpling of the strata, ie folding ( with faulting, thrusting etc ) They are commonly adjacent to subduction zones, where oceanic crust goes under continental, continental crust collides with continental, or oceanic crust goes under other oceanic crust

CRATONS Older igneous and metamorphic rock in the continents, which were once associated with orogeny, have become stabilised, and we can now see the roots of this after a long period of erosion and denudation Present day Nigeria is predominantly such a stable area, where the basement complexes are of granite and metamorphic rocks. Various period of orogeny can be identified in these rocks: 2,800 my 2000 my 1100 my 600 my, The Pan African Orogeny, which led to the emplacement of the granite bodies

MOUNTAIN CHAINS, CRATONS & BASINS (contd)

BASINS In simplistic terms, basins are local sags or trenches in the Earths crust, where sediments can continually be deposited, one on top of the other. In the Niger Delta sedimentary basin, there is ~12km depth of sediments and sedimentary rocks, in the deepest part of the basin

Basins may be formed in the following ways: A thermal dome, related to the hot spot of a convection cell, is initiated. This is eroded and collapses leaving a sag in the crust Thermal activity is also often associated with epeirogenic movements ( due to isostatic readjustments of the crust ), and these two factors lead to basin formation Often following thermal doming, a rift valley, under tensional stresses, develops by faulting, and ongoing subsidence Basins are developed at the trailing edge of drifting continents, adjacent to subduction zones Basins adjacent to transform faults. Whilst the predominant relative motion is shear, and certainly crust is neither formed or destroyed, there is often a small vertical component, allowing for sag and basin formation Sediment is deposited on top of the oceanic crust formed by sea floor spreading

RELEVANCE OF PLATE TECTONICS IN PETROLEUM

Whilst petroleum was originally found by drilling around oil and gas seeps, ie wildcatting the evaluation of Plate Tectonics has allowed the prediction of areas where petroleum may be found, the location and structure of Sedimentary basins is explained by the theory

EXAMPLES OF PLATE TECTONICS

There follows 15 slides to show the processes and explanation of Plate Tectonics

The driving force: Convection currents From the centre out, the Earth is composed of: Solid inner core Liquid outer core Solid but predominantly plastic mantle, with a rigid layer at the top Rigid crust

Looking in closer detail at the crust/upper mantle.. The asthenosphere is near its melting point and allows flow, ie convection currents The lithosphere is rigid, consisting of the upper part of the mantle, and the crust which is supported by the former Convection currents within the mantle are the driving force for plate tectonics The actual mechanism is not totally understood. The main theories which may contribute are: Large convection cells propel the lithospheric plates ie the lithosphere and crust Descending plates under gravity, drag other plates along A narrow plume of hot material rises and spreads the lithosphere away form it

Continental drift I Continents today were once joined as Pangea Two major rift zones broke up Pangea 200my ago, North America/Asia and Africa/S America rift Y shaped fracture divided the southern continent,

Gondwanaland, into three:1. Australia/Antarctica separated from Africa 2. India moved northward to Asia 50 my ago, Atlantic Ocean developed with separation of S America from Africa

Continental drift II India is in contact with Asia, resulting in the formation of the Himalayas. Greenland has separated from Eurasia. Australia has separated from Antarctica Relative movement of plates may change from moving together, to moving apart. Thus what were originally tensile stresses, reverse in direction and thus stress, and become compressional

Evidence from Glaciation Alfred Wegener searched for evidence of Continental drift from his study as a climatologist Glacial mechanism leave evidence behind in the rocks, notably striated rock from the scratching of rocks by rock debris in the glacier, and till, an unsorted mix of boulders, clay and other wide ranging assorted particles It is believed that the ice caps never encroached to the tropics, and the evidence for the previous glacial areas are now in those areas. Again there is coal in Antarctica, and in the Northern Hemisphere

Evidence from the rock Alfred Wegeners book, The origin of the continents and oceans , in 1915 officially launched the theory of continental drift Much evidence has been put together eg in S America and Africa. With the continents fitted together ( allowing for the continental shelf edge, and removing the Niger Delta, as it is geologically a very young feature ) the rock systems are adjacent to each other

Earthquakes, Volcanism & Subduction As one rigid plate slides beneath another shallow earthquakes occur along the margin Intermediate depth, and deeper quakes have epicentres progressively away from the margins By the time the plates reach a few hundred metres, maximum~ 700km, the rock is plastic, melts ands thus the brittle fracture is not present, so no quakes can occur The zone/pattern of the quakes is known as the Benioff zone Deep focus quakes are not found along mid ocean ridges, and they tend to be of up to only moderate intensity Deep focus quakes are not found along transform faults, but quakes along these can be intense Volcanism along continental margins is explained by the melting of material as it slides under with friction and the addition of water, thus lowering the melting point

Magnetic reversals New igneous rock, formed by cooling and solidification, takes on the magnetism and polarity at the time of solidification As the Earths field has reversed many times, this can be used to date the lavas at the ocean ridges ( normal and reversed polarity ) Thus alternating normal and reversed stripes are parallel to, and mirrored along, the ocean ridges

Types of plate margins There are three type of plate margin:1. Convergent 2. Divergent 3. Transform Subduction, crust lost Ocean floor spreading, crust formed Rectilinear to ocean ridge, crust neither formed or destroyed Destructive Constructive Conservative

The major plates The lithosphere is composed of ~ 20 plates Individual plates may contain mostly oceanic crust ( Pacific ), but most contain both oceanic and continental crust Plates fuse together to become stable areas Convergent boundaries occur when the plates are moving together Divergent boundaries occur when the plates move apart At transform boundaries plates slide past each other, with crust neither being created or destroyed

10

Divergent plate boundaries: The Oceanic Ridge Ocean floor is pulled apart and fractures are filled by upwelling magma. This material ( basalt ) becomes new oceanic crust. The driving force of the convection currents pushes new material laterally, as in a mirror image conveyor belt With old crust being destroyed at subduction zones, there is thus allowance for new crust to be formed

11

Divergent plate boundaries: Continental rifting On previously stable continents, a thermal dome is caused by a convection cell below. The collapse of this dome leads to tensile fracture along a linear rift valley, as can be seen today in the East African Rift This early phase of rifting is associated with volcanism and is followed by widening of the rift to an inland or restricted sea, such as the Red Sea today A further phase is sea floor spreading, where oceanic crust is formed, as in the Indian Ocean Thus, emanating form the east African Rift, northward to the Red Sea, and bifurcating into the Gulf of Aden ( Indian Ocean ), can be seen the progressive stages of rifting through to the final phase of ocean floor spreading

12

Convergent plate boundaries: Continental - Continental Collision between two continental plates produces the highest mountain chains The Asian plate was separated form the Indian plate by oceanic crust, which was subducted, allowing the collision of the two continental parts of these plates, forming the Himalayas

13

Convergent plate boundaries: Continental - Oceanic As the oceanic crust is denser, it is subducted beneath the lighter continental plate As cool oceanic crust descends into the hot mantle, partial melting and assimilation occurs and massive pockets of granitic rocks are formed. As they are lighter, they move by virtue of their bouyancy, and eventually solidify close to the surface ( Later erosion has uncovered many of them ) Deformation at the plate margins produces earthquakes, and the folding and fracture characteristic of mountain chains

14

Convergent plate boundaries: Oceanic - Oceanic A convergent island arc is formed when two such plates converge. One plate will be subducted and magma rises to the surface as island arcs. Japan for example is a mature island arc area, as with weathering and erosion of rock, sediments and thence

sedimentary rocks have been formed, which have later been metamorphosed and thrust up

15

Hot spots & island chains Hot plumes tend to remain in fixed positions for millions of years As magma reaches the surface it builds a volcanic structure As the island moves away, the hot spot remains, so forming an island arc with time. Eg Hawaii, where radiometric dating has proved the progressive ages of the islands away from the hot spot Hot spots at present day are Yellowstone National Park, Iceland There are believed to be ~ 100 hot spots throughout the Earth at present day Hot spots are characterized by rapid ( in geological terms ) outpourings of Lava ( eg Deccan Trap in India )

PRINCIPLES & LAWS

UNFORMITARIANISM ( ACTUALISM )
The present is the key to the past ( Hutton, 1795 )

Processes we see today have been occurring throughout geological history. Thus we may study the Niger Delta today, and predict the processes which led to the formation of the reservoir rocks at kms depth, eg 10s of million of years ago

SUPERPOSITION
Younger sediments get deposited above older sediments. However There may not be a continuous vertical sequence of deposition Due to intense tectonism, overthrusting may occur, and it is possible thus to get inverted sequences Erosion may remove previously deposited material

EQUILIBRIUM
1. TECTONIC Since the crust began to solidify, and the atmosphere allow the process of weathering, and hence the modification of minerals, there has been the process of plate tectonics, where the crust is continually in motion around the earth in a series of about 20 plates. The Wilson cycle ( see previous ) lasting for about 200 million years, is the cycle of the formation and destruction of the ocean basins. The process of tectonics allows for orogeny, ie the up thrusting of rocks high above sea level, from their original area of deposition predominantly below sea level.

2. THE ROCK CYCLE The tectonic cycle allows for the continual recycling of rocks Deposition and precipitation of sediments (predominantly under water), are buried by the subsidence of a sedimentary basin, with other sediments being laid down on top. Lithification occurs and sediments become sedimentary rock. In areas of subduction, these sediments are dragged down and subjected to stresses during collision. Sedimentary rocks may then become

metamorphosed, and finally may be assimilated and melt, rising into and onto the crust and solidifying as igneous rocks At surface, after rocks have been thrust up, they are exposed to the elements, and the process of chemical and physical weathering occurs. These products are then transported and deposited, for the process to begin again

3. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE The movement of water is a continous process Water is removed from the oceans by evaporation, and is precipitated in other parts This cycle includes the movement of water in the ground, the study of hydrogeology. Water is also introduced into the atmosphere by volcanic activity. Water is taken back into the crust by subduction, where it is finally given off again through volcanic activity

4. CARBON CYCLE ( LONG TERM ) The amount of carbon in the Earth is controlled not just by the action of plants and animals, ie photosynthesis and breathing, and by oxidation and combustion, but also by the cycling of carbon in the rock cycle. The Earth acts as a reservoir for carbon, eg Limestones are CaO3. Release of the CO2 is accomplished by weathering

TIME AND STRATIGRAPHY

GEOLOGICAL TIME & STRATIGRAPHY
We have already identified various ages involved in the Earth, eg its age at ~4.6 billion years ( 4,600 million years ), and the oldest parts of the Earths crust as being only 200 my. Geological time is difficult to imagine for humans as experience is within a lifetime. Geological processes very often take very much longer. Geological processes do span a wide range of times, from earthquake waves in seconds, at one end of the scale, to the formation of the earth at the other Stratigraphy is the study of the rock strata ( stratum is a layer ) as a record of the geological history of the area

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE AGE DATING

The original reconstruction of the sedimentary deposits of the Earth relied upon the relative ages of the rocks to be identified, and thus a stratigraphic column could be constructed. At that time, the evaluation was carried out primarily in Europe, and so the names of the various units ( the periods ) will sound unfamiliar to non geoscientists, and especially so to Nigerian non geoscientists. ( eg Silurian, named after a tribe existing in Wales 2000 years ago. The type section was first described in this area ) It did seem that the Periods were the natural units, observed at that time. It was later realised that the processs which formed these rocks however, had not been consistent from one place to another. Imagine today that sand dunes in a desert will be deposited at the same time as clays in the deep oceans. Plate tectonics is obviously localised The use of fossils was indeed a great help in the evaluation of relative age dating. Over much of the Earth during its known history of life, it does appear that fossils can be good markers in time, but again, taking the present day analogy, different fauna and flora exist in different parts of the Earth. Again the time span of the fossil will be important. There is a fossil first seen in the Cambrian Lingulella , and can be seen living today on the beach, which has changed little in 500 my. This is thus a poor time marker. Fossils will of course be characteristic of environment Only in the last fifty years, have the actual dates of rocks been ascertained by radioactive methods, using the constants of the half life of radioactive elements The age of other rocks, eg igneous rocks may be inferred when sedimentary rocks are interbedded with lava flows. When igneous rock intrudes, it is known that the igneous rock will be younger than the sedimentary rock surrounding it

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE AGE DATING ( contd )

The classification of rocks has been by the dual classification of:1. Tracing and mapping by observable criteria 2. The grouping of strata by virtue of their reference to geological time ( either absolute or relative ) 3. Thus we have:Chronostratigraphy The relative age relationships of rock strata, with the ultimate aim of relative dating of all rocks in the world

Lithostratigraphy

The description of rock units by their observed mineralogy, fossils, structure etc

Biostratigraphy

Uses the fossil assemblage of the rock. It must be remembered that different fossils will exist in different environments, ie rocks, and that the best relative age indicators will have the most rapidly changing form

RADIOACTIVE AGE DATING

This uses the principle of the radioactive decay of isotope, where the half lives are known and constant ( eg U to Pb ) The clock is started by the process of crystallization of the liquid material, ie it is igneous, whereby this process effectively removes the previous daughter ( eg Pb ) allowing the radioactive clock to start ticking. There are a number of assumptions in this: Effective separation of parent and daughter, and removal of daughter is carried out After crystallization, the daughter remains in the rock, and is not removed eg by groundwater. Argon for example is a gas and is relatively mobile Reheating of the rock may affect the age, due to the remobilsation of the daughter, and even reset the clock if all the daughter is removed

Common examples are :-

Parent C14 K40 Rb87 Th232 U235 U238

Daughter N Ar Sr Pb Pb Pb

Half life(yrs) 5 x 103 12.4 x 109 50 x 109 13.9 x 109 0.7 x 109 4.5 x 109

From the above, it can be seen that the half lifes are useful throughout the ages, to earliest geological times. The Carbon method bridges the gap from geological to historical times, being useful up to about 70,000 years

OTHER ABSOLUTE METHODS OF AGE DATING

PALAEOMAGNETISM Using the now known wanderings and reversals of the Earths magnetic field, it is possible to age date rocks ( this was used in the elucidation of the theory of plate tectonics )

CHEMICAL REACTION For particularly prehistory ( archaeology ) it is possible to use the rate of chemical reaction. Thus, eg obsidian ( volcanic glass ) will hydrate with time, and this may be used to date the age of formation of eg an obsidian arrowhead

FISSION TRACK The count of the fission tracks emitted by radioactive particles may be used to date rocks

DATING THE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

As the principle method of absolute age dating relies on crystallization, the rock being dated will by definition be igneous. To date the sedimentary succession, ie the stratigraphic column ( ie convert eg Carboniferous 360-286 my ) we must therefore use age relationships. Thus if we have lavas interbedded with sedimentary rocks, then we can absolutely age date the sedimentary rocks. Then with fossils we can transfer these dates to different rock in different areas

THE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

Following is a very simplified stratigraphic column. Obviously with all the rock units now evaluated all over the earth, the complete column, with all the subunits would be very large and complex. The example overpage gives an overview of Earth events, with relevance also to Nigeria

Shell Nigeria Graduate Training Programme

Eon Era Period Epoch

I/Geosciences Time & Stratigraphy

Time My Major Events worldwide Present day Major Events in Nigeria Volcanoes in Cameroon

Phanerozoic

Cenozoic

Quaternary

Recent ( Holocene )

0.01
Pleistocene

Ice Age ends Ice Age begins Earliest Humans Lignite in SE Nigeria Formation of Himalayas Formation of Alps Oil source rocks, Eocene to Miocene Initiation of Niger Delta Extinction of Dinosaurs Basalt extrusion in Jos, Biu & Longuda Coal in Anambra & Benue Younger granites with Sn,Wo Africa & S America ( Benue Trough )

1.6 5.3 23.7 36.6 57.8 66 144

Tertiary

Neogene

Pliocene Miocene

Palaeogene

Oligocene Eocene

Palaeocene

Mesozoic

Cretaceous
Initiation of break up of First birds First Mammals Break up of Pangea First Dinosaurs Formation of Pangea

Jurassic Triassic

208 245

Palaeozoic

Permian

286
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian Mississippian

Permo-Carb Glaciation Abundant coal forming swamps, N America & Europe First reptiles First amphibians Jurassic to Cambrian missing due to erosion

320 360

Devonian Silurian

408 438
First land plants First Fish

Ordovician

505
Cambrian

570
Earliest shelled animals

Proterozoic Precambrian Archean

2500 3800 4600

Earliest fossil record of life

Basement complex of granite, & metamorphic rocks, covering ~half of land area of Nigeria

Formation of the Earth

Univation Ltd

I/Geosciences 07-Time&Strat.doc

Page 6 of 6 05/05/2007 8:57 AM

EARTH PROCESSES
EARTH FORCES
The forces that drive the planet are as follows: Heat in the core ( from residual heat, radioactivity etc ) which drives the convection cells which is the driving force for Plate Tectonics, ie volcanism, seismicity etc Heat in the sun raditing ontpo the planet, which drives the atmospheric processes, photosynthesis Gravity, which drives the processes of erosion and deposition, tides Rotation of the Earth, which drives the atmosphere, ocean currents etc

The processes which take place in the geological environment in The Earth may be considered as external ( exogenic ) or internal ( endogenic )

ENDOGENIC ( INTERNAL )PROCESSES 1.OROGENIC Intense movement associated with active plate margins eg Young ( active mountains, ocean trenches etc

2.EPEIROGENIC Broad gentle warping and uplift/subsidence in continental areas eg Grand Canyon, UK in Mid Tertiary

3.IGNEOUS Movement and crystallization ( solidification ) of igneous material

4.METAMORPHIC Changes in rock by heat & pressure

4.ISOSTATIC Vertical movements of crust due to loading/unloading of ice, erosion. eg Greenland Note that isostatic changes also occur of the crust on the mantle, see above epeirogenic movements

5.EUSTATIC Worldwide changes in the amount of available water leading to sea-level changes ( increase/decrease of volume of water due to polar freeze/melt and temperature expansion

EXOGENIC ( EXTERNAL ) PROCESSES

1.WEATHERING & EROSION (See also later in Sedimentary rocks) Weathering is the decay & disintegration without significant transport by: Biological Chemical Mechanical

Weathering occurs in situ Denudation is the stripping of weathered material

Denudation = Weathering + Erosion

2.TRANSPORT The agents of transport are: Gravity Water Wind Ice

DEPOSITION:- Classification by:Rock Type 1. Clastic.. Fragments of material ( eg Sand ) 2. Evaporite. By precipitation/evaporation, eg Halite ( rock salt ) 3. Organic... By organism eg coal, coral

Environment of deposition 1. Fluvial 2. Glacial. 3. Aeolian 4. Lacustrine.. 5. Neritic. 6. Marine. 7. Abyssal 8. Deltaic.. River Ice Wind Lake Shallow marine Open marine Deep ocean Delta

LANDFORMS
These vary in scale from eg continents to the roughness on pebbles. Landforms are caused by the endogenic processes that cause relief, as discussed previously, eg orogeny, relative sea level fall, epeirogenic upwarping, volcanic activity etc. In addition, external processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition cause further landforms, eg deltas

Landforms may have many different controls of their formation. Landform may be depositional or erosional. Thus whilst Plate Tectonics will produce the landforms of eg mountain chains and ocean trenches, the external modifiers of wind water and ice will change the landscape. This is of course a constantly changing process ( otherwise the land surface would be denuded to a flat surface. The climate may also have a great influence in their form eg the savannah is an undulating rounded form, generally irrespective of the rock type it is in. This also true for eg glacial landforms.

BIOSPHERE/LITHOSPHERE/ATMOSPHERE INTERACTION
It is important to realize that the Earth is a living system continually in motion, where the biological and atmospheric systems interact with the surface and subsurface ( lithosphere ). The presence of water, over much of the Earth in its liquid form, and that of carbon dioxide, is crucial to the stability of the whole system. In rocks of ~3.5 billion years for example, it is possible to identify the process that formed some of the rocks at this time as having been deposited in a aqueous system. Even with climatic changes over geological time ( eg Permo Carboniferous Glacial period ), this water/carbon dioxide system has prevailed. Thus it can be said that the process of plate tectonics is the machine that drives this interactive system

THE UNCONFORMITY
The unconformity, and its explanation of formation, shows well the Earth processes

As long ago as 1795, James Hutton recognised that the Earth had undergone cyclical changes, which must have taken long periods of time to come about. This he partly deduced from assuming, or realising that the the present is the key to the past, and that the changes taking place in the Earth at present are slow

At a location near Edinburgh ( Scotland ) he observed a configuration of rocks, where there was an angular discordance between rock above and below different set of sedimentary rocks

From this he deduced the process of formation of the rocks at that location:-

1. Sediments were deposited, buried and converted to a sedimentary rock 2. These rocks were deeply buried, and folded during an orogeny, at a plate margin ( eg subduction zone ) 3. The folded rocks were uplifted, exposed, and subjected to the process of weathering and erosion 4. Later subsidence allowed the deposition of sediments on top of these rocks, such that a new system of sedimentary rocks was formed 5. Further uplift has exposed these rocks to the surface, where they can now be seen

The implications of this are enormous There has been a cyclical chain of events, ie burial, uplift, weathering/erosion, subsidence, sedimentation etc There has been a long time gap, represented by the erosion surface ( sometimes called the unconformity surface ), the break between the two rock systems

An unconformity is a break in the succession ( sedimentary sequence ), which has been caused by erosion and/or non deposition

MINERALS & ROCKS

GENERAL
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic material of fixed chemical composition, composed of one or more elements

A rock is a combination of one or more minerals and is likely to be of variable composition

There are ~4000 minerals on Earth Silicon is the inorganic equivalent to carbon in organic chemistry ( Note that the term mineral is strictly defined as above. In common usage, however, it is often used to mean economic minerals )

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CRUSTAL ROCKS

ELEMENT O Si Al Fe Ca Na K Mg Ti H P % 46.6 27.72 8.13 5.00 3.63 2.83 2.59 2.09 0.44 0.14 0.12 99.29 Also Mn F S Cl C Decreasing Abundance

ROCK CLASSIFICATION
Igneous rocks Igneous rocks are those which have solidified from the molten state Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are those which have formed from aggregation of particles, precipitation or by organic means Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks are those which have been physically and/or chemically changed by heat and/or pressure. They may have previously been igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks

BONDING IN MINERALS
The elements combining to form minerals are held by electrons in the outer, valence shell of the atoms The electrons available for bonding are called the valence electrons Si has 4 , O has 2, H has 1, Fe has 2 or 3

Bonding is either ionic and/or covalent Ionic bonding is where one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other, introducing stability by completing the outer shell. Loss or gain of an electron results in the formation of an ion, a charged atom. Ions of opposite charge attract one another. Sodium Chloride eg has Na+ and Cl- which attract and form a neutral unit

Covalent bonding occurs where electrons are shared in the outer shell Both ionic and covalent bonds can be present in the same compound. For example, in silicates, the Si is bonded to the O covalently, with metallic ions being bonded ionically

MINERAL GROUPS
Silicates are the basic common building blocks of minerals, and are based on the SiO2 tetrahedron, consisting of one Si atom bound covalently to four O atoms. This leaves an imbalance of 4 electrons, so that the charged ion so formed is (SiO4)4These tetrahedra can: Bond to themselves by sharing O atoms Bond to metallic ions, eg Al3+ , Fe2+ , Fe3+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ , K+, Na+

Silicates can form single, double, sheet, ring structures Metallic ions of similar size can substitute for each other, eg, thus Ca2+ can substitute for Na+, and , Fe2+ for , Mg2+. Thus an individual mineral can be a family of minerals with a range of compositions between end members( a solid solution ). This is the case with Olivine ( strictly the Olivine family )(Mg,Fe)2SiO4 When Ca2+ substitutes for Na+, the structure gains a positive charge, and to maintain neutrality, Al 3+ can substitute for Si4+. This double substitution is common in plagioclase feldspar, with the end members being anorthite ( CaAl2Si2O8 ) and albite ( NaAlSi3O8 ) Whilst silicates are by far the most common rock forming minerals, there are also non silicates:- eg Chlorides, eg Common salt NaCl Carbonates, eg calcite forming Limestone Oxides, eg FeO Sulphates, eg CaSO4 calcium sulphate, forming Gypsum Native Metals eg Gold

IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATION
% SiO2
Crystal Size

65-80%

55-65% INTERMEDIATE

45-55% BASIC

<45% ULTRABASIC

ACID

E X T R U S I V E

(Glassy)
VOLCANIC ( <0.06 mm )

Obsidian Trachyte Rhyolite ( K, Na Feldspar) ( K, Na Feldspar) Dacite ( Na,Ca Feldspar) Andesite ( Na,Ca Feldspar) Quartz-Porphyry ------------Felsite----------Granite ( K, Na Feldspar) Grano-diorite ( Na,Ca Feldspar) Syenite Diorite Basalt

I HYPABYSSAL N ( 0.06 2.0 mm ) T R PLUTONIC U ( > 2.0 mm ) S I V E

Dolerite

Gabbro

Peridotite

Approximate Mineral Composition %

NOTES on IGNEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Rocks outlined in bold are common. Try to remember their names, and at least if they are acid, basic etc, and their crystal size Classification is primarily by bulk silica composition, and crystal size (This classification is further modified as to the type of feldspar) Crystal size has a direct relationship with rate of cooling, and thus with whether it is extrusive or intrusive, and if the latter, the depth at which it cooled Note that whilst the classification is based on SiO2 content, only the acidic, and some intermediate rocks, have free silica ( quartz ) ie granite. Basalt for example will not contain the mineral quartz Alkali feldspars will only be present in acid and intermediate rocks, and therefore there will be an association of these rocks with quartz

THE FAMILIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The knowledge of differentiation and assimilation processes, with the understanding of plate tectonics, allows the classification of igneous rocks to fall into three basic families, each associated with a certain geological setting:-

1. Calc-alkaline : Plagioclase; K-feldspar; Quartz; Mica; Amphibole; Pyroxene. Characteristic of plate convergence and subduction zones

2. Mafic / Ultramafic : Calcic plagioclase; Pyroxene; Olivine Characteristic of mid-ocean ridge areas

3. Alkaline : Na & K Feldspar; Feldspathoids; Biotite; NO Quartz. These rocks are less abundant Characteristic of rifts and intraplate regions

IGNEOUS BODIES
CONCORDANCE & DISCORDANCE Igneous bodies may be categorised into concordant and discordant bodies Concordance is where the body lies parallel to the country rock. Thus lavas, sills etc can be said to be concordant

Discordance is where the igneous body cross cuts the country rock, and will therefore only apply to intrusive bodies ( see below )

CLASSIFICATION BY ORIGIN OF FORMATION EXTRUSIVE Issued above the surface of the Earth, either subaerially, or subaqueously Lavas, Pyroclastics

INTRUSIVE Intruded and solidified underground Phases of intrusion may be multiple CONCORDANT Common: Sills Less common: Phacoliths, Laccolith

DISCORDANT Common: Dykes Plutons ( batholiths ) Volcanic plugs Less common: Calderas, Ring dykes, Cone sheets

THE COMMON IGNEOUS BODIES

LAVA Sheet of molten material which flows onto the surface of the Earth, but may subsequently be covered by other flows, and sedimentary rocks The lower surface will heat alter the rock below, but the upper surface will be open to the air/water. Upper surface likely to be soft & weathered Typically individual flows are ms thick, and basaltic flows may be 10s of kms wide DYKE Usually subvertical sheet, cross cutting country rock, ( also radial, & ring, often in parallel sets ) Intrusion in tensional conditions Emanates from igneous centre and may be concentrated around it In the field, both edges will have a fine crystalline margin, and the country rock on either side will be heat affected Often composite, with the later injection in the interior Typically from cm m, and may be 10s of km long. SILLS Sheet of rock, intruded parallel to the country rock, eg along the bedding plane of sedimentary rocks Upper and lower surface will be finer crystalline, with both contacts in the surrounding rock being heat altered Whilst a sill is concordant, it may change horizon ( via a feeder dyke ) and is then termed transgressive Often composite, with the later injection in the interior

Typically cms - 100's m in thickness and 10s km wide

THE COMMON IGNEOUS BODIES ( contd )

VOLCANIC NECK ( PLUG ) Solidified cylinder of rock which was the vent along which the liquid igneous material flowed It is usually subvertical, but may have subvertical/lateral offshoots A larger but similar feature is the caldera, which is the centre of igneous emanation. Typically 100s m in diameter and kms deep PLUTON ( BATHOLITH ) These are deep seated and large bodies They are generally bulbous and spherical Usually granitic in composition ( acidic, high in silica ). When they form, by their low density, they rise to near the surface It will heat alter the surrounding rock, often to a high degree, due to the temperature and large amount of heat in the body Typically 10s kms in diameter and kms deep

TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES

Porphyritic texture is where larger coarser crystals ( phenocrysts ) are floating in a finer groundmass. These are classified by the finer groundmass Crystal size relates in general to the size of the body and the depth at which it cooled. It is likely however that there will be a variation of the crystal size within that body. At the edges, for example, there is likley to be margin which is finer, as it has been cooled by the surounding rock at its contact Lavas will have a finer base, whilst at the top, there may be solidified bubbles ( vesicles ) due to the pressure release of the gas at the top of the flow Sills and dykes, having been intruded, will have a contact at both margins (unlike lava flows) Igneous rocks, particularly lava flows may show flow structure, which is the orientation of crystals in the direction of flow Veins of coarser material may be seen cutting across the original igneous rock. These are called pegmatites and the larger crystal size has been formed with the help of enrichment of late stage gases Textures in igneous rocks give important clues as to the relative crystallization of the rock. If the crystals are well formed ( idiomorphic ), then the crystals have been free to form in the remaining liquid, and are regarded as being early stage. If crystal faces are not formed, then it is a late forming crystal. Ferromagnesian minerals are generally early stage, and quartz and alkali feldspar are late stage, ie interstitial

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. WEATHERING

The process of the break up of rocks and minerals at or near the Earths surface, by physical fragmentation, chemical

decomposition, and biological action

Three Processes may be involved:-

1. PHYSICAL ( MECHANICAL ) 2. CHEMICAL 3. BIOLOGICAL ( ORGANIC )

The products of weathering may remain in situ, and the the soil is classed as residual soil. Where there is transportation ( by wind, water, ice ), the soil is classed as transported soil. The products may be removed by leaching by groundwater, ie in solution, or as solid

Weathering may cause a concentration of minerals which are commercial Tropical laterites & bauxites Enrichment of some metal ores Weathering out of eg Tin oxide ( cassiterite ) to placer deposits

PHYSICAL DISINTEGRATION
1. EXPANSION/CONTRACTION Where there is large diurnal temperature change ( arid regions ) ie Desert regions.

2. SALT CRYSTALLIZATION High pressures during precipitation

3. FREEZING/FROST WEDGING High pressures during freezing. Frost shattering due to ice in cracks and pore space expanding

4. HYDRATION/DEHYDRATION Clays ( montmorillonite ) & shales expand with water, & contract on dessication Cracks form, aiding chemical weathering

5. UNLOADING/STRESS RELEASE Erosion and isostatic rebound can cause stress release & subsequent cracking Cracking leads to moisture penetration

6. EXTERNAL AGENTS eg Sand blasting

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
1. HYDRATION

Addition of water to form new compound CaSO4 + H2O CaSO4.H2O

2. HYDROLYSIS Replacement of cations by H+ ions (K,Na,Ca,Mg .), thence removal of Fe & Al

3. OXIDATION

4. REDUCTION

EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

1. CARBONATE MINERALS Limestone reacts with acid
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca++ + 2HCO3-CARBONIC IONS

CALCITE CARBONIC ACID CALCIUM IONS

2. FELDSPAR Feldspar to kaolinite. Under certain circumstances, kaolinite can go to colloidal silicic acid
KAlSiO8 + H2O
FELDSPAR WATER

Al2SiO5(OH4) with the help of an acid

KAOLINITE

In this reaction, three processes occur:1. Leaching ( dissolving away) 2. Hydration ( water is added ) 3. Hydrogen ion is used up so the solution becomes more b

3. FERROMAGNESIANS ( Pyroxenes, Olivines, Hornblende )

Pyroxene to ferrous iron & dissolved silica, thence ferrous to ferric iron, precipitating LIMONITE

4FeSiO3 + O2 + 2H2O
PYROXENE OXYGEN WATER

4FeO(OH) + 4SiO2
LIMONITE DISSOLVED SILICA

Looking at the weathering of igneous rocks, it is seen that the major products are silica and clays. Thus for example, granite, which contains feldspar and quartz will weather to sand and clay ( the quartz being stable will usually only physically weather )

CHEMICAL STABILITY
Mineral chemical stability is related to Bowen's Reaction Series, which is the order of crystallization of minerals from the igneous melt ( Quartz forms at the lowest temperature )

Thus in an experimental chemical situation, olivine and pyroxenes are the least stable.

OLIVINE PYROXENE AMPHIBOLES Increase in stability (lowest temperature of formation BIOTITE K FELDSPAR ORTHOCLASE MUSCOVITE QUARTZ ANORTHITE ALBITE

RESISTANCE TO WEATHERING
In a weathering situation, however, there are other considerations. Consider that salt ( NaCl ) dissolves easily in water. In a weathering situation, thus, salt would seem to weather very easily. Pyroxene dissolves in water less easily than salt, and on the face of it would appear to be more stable. Pyroxene however, forms new products, ( limonite and silica ) whilst salt does not ( It will re precipitate s NaCl )

Thus in a real life weathering situation, we can rank the stability of minerals as follows.(This is different to mineral stability, as it involves surface area, removal of materials etc )

Increasing Resistance To Weathering

Eg Gypsum, Halite, Eg Calcite,Dolomite, Eg Olivine, Feldspars (K,Na,Ca )

EVAPORITE CARBONATES SILICATES

Quartz

SILICA

Eg Kaolinite

CLAYS

Eg Magnetite, cassiterite

STABLE OXIDES

In a weathering situation, factors in the total degradation of the rock will include: Surface area of the individual exposed mineral, which is related to crystal size and the presence of fractures and the fragmentation pattern of the rock Temperature Flushing of the rock with aqueous solution ( with H+ ions )

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Agents can also be regarded as either mechanical & chemical

1. Plants & trees Physical & chemical breakdown Fungi, roots

2. Animals Worms, termites, moles

3. Bacteria Nitrogen fixing Oxidation/reduction Humification, acid from peat

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd )

2 CLASSIFICATION

GENERAL Sedimentary rocks are those which have formed from aggregation of particles, precipitation or by organic means
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers in various different

environments of deposition

Sedimentation is the final stage of the process beginning with erosion and transportation of eroded materials to sites of deposition. Particles settle out of suspension and are deposited in a layer.

Physical sedimentation is where air and water currents transport solid materials to lowland areas.

Chemical sedimentation is dominantly the process where sea water or other bodies of saline water precipitate dissolved substances in order to keep a constant composition. Average thickness of sedimentary rocks ~0.8km, but up to 12km in subsiding sedimentary basins ( eg Niger Delta ) Sedimentary rocks comprise ~ 5% of the Earth'crust Shales/clays ~ 4% Sandstone ~ 0.75% Limestone ~ 0.25%

DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the name given to the chemical and physical changes that occur after deposition, to alter composition and texture, and thus convert soft sediment to rock i.e. to lithify it. Diagenesis involves a range of processes. On compaction, water is driven out, e.g. a mud with 60% water can be compacted to mudstone with 10% water. Unstable minerals may recrystallize, and the growth of clay minerals is favoured. eg Sand into sandstone, Clay into shale. Oil, gas and coal form as the result of diagenesis of the original sedimentary organic matter.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK CLASSIFICATION

DETRITAL
SILICA BASED
SIZE mm

CHEMICAL
CARBONATE VOLCANIC
1. EVAPORITIC SALT GYPSUM ANHYDRITE LIMESTONE DOLOMITE POTASH ETC

ORGANIC
1. ALGAL DIATOMITE 2. BACTERIA
BOG IRON ORE

DRIFT

ROCK VOLCANIC AGGLOMERA TE & BRECCIA CONGLOMERATE

BOULDER
200

SCREE

COBBLE
60

3. SHELLS, CORAL ETC LIMESTONE

PEBBLE
4

ALLUVIUM GRAVEL SAND SILT CLAY & MUD GRIT SANDSTONE SILTSTONE MUDSTONE & SHALE CHALK CARBONATE GRAVEL CARBONATE SAND 2. PRECIPITATE LIMESTONE DOLOMITE SILICA CHERT ETC

GRANULE
2

SAND
0.06

4. CARBON PEAT LIGNITE COAL OIL SHALE OIL

SILT
0.02

CLAY

CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
These are made up of weathered particles or detritus, e.g.shales, sandstones and conglomerates. Clastic (or detrital) sediments account for ~75% of the Earth's sediments due to the dominance of mechanical erosion. Shale is three times more common than any of the coarser clastics

Sandstone These are classified on the basis of their grain size. If the grains of a sandstone are all of a similar size, it is well sorted. If there is a large range in sizes it is poorly sorted. Sorting is related to the type of depositing current. E.g. beach sand is well sorted whereas debris-flow sand is poorly sorted.
Classification Grain Size (mm) Very coarse sand 1.0 - 2.0 Coarse sand 0.5 - 1.0 Medium sand 0.25 - 0.5 Fine sand 0.125 - 0.25 Very fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125

The mineralogy of a sandstone allows it to be traced back to its source. Quartz arenites contain almost entirely quartz grains. Arkoses contain abundant feldspar ( from weathering of Granite ).

Gravel and Conglomerate These contain large pebbles, and must have been deposited by stronger currents e.g. mountain rivers. Pebbles become more abraded, rounder and smaller the further they have been transported. The pebbles may also become aligned such that they point in the direction of current flow. Conglomerates form in higher energy environments, for example during storms or on talus slopes. These are the slopes at the foot of continental margins, coral reefs or mountains, where boulders and debris accumulate

Mud and Shale These are the most abundant sediments on Earth, but due to the fine grain size, they reveal least about their formation. The material is usually studied by electron microscopes and x-ray diffraction. They are defined as sediments with a a large component of claysize material (<1/256mm). Muds and shales are the result of slow settling from a very gentle transporting current. Below the depth of wave transport, muds and shales are constantly being formed on the ocean floor, blanketing ridges, continental shelves, trenches etc. Muds contain the remains of the decay of organisms and are therefore attractive to other organisms as a food source e.g. worms, burrowing clams, crustaceans etc. eat sediment, digest the organic matter and excrete the unused inorganic bulk. This leaves tracks, burrows and trails. Black shales contain abundant organic matter, having formed in a poorly oxygenated environment in which organic matter has not had chance to decay. On burial, this organic matter may alter to form oil and gas.

EVAPORITE & ORGANIC ENVIRONMENTS

See later

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd )

3 ENVIRONMENTS
CLASTIC ENVIRONMENTS
( refer to diagram in Earth Processes )

CONTINENTAL Desert Fluvial/Alluvial Lacustrine Glacial Piedmont

SHALLOW MARINE Lagoon Delta Shelf Coral Sea Intertidal Coal swamp

DEEP MARINE Submarine Fan Deep sea floor deposits

Physical sedimentation follow a general downhill trend in response to gravity i.e. erosion begins in mountains / slopes and material proceeds to rivers and eventually the sea. The depositional patterns of sediments are strongly influenced by tectonics and the resulting geomorphic

environment. Geologists analyse the sediments in order to decipher the paleogeography of the environment at the time of deposition. In Petroleum geology, it is important to know the size, form and characteristics of sand bodies ( as they are the most important petroleum reservoirs )

Fluvial/Alluvial This environment includes river channels, meander belts on floodplains, alluvial fans and alluvial plains. As the channel migrates, it leaves behind a distinctive sedimentary sequence

Desert : The desert environment is dry enough to allow sand to be blown by the wind (eolian sedimentation). The dunes consist of fine, well sorted sand grains, with characteristic patterns of cross-bedding, indicating wind direction. Dune deposits grade into alluvial deposits of desert rivers ( wadis ).

Glacial Glacial environments include alluvial environments in front of the ice, an eolian environment where glacial rock flour is transported by strong off-glacier winds and deposited as loess, and the glaciomarine environment where glaciers calve icebergs in the sea. Under the ice, the deposits are known as tills ( boulder clay ), and are heterogeneous and poorly sorted. Glacial environments can be recognised by the presence of striated bedrock (scraped by rocks in overlying ice), and tills

Deltaic The delta environment is complex, but acts as a major dropping point for river sediments. This environment is usually characterised by interbedded fluvial/alluvial freshwater deposits and shallow marine deposits. Coarsening upwards of sediments may be evident, developed as the river mouth advances, depositing coarser sands of the channel over finer silts and muds offshore

Beach and Bar Beach sands are well sorted and rounded, with bedding gently inclined towards the sea, and oscillation ripples in the surf zone

Shallow Marine Sedimentation on continental shelves is determined by the action of wave bottoms and tidal currents. Muds are deposited in

depressions sheltered from currents, sands and silts in areas of weaker currents and medium- to fine-grained sands in ribbons on shallower parts of the shelves.

Turbidite Turbidite currents formed by sub-marine slumps deposit a

characteristic sequence of sediments on the oceans abyssal plains. Turbidite sequences grade up from coarse structureless sand, to medium-grained, bedded sands, then finer sands and finally silts and muds. If the deposit formed close to the slump which caused the current, then the muddy top will be missing, and further away, the coarse base will be absent

Pelagic Pelagic clays are fine-grained red clays which are the nonturbidite clastic deposits of the deep sea. The rate of sedimentation is so slow that iron in the clay becomes oxidized by sea water, giving the red colour. The clays are finely laminated, and manganese crusts and nodules are common.

EVAPORITE/PRECIPITATE ENVIRONMENT

Evaporites These are salts formed by the evaporation of sea water, such as halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4). As sea water evaporates, a sequence of minerals is precipitated, starting with calcium carbonate and proceeding to sodium chloride and finally magnesium and potassium minerals. Evaporites are paleoclimatic indicators as the extensive evaporation is only found in tropical or subtropical seas, or in lakes of arid or semi-arid regions.

Carbonates These are the most common chemical sediments, formed due to the abundance of calcium and bicarbonate ions in sea water. Whilst many or most carbonates will have been formed by biological/organic action, carbonates can also form by evaporation/precipitation Ca2+ + HCO3- = CaCO3 + H+ Limestone (CaCO3) is the most common carbonate rock, and also the related rock dolomite, (Ca,Mg)(CO3)2

Carbonate is also deposited in other environments. The shallow marine platform in the area of the Bahamas island has lead to deposition of carbonate over a large area, forming a carbonate platform. Abundant here are carbonate sands or oolites. These are spherical grains of aragonite (the unstable form of calcium carbonate), which begin from a shell nucleus and are rolled around by currents, depositing layer upon layer of calcium carbonate

ORGANIC ENVIRONMENTS
Silica Most of the chemically deposited silica is secreted biologically by small algae and single-celled organisms. They populate much of the surface of the ocean and freshwater lakes, and extract silica from the water. Thus silica-rich ooze which may lithify and recrystallize to form cherts.

Coal Swamps are areas of rich plant growth, which, on dying, falls to the waterlogged soil. The water and its rapid burial prevents it from oxidizing, and thus the vegetation does not decay completely. It forms peat, which after burial and chemical transformations becomes lignite (soft, brown, coal-like material). Burial to greater depths and thus higher temperatures metamorphoses the lignite to bituminous (soft) coal and eventually to anthracite (hard) coal.

Carbonate oozes These formed from the remains of these organisms in the deep oceans, are buried and lithified to form chalk

Carbonate biological precipitation Many marine organisms, from one-celled animals to oysters, clams and other invertebrates, secrete some calcium carbonate. In this process of biological precipitation, the organisms extract calcium carbonate from the water and precipitate it to make their shells. Carbonate sedimentation is favoured in warm tropical

seas, especially in the coral reef habitat

Coral Reefs Reefs are thought to originate from corals and algae colonising the shores of volcanic islands and forming a fringing reef. As the

island slowly sinks due to subsidence associated with sea-floor spreading, the deposition of coral (calcium carbonate which cements to the dead coral below) may keep pace with the sinking, and gradually builds up the reef. Eventually the volcanic centre disappears and is replaced by an atoll (coral island) with a central lagoon

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

GENERAL
The term metamorphism is derived from a Greek word meaning change. It is a solid state process whereby the mineralogical and/or structural state of a rock is adjusted to changed conditions, usually of pressure and temperature, within the Earth's crust. Metamorphic processes occur

between the fields of igneous and sedimentary processes, usually in the temperature range 300-700C, and in the pressure range 0-15kb (ca. 045km thickness of crust). Pressures are the result of the weight of overlying rock, and those induced by compression ( ie at destructive margins )

Metamorphic rocks are thus those which have been physically and/or chemically changed by heat and/or pressure. These changes may be either and/or chemical/mineralogical

Metamorphic rocks may have previously been igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks

By mapping index minerals in the field, geologists can define broad zones or belts of metamorphism, ranging from least to most intense, in terms of temperature and pressure. Mineral assemblages (the presence of 2 or 3 minerals) are a guide to the conditions of P and T experienced by the rock. Assemblages formed below about 300C are referred to as very low grade, 300 - 500C as low grade, 500-600C as medium grade and over 600C as high grade, merging into rocks that have been partially melted. Note that the sequence of minerals formed is strongly dependent on the original rock type e.g. shale or basalt.

Metamorphic rocks formed at high T and P may later be subjected to another set of metamorphic conditions. This second set of conditions may be more or less intense than the first. If the second event is of lower T and P to the first, then the rocks will be lowered in grade. This process is called retrograde metamorphism

Much regional and contact metamorphism is isochemical, which means there is little change except for loss of water and carbon dioxide Metasomatism occurs when metamorphism results in changes in bulk chemical composition of the rock. This means that some chemical components have been transported in e.g. by hydrothermal fluids .

TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCK

THERMAL ( CONTACT ) Where the change is predominantly by heat, ie adjacent to igneous intrusion, and is thus of local nature

REGIONAL High temperature and pressure over wide areas in orogenic belts ( at plate margins ), and occurring at depth (~ kms ), eg at the root of mountain chains.

DYNAMIC ( DISLOCATION ) Where there is strong shearing, as at fault zones, and is thus of local nature

CHANGES DURING METAMORPHISM

Changes can be either textural, and/or chemical/mineralogical

TEXTURAL This can include changes in the lineation of the rock, due to different stress fields in different directions, and the orientation/reorientation of crystals

Textural changes will depend on the grade of metamorphism, and if the metamorphic grade is low, the original sedimentary structure ( eg bedding planes of sedimentary rocks ) may still be apparent ( relict bedding )

Textural changes may also be formed by the recrystallization of minerals

CHEMICAL/MINERALOGICAL New minerals may be formed, depending on the original composition, the grade of metamorphism, and the introduction of new materials by eg hydrothermal fluids

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
GENERAL The grade of metamorphism ( and thus the rocks formed ) will be dependent on the depth and location of the rock, ie in which part of the crust relative to the tectonic activity that the metamorphic process is taking place

ROCK TYPES Shale Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss

increasing metamorphic grade

Shale is the original sedimentary rock ( composed predominantly of clay minerals ) Slate is the lowest grade, and has a cleavage ( planes of break ) induced by the stress field Schist is a higher grade than slate or phyllite. Schist has now an orientation of cleavage with new crystals being aligned in that direction. The rock will split along its direction of schistosity

Gneiss is where the the formation of new crystals is advanced and they are aligned and partially segregated. Gneiss will tend not to split

Sandstone

Quartzite

When sandstone ( sedimentary ) is metamorphosed into quartzite, the grains of quartz are fused together. The pore space between the grains of sandstone disappear. ( Where the rock is predominantly quartz, then there is little potential for change in mineral content, with quartz being so stable )

INDEX MINERALS IN ZONE OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM

GRADE TEMP. 0C
200

INDEX MINERAL

TYPICAL ROCK TYPE

LOW MEDIUM

Chlorite Biotite Almandine (garnet) Staurolite & kyanite

Chlorite Schist

Garnetiferous Mica Schist

HIGH

700

Sillimanite

Gneiss

THERMAL ( CONTACT ) METAMORPHISM

GENERAL This occurs where temperature is high, for example adjacent to an igneous intrusion ( granite pluton in large scale, dyke or sill in small scale ). The 'country rocks' surrounding the magma become heated and their texture and mineralogy may be changed i.e. metamorphosed. The margin of altered rock surrounding the

intrusion is called a thermal aureole. The width and nature of the aureole depend on the nature of the country rocks, the size and temperature of the intrusion and its depth in the crust. Due to conduction, the temperature drops rapidly away from the pluton and therefore sequential zones of different grade

metamorphism occur (i.e. high grade close to intrusion and low grade further away). This may be on a scale of cm to km

depending on the temperature, and is reflected by variations in mineralogy and texture. The most spectacular aureoles may be expected where hot intrusions (i.e.1000C) are intruded at shallow crustal levels.

ROCK TYPES Rocks under thermal metamorphism are baked, and hardened, and may be spotted with the growth of new minerals. All traces of lineations ( bedding planes/cleaveage ) may be lost. These hard, tough rocks produced are called

hornfelses. Limestone ( sedimentary ) may be recrystallized ( calcite crystals ) to marble

DYNAMIC ( DISLOCATION ) METAMORPHISM

GENERAL In this type of metamorphism the dominant variable is pressure and shearing not temperature. Dynamic metamorphism is found in major fault zones within the earth's crust. Along fault planes, the rock may be mechanically ground and broken up by deformational pressures

ROCK TYPES Breccias ( angular broken rock ) and mylonites ( crushed sheared rock ) The main characteristic of this metamorphism is broken or strained crystals

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

This lecture is not designed to be a comprehensive first step to Petroleum Geology, rather a brief overview, and particularly for the student to realise the importance of the basic principles given in the last seven weeks of the Phase I, Basic Geoscience PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION REQUIREMENTS
The requirements for an accumulation of petroleum are as follows:-

( Origin in a sedimentary basin ) Source rock Reservoir rock Trap Seal ( Correct spatial and time arrangement of the various processes )

SEDIMENTARY BASINS
A knowledge of the mechanisms of plate tectonics is essential to the understanding of the origin and development of sedimentary basins

SOURCE ROCK

RESERVOIR ROCK
SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS These are the most important reservoir rocks

Porosity and permeability of sandstone is dependent on: Environment of deposition Diagenesis

Porosity & Permeability

Sand Grains

Texture and arrangement of the sand grains is governed by environment of deposition The amount of cementing and matrix material is dependent on original material ( eg if the material is a freshly weathered granite, there may be feldspars which will change to clays, to block up the pore space )

CARBONATE RESERVOIRS The environment of deposition may also be important in reservoir character of carbonates, but due to the ease of dissolving, diagenesis may be an overriding consideration

TRAPS

STRUCTURAL TRAPS

SEAL
A petroleum reservoir must be sealed, thus allowing for no escape of the generated hydrocarbons

SPATIAL AND TIME ARRANGEMENT

All the requirements for accumulation must come in the right order and relative position Eg The formation of the trap must predate the migration of petroleum