Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOR CITIES
Sponsored by:
Climate Protection
Manual
FOR CITIES
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................ 3
* Brianna Buntje is the Climate Protection Manual for Cities project director and primary
contact.
Review Panel:
• ICLEI staff
• Rocky Anderson, Mayor of Salt Lake City, Utah
• Susan Anderson, Director of Sustainable Development, City of Portland, Oregon
• Steve Nicholas, Director of Sustainability, Seattle, Washington
• Tabitha Crawford, Sr. Vice President, Actus Lend Lease
• Heidi VanGenderen, Sr. Associate Wirth Chair in Environmental and Community Policy
• Sarah Van Pelt, City of Boulder
• Maureen Hart, Sustainable Measures
• Mike Johnson, Viriditas Energy Consulting
• Susan Joy Hassol, Independent Climate Change Analyst
1
New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2007/02/03/science/earth/03climate.html?_r=1&ref=todayspaper&oref=slogin, 1 February 2007.
2
ICLEI’s First Responder Handbook, www.coolmayors.org.
4 CHAPTER 1: Introduction CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
The 9 sub-sections in “Best systems, updating to high transition to energy efficient
Bets” describe initiatives that efficiency street lighting, technology and practices. The
have lower initial costs, short increasing efficiency of water best practices in doing this are:
payback, positive return on and wastewater utilities and promoting the use of audits,
investment and can quickly establishing landfill to gas provide incentive programs for
reduce GHG emissions. In energy projects. private developers to provide
evaluating what programs cities higher energy efficiency
should put in place, cities should Municipalilities can modify standards, establishing energy
consider first the greatest sources city transportation in addition efficiency standards in city
of emissions, as shown by the to the residential building codes, work with
baseline inventory and then transportation options (see power plants and other
create the best package of residential transportation significant emitters, while
programs to quickly control below). Cities can reduce helping small and local
emissions. emissions from municipal businesses to save money by
vehicle fleets through the use of undertaking energy savings
The purpose of chapter 5 is to hybrids, alternative fuel measures.
provide you a variety of vehicles and idle reduction
programs and case studies. The policies and campaigns as well The best ways to support
sections show how these as establishing programs to residents in increasing their
programs have worked for other reduce city employee driving. energy efficiency at home is by
cities, describe their return on Municipalities can also modify supporting residential home
investment (ROI) and provide school buses, waste haulers, efficiency upgrades,
resources for more information. ambulance services and other establishing local policies to
Chapter 5’s Best Bets Section (9 contracts to use alternative promote renewable energy,
documents) highlights best fuels. providing lower-income
practices cities can implement weatherization assistance,
within their own municipal Municipal waste reduction and addressing split-incentives in
operations, as well as programs recycling programs can reduce renter occupied homes,
cities can put into place to help emissions. creating home size restrictions
residents and businesses reduce and taxing large residential
their emissions and become more The city can also establish energy consumers, and
energy efficient (bold green text purchasing programs to promoting energy and water
signifies best practices). procure energy efficient efficiency by smart metering,
appliances, purchase materials price signals and price
Best bets include: that require less energy, and structuring.
reduce the amount of waste it
In municipal buildings cities produces. The best practice is The residential transportation
can retrofit city buildings with to create efficiency standards section discusses how after
energy efficient lighting and for office equipment, adopt public transportation options
appliances, establish recycled/salvage product use are established; cities can offer
LEED/energy efficient policies, and develop local residents and businesses
standards for new municipal purchasing programs. incentives to modify their
construction and major transportation uses. The best
renovations, and perform Finally cities can work to practices are to first make
energy audits for existing encourage utility providers to cities pedestrian and bicycle
municipal buildings. offer energy efficiency services friendly, implement school and
and to have a minimum campus transportation
For other infrastructure within commodity that is to be from management programs,
the city, best practices include renewable sources. encourage or require local
installing Light-Emitting Diode businesses to implement
(LED) traffic signals and Cities can work to support commuter trip reduction
traffic flow management local businesses in their programs, provide better
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 1: Introduction 5
access to public transportation, Education, including examples Chapter 7 Successful
install park & ride facilities of educational programs and implementation of actions
and provide car sharing materials that cities are using identified in the Local Climate
programs, offer location to promote energy efficiency Action Plan depends on a
efficient mortgages and and climate protection; and number of factors including
provide incentives for hybrid
management and staffing,
or low emission vehicle use. Waste management, including
waste disposal options and financing, a realistic timeline
Chapter 5’s Long Term waste reduction goals. and stakeholder involvement
Initiatives section (5 sub- in appropriate aspects of the
sections) gives cities a look at The last two sections of chapter 5 plan to build community
more comprehensive carbon discuss ways to reduce the support. Most cities find it
reduction opportunities. It impact of continuing emissions useful to appoint a climate
packages the best bets with those (including urban reforestation, coordinator to ensure
that have lower or longer sequestration, and carbon offset continued implementation.
paybacks. That way, fast and cap and trade programs). It This manual includes a list of
payback measures can also discusses policies cities can city and state climate action
“subsidize” the longer-payback implement to help residents
plans in the last chapter 7.
measures, enabling cities to adapt to climate impacts, making
achieve even greater carbon the adjustments to survive the
The Chapter also presents the
reductions. This section global warming already
extensive resources that Natural
describes the issues that need to underway.
Capitalism Solutions, manual
be considered in the transition to
contributors and reviewers have
radically reduced emissions. Chapter 6 covers how cities
collected while writing and
should monitor the reductions
editing this manual. This section
Long term initiatives include: they achieve through
includes sample Local Climate
implementation of actions to
Action Plans, which will be very
Sustainable urban planning, reduce GHG emissions.
useful to those cities just
including case studies of cities Tracking progress builds
initiating this process.
using smart growth concepts in political support, informs the
the redesign of the community process and often drives more
or housing; investment by the city in Notes on reading this manual
advancing climate protection.
Sustainable agriculture, Verification of progress ensures These documents have been
including examples of how integrity and accuracy in the through a peer-review process.
communities are supporting city’s efforts to achieve its GHG But they can always be made
the conversion to organics, no- reduction target. This chapter better. Please contact
till and sustainable practices; discusses metrics, how to office@natcapsolutions.org with
measure performance and how any questions, comments you
Transitioning to alternative often to do it. Any system of have, or mistakes you find.
fuels, including examples of metrics should include not only
cities supporting the actual emissions reductions, but An effort has been made to
diversification of fuel as well as also a way to evaluate progress archive all .pdf document
discussing ethanol, biodiesel, on a city’s long term goals with referenced on the Natural
wind powered, plug-in the use of indicators. The Capitalism Solutions web site to
electric/hybrid; chapter recommends that a city ensure access to these documents
celebrate its successes to build in the future. Unfortunately, this
Sustainable energy planning, on momentum and encourage precaution cannot be taken for
including information on future participation. Examples web pages, which may go out of
sustainable energy options and of awards are provided. date over time. The day each site
distributed generation; was accessed is included in the
footnotes.
Each of the following three sections serves as individual arguments. Feel free to read and use these sections
individually:
Drivers of Change ......................... 8 The Business Case for Protecting Risk Mitigation.............................40
Global Warming: Undeniable the Climate .................................. 19 The Risks Citizens Face are Real .40
Science ........................................... 8 No Regrets Strategy ..................... 20 The Risk Profiles of Most
Loss of Natural Capital.................. 12 Businesses Face Growing Pressure Communities .................................41
Strategic Resource Trends: Peak Oil to Reduce Emissions .................... 21 Risks of Blackouts or Power
and Sweet Water........................... 13 The Emerging Greenhouse Gas Interruptions ..................................41
Peak Oil ..................................... 14 Marketplace .................................. 23 Risks of Volatile Fuel Prices ..........42
Drinking Water ........................... 16 The Business Case for Not Waiting Risks to Human Health and
Lifestyles of Health and for Regulation ............................... 24 Ecological Resources ....................42
Sustainability (LOHAS): The The Impact on Small Businesses.. 26 Environmental Risks......................43
Sustainability Imperative ............... 17 Combining Energy Efficiency and Heat-Related Deaths and Illnesses
Renewables ................................. 27 ......................................................43
Ability to Capture Opportunities .... 29 Higher Levels of Air Pollution ........43
Cities and Companies—The New Increases in Infectious Diseases ...44
Leaders......................................... 31 Storm-Related Deaths and Injuries45
Tax Savings .................................. 32 Mitigating the Heath Risks.............46
CASE STUDY: States of Michigan Regulatory Risks ...........................47
and Oregon................................... 33 CASE STUDY: Evanston, IL.........48
Coast-to-Coast Pioneers............... 34 CASE STUDY: Ft. Collins, CO .....49
CASE STUDY: U.S. Army............ 34 How Can The Risks Be Managed?50
Business Risks of Failing To Address
Climate Change ............................ 34
Legal Risks ................................... 34
Risk of Shareholder Resolutions... 35
Risks of Higher Insurance Costs and Chapter 2 Additional Resources....52
Burdens ........................................ 37
Credit Risks .................................. 38
Conclusion ........................................
3
Pew Center for Global Climate Change, www.pewclimate.org/hurricanes.cfm, 30 November 2006.
8 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Drivers of Change
the previous record of and the increasing value of their largest insurance company in the
$145billion4 in 2004. In contrast, property. But it also results from U.K., forecasts that at the current
the World Trade Center losses larger areas along and inland rate of increase of the property
were less than $40 billion.5 from the coasts experiencing damages, by the year 2065, the
more severe weather patterns that cost of these disasters will be
The money paid out by insurance cause more extensive and higher than the entire world
companies for weather-related expensive damage. Hurricane economic production.7
losses in 2004 was more than Katrina in August 2005 was only
double its payouts in 2003 ($65 one of the catastrophic storms The following figure shows the
billion) and more than four times around the world. evolution of the economic costs,
its payouts in 2001 ($36 billion).6 and insured costs of natural
This reflects the number of The frequency of major natural disasters worldwide over the past
people at risk in storm-prone disasters is now three times what decades.
areas like coasts, it was in the 1960s. CGNU, the
8
Figure: Evolution of Economic Costs and Insured Costs of Natural Disasters Worldwide
In 2005, insurers faced claims for of the world’s largest, announced National Oceanic and
seven of the ten most expensive that they would give customers Atmospheric Administration
hurricanes in history. In who reduce their carbon (NOAA) Administrator D. James
response, insurers like AIG, one emissions a break on their rates.9 Baker says, “Our climate is
4
Jim Lobe, “2005 Costliest Year for Extreme Weather”, Interpress Service, 7 Dec 2005
Available at, www.truthout.org/docs_2005/120705E.shtml, 30 October 2006.
5
Thomas Atkins, “Insurer warns of global warming catastrophe”, Reuters, 3 March 2004.
6
Munich re, website: www.munichre.com/, 19 July 2006.
7
Dr. Andrew Dlugolecki, director of the CGNU, sixth largest insurance company in the world, in his report to the 6th Conference of Parties
(COP 6) at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 23 November 2000. See
www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/events/2001/cop65/cc_unep_press_cop65_20010718.pdf, 30 October 2006.
8
© 2003 GeoRisikoForschung, Müncheneruck.
9
“Insurance Giant AIG Poised To Issue Climate Change Strategy,” 5 April 2006, Inside Green Business.
10
NOAA web site: see www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s412.htm, 18 April 2000.
11
news.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id=62176, 11 September 2006.
12
Los Angeles Times, “Hurricane Center Chief Issues Final Warning”, Williams, Carol, http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-
na-hurricane3jan03,1,7549657.story?coll=la-headlines-nation, 7 January 2007.
13
Perlman, David “Warning of Impact of Global Warming: Scientists forecast economic disruptions.” San Francisco Chronicle (29 January
1999) pg A-4.
14
Geoffrey Lean, “Global Warming Approaching Point of No Return, Warns Leading Climate Expert,” The Independent (U.K.), 23 January
2005.
15
What makes Pachauri’s noteworthy is that he was put into his position by the Bush administration as a Chairman who would not make
climate an issue. “A memorandum from Exxon to the White House in early 2001 specifically asked it to get the previous chairman, Dr.
Robert Watson, the chief scientist of the World Bank, "replaced at the request of the U.S." The Bush administration then lobbied other
countries in favor of Dr. Pachauri—whom the former vice-president Al Gore called the "let's drag our feet" candidate, and got him elected
to replace Dr. Watson, who had repeatedly called for urgent action.” Global Warming Approaching Point of No Return, Warns Leading
Climate Expert By Geoffrey Lean, The Independent on Sunday U.K, 23 January 2005.
10 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Drivers of Change
the results, Dr. Jim Hansen, the slowed and reduced if the earth threat that abrupt climate change
chief scientist on the NASA is,to avoid climatic havoc with could occur. This increases the
study stated, devastating heat waves, droughts urgency of corporate and
We have found the smoking floods and rising sea-levels municipal action.20
gun. There can no longer be sinking low-lying island states
substantial doubt that human- and hitting seaboard cities.17 The International Energy Agency
made gases are the cause of projects global emissions to
most observed warming. Human activity has increased the climb another 60% by 2030.21
CO2 content of the atmosphere
The study also found that the by 20% in the last four decades, Many scientists now state that to
ocean is slowly releasing this and today adds three times more stabilize climate, the world will
stored heat, worsening the annually than in 1960.18 The need to reduce emissions of CO2
changes in climate already levels of CO2 have leapt abruptly and other GHGs 60-80% below
measured. Previously, skeptics over the past two years, current levels. In June 2006,
claimed that the models linking suggesting that climate change California Governor Arnold
human GHG emissions to may be accelerating out of Schwarzenegger called for that
observed changes in the control. state to achieve an 80% reduction
temperature of the world’s by 2050.22
atmosphere could not account for Scientists are growing
all of the warming that should be increasingly worried that climate The United Kingdom had already
taking place, if the connection instability will pass a threshold, pledged to implement such cuts
between human activity and after which human action will be and sees the economic feasibility
climate change were as strong as unable to stop “runaway climate of doing so. In October 2006 a
some scientists claimed.16 change.” In 2001, the New report to the British Government
Scientist reported, “Climate concluded,
In March 2006, the UN’s weather scientists have for the first time “Global warming could cost
agency, the World formally warned that global the world's economies up to
Meteorological Organization warming could unleash 20% of their gross domestic
(WMO) warned that greenhouse catastrophic and irreversible product (GDP) if urgent
gases (GHGs) including carbon changes to key planetary action is not taken to stop
dioxide (CO2)—the main cause processes that make the world floods, storms and natural
of global warming and climate habitable”19 catastrophes…. Sir Nicholas
change—had reached their Indeed, recent science has raised told the Cabinet the world
highest atmospheric levels ever the concern that global warming would have to pay 1% of its
in human history. Such may be happening faster than the annual GDP to avert
emissions, WMO stated, must be models predicted; raising the catastrophe. But doing
16
J. Hansen, et al, “Earth’s Energy Imbalance: Confirmation and Implications,” Science magazine, Vol. 308, 3 June 2005, p. 1431. See
pubs.giss.nasa.gov/abstracts/2005/Hansen_etal_1.html, 30 October 2006. The article stated that the climate model, driven mainly by
increasing human-made greenhouse gases and aerosols among other forces, calculates that Earth is now absorbing 0.85±0.15 W/m2
more energy from the Sun than it is emitting to space. This imbalance is confirmed by precise measurements of increasing ocean heat
content over the past 10 years. Implications include:
(i) expectation of additional global warming of about 0.6°C without further change of atmospheric composition;
(ii) confirmation of the climate system's lag in responding to forces, implying the need for anticipatory actions to avoid any specified level
of climate change; and
(iii) likelihood of acceleration of ice sheet disintegration and sea level rise.
17
Reuters, “WMO Sees Link Between Global Warming and Hurricanes,”
www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/35795/story.htm, 27 March 2006.
18
WorldWatch Institute, Vital Signs 2003. Molly O. Sheehan wrote "Carbon Emissions and Temperature Climb," pp. 40-41. In this section
there is a chart called "Global Average Temperature and Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, 1950-2002, and Atmospheric
Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide, 1960-2002."
19
New Scientist.com, www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn443, 01 February 2007.
20
Geoffrey Lean, “Global Warming Approaching Point of No Return, Warns Leading Climate Expert,” The Independent, (U.K.) January 23,
2005.
21
International Energy Agency, “World Energy Outlook 2004,” published October, 2004. www.iea.org, 30 October 2006.
22
Carolyn Marshall, The New York Times, 1 June 2005.
The planet faces unprecedented A stable climate is an important Lester Brown of the Earth Policy
perils. However, as described in contributor to economic stability, Institute points out that.
the body of this manual, the but it is only one of the many Accounting systems that do
answers exist and are cost services that intact ecosystems not tell the truth can be costly.
effective. The problem is that we provide to our economy. Healthy Faulty corporate accounting
have failed so far to implement ecosystems provide the provision systems that leave costs off
them. of clean water, productive soils, the books have driven some
the ability to detoxify society’s of the world’s largest
Stabilizing atmospheric CO2 wastes and dozens of other corporations into bankruptcy.
levels will not be easy, but it can services that we take for granted, The risk with our faulty
be done. Using a combination of but which we would sorely miss global economic accounting
energy efficiency and renewable if they were to cease to function. system is that it so distorts the
energy, communities can shift economy that it could one day
from an economy based on Such scientists as Dr. Gretchen lead to economic decline and
hydrocarbons to one running on Daly and economists like Dr. collapse.
carbohydrates. All of the Robert Costanza estimate that the
technologies exist to shift from economic value of the services In the same article, Brown also
coal and oil to much more benign that intact ecosystems provide to quotes Øystein Dahle, former
sources of energy. In his book, our economy is at least $30 Vice President of Exxon for
Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet trillion dollars a year, or the same Norway and the North Sea, who
Under Stress and a Civilization as the entire value of the stated, “Socialism collapsed
in Trouble, Lester Brown economy that is counted.26 None because it did not allow the
describes a policy to cut carbon of this “capital” appears on market to tell the economic truth.
emissions in half by 2015.24 conventional balance sheets, Capitalism may collapse because
however, so “business as usual” it does not allow the market to
An analysis by the German treats these “ecosystem services” tell the ecological truth.”27
23
Andy McSmith, Colin Brown, Climate change: US economist's grim warning to Blair's Cabinet, 27 October 2006,
news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1932727.ece.
24
Excerpted from Chapter 10, “Stabilizing Climate,” in Lester R. Brown, W.W. Norton & Company, 2006.
25
Environment DAILY, 21 March 2006,
www.wbcsd.org/Plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?DocTypeId=32&ObjectId=MTg1NTE&URLBack=%2Ftemplates%2FTemplateWBCSD2%
2Flayout%2Easp%3Ftype%3Dp%26MenuId%3DMTY5%26doOpen%3D1%26ClickMenu%3DLeftMenu%26CurPage%3D3%26SortOrder
%3Dpubdate%2520desc%2C%2520source%2520asc, 30 October 2006.
26
Costanza, Robert and Carl Folke. 1997. “Valuing Ecosystem Services with Efficiency, Fairness, and Sustainability as Goals, in Gretchen
Daily, ed., Natures Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems, Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 49-68, William K.
Stevens, "How Much Is Nature Worth? For You, $33 Trillion," New York Times, 20 May 1997.
27
Earth Policy Institute, www.earthpolicy.org/Books/Seg/PB2ch12_ss2.htm, 11 September 2006.
12 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Drivers of Change
In 1992, 1,600 scientists, to be endowed with intelligence resources. “The heart of the
including a majority of living and consciousness. problem is this: protection of
Nobel Prize winners in the nature’s services is unlikely to be
sciences, issued the warning that: In April 2005, the United Nations a priority so long as they are
A great change in stewardship released the Millennium perceived to be free and limitless
of the Earth and the life on it Ecological Assessment.30 The by those using them.”
is required if vast human study by 1,360 experts in 95
misery is to be avoided and nations drew on the work of 22 “We simply must establish
our global home on this planet national academies of science policies that require natural costs
is not be irretrievably from around the world. It to be taken into account for all
mutilated...If not checked, reported that a rising human economic decisions,” he added.
many of our current practices population has polluted or over-
may so put at serious risk the exploited two-thirds of the The Board of Directors of the
future that we wish for human ecological systems on which life Millennium Assessment stated:
society and the plant and depends, ranging from clean air The overriding conclusion of
animal kingdoms, and may so to fresh water, in the past 50 this assessment is that it lies
alter the living world, that it years. within the power of human
will be unable to sustain life societies to ease the strains we
in the manner that we know. “At the heart of this assessment are putting on the natural
Fundamental changes are is a stark warning,” said the 45- services of
urgent if we are to avoid the member board of the Millennium the planet, while continuing to
collision our present course Ecosystem Assessment. “Human use them to bring better living
will bring about.28 activity is putting such strain on standards to all…Achieving
the natural functions of Earth that this, however, will require
In 1998, the American Museum the ability of the planet’s radical changes in the way
of Natural History surveyed ecosystems to sustain future nature is treated at every level
professional biologists. A generations can no longer be of decision-making and new
striking 69% of them agree that taken for granted.31 ways of co-operation between
we are living now through the government, business and
“sixth extinction.” This species UN Secretary-General Kofi civil society. The warning
extinction seems to be happening Annan observed, “The signs are there for all of us to
more rapidly and affecting a Assessment shows how human see. The future now lies in
wider range of biodiversity than activities are causing our hands.
any of the previous five. It is environmental damage on a
even faster than the last massive scale throughout the
extinction, over 60 million years world, and how biodiversity—the Strategic Resource Trends:
ago, when the dinosaurs very basis for life on earth—is Peak Oil and Sweet Water
disappeared. The scientists claim declining at an alarming rate.”
that we will lose between 30% There are two key resources that
and 70% of the planet’s Asked what we should do now communities have taken for
biodiversity within a time span of and what we should plan to do granted for at least a century:
only 20 to 30 years.29 The over the next 50 years, the cheap fossil energy and the
difference from all previous Assessment’s Director, Dr. Reid availability of sweet, or sufficient
extinctions is that this one is due replied that there must be a drinking, water. There is a
to the actions of one species— fundamental reappraisal of how growing consensus that the
our own—the species that claims we view the world’s natural availability and cost of these two
28
Union of Concerned Scientists, www.worldtrans.org/whole/warning.html, 11 September 2006.
29
Janet Larson, The Sixth Great Extinction: A status report, Earth Policy Institute, March 2004 www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update35.htm,
30 October 2006.
30
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, www.maweb.org/, 30 October 2006.
31
“The State of the World? It Is on the Brink of Disaster”, The Independent UK, Wednesday 30 March 2005,
www.independent.co.uk/c/?ec=500, and www.truthout.org/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi/34/10059, 30 October 2006.
If Hubbert is right, and world oil least ten years to adjust so that heights is that China has entered
production will peak in 2010, this we avoid unprecedented the world oil market. If the
is bad news for economies that economic disruption.34 Recent Chinese use oil at the same rate
depend on fossil fuels. Authors price run-up in oil may be the as Americans, and continue to
like James Kuntsler, in his book, beginning of this phenomenon. grow their economy at their
The Long Emergency, predict Whatever their cause, high and current rate, by 2031 China will
that peak oil literally will result rising energy prices are already need 99 million barrels of oil a
in the end of civilization, as we devastating many communities. day. The world currently
know it.33 The Department of They are also wreaking havoc on extracts 89 million barrels per
Energy funded a study in 2005 developing countries. day and may not be able to lift
that predicted peak global more. Withdrawing oil too
production in 2020, but it also Part of the reason that the world rapidly can cause fields to
stated that it would take us at oil prices are now at record collapse, actually reducing the
32
Hubbert Peak of Oil Production website: www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert, 13 September 2006.
33
James Kuntsler, The Long Emergency, Grove Press, 2006.
34
Department of Energy, Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation & Risk Management, Feb. 2005.
www.netl.doe.gov/publications/others/pdf/Oil_Peaking_NETL.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter8/DOE_peakoil.pdf, 26 September 2006.
14 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Drivers of Change
amount that can ultimately be increased nearly 200% in the past Russia, the world’s largest gas
extracted. five years and has almost tripled supplier, has repeatedly
in cost.35 Neither demand nor threatened to turn off the supply
It is not only liquid petroleum price for natural gas is expected unless various European
resources being tapped out. to decrease any time in the near countries take a more congenial
Though less often discussed, the future. Moreover, it is very position to its demands. In May
U.S. also faces declining output expensive to import from 2006, The financial Times
of natural gas fields in the overseas in liquid form and we reported, “Dick Cheney, the U.S.
foreseeable future. Natural gas is lack the port facilities to receive Vice-President, delivered a
often considered the transition foreign shipments. Rising stinging criticism of Russian
fuel that will enable society to natural gas costs almost always president Vladimir Putin’s rule,
move away from dependence on translate into higher electricity warning the Kremlin against
more carbon intensive coal and costs, as most peak power using gas and oil supplies as
oil. It is already in widespread generation across the U.S. comes “tools of intimidation and
use. Heating homes, producing from gas-fired combustion blackmail” and accusing the
electricity, agricultural fertilizers turbines or combined-cycle Russian authorities of “unfairly”
and pesticides, and numerous plants.As supplies tighten, geo- restricting the rights of their
other products use natural gas. political concerns also rise. citizens.”36
Demand for natural gas has
Combined with the challenge of the U.S. government the time has come to heed this
climate change, peak oil and gas recommended an urgent advice.37 As described more,
is very worrisome for many transition to renewable energy. there is a great deal that
communities. As far back as the An increasing number of individuals and communities can
1950s, the Paley Commission of communities are deciding that do to extract themselves from the
35
Energy Shop, website: www.energyshop.com/es/homes/gas/gaspriceforecast.cfm, August 23, 2006.
36
Stefan Wagstyl, “Cheney rebukes Putin on energy ‘blackmail’,” Financial Times, www.ft.com/cms/s/25eb1452-db62-11da-98a8-
0000779e2340.html, 4 May 2006.
37
Post Carbon Institute, website: www.postcarbon.org/, 11 September 2006.
44
BBC News, “Brazil's Alcohol Cars Hit 2 Million Mark”, Friday 18 August 2006.
45
Arizona Water Resource, cals.arizona.edu/AZWATER/awr/dec99/Feature2.htm, 11 September 2006.
46
Ibid.
47
USA Today, www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-01-26-water-usat_x.htm, 11 September 2006.
48
Hawken, Lovins, Lovins 1999, Natural Capitalism, Little Brown, P. 107-124.
49
Global Footprint Network, www.footprintnetwork.org/, 30 October 2006.
50
“Learning From China, Why the Western Economic Model Will not Work for the World”, www.earth-
policy.org/Updates/2005/Update46.htm, Lester R. Brown, March 9, 2005.
51
2006 saw cover stories on the Green Trend in such mainstream magazines as Newsweek, Time, Vanity Fair, Elle, Fortune, Wired,
Business Week and others. "Carbon neutral" was the New Oxford American Dictionary "word of the year,"
blog.oup.com/oupblog/2006/11/what_do_al_gore.html.
52
LOHAS website, www.lohas.com/about.htm, 11 September 2006.
53
Ray, Paul, and Anderson, Sherry, The Cultural Creatives, Three Rivers Press (October 2, 2001) ISBN: 0609808451
54
LOHAS website, www.lohas.com/about.htm, 30 October 2006.
55
Paul Hawken, Natural Capital Institute, www.naturalcapital.org/Projects.html, 30 October 2006.
18 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Drivers of Change
The Business Case the company’s GHG emissions
by 1% by 2012. Without any
honest emotion or spiritual
reverence, and has absolutely
for Protecting the action, GE’s emissions would everything to do with the
Climate have gone up 40%.57 corporation's rabid manifesto:
cost-cutting and profit.
Consumers’ desire for a GE’s announcement was rapidly
healthier, more sustainable world followed by an even more The reason Scott promised
has driven even mainstream significant environmental that Wal-Mart will double the
institutions to make major commitment from Wal-Mart, fuel efficiency of their huge
changes. Perhaps most exciting, now considered the largest truck fleet within a decade?
the business community is company in the world. In 2006, Not to save the air, but to save
joining the effort to reduce global Lee Scott, the CEO of Wal-Mart, $300 million in fuel costs per
warming and to implement more announced that his company year. The reason they aim to
sustainable practices. would undertake a major effort to increase store efficiency and
reduce its emissions of GHGs. reduce greenhouse gasses by
In May 2005, Jeffrey Immelt, the He set a goal of supplying his 20% across all stores
man who replaced Jack Welch at stores with 100% renewable worldwide? To save money
the helm of General Electric energy. Wal-Mart is in heating and electrical bills,
(GE), stood with Jonathan Lash, experimenting with green roofs and also to help lessen the
the President of World Resources and green energy (which is now impact of global warming,
Institute (WRI), a leading used to power four Canadian which is indirectly causing
environmental organization, to stores, for a total of 39,000 more violent weather, which
announce the creation of GE megawatts—the single biggest in turn endangers production
Ecomagination. The two co- purchase of renewable energy in and delivery and Wal-Mart’s
authored an article in The Canadian history). The company ability to, well, sell more
Washington Post titled, “The pledged to become the largest crap. Ah, capitalism.59
Courage to Develop Clean organic retailer and to increase
Energy.”56 the efficiency of its vehicle fleet In reviewing the leading business
by 25% over the next three years. stories of the year 2006,
Immelt committed GE, the sixth It will eliminate 30% of the columnist Joel Makower, a
largest company in the world, energy used in store and invest veteran commentator on green
and the only company that would $500 million in sustainability issues wrote:
have been on the Fortune 500 list projects.58
if it had existed in 1900 and is Two thousand six may be the
still on it today, to implement An unabashedly astonished year that green business
aggressive plans to reduce article in the San Francisco Bay crossed the line from a
emission of GHGs, spending Guardian reflected: movement to a market. It was
$1.5 billion a year on research in Wal-Mart’s rationale for all of long in coming, of course,
cleaner technologies. As part of this, of course, has absolutely with several watershed
the initiative, Immelt promised to zero to do with any sort of moments…In 2006, GE
double GE’s investment in deep concern for the planet initiatives to harness “green”
environmental technologies to (though it does make for good as an engine for topline
$1.5 billion by 2010, and reduce PR), nothing at all about growth hit their stride…
actual humanitarian beliefs or ahead of its plan to reach
56
Jeffrey Immelt and Jonathan Lash, Washington Post, May 21, 2005; Page A19.
57
Marc Gunther, “The Green Machine,” Fortune Magazine, July 27 2006
money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/08/07/8382593/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
58
Ibid.
59
Mark Morford SF Gate, “Can You Still Hate Wal-Mart? It's a shockingly eco-friendly plan from the world's most toxic retailer. Did hell just
freeze over?” SF Gate, May 24, 2006
www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2006/05/24/notes052406.DTL, 30 October 2006.
60
Greenbiz.com, Joel Makower, Top Green Business Stories of 2006, January 3 2007,
www.greenbiz.com/news/reviews_third.cfm?NewsID=34384.
61
USA Today, “Group: ExxonMobil paid to mislead public,” http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2007-01-03-global-
warming_x.htm, Updated 4 January 2007.
62
Marc Gunther, “The Green Machine,” Fortune Magazine, July 27 2006
money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/08/07/8382593/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
20 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
cost-effective for non-profit • first mover advantage; effectively adopt a leadership
(including government) • improved corporate role—is climate change.”65 The
organizations.63 Reducing the governance; Climate Group website66 lists
amount of energy that a business • the ability to drive case studies of companies and
uses reduces costs and directly innovation and retain communities that are reducing
enhances a company’s bottom competitive advantage; their emissions and saving
line. Failing to reduce energy • enhanced reputation and money.
use, and tolerating carbon brand development;
emissions as part of “business as • market share capture and
usual” is actually a high-risk product differentiation; Businesses Face Growing
strategy for a business or for a • ability to attract and retain Pressure to Reduce
community. the best talent; Emissions
• increased employee
productivity and health; In November 2004, essentially all
Companies that reduce GHG • improved communication, of the world’s industrial nations
emissions, especially in the creativity, and morale in ratified the Kyoto Protocol to
context of a broader whole- the workplace; reduce the emissions of GHG
system corporate sustainability • improved value chain gasses (the U.S. and Australia are
strategy, will achieve multiple management; and the only significant holdouts).
benefits for shareholders beyond • better stakeholder The Protocol came into force
reducing their contribution to relations. February 16, 2005, launching a
global climate change. new “carbon-constrained” era for
Governments that take a similar Reduced Risk: the 141 countries that ratified it.67
course will accrue similar • insurance access and cost Among its many provisions, the
benefits to their citizen containment; accord established regulations
stakeholders.64 • legal compliance; limiting the amount of carbon
• ability to manage exposure that nations can emit, and created
These benefits include: to increased carbon a carbon market through which
regulations; companies that reduce further
Enhanced financial • reduced shareholder than they are required can sell
performance from energy and activism; and this extra reduction to companies
materials cost savings in: • reduced risks of exposure unable to meet their targets.
• industrial processes; to higher carbon prices.
• facilities design and European countries, as members
management; Leading CEOs around the world of the Kyoto Protocol, are now
• fleet management; and know this. CEOs surveyed by bound by this mandatory trading
• government operations. the World Economic Forum in regime. The European
Davos in 2000, stated that for Commission plans to cut energy
Enhanced core business value: them, “The greatest challenge use 20% by 2020 and increase
• sector performance facing the world at the beginning European use of renewable
leadership; of the 21st Century—and the energy to 12% by 2012.
• greater access to capital; issue where business could most
63
Amory Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins, Climate: Making Sense and Making Money, Rocky Mountain Institute, 1997.
64
For a detailed synthesis of this thesis refer to K. Hargroves, and M. Smith, The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities,
Innovation and Governance in the 21st Century, Earthscan, (2005). Developed by The Natural Edge Project www.naturaledgeproject.net,
30 October 2006.
65
Douglas G. Cogan, “Corporate Governance and Climate Change: Making the Connection”, a CERES Sustainable Governance Project
Report Prepared by the Investor Responsibility Research Center, June 2003.
66
The Climate Group, www.theclimategroup.org/, 11 September 2006.
67
As of February 2005, 141 countries have ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Seven including the United States, Australia and Indonesia signed it
but have so far refused to ratify.
74
Figure: STMicroelectronics Commitment to Carbon Neutrality
68
STMicroelectronics (2003) Sustainable Development report,
www.bl.uk/pdf/eis/stmicroelectronics2003is.pdf, 11 September 2006, 30 October 2006.
69
PFC (perfluorocarbon) is a powerful greenhouse gas emitted during the production of aluminum; a fluorocarbon is a halocarbon in which
some hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluorine; used in refrigerators and aerosols.
70
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) is another potent greenhouse gas. It one of the most popular insulating gases.
71
Conventional power stations that burn fossil fuels give off a lot of heat, wasting as much as 70% of the energy they consume.
72
STMicroelectronics Environmental Report, 2001. It further reported that no energy efficiency project undertaken incurred more than a
three year payback. The source of the correlation of years payback to real after-tax rate of return is Hawken, Lovins, and Lovins, Natural
Capitalism, p.267.
73
IC Insights, IC Insights Announces 1Q 05 Top Ten Semiconductor Supplier Ranking,” from www.icinsights.com, 30 October 2006
74
STMicroelectronics Sustainable Development Report 2003.
22 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
The Emerging Greenhouse derivatives.76 such businesses as DuPont, and
Gas Marketplace American Electric Power, IBM,
CCX is North America’s only, Ford Motor Co. IBM, Motorola,
In January 2005, an independent and the world’s first, GHG Dow Corning, Waste
commission of businesspeople, emission registry, reduction and Management and Baxter Health
politicians and scientists75 trading system for all six GHGs Care) representing over 8% of all
released a report to the G8 of which CO2 dominates. It direct U.S. GHG emissions. The
meeting, urging member recently announced a partnership State of New Mexico, cities such
countries to cut carbon to create the Canadian Climate as Chicago and Boulder,
emissions, double their research Exchange, and is in negotiations universities such as Presidio
spending on green technology with such countries as China and School of Management, Tufts
and work with India and China to India. It also offers offset and University of Oklahoma, and
build on the Kyoto Protocol’s projects in the United States, a wide array of smaller
mechanisms for carbon-saving Canada, Mexico and Brazil. It is businesses and non-profit groups
projects. The report a self-regulatory, rules-based are also members.77
recommended that the major exchange designed and governed
countries agree to generate a by its members. CCX has proven that businesses
quarter of their electricity from can engage in reduction of
renewable sources by 2025 and Members make a voluntary but emissions and remain profitable.
to shift agricultural subsidies legally binding commitment to But it is only the first of a
from food crops to biofuels. reduce GHG emissions. By the growing number of efforts to
end of Phase I (December, 2006) create carbon markets in the
The report recommended wider all members will have reduced United States. The seven
international use of emission direct emissions 4% below a Northeastern states have
trading schemes, which are baseline period of 1998-2001. approved the Regional
already in use in the European Phase II, which extends the CCX Greenhouse Gas Initiative, a
Union, under which unused CO2 reduction program through 2010, mandatory regulatory scheme.
quotas are sold. will require all new members to Over 20 states have already
reduce GHG emissions 6% either passed or proposed
The profit motive, stated the below baseline and extends legislation on CO2 emissions, or
report, is expected to drive current members commitment to have developed carbon registries.
investment in new technology to an additional 2% reduction below
cut emissions further. baseline. In the first year, In August 2006, California
members of the exchange became the first state in the
The advent of the Chicago collectively reduced their carbon nation to impose mandatory
Climate Exchange (CCX) carbon emissions by 9%, or 2% more limits on GHG emissions,
trading mechanism provides than would have been required requiring a 25% cut in GHGs by
companies and other had the U.S. been a member of 2020 that would affect
organizations emitting GHGs the Kyoto Protocol. Companies companies from automakers to
both the opportunity to undertaking such programs are manufacturers. The state is the
systematically reduce their finding that it can save 12th largest carbon emitter in the
emissions, sell greater reductions significant amounts of money. world despite leading the nation
in emissions and participate in a Opening with 16 members in in energy efficiency standards
proven risk-management system December of 2004, CCX now and its lead role in protecting its
of futures contracts and financial has over 200 members (including environment.78
75
“Global Warming Approaching Critical Point 'An Ecological Time-bomb is Ticking Away',” CNN Report, Monday, 24 January 2005.
76
Chicago Climate Exchange, www.chicagoclimatex.com/, 11 September 2006.
77
Natural Capitalism was one of the earliest members.
78
San Francisco Chronicle “Landmark Deal on greenhouse gas emissions”, 30 August, 2006, sfgate.com/cgi-
bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/08/30/MNGBMKS7733.DTL, 12 September 2006.
79
New Voice of Business, www.newvoiceofbusiness.org/, 12 September 2006.
80
Conceding on Climate Change: For the first time, energy execs are requesting caps on carbon emissions. But will new regulations be too
little, too late? By Amanda Griscom Little www.salon.com/opinion/feature/2006/04/10/muckraker/index_np.html, 12 September 2006.
81
Hawken, Lovins, Lovins 1999, Natural Capitalism, Little Brown P. 245. Natural Capitalism and Factor Four, Lovins, Lovins von
Weizsacker, 1997, Earth Scan, document hundreds of such savings opportunities.
82
BP 2003 Sustainability Report.
83
Personal communication with Hunter Lovins, 2002 Fortune Magazine Annual Meeting, Aspen, CO.
24 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
share and attracting and retaining 1,500 vehicles strong. In performance so significantly that
the best talent.84 February 2006, UPS announced it led to significant increases in
that it had placed an order for 50 labor productivity and reductions
DuPont, an even earlier entrant new-generation hybrid-electric in error rates. The financial
into the field, committed itself to delivery trucks, which will benefits from this far outweigh
reducing its GHGs by 65% from reduce fuel consumption by the value of the energy savings.
1990 to 2010. The company also 44,000 gallons over the course of For example, Boeing
set plans to raise revenues 6% a year.87 implemented a lighting system
per year from 2000-2010 with no retrofit in its design and
increase in energy use; and by Many participants in the manufacturing areas. The
2010, source 10% of its energy voluntary U.S. EPA program cut lighting energy costs
and 25% of its feed-stocks from performance-challenge programs by 90% with a less than 2-year
renewable sources. The (such as 33/5088 and Green payback, but because workers
company announced these goals Lights89) reported that energy could see better they avoided
in the name of increasing efficiency enabled them to rework—the error rate decreased
“shareholder and societal value.” capture multiple benefits. For 30%—which increased on-time
example, Sony Electronics’ U.S. delivery, and enhanced customer
To date, DuPont has kept energy and Mexican facilities voluntarily satisfaction.91
use the same and increased installed energy efficient lighting
production by 30%. Globally, where it was cost-effective and Lockheed commissioned a new
DuPont’s emissions of GHGs are did not interfere with the quality headquarters building for its
down 72%. Global energy use is of light. By the end of 1994, the Sunnyvale facility. The
7% below 1990 levels, and the organization had upgraded architects successfully argued
company is on track with its approximately 6.1 million square that the “literium” that provided
renewable energy targets. It feet of floor space with new day-lighting throughout the
estimates that this program has lighting fixtures, reduced its structure was not merely a
already saved the company $3 operating expenses by more than worker amenity, but was
billion.85 In one example, four $915,000 per year and lowered essential to the performance of
engineers at DuPont recently energy demand by almost 12 the building. They were right:
figured out how to spend less million kilowatt hours annually. the lighting system resulted in a
than $100,000 to save nearly $7 In addition, these lighting 75% reduction in lighting energy
million per year in energy costs.86 changes indirectly prevented usage. This contributed to
more than 7,300 tons of air enabling the building to use half
Under CEO Mike Eskew, United pollution from being emitted by the energy of a comparable
Parcel Service (UPS) has local utility companies.90 standard building. The different
assembled one of the biggest design added $2 million to the
alternative-fuel fleets, around Sony found its participation in cost of the building—the reason
the EPA’s Green Lights program the “value engineers” sought to
often improved visual eliminate it from the design.
84
BP now states this on its website and in its advertisements.
85
Marc Gunther, “The Green Machine,” Fortune Magazine, July 27 2006
money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/08/07/8382593/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
86
DuPont reports: www1.dupont.com/NASApp/dupontglobal/corp/index.jsp?page=/social/SHE/usa/us3b.html, 12 September 2006.
87
Marc Gunther, “The Green Machine,” Fortune Magazine, July 27 2006
money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/08/07/8382593/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
88
Arora, S. and Cason, T., “An Experiment in Voluntary Environmental Regulation: Participation in EPA’s 33/50 Program,” Journal of
Environmental Economics & Management, vol. 28, no 3, 1995, pp. 271–286. Also see Arora, S. and Cason, T., “Why do Firms Volunteer
to Exceed Environmental Regulations? Understanding Participation in EPA’s 33/50 Program,” Land Economics, November 1996, pp 413–
432.
89
DeCanio, S., “The Efficiency Paradox: Bureaucratic and Organizational Barriers to Profitable Energy-Saving Investments,” Energy Policy,
vol. 26, no 5, 1998, pp. 441–454. Also see S. DeCanio and Watkins, W., “Investment in Energy Efficiency: Do the Characteristics of
Firms Matter?” Review of Economics and Statistics, February 1998, pp. 95–107.
90
Sony Electronics Inc. is not only committed to being the best at bringing advanced technology together with the needs of the end-user, it is
also dedicated to protecting and improving the environment in all areas of the company's operations,
news.sel.sony.com/en/corporate_information/environmental, 30 October 2006.
91
Romm and Browning, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through Energy-Efficient Design, 1994.
92
Ibid.
93
Heschong Mahone Group, www.h-m-g.com/projects/daylighting/projects-PIER.htm, 8 September 2006 .
94
Hawken, Lovins and Lovins, Natural Capitalism p 52. Also see Rocky Mountain Institute, www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid208.php, 30 October
2006.
95
Health and Energy Company, a Nebraska energy testing company, healthandenergy.com/osage_energy_efficiency.htm, 12 September
2006.
26 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
According to a USDA study of back from disruptions caused efficient. According to the
Osage, “The local business by natural disasters. Look at EPA’s Energy Star Small
people calculated that every $1 the impact of Hurricane Business program, small
spent on ordinary consumer Katrina on small businesses in firms can save (at least) 20%
goods in local stores generated the Gulf Coast region, where to 30% on their energy bills
$1.90 of economic activity in the they constituted the backbone through off-the-shelf cost-
town’s economy. By of the economy…. effective efficiency upgrades.
comparison, petroleum products The job consists largely of
generated a multiplier of $1.51; There’s been virtually no installing the same few simple
utility services, $1.66; and research on what global devices—programmable
energy efficiency, $2.23. warming means for small thermostats, for example—
Moreover, the town was able to business, even though 23 over and over again in
attract desirable industries million U.S. small businesses millions of small business
because of the reduced energy constitute one-half of the workplaces.97
operating costs resulting from economy.
efficiency measures put in place. Small office buildings can
Energy efficiency has a long and There is some good news for achieve similar savings. A
successful track record in Osage small businesses, however. project to remodel a 2,800 square
as a key economic development To start with, reducing energy foot law office in Louisiana
strategy.”96 waste in U.S. homes, shops, improved employee productivity
Thirty years later, a June 2006 offices, and other buildings with energy systems that saved
article in Business Week pointed must, of necessity, rely on over $6,000 while eliminating 50
out that small businesses, the tens of thousands of small tons of CO2 emissions per year.98
economic engine of growth, will concerns that design, make,
be especially hard hit by climate sell, install and service
change, and can energy-efficient appliances,
disproportionately benefit from lighting products, heating, air- Combining Energy Efficiency
programs to reduce their conditioning and other and Renewables
emissions, stating: equipment.
It’s increasingly likely that a In 1989, the municipal utility in
mandatory program to reduce What’s more, devising Sacramento, California shut
greenhouse gas emissions will technological fixes to curb down its 1,000-megawatt nuclear
come to pass. This prospect GHG emissions must rely on plant. Rather than invest in any
of further government the capacity of small business conventional centralized fossil
regulation is one reason small innovators and entrepreneurs fuel plant, the utility met its
business owners should pay to produce “clean-tech” citizens’ needs through energy
attention. But it’s not the breakthroughs in efficiency and such renewable
only one. Small firms could photovoltaics, distributed supply technologies as wind,
well be among the hardest hit energy, fiber-optic sensors, solar, biofuels and distributed
victims of climate change. and the like. technologies like co-generation,
fuel cells, etc. In 2000, an
Extreme weather events, for Finally, every single small econometric study showed that
example, can wipe out an business in the nation can the program has increased the
entire region’s small profit by making its own regional economic health by over
businesses in one fell swoop. workplace more energy- $180 million, compared to just
And they can't readily bounce
96
“The Jobs Connection: Energy Use and Local Economic Development,” Tomorrow’s Energy Today, US Department of Energy, 1994.
97
Byron Kennard, “Global Warming on Main Street,” Business Week, 27 June 2006.
98
Case study from greenerbuildings.com: www.greenerbuildings.com/case_studies_detail.cfm?LinkAdvID=38528, 12 September 2006.
99
Larry Flynn, “Driven to be Green,” Building Design and Construction Magazine, 1 November 2003,
www.bdcnetwork.com/article/CA335621.html?text=driven+to+be+green, 30 October 2006.
28 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
what appears to be a most economies around the Ability to Capture
revolution.100 world. Opportunities
Renewable options are not only
the best choice for developing The Governor of Pennsylvania Business success in a time of
countries; they are now the recently announced the opening technological transformation
fastest growing form of energy of a factory to make wind demands innovation. Since the
supply around the world, and in machines. Creating 1,000 new Industrial Revolution, there have
many cases are cheaper than jobs over the next five years, it is been at least six waves of
conventional supply. Solar the biggest economic innovation, which shifted the
thermal is outpacing all development measure for technologies that underpinned
conventional energy supply Johnstown, PA, in recent economic prosperity. In the late
technology around the world. memory. The city of Chicago 1700s textiles, iron mongering,
Modern wind machines come underwrote Spire solar to enable water-power and mechanization
second, delivering almost 8,000 the company to open a enabled modern commerce to
megawatts of new capacity a manufacturing plant in Chicago. develop.
year, or more than nuclear power The city wanted the jobs and to
did at the peak of its popularity. be able to install solar on The second wave saw the
The next fastest growing energy municipal buildings. California introduction of steam power,
supply technology is solar has announced that it will spend trains and steel. In the 1900s,
electric, even at current prices.101 over $8 million installing solar in electricity, chemicals and cars
2006, and create a $1.5 billion began to dominate. By the
Renewables can also be cheaper investment fund to help middle of the century it was
than any conventional supply. environmentally responsible petrochemicals, and the space
Energy from wind turbines in companies that are developing race, along with electronics. The
good sites now costs 3¢ per cutting-edge clean energy most recent wave of innovation
kilowatt-hour (kWh).102 And technologies. has been the introduction of
once the turbine is constructed, computers, also known as the
the fuel is free forever more. Just A 2006 study by University of digital or information age. As
running an existing coal plant California professors recently the industrial revolution plays out
costs 5¢ to 6¢ per kWh. Solar found that investments in and economies move beyond
electric is more expensive, renewable energy create ten iPods, older industries will suffer
although about a dozen times as many jobs as dislocations, unless they join the
companies are competing to investments in fossil supply.103 increasing number of companies
deliver amorphous thin-film solar implementing the array of
at 3¢ per kWh. Such renewable sustainable technologies that will
technologies lend themselves to make up the next wave of
construction and delivery by innovation.
small to medium sized
enterprises - the backbone of
100
Dave Freeman and Jim Harding, “Solar Cells Change Electricity Distribution,” The Seattle Post Intelligencer, Thursday 10 August 2006
seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/280625_solarcell10.html, 30 October 2006.
101
Solar photovoltaic prices are falling rapidly. A company in California is introducing a new production process that will reduce prices to
3¢/kWh within four years. Wind in good cites now costs 3¢/kWh, and in conventional sites. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Wind Energy Myths Fact Sheet: www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37657.pdf#search=%22wind%203%C2%A2%2FkWh%22, 10 June 2005.
102
Lovins, A., Datta, K., Feiler, T., Rábago, K., Swisher, J., Lehmann, A. and Wicker, K. (2002) Small Is Profitable: The Hidden Economic
Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size, available from Natural Capitalism Solutions: www.natcapsolutions.org, 30
October 2006.
103
Robert Sanders, “Investment in renewable energy better for jobs as well as environment,”
www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/04/13_kamm.shtml, 13 April 2004.
Aidan Murphy, vice president at the lack of ideas and experimenting with what is
Shell International, stated in imagination.105 called “Tax Shifting.” This
2000: would increase the taxes on
The Kyoto treaty has Sweden has set a national goal of resource use, while lowering
prompted us to shift some of an oil-free economy by 2020 employment taxes and other
its [Shell’s] focus away from without building any new nuclear disincentives to use more people.
petroleum toward alternative plants. A report in the BBC Lester Brown recently reported
fuel sources. While the move stated, “The country aims to that,
has helped the company make replace all fossil fuels with A four-year plan adopted in
early strides toward its goal of renewables before climate Germany in 1999
surpassing treaty change damages economies and systematically shifted taxes
requirements and reducing growing oil scarcity leads to from labor to energy. By
emissions to 10% less than price rises.” The program is 2001, this plan had lowered
1990 levels, Shell is being driven in part by worry on the fuel use by 5%. It had also
driven largely by the lure of part of The Royal Swedish accelerated growth in the
future profits… We are now Academy of Sciences that oil renewable energy sector,
involved in major energy supplies are peaking, and that creating some 45,400 jobs by
projects involving wind and high oil prices could cause global 2003 in the wind industry
biomass, but I can assure you economic recession. In 2003, alone, a number that is
this has nothing to do with 26% of all energy consumed projected to rise to 103,000
altruism… We see this as a came from renewables.106 by 2010.
whole new field in which to
develop a thriving business To drive such innovation, Both Japan and China are now
for many years to come. Sweden, along with Germany considering implementing such
Capital is not the problem, it’s and other European nations are tax shifts.107
104
The Natural Edge Project, Australia, www.naturaledgeproject.net/, 30 October 2006.
105
W. Drozdiak, “Big Corporations Alter View of Global Warming,” Washington Post Service, Friday, 24 November 2000.
106
BBC, Wednesday, 8 February 2006, 17:14 GMT
news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4694152.stm, 30 October 2006.
107
Lester Brown, “It’s Income Tax Time for Americans, and It’s Time For the Entire World to Lower Income Taxes and Raise Environmental
Taxes,” www.earthpolicy.org/Books/Seg/PB2ch12_ss2.htm, 30 October 2006.
30 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
Recently, 2,500 economists, We are in the midst of includes preserving the
including eight Nobel Prize redefining our basic ideas environment and establishing the
laureates in economics, endorsed about what enterprise and sort of innovative cultural
the concept of tax shifts. organization and even being atmosphere that such people
Harvard economics professor N. human are–about how value treasure.
Gregory Mankiw wrote in is created and how careers are
Fortune: pursued.
Cutting income taxes while Cities and Companies—The
increasing gasoline taxes Welcome to a world where New Leaders
would lead to more rapid “value” (damn near all value!)
economic growth, less traffic is based on intangibles—not The failure by the American
congestion, safer roads and lumpy objects, but weightless federal government to take action
reduced risk of global figments of the Economic on global warming has created a
warming—all without Imagination. We have leadership vacuum that is rapidly
jeopardizing long-term fiscal entered an Age of Talent. being filled by cities, states and
solvency. This may be the People (their creativity, their businesses.
closest thing to a free lunch intellectual capital, their In the U.S., over 355 cities have
that economics has to offer.108 entrepreneurial drive) is all formally committed to take the
there is. Enterprises that following three actions:
Without such a shift in policies, master the market for talent
jobless growth for major will do better than ever. But 1. Strive to meet or beat the
corporations worldwide is likely to attract and retain the Kyoto Protocol targets in their
to remain not a forecast, but an Awesome Talent, an own communities, through
established trend. The world’s organization must offer up an actions ranging from anti-
500 largest corporations have Awesome Place to Work.110 sprawl land-use policies to
managed to increase their urban forest restoration
production and sales by 700% As stated above, this is driving projects to public information
over the past 20 years, while at such companies as BP to make campaigns;
the same time reducing their total public commitments to cut their 2. Urge their state governments,
workforce. The outsourcing of emissions as a strategy for and the federal government to
industrial jobs to China and attracting and retaining the best enact policies and programs
service jobs to India has talent. to meet or beat the GHG
accelerated the impact of this emission reduction target
process.109 Richard Florida, in his book, The suggested for the United
Rise of the Creative Class,111 States in the Kyoto
At the same time however, good points out that the cutting-edge Protocol—7% reduction from
people are increasingly critical businesses follow the knowledge 1990 levels by 2012; and
for the functioning of any workers, establishing corporate 3. Urge the U.S. Congress to
business that seeks to compete in operations where they can access pass the bipartisan GHG
the Knowledge Economy. Tom this new class of talent. He notes reduction legislation, which
Peters, one of the world’s leading that regions that wish to be would establish a national
business authors, states: economically successful will do emission trading system112
what it takes to attract the
knowledge workers, which
108
Ibid.
109
William Greider: One World: Ready or Not (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997; juxtaposition quoted in Success Digest March 1997).
110
Tom Peters, Re-image, www.tompeters.com/reimagine/toc.php, 12 September 2006.
111
Richard Florida, Rise of the Creative Class, Basic Books, 2002, www.creativeclass.org/press.htm, 12 September 2006.
112
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement website, www.ci.seattle.wa.us/mayor/climate/default.htm#what, 11 January 2007.
Tax Savings
113
ICLEI, www.iclei.org/index.php?id=1118, 11 September 2006.
32 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
Energy costs—and potential Coast-to-Coast Pioneers effective energy efficiency
savings—are likely to increase in measures could easily save 25 to
the future. Many experts predict In 1991, well before global 30% of school energy bills,
that the volatility in fossil energy warming because a prominent enough to hire 30,000 new
supplies and prices will continue. issue for the public, Portland teachers114 while reducing the
Most scientists now agree natural launched a “City Energy schools’ contributions to global
gas and oil are finite resources Challenge” to cut the annual warming. Yet, some of the most
and that world oil production is energy bill of city buildings by obvious ways to save energy
expected to peak in the next 10% over 5 years. Over the last remain undone. An example: In
couple of decades. China, India 15 years, the city saved $15 the fall of 2005, two energy
and other rapidly developing million and generated an consultants in New Haven, CT,
countries are competing with the additional $1.2 million in found a way to save the local
U.S. for the same supplies, incentive payments from state school district $1.1 million in one
pushing up prices. Severe storms government and utilities. year—by the elementary act of
like Hurricane Katrina, which turning down thermostats when
experts predict will become more In addition, the city negotiated a school buildings were not in
common with global warming, purchase of wind energy from use.115
can cause petroleum supply Portland General Electric, further
disruptions. Conflicts in, or reducing its demand for coal- These stories—and similar
political disputes with, oil- fired electricity, preventing 4,500 examples in cities across the
producing countries also will metric tons of CO2 emissions U.S.—illustrate the multiple
cause disruptions to oil and gas over five years, and deriving part benefits of a municipal climate
supplies. Even coal, which the of the city’s energy from a protection program. In this time
U.S. currently mines in resource that is immune from of global warming and energy
abundance, may prove to be a volatile price spikes because volatility, energy efficiency,
more expensive way to produce wind is a “free” fuel. renewable energy technologies
electricity in the future, as the and climate protection are three
industry invests in new The city of New Haven, pillars of sound fiscal
processing technologies and Connecticut, another leader in stewardship.
sequestration measures to reduce picking the low-hanging fruit of
carbon emissions. energy efficiency, created an By investing in energy efficiency
energy conservation program in and renewable energy systems,
During the winter of 2005-2006, 1994 and estimates it has saved local communities are also
the Massachusetts Municipal $24.7 million since then by doing preparing themselves for the
Association asked city managers simple measures. possibility of heightened
around the state whether they regulations regarding GHGs
expected increased energy costs. Local schools provide a dramatic coming in the future. Cities and
Sixty-five percent said they example of the savings waiting to companies that adopt the Kyoto
believed that energy costs would be captured by public Protocol agreements, and reduce
increase by more than 10% in the institutions. Schools in the U.S. GHG emissions below 1990
coming year—and one in four reportedly spend more than $6 levels, will be able to sell their
expected costs to increase by billion each year on energy, more emission credits in any one of
more than 25%. than they spend on computers several carbon emission
and books combined. In the exchanges and stand a better
typical school, about a third of chance of avoiding down-graded
that energy is wasted. Cost bond or stock ratings.
114
“Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Municipal Solutions – Fact Sheet #5”, Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve,
August 2002.
115
Rebuild America, rebuild.gov, 30 October 2006.
The bottom line is simple: aggressive business posture to shareholders information that
Protecting the climate is good reduce GHG emissions is might materially affect the value
fiscal stewardship. Global becoming a proxy for competent of the stock. This includes
warming is an issue with many corporate governance. A 2003 environmental liabilities
dimensions. For many people, Columbia Journal of (including GHG emissions) that
the most important issue is the Environmental Law article could alter a reasonable
pocketbook—and the pocketbook demonstrated the legal feasibility investor’s view of the
is a strong argument for of lawsuits holding companies organization. In France, The
municipal climate action, sooner accountable. Though the effects Netherlands, Germany120 and
rather than later. of such litigation on companies’ Norway, companies are already
market value and shareowner legally required to publicly report
value remains to be seen, the first their GHG emissions.
Business Risks of Failing To such suits have already been
Address Climate Change filed.118 A group of 143 institutional
investors writes annually to the
In a world that overwhelmingly Legal Risks Financial Times 500, the largest
recognizes climate change as a In the U.S., the Sarbanes-Oxley quoted companies in the world
serious threat, businesses within Act119 makes it a criminal offense by market capitalization, asking
a community that ignore it are for the Board of Directors of a for disclosure of investment-
increasingly seen as company to fail to disclose to relevant information concerning
irresponsible. Conversely, an
116
U.S. Department of Energy, www.eere.energy.gov/news/archive.cfm/pubDate=%7Bd%20'2002-10-30'%7D, 12 September 2006.
117
Fort Carson Sustainability Program and SEMS, sems.carson.army.mil, 12 September 2006.
118
Friends of the Earth, in conjunction with Greenpeace and several western cities, filed one of the first climate change lawsuits in 2004.
The suit charges two U.S. government agencies with failing to comply with National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requirements to
assess the environmental impact of projects they financed over the past decade. The states of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Maine
have also filed a climate change lawsuit against another U.S. government bureau, the Environmental Protection Agency, for failing to
regulate carbon dioxide emissions under the Clean Air Act.
119
Francis X. Lyons, a former US EPA regional administrator now with Gardner, Carton & Douglas LLP, “Sarbanes-Oxley and the Changing
Face of Environmental Liability Disclosure Obligations,” Trends, Volume 35 No. 2, Nov/Dec 2003. Available from.
www.gcd.com/db30/cgi-bin/pubs/Sarbanes2.pdf, 12 September 2006.
120
In Germany, only “heavy” industry is currently required to report greenhouse gas emissions.
34 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
their GHG emissions.121 Financial Times’ First Risk of Shareholder
Initially, perhaps 10% of the Sustainable Banking Awards for Resolutions
recipients bothered to answer the being the first bank to become A growing number of investors
survey. In 2005, 60% answered. carbon neutral. It has purchased are concerned about climate
Companies like Ford Motor renewable energy for itself, and change. The number of investors
Company produced a major provided financing for renewable participating in the Investor
report detailing its emissions. energy companies.123 Network on Climate Risk (INCR,
Why the change? Passage that the leading group on sustainable
year of Sarbanes Oxley clearly Wall Street’s most prestigious investing) has quadrupled in the
played a role. Perhaps more investment bank, Goldman past three years, and the
significantly, the Carbon Sachs, is putting $1 billion into collective assets of INCR
Disclosure Project represents clean-energy investments. It has members increased from $600
institutional investors with assets also pledged to purchase more billion to $2.7 trillion (an
of over $31.5 trillion. products locally.124 increase of 450%).126 While
Increasingly, companies that cities are not directly involved, it
wish to limit their risk exposure, In March 2006, the business and is important to understand the
obtain insurance or get financing investment network CERES trends occurring in the financial
are implementing programs to released a report showing that sector.
reduce their emissions of GHGs. many major American companies
for climate change. were more potentially liable for Large institutional investors are
lawsuits and other risks than their leading the way. Institutional
The FTSE Index, the British European counterparts because of investors have reason to be
equivalent of Dow Jones, states: their emissions of climate concerned about the impact of
The impact of climate change changing gasses. The New York climate risk on their portfolios,
is likely to have an increasing Times stated, and have been successful in
influence on the economic Dozens of U.S. businesses in urging companies to increase
value of companies, both various climate-vulnerable disclosure of climate risk by
directly, and through new sectors ... are still largely engaging the companies with an
regulatory frameworks. dismissing the issue or failing enduring shareholder campaign.
Investors, governments and to articulate clear strategies to Despite these successes, some
society in general expect meet the challenge. investors are still frustrated with
companies to identify and the Securities and Exchange
reduce their climate change Companies that disclose the Commission, which has done
risks and impacts, and also to amount of emissions of heat- little to mandate disclosure of
identify and develop related trapping gases they produce climate risk, and with many
business opportunities.122 and take steps to limit them companies that have not yet
cut their risks, including taken proactive steps to address
The banking industry is also potential lawsuits from climate risk.
reducing its greenhouse footprint. investors.125
In 2006, HSBC won the
121
“Big Investors Demand Disclosure on Corporate Climate Practices,” from GreenBiz.com, at website:
www.greenbiz.com/news/news_third.cfm?NewsID=27640, 1 August 2006.
Joel Makower, Top Green Business Stories of 2006, www.greenbiz.com/news/reviews_third.cfm?NewsID=34384, 3 January 2007.
122
“Market Consultation to the FTSE4 Good Climate Change Criteria”, 2006
www.ftse.com/Indices/FTSE4Good_Index_Series/Downloads/FTSE4Good_Climate_Change_Consultation_Aug_06.pdf, 12 September
2006.
123
Financial Times, 13 June 2006, Sustainable Bank of the Year, . news.ft.com/cms/s/c1f6fade-fafa-11da-b4d0-0000779e2340.html, 12
September 2006.
124
Marc Gunther, “The Green Machine,” Fortune Magazine, 27 July 2006
money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/08/07/8382593/index.htm, 12 September 2006.
125
Planet Ark, U.S. Oil Majors Seen Lagging in CO2Risk Management www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/35747/story.htm, 22
March 2006.
126
Investor Network on Climate Risk, website: www.incr.com/, 31 July 2006.
127
Institutional Investor Summit on Climate Risk (2005), Summary, By Investor Network on Climate Risk, website:
www.incr.com/index.php?page=19, 31 July 2006.
128
A comprehensive discussion about corporate responsibility and shareholder resolutions is “Corporate Governance and Climate Change:
Making the Connection,” by Douglas Cogan for the Investor Responsibility Research Center, 2003, at website:
www.irrc.com/company/CERES.Corp.Gov.Report.pdf, 30 October 2006.
129
For a comprehensive list of climate-related shareholder resolutions, please see website hosted by the Investor Network on Climate Risk,
at www.incr.com/index.php?page=ia&nid=186, 30 October 2006.
130
Ibid.
36 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
In 2005, investor intervention and other aggrieved parties. catastrophe of its own
and persuasion contributed to the making.”135
decisions by several large Peter Lehner, chief of the New
companies (Anadarko Petroleum, York attorney general’s In the Fortune Magazine article
Apache, Chevron, Cinergy, DTE Environmental Protection “Cloudy with a Chance of
Energy, Duke, First Energy, Ford Bureau, said the bureau was Chaos,”136 author Eugene Linden
Motor, GE, JPMorgan Chase and studying the issue of climate reported, already the pain of
Progress Energy) to make new change and might sue polluters weather-related insurance risks is
commitments such as supporting along the lines of the successful being felt by owners of highly
mandatory limits on GHGs, tobacco litigation by states in the vulnerable properties such as
voluntarily reducing their 1990’s.133 offshore oil platforms, for which
emissions, or disclosing climate some rates have risen 400% in
risk information to investors.131 Risks of Higher Insurance one year. That may be an omen
Costs and Burdens for many businesses. Three
The United Nations Perhaps the greatest pressure for years ago John Dutton, dean
Environmental Programme change, however, will come from emeritus of Penn State's College
(UNEP), working with the the insurance industry. As of Earth and Mineral Sciences,
organization Ceres, announced a described above, the insurance estimated that $2.7 trillion of the
new Climate Risk Disclosure companies are already being $10-trillion-a-year U.S. economy
Initiative to create a global battered by losses from the is susceptible to weather-related
standard for climate risk increase in the violence of loss of revenue, implying that an
disclosure.132 The UNEP is storms. In 2003, The Wall Street enormous number of companies
developing Principles for Journal reported that, have off-balance-sheet risks
Responsible Investment to align With all the talk of potential related to weather—even without
the long-term goals of shareholder lawsuits against the cataclysms a flickering
sustainable development with the industrial emitters of greenhouse climate might bring.
obligations of institutional gases, the second largest re-
investors. Ceres and UNEP are insurance firm, Swiss Re has
establishing a new international announced that it is considering In 2004, Swiss Re, a $29 billion
forum for collaboration and denying coverage, starting with financial giant, sent a
information sharing by directors and officers liability questionnaire to companies that
institutional investors on climate policies, to companies it decides had purchased its directors-and-
risk. aren’t doing enough to reduce officers coverage, inquiring
their output of greenhouse about their corporate strategies
In another ominous sign for chief gases.134 for dealing with climate change
executives and board members, regulations. D&O insurance, as
some experts in corporate In March 2004, Reuters reported: it is called, insulates executives
governance say company officers “The world’s second largest re- and board members from the
could be held accountable for insurer, Swiss Re, warned … that costs of lawsuits resulting from
failing to protect their companies the costs of natural disasters, their companies' actions;
from climate-related risk. And aggravated by global warming,
the lawsuits could come from are spiraling out of control,
governments as well as investors forcing the human race into a
131
Ibid.
132
CERES website, www.ceres.org/pub/, 1 August 2006.
133
Press Statement of Peter Lehner Chief of Environmental Protection Bureau, New York State Attorney General's Office Re: Corporate
Governance and Climate Change: Making the Connection, at website: www.ceres.org/news/news_item.php?nid=57, 1 August 2006.
134
Jeffrey Ball, Wall Street Journal, 7 May 2003.
135
Thomas Atkins, “Insurer warns of global warming catastrophe”, Reuters, 3 March 2004.
136
Eugene Linden, “Cloudy with a Chance of Chaos”, Fortune Magazine, Tuesday 17 January 2006,
money.cnn.com/2006/01/17/news/economy/climate_fortune/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
137
“Insurers see more disasters due to climate change,” Planet Ark, website:
www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/13100/story.html, 27 July 2006.
138
“Insurers Retreat From Coasts: Katrina Losses May Force More Costs on Taxpayers,” By Spencer S. Hsu, Washington Post Staff Writer,
Sunday, 30 April 2006; www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/04/29/AR2006042901364_pf.html, 27 July 2006.
139
Ibid.
38 CHAPTER 2: Why Act Now CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Business Case for Protecting the Climate
program $50 billion and Conclusion
prompted federal relief spending
of more than $100 billion.140 There is a business case for
That includes about $10 billion aggressively moving to limit
for Mississippi and Louisiana emissions of the gasses that are
homeowners. changing the climate, and
companies are implementing it.
Governments assume a Books like the international
considerable share of the bestseller, Natural Capitalism
exposures to the costs of and a staggering array of others
weather-related events. Requests prove how the rapidly emerging
for all forms of disaster relief best practice in sustainable
(including those for the technologies can meet basic
agriculture sector) doubled human needs around the world
between the mid-1980s and mid- and solve most of the
1990s and total federal disaster- environmental problems facing
related payments amounted to the planet at a profit.
$120 billion between 1993 and
1997. Federal aid for Hurricane There are enormous risks to
Katrina alone is anticipated to top companies and communities that
$200 billion.141 do not participate in such
programs.
Climate stresses will place more
political and financial burden on This manual describes how your
federal and local governments as community can work with its
they assume broader exposures business community to enable
and are pressured to serve as citizens and companies to capture
insurers of last resort. these advantages, and avoid these
Governments also are compelled risks.
to address events for which there
is no insurance at all, while
paying for disaster preparedness
and recovery operations. For
example, federal and local
governments are incurring
substantial liability and expenses
due to landslides in southern
California, with losses averaging
$100 million per year.142
Business and consumers will be
burdened because cash-strapped
governments generally cap paid
losses and shift greater portions
of risk back to consumers.
140
Ibid.
141
Ibid.
142
Ibid.
144
Heat Up St. Louis, website: www.heatupstlouis.org/News.html, 24 July 2006.
145
For more information about the impacts of Hurricane Katrina on gas supplies and prices, see Congressional Research Report R22233,
“Oil and Gas: Supply Issues After Katrina,” Robert L. Bamberger and Lawrence Kumins, September 2005, at:
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22233.pdf, also archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter8/RS22233.pdf, 11
September 2006.
146
Data from Energy Shop, www.energyshop.com/es/homes/gas/gaspriceforecast.cfm, 25 July 2006.
147
For more information about new supply requirements in California, see the published reports and proceedings on the California Public
Utilities Commission website: www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUBLISHED/REPORT/58641.htm, 30 October 2006.
148
Despite improvement, air quality needs continuing work. The American Lung Association reports that 150 million Americans still live in
counties where they are exposed to unhealthful levels of air pollution. Most at risk are the very young, the very old, and people with
asthma and pulmonary diseases. American Lung Association: State of Air 2006 report (April 2006)
lungaction.org/reports/stateoftheair2006.html, 30 October 2006.
149
EPA Fact Sheet No. 236-F-97-005, “Climate Change and Public Health”. (October 1997). Available at
yosemite.epa.gov/OAR/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BNNXJ/$File/ccandpublichealth.pdf, 30 October 2006
150
“Western Hydropower: Changing Values/New Visions,” Report to the Western Water Policy Review Advisory Commission, by Bruce C.
Driver and Gregg Eisenberg, 1997, at website: hdl.handle.net/1928/2807, 30 October 2006.
151
Ibid.
152
“Climate Change and Health: Need for Expanded Scope of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,” Dr. Jonathan Patz, Department of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health. 1995.
153
Ibid
154
For more emissions statistics, visit the Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Report#: DOE/EIA-0573, “Emissions of
Greenhouse Gases in the United States,” Released Date: December 2005, at: www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/index.html, 30 October
2006.
155
For information about the health and respiratory impacts of pollution, see The American Lung Association for a list of articles, at website:
www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=33347, 30 October 2006.
156
For more information on the impacts of pollution transport, see “Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission: Recommendations for
Improving Western Vistas,” by the Western Governors Association, 1995, at www.westgov.org/wga/publicat/epafin.htm, 30 October 2006.
157
Ibid, footnote 25.
158
For information about mercury accumulation in fish, visit the website hosted by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, at:
www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html, 30 October 2006.
159
A Balanced Energy Plan for the Interior West,” Produced by Western Resources Advocates, 2004, at website:
www.westernresourceadvocates.org/, 31 July 2006.
160
“Climate Change Futures: Health, Ecological and Economic Dimensions”, Epstein, Paul, 1 November 2005,
web.med.harvard.edu/sites/RELEASES/html/11_1Epstein.html, 7 January 2007.
161
Paul R. Epstein and Evan Mills, “Climate Change Is Hazardous To Your Health” Forbes, 16 November 2005,
www.forbes.com/2005/11/15/energy-pollution-oil_cx_1116energy_epstein_mills.html.
162
“Expert scientific panel releases national assessment of climate change and health in the United States,” 30 April 2001, new release from
Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health.
163
Gasoline consumption produces carbon emissions. The electricity used in the operation of buildings is most often generated by coal-
burning power plants.
164
More than 950 communities in the U.S. now have combined sewer systems that service both sewage and storm water runoff. “During
periods of heavy rainfall, expected to increase as the earth warms, these systems discharge excess wastewater directly into bodies of
surface water that may be used for drinking,” according to researches at Johns Hopkins University and the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention.
165
From The Alliance to Save Energy provides comprehensive information on state energy programs in addition to general regulatory and
technology initiatives to reduce energy consumption. www.ase.org/content/article/detail/2356, 31 July 2006.
Risk Mitigation
166
CHP Midwest Application Center Site Description, public.ornl.gov/mac/pdfs/casestudies/cs-ETHS030324.pdf, 13 September 2006.
167
CHP Midwest Application Center, www.chpcentermw.org/, 30 October 2006.
168
ENERGY STAR Building Design Guide, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=new_bldg_design.poudreschool_cs, 13 September 2006.
169
American Institute of Architects COTE Newsletter, www.aia.org/nwsltr_cote.cfm?pagename=cote_a_200602_epa, 13 September 2006.
170
For more information on CHP, visit WADE (“World Alliance for Decentralized Energy”) at: www.localpower.org/, 30 October 2006
171
Almost every large utility in the U.S. offers load curtailment and other demand response programs to their industrial customers, and many
offer voluntary interruptible load programs to their residential customers. For more information, see “Demand Response Programs: New
Considerations, Choices, and Opportunities,” by Dan Merilatt, V.P. Program Development, GoodCents, January 2004, at:
www.goodcents.com/Info/research.htm, 30 October 2006.
172
For more information on utility DSM programs, visit the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy’s website at: www.aceee.org,
30 October 2006.
173
There are numerous information sources about distributed generation. We recommend the website hosted by Resource Dynamics
Corporation for more information about policy and technology trends regarding distributed generation: www.distributed-generation.com/,
30 October 2006.
174
Ibid.
175
For more information about renewable energy resources and technologies, visit National Renewable Energy Lab website: www.nrel.gov/,
30 October 2006.
176
For more information on green building codes, the U.S. Green Buildings Council website, at:
www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=76. For more information about the EPA’s Energy-Star program, visit EPA’s website at:
www.energystar.gov/, 30 October 2006.
177
A comprehensive source of information about federal and state programs can be found on the website hosted by LIHEAP (Low-Income
Home Energy Assistance Program), a program of the Department of Health and Human Services, at: www.liheap.ncat.org/, 30 October
2006.
178
IPCC standards, www.ipcc.ch/, 14 September 2006.
179
Energy Information Administration “Guidelines for Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases,
www.pi.energy.gov/enhancingGHGregistry/technicalguidelines.html, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org//ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter3/TechnicalGuidelines_March2006.pdf, 30 October 2006
EIA coefficients, www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/factors.html, 21 September 2006.
180
WRI/ WBCSD Corporate GHG reporting protocols, pubs.wri.org/pubs_description.cfm?PubID=3872, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org//ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter3/WRI_ghg_protocol_2004.pdf, 14 September 2006.
181
Chicago Climate Exchange, www.chicagoclimatex.com, 14 September 2006.
182
The benefits of ICLEI membership is posted at www.iclei.org/index.php?id=771, 19 September 2006.
183
A demonstration of the tool is available on this website: www.torriesmith.com/.
184
Arcata’s GHG Inventory, www.arcatacityhall.org/energy/ghg_app_a.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter3/Arcata_baseline_14vii06.pdf, 21 September 2006.
185
Duluth’s GHG Inventory, www.ci.duluth.mn.us/city/information/ccp/GHGEmissions.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter3/Duluth_baseline_14vii06.pdf, 21 September 2006.
186
Sommerville GHG Inventory, www.ci.somerville.ma.us/CoS_Content/documents/Somerville_GHG_Inventory%20Report.pdf, also archived
at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter3/Somerville_baseline_14vii06.pdf, 21 September 2006.
187
It is not the purpose of this manual to advertise for consultants. However the authors thought it was important to include an example of an
individual consultant’s baseline emission assessment with a city or county. Boulder County used Econergy. www.econergy.com/, 19
September 2006.
188
USAEnergy, www.usaenergy.org/tools.cfm, 19 September 2006.
189
EPA Resource Center, yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterToolsCalculators.html, 19 September 2006.
190
Schwarzenegger made this comment as he set the nation’s most aggressive goal for greenhouse gas reductions a state goal of 80%
reductions of carbon emissions by 2050 compared to 1990 levels.
191
For information on the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement see: www.seattle.gov/mayor/climate/, 30 October 2006.See Kyoto
Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html. The Protocol
calls for reductions in “aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of greenhouse gases”. For simplicity these will be
referred to in this manual as GHG or carbon reductions. Neither are technically accurate, but they are common parlance.
58 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
1990 levels by 2010 and 10% U.S. Army set a goal of 100% emissions of 1998-2001.
below 1990 levels by 2020.192 renewable energy by 2027. Annual requirements from the
• DuPont set corporate goals of baseline from 2006 to 2009
Some cities are adopting more 65% reduction over 1990 are: 2007: 4.25%; 2008:
ambitious goals and longer- levels by 2010, and has 4.5%; 2009: 5%.198
range goals. already met that target for its
• The city of Portland and global operations, with a
Multnomah County, Oregon, savings to date of $3 billion. Establishing a Time
chose a level of 10% • Interface Inc.’s “Mission
reductions below 1990 levels Zero” commitment to Frame
by 2010.193 “eliminate any negative
• Cambridge, Massachusetts, impact our company may Based on the best estimates by
chose 20% below 1990 levels have on the environment by climate scientists at the time
by 2010.194 2020” includes a goal that all (1996) the Kyoto Protocol set the
• Ottawa, Ontario, Canada fuels and electricity will be base date of 1990 as the level of
picked 20% below 1990 from renewable sources.197 carbon emissions to reduce
levels, splitting the dates of below. Many cities have
attainment to 2007 for An increasing number of cities followed this lead. However,
corporate business activities are joining Chicago Climate many jurisdictions will find that
and 2012 for community Exchange: they were not keeping records of
emissions.195 • Over 200 members, including their carbon emissions at that
six cities and King County, time. Depending on the results
Some governments and Washington (as of September of the baseline inventory process
companies have adopted goals 2006) have committed to the (see Chapter 3), and the
ranging from cutting emissions legally binding requirements community’s level of comfort
in half to eliminating them of the Chicago Climate with the accuracy of the baseline
entirely to achieve carbon Exchange (CCX). Cities that data of 1990 emission levels,
“neutrality.” Examples from join CCX get a there may be reasons to set a
the public and private sectors comprehensive carbon different point in time from
include: calculator, as well as which to measure carbon
• Seattle City Light, a externally verified, third party reductions.
municipal utility, set a target audits of their performance.
of zero net emissions that was CCX requires its city Some jurisdictions have chosen
achieved in 2005 through a members to reduce emissions goals that will reduce emissions
purchase of 300,000 tons of from municipal operations a from what they are at the time of
GHG offsets196 total of 6% by 2010 from a goal setting:
• Fort Carson Mountain Post, baseline of the average
192
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, “Facing Energy Challenges in the 21st Century—A Three Year Strategic
Outlook 2006-2009,” 2006. Available at www.nyserda.org/Energy_Information/energy_state_plan.asp#dsep, 15 October 2006.
193
City of Portland and Multnomah County, “Local Action Plan on Global Warming,” 2001, available at
www.portlandonline.com/shared/cfm/image.cfm?id=25050, 30 October 2006.
194
“City of Cambridge Climate Protection Plan—Local Actions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” available at
www.cambridgema.gov/~CDD/et/env/clim_plan/clim_plan_full.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/CambridgeMA_clim_plan_full.pdf, 30 October 2006. The plan includes specific
improvement goals for electrical use efficiency (12.5%), reduced natural gas and fuel oil use (10%), reduced electrical generation
emissions (40%), green power purchases (20%), average auto fuel economy (40 MPG), reduction of vehicle miles travelled (10%), and
recycling rate (60%).
195
City of Ottawa, Air Quality and Climate Change Management Plan website: ottawa.ca/city_services/planningzoning/2020/air/, 8 October
2006.
196
Seattle City Light news release 11/9/2005 at www.seattle.gov/news/detail.asp?id=5656&dept=40, 8 October 2006.
197
Interface’s website: www.interfacesustainability.com/renew.html, 8 October 2006 Interface is also a member of the Chicago Climate
Exchange.
198
Chicago Climate Exchange, website Program Summary, at www.chicagoclimatex.com/about/program.html. See also
www.usmayors.org/uscm/wash_update/energyenvirosummit06/ChicagoClimateExchange.ppt, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/CCX_USMayorsConf_may06.pdf, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 59
Salt Lake City, Utah Mayor’s Kyoto Protocol and embodied in intensive.204 The U.S. Energy
Executive Order requires city the Mayors’ Climate Protection Information Administration
operations to achieve a 21% Agreement are a good start. predicts a 75% growth in global
reduction from 2001 to 2006.199 However, increasingly clear emissions from 2003 to 2030.205
scientific evidence of the speed Observers around the world fear
Burlington, Vermont, pledged and severity of global warming is that unless the U.S. undertakes
in 2000 to achieve a 10% eliciting calls from scientists and more aggressive reduction plans
reduction of 2000 emissions by business and political leaders there will be little hope of
2010. throughout the world for stronger controlling greenhouse warming.
actions than those called for by
Sweden plans a 50% reduction the Kyoto Protocol. In October 2006 a report
from “present levels” (2005) by commissioned by British Prime
2050. In 2000, the British Royal Minister Blair was released. Its
Commission on Environmental author, the former Chief
Rather than establish 1990 or Pollution concluded that the U.K. Economist of the World Bank,
other historic baselines, cities needed to reduce carbon Sir Nicolas Stern, stated that the
such as Los Angeles and emissions by 60% by 2050. It planet faces catastrophe unless
Berkeley, California established stated that such a target would be urgent measures are taken to
emission reduction goals needed to “prevent excessive reduce greenhouse gas
compared to the emission levels climate change” by keeping emissions.206 The Report stated
expected from a “business as levels of CO2 in the atmosphere that the world has the means to
usual” projection of future below 550 parts per million avert catastrophe from global
emissions. (ppm).202 The U.K. government warming although it will involve
formally adopted this goal. The the huge expense of 1% of global
Los Angeles aims to reduce Commission recommended a GDP (£0.3trn). This may seem
30% of electricity purchases short-term goal of 20% carbon like an untenable amount of
for city operations by 2010200 reduction by 2010. The money to spend, but the report
government initially set this warned that if it is not done,
Berkeley aims to achieve 15% target, but recently scaled back to global warming could cost the
reductions below emissions 15-18% reduction by 2010, as it world's economies up to 20% of
that have been projected for struggles with the initial their gross domestic product
2010.201 reluctance to change, and the (GDP). The report called for “a
difficulties of getting such a rapid increase in research and
program underway. development of low carbon
Set Aggressive Lacking a coherent national
technologies”.207
199
Mayor Rocky Anderson, “Salt Lake City Green – Climate Change and Sustainability,” 2005.
200
City of Los Angeles Climate Action Plan – Energy C.A.P., 2001, available at www.energy.ca.gov/global_climate_change/01-GGE-
01_registry_guidance/documents/2001-12-14_workshop/2001-12-14_PRESENTATIONS/12-14_Climate_Action_Plan.ppt, 30 October
2006.
201
City of Berkeley Resource Conservation and Global Warming Abatement Plan, January 1998, available at
www.baaqmd.gov/pln/GlobalWarming/BerkeleyClimateActionPlan.pdf#search=%22City%20of%20Berkeley%20Resource%20Conservatio
n%20and%20Global%20Warming%20Abatement%20Plan%22, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/BerkeleyClimateActionPlan1998.pdf, 18 October 2006.
202
“The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution’s 22nd Report: Energy—The Changing Climate,” available at
www.rcep.org.uk/newenergy.htm, 8 October 2006
203
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data for the Period 1990-2003 and
status of reporting”, 2005.
204
U.S. Energy Information Administration, “2006 International Energy Outlook,” Chapter 7, p. 4. Carbon intensity in 1990 was 701 Mt per
million 2000 U.S. dollars of GDP and had declined to 562 by 2003, The OECD average in 2003 was 473.
www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/emissions.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter4/emissions.pdf, 8 October 2006.
60 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
land, home to one-twentieth of CO2 in the atmosphere. 40% of the world's species
the world's population, is would face extinction if
threatened by floods from Some scientists, however, fear temperatures rose by 2C
melting glaciers. It observed that that even these levels would be
35,000 Europeans died in the too high. They point out that the 4 billion people will suffer from
2003 heatwave, an event likely to word “stabilise,” is misleading, water shortage if temperatures
become 'commonplace'. however. Given the time lags in rise by 2C
global climate, it will take at
To prevent these and worse least another 50 years for the 35 per cent drop in crop yields
disasters, the report found, it climate to stabilize at any across Africa and the Middle
would be necessary to spend particular level. There is intense East is expected if
£200bn, or 1% of global GDP debate between scientists about temperatures rise by 3C
every year. Failure to take such how high concentrations can rise
action to limit climate change, before life as we know it cannot 200 million more people could
the report warned, would force survive. be exposed to hunger if world
the world’s economies to spend temperatures rise by 2C (550
up to 20% of their GDP each The level in the atmosphere of million more people could be at
year to deal with the floods, carbon dioxide, the principal risk of hunger if world
storms, fires, droughts and other greenhouse gas, stood at 280 temperatures rise by 3C).
catastrophes. The technology parts per million by volume
does exist to confront the (ppm) before the Industrial
challenge, the report stated, the Revolution, in about 1780. The Global warming reinforces itself,
financing public and private does level of CO2 in the atmosphere and is now occurring must faster
exist, so it doesn’t have to be a today stands at 382 ppm. than had been predicted. Key
catastrophe, but it’s a factors include:
challenging message. In fact, the Without an unthinkable Loss of ice reflection. As ice
report finds reducing climate dislocation in present energy near the poles melts, incoming
change could become one of the practices, concentrations of sunlight will reach either
world’s biggest growth GHGs will inevitably reach 400 oceans or land rather than
industries, generating around ppm in 10 years. Scientists being reflected back into space
£250bn of business globally by believe that this is the upper limit by white ice sheets or caps.
2050. that can be safely maintained. At Greater absorption of solar
a level of 450 ppm, the world energy by land and water will
The Stern Report reckons that would see a 4-5 F degree raise temperatures and higher
such aggressive action would increase in temperature, an land or ocean surface
enable “carbon dioxide levels to interference with the climate temperatures will further
“stabilize” at 550ppm. This system that essentially all climate speed the melting of remaining
accords with scientists’ scientists consider dangerous. ice.
predictions that a 70-80%
reduction of climate changing The Stern report warned: Thawing of permafrost in
emissions from all sources will 6C is a “plausible” estimate of northern latitudes. If Arctic
be needed to “stabilize” how much world temperatures permafrost continues to thaw,
concentrations of GHGs in the could rise by the end of the there is the potential for large
atmosphere by the middle of the century if greenhouse gas releases of carbon in the form
21st century at approximately emissions are unchecked of carbon dioxide and/or
double pre-industrial levels of
205
Ibid.
206
Brown, Colin and Cornwell, Rupert “The day that changed the climate” The Independent, 31 Oct 2006,
news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1943294.ece, 30 October 2006.
207
Brown, Colin and Cornwell, Rupert “The day that changed the climate” The Independent, 31 Oct 2006,
news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1943294.ece, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 61
methane. For example, the has recommended that September 2006, the Global
Siberian permafrost (400,000 developed countries set goals of Warming Solution Act, known
sq. miles) alone is estimated to 15-30% by 2020 and 60 to 80% as AB 32 passed was passed by
have the potential to release by 2050 below 1990 levels.210In the Legislature and signed into
methane equivalent to decades 2004, the Network of European law by the Governor. The2020
of human activity if it thaws.208 Environment and Sustainable target was adopted as a
Methane is a more potent Development Advisory statewide “limit” for
GHG than CO2 Councils (EEAC) advocated greenhouse gas emissions. The
political commitments to goals law sets a mandatory cap on
Warmer soil, especially at high of a 30% GHG reduction by carbon emissions and
latitudes, speeds up dead plant 2020 and 70% by 2050.211 establishes a trading regime by
material decomposition, which companies failing to
releasing more carbon as either In 2006, the 1,300 members of meet the goal may face fines
CO2 or CH4. the Climate Alliance of unless they purchase other
European Cities with entities excess reductions.214
Most climate scientists thus Indigenous Rainforest Peoples
agree that the goal should be to resolved to reduce CO2 On December 20, 2005, seven
peak at the lowest level of emissions 10% every five states announced an agreement
emissions possible and then drop years, reaching emission levels to implement the Regional
from there until the world 50% below 1990 by 2030. The Greenhouse Gas Initiative, as
reaches levels well below pre- resolution aims for a climate outlined in a Memorandum of
industrial concentrations.209 stabilization goal of 2.5 metric Understanding (MOU) signed
tons of carbon dioxide by the Governors of the
Examples of Aggressive equivalent emissions per participating states. The states
Goals: person, approximately 25% of that agreed to sign the MOU
current emissions levels in the are Connecticut, Delaware,
Such European Union (EU) UK and Belgium.212 Maine, New Hampshire, New
countries as France, Germany, Jersey, New York, and
the Netherlands and Sweden In 2005, California Governor Vermont. The MOU outlines
have set long-term goals Schwarzenegger set a the program in detail,
ranging from 50% to 80% California target of 80% including the framework for a
reductions. Germany targeted reduction of GHGs from 1990 Model Rule. Participating
all GHGs. Sweden set targets levels by 2050, with an interim states would set requirements
based on per capita emissions. target to reduce emissions by beginning in 2009 for its GHG
The EU Environment Council 2020 to 1990 levels.213 In emitters. Emitters would be
208
Janet Wilson, “Global Warming Threat Is Seen in Siberian Thaw,” Los Angeles Times, 16 June 2006, sourced at
www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/headlines06/0616-05.htm, 18 October 2006. According to scientific study published in
Science magazine, the Siberian permafrost, about 80 feet deep, could contain 500 billion tons of carbon.
209
Compiled from various studies, including the conclusion by the UK Royal Commission for Environmental Protection in 2000 that a 60%
reduction from 1990 levels is needed, and a 2003 conclusion by scientist Graeme Pearman that 70% from “current emissions levels” is
required (see www.ens-newswire.com/ens/aug2003/2003-08-07-01.asp, 18 October 2006).
210
See Dr. Karsten Sach, Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, “Climate Policy – the Short- and
Long-term,” 2006, archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/Sach.pdf. See also Sweden Ministry of
Sustainable Development, “National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation—Fact Sheet”,
www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImage/51404/climatepolicysweden.pdf, 8 October 2006.
211
EEAC, “70/30 – Towards European Targets for Greenhouse Gas Reductions”, December 2004, available at www.eeac-net.org, 8 October
2006.
212
Environment News Service, “European Cities Pledge to Slash Greenhouse Emissions,” 9 May 2006.
213
Executive Order S-3-05, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. For implementation details see the March 2006 report of the
California Environmental Protection Agency’s Climate Action Team, available at
www.climatechange.ca.gov/climate_action_team/reports/2006-04-
03_FINAL_CAT_REPORT.PDF#search=%22california%20governor%20office%20schwarzenegger%2080%25%20goal%20climate%20c
arbon%22, also archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/2006-04-03_FINAL_CAT_REPORT.pdf, 8 October
2006.
214
California Assembly Bill 32; this approach is nearly identical to the EU’s implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The bill directs the
California EPA to establish enforcement regulations by 2011 that will establish legal limits for 2012 based on the maximum GHG
reductions that are “technologically feasible and cost-effective.”
62 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
required to reduce emissions that the political climate will 6. Determine whether it will be
by 2012 or face fines 215 allow. U.S. communities, necessary to establish legal
being among the world’s findings to support inclusion
The American Institute of largest emitters of GHGs, of adopted goals into
Architects and the U.S. should set the strongest goals decision-making procedures
Conference of Mayors have possible unless compelling of the city, including land use
endorsed a minimum 50% evidence demonstrates that regulations, which require
reduction in fossil fuel they would face severe legally defensible findings.
consumption in building economic and/or human
construction and operation by health consequences.217 In 7. Determine the best way to
2010, with further reductions the wake of the Stern report, obtain the information
of 10% annually for five years. British Ministers were necessary to enable officials
Their long-term goal is carbon drawing up a Climate Change to set a goal. At a minimum,
neutrality for all new and Bill, which would enshrine in it will be necessary to
renovated buildings by 2035.216 law the long-term target of calculate the city’s emissions
reducing carbon emissions by at present, set the baseline
60% by 2050. date against which the target
Recommended 3. Determine whether there is
will be measured, and
establish the ability to
Process sufficient political will to calculate emissions going
simply set a goal or whether forward.
The following process lays out a greater community support
15-step approach that cities may must be obtained before such Some cities hire consultants
follow to undertake an initial a goal can be established. to obtain the necessary
goal-setting process. ICLEI suggests that mayors data.218 Denver used local
pass a resolution setting the university students supervised
1. Establish the timeframe for goal to ensure longevity of by a professor.219 Some cities
which to set goals. the climate protection have an environmental
The timeframe should give a program. department with sufficient
community enough time to staff to undertake the
implement a reasonable 4. Establish the implementation analysis.
program, but should include plan that the city will follow
periodic benchmarks so that to ensure adherence with the The use of local and non-local
the climate protection effort is stated goal. Many scientific and technological
not just passed on to a future communities form citizen task expertise brings up a strategic
administration. It is worth forces to help determine choice. Local experts and
building in the ability to appropriate actions for their examples of sustainable
revisit the goals, in case the communities. behavior can be much more
science or local circumstances powerful motivators for local
dictate strengthening or 5. In the event that the Mayor businesses than consultants or
altering the goals as time goes cannot simply declare a goal examples from afar. On the
by. by Executive Order, outline other hand, non-local experts
the strategy needed to can legitimize sustainability
2. Set the most aggressive goal produce the necessary
support.
215
Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, www.rggi.org, 8 October 2006.
216
AIA newsletter 22 May 2006 at www.aia.org/angle_nwsltr_20060522, 18 October 2006.
217
This suggestion is akin to the “precautionary principle” that is advocated for governance of human-derived chemical compounds.
Communities can investigate the pros and cons and established protocols of this concept through the UK Interdepartmental Liaison
Group on Risk Assessment website at www.hse.gov.uk/aboutus/meetings/ilgra/pppa.htm, 18 October 2006. Also see the Institute of
Science and Society’s Report “The Precautionary Principle is Science Based,” 2003, at www.i-sis.org.uk/sapp.php, 18 October 2006.
218
It is not the intention of this manual to advertise, but an example is Boulder, CO. They hired the consulting firm, Econergy,
www.econergy.com, 8 October 2006.
219
Denver Greenprint Report, 7.12.06, available at www.greenprintdenver.org, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 63
and/or climate change efforts A citizen commission can The analysis should examine
as being on the global cutting also be useful in developing a opportunities to help the local
edge. local action plan. Leading economy and improve quality
examples include: of life through climate change
Consider whether to partner • Boulder County revisions. This process
with other cities in the region Sustainability Task Force, should conduct a review of
or state to obtain information Boulder County, land use and development
that might apply to more than CO220Denver Greenprint policies and other goals of the
one community in order to Council221 city’s comprehensive plans.
reduce costs. • Aspen Global Warming Leading examples
Examine the climate change Alliance, Aspen CO222 include:Aspen Climate
goals of other communities • Portland/ Multnomah Impact Assessment, Aspen
(particularly those in the County Sustainable Colorado226
region and/or state) and Development • Economic and Technology
determine the implications of Commission, Portland Advancement Advisory
such goal choices (i.e. are OR223 Committee, State of
there synergies to be achieved • Alliance for Climate California (to assist with
through goal consistency on a Action, Burlington VT224 regulatory development)227
regional or state basis). • Green Ribbon
Commission on Climate 10. Consider whether to
8. Consider the creation of a Protection, Seattle WA225 undertake a local/regional
Citizen Advisory climate change risk analysis.
Commission. 9. Consider whether the climate It may be useful to conduct a
• If a citizen advisory goals should be integrated science-based analysis of the
commission for either with existing plans and likely local physical effects
climate change or general progress indicators. that are expected to result
sustainability has not yet Most of the actions a from climate change. Such
been established, community will take to an analysis will bring climate
determine whether this address climate change will concerns home and build
would enhance climate make local companies more greater stakeholder support.
protection efforts. Be sure profitable. Similarly, a good Stakeholder education efforts
to create a Commission climate protection program can then include what can be
with sufficient diversity can increase the effectiveness forecast about climate change
and resources to be of city and other local risks to your ecology and
credible and balanced in government operations. economy. This analysis will
its development of climate Often, however, existing also help citizens, businesses
strategies. Ensure policies, plans and regulations and governments plan for
sufficient business form barriers that will impede what is coming.228 Leading
community involvement to cost-effective climate change examples include:
give the commission’s actions by municipal and
work a strong economic community members.
development component.
220
Boulder County Board of County Commissioners, Resolution 2005-137, “Adopting a Sustainable Energy Path for Boulder County,”
available at: www.co.boulder.co.us/bocc/images/Energy_Res_2005-137.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/Boulder_Energy_Res_2005-137.pdf, 8 October 2006.
221
Denver Greenprint website, www.greenprintdenver.org, 8 October 2006.
222
City of Aspen Canary Initiative, www.aspenglobalwarming.com, 8 October 2006.
223
Portland/Multnomah County Sustainable Development Commission, www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?c=41485, 8 October 2006.
224
Burlington Electric, Alliance for Climate Action, www.burlingtonelectric.com/SpecialTopics/climate.htm, 8 October 2006.
225
Seattle Climate Action Plan homepage, www.cityofseattle.net/climate/, 8 October 2006.
226
Aspen Canary Initiative, Western Colorado Climate Data, aspenglobalwarming.com/westerncoloradodata.cfm, 8 October 2006.
227
This Committee is to be set up under California’s Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006—see Part 7, section 38591.
228
EPA State Climate Change Impacts information sheets, yosemite.epa.gov/OAR%5Cglobalwarming.nsf/content/ImpactsStateImpacts.html,
30 October 2006.
64 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
• University of Washington 12. It is worth conducting a scan • Define “cost-effective” as
Climate Impacts Report of the trading opportunities any investment with up to
(for Pacific Northwest)229 that CCX offers and how they a ten-year payback (as per
• City of Santa Monica may affect the economics of the energy efficiency
Solar Potential Study reaching your climate change strategy of the U.S.
(1997) and Community goals. Department of Defense).
Energy Independence • Include a per-capita goal
Initiative (2006), Santa Bring the results of the that psychologically
Monica California230 assessments together as reinforces the duty of
• The European project quickly as possible, every citizen to adjust
AMICA has developed a preferably within six months, their own life choices to
methodology for cities to in order to keep momentum play their part – such as
use in development of a up. The findings will inform the Swedish goal
climate-change sensitive adoption of goals, and will described below.
regional development support work to develop a
strategy.231 Climate Action Plan (Chapter 15. Revise the goals at least
• Climate Alliance of 5). If there is a desire to every five years.
European Cities, which move more quickly, develop a
offers a model set of local action plan at the same If the process outlined above
progress indicators time as the goal-setting seems too ambitious at first,
towards climate process. It should be possible consider starting with the simpler
stabilization.232 to develop both strong short- steps, and then undertake the
and long-term goals and a more complicated steps as you
11. Scan Carbon Trading Climate Action Plan in under develop expertise and political
Opportunities. a year. will.
The economics of achieving
GHG reduction goals have 13. Align community regulations
changed with the advent of and resources to maximize
GHG reductions to the extent
Factors to Consider
the Chicago Climate
Exchange (CCX). Such technologically feasible and in Choosing a Goal
major metropolitan areas as cost-effective (as per
Chicago, Portland, Berkeley, California’s Global Warming In addition to the variables
Oakland, Boulder and others Solutions Act of 2006). described above, there are other
have determined that the factors to consider in setting a
procedures that CCX uses to 14. Establish enforceable short- target for climate protection.
establish the city’s baseline, and long-term total emissions These include:
the third-party verification goals that estimate the
that CCX provides, and the implementation of maximum Which basis of measurement to
potential for greater returns feasible and cost-effective use:
from selling reductions in reductions. • Total GHG emissions vs. per
GHGs made it worthwhile to capita GHG emissions vs.
make the legally binding carbon/GHG intensity
commitment to reduce their • Gross emissions vs. net
emissions by becoming CCX (aggregate) emissions
members. • Carbon only vs. all GHGs
229
“Uncertain Future: Climate Change and its Effect on Puget Sound,” at: www.cses.washington.edu/cig/outreach/files/psat1005.shtml, 8
October 2006.
230
Community Energy Independence Initiative proceedings and information about the Solar Potential Study are available at: santa-
monica.org/cityclerk/council/agendas/2006/20060912/s2006091201-G.htm, 8 October 2006.
231
Amica Integrate Climate Policy Approach, www.amica-climate.net, 8 October 2006.
232
Climate Alliance Municipal Fields of Action, www.klimabuendnis.org/english/municipal/frameset.htm, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 65
Outcome-based goals: of the three variables in the To achieve its total emissions
equation above. As described reduction goals, Sweden’s
• Climate stabilization (long- above, most cities and nations population will have to remain
term) have adopted goals like the constant.
• Economic development Kyoto Protocol that would limit
total emissions. Total emissions The U.S. government (as per
goals are stronger than goals policy statement by President
Measurement based on limits to carbon Bush in 2002, not enacted into
intensity or per capita limits. law) is aiming for an 18%
Three fundamental choices exist reduction in carbon intensity
regarding how to measure Examples of total emissions from 2002-2012. According to
greenhouse or climate change limitation goals include: the U.S. Department of Energy,
goals: the U.S. economy has been
California’s “Global Warming steadily reducing its carbon
1. primary measurement Solutions Act 2006” sets a intensity for the past two decades
strategies; statewide “limit” of no more through energy efficiency, and
2. gross or net measurement; than the 1990 level of emissions through the steady transition of
and in 2020. The Act mandates the U.S. economy from energy-
3. carbon only versus all GHGs. development of regulations and intensive heavy manufacturing
programs that will promote the and light manufacturing to
Primary Measurement maximum implementation of services during the past three
Strategies “technologically feasible and decades.236
All climate change goals will cost-effective reductions.”234
interact with population growth, Per capita goals or intensity
economic development and Kyoto Protocol implementation goals leave room for total GHG
emissions rates. A simple by the EU has set limits for the emissions to increase if the
formula is: industrial sector, for each population or per capita GDP
country as well as sector-by- increase faster than the reduction
(Population) X (Per capita GDP) sector. This approach means of emissions per capita or GHG
X (GHG intensity*) = total GHG that limits are set for all major intensity.237
emissions.233 GHG producers. The limits
* GHG intensity is defined as are calibrated to achieve the A decrease in intensity does not
GHG emissions per dollar of EU’s commitment of 8% total necessary mean a decrease in
GDP generated in a given time reductions from 1990 levels by actual GHG emissions. As a
period 2008-12. measure of progress, carbon
intensity must be used with
Total emissions caps set the total Total emission reduction goals caution. The Energy Information
amount of GHGs that can be can be stated on a per capita Administration (EIA) chart
emitted; the most meaningful basis. Sweden translated its below illustrates that while U.S.
measure is actual GHGs being overall emissions goal of 50% carbon intensity is decreasing,
put into the atmosphere. A goal reduction from 2005 to 2050 into actual GHG emissions are
or limit of total emissions can be a per capita goal of achieving 4.5 projected by EIA to rise
achieved by reducing any or all million tons of CO2 emitted per significantly by 2030.
person. Its emissions at the time
were 8 million tons per capita.235
233
John E. Blodgett and Larry Parker, US Congressional Research Service (CRS), “Greenhouse Gases and Economic Development: An
Empirical Approach to Defining Goals,” published by the CRS, Library of Congress, 4 February 2005.
234
State of California Assembly Bill 32, “Global Warming Solutions Act 2006.”
235
Sweden Ministry of Sustainable Development, “National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation,” Fact Sheet, May 2006,
www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/06/47/24/ccbef4cd.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/Sweden_natlClimatePolicy.pdf, 8 October 2006.
236
The U.S. Department of Labor projects that 18.7 million of 18.9 million net new jobs from 2004 to 2014 will be in service-related industries,
whereas employment in “goods-producing” industries is expected to decline. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
“Tomorrow’s Jobs,” available at www.bls.gov/oco/oco2003.htm, 20 December 2005.
66 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Figure: Energy Information Administration
Gross Emissions vs. Net or example, from tree planting. The U.S. Mayors Climate Protection
Aggregate Emissions U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement represents a goal for
Though U.S. cities have Agreement and the Kyoto “global warming pollutants,”
generally chosen to set gross Protocol, upon which it is based, meaning the six Kyoto GHGs.
emissions goals (i.e. without are aggregate emissions The reporting requirements of
subtracting for carbon commitments.238 the Chicago Climate Exchange
absorption), the international also include all GHGs converted
reporting system established by Carbon Only vs. All GHGs to CO2 equivalents. These and
the Intergovernmental Panel on The Kyoto Protocol recognizes most GHG reporting and goals
Climate Change for the Kyoto and regulates six GHGs: carbon call for the reduction of all
Protocol recognizes an dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), GHGs; however, they convert
“aggregate” emissions reporting nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfur measurements of the other gases
basis in which gross emissions hexafluoride (SF6), to metric tons of carbon dioxide
are offset by credits for potential hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and equivalents (MtCO2e) in which
emissions absorption, for perfluorocarbons (PFCs). The the other five GHG emissions are
237
For more on the pros and cons of carbon intensity goals, see William Pizer, “The Case for Intensity Targets,” 2005, available from
Resources for the Future, www.rff.org, 18 October 2006. Pizer believes that intensity goals can be useful for easing carbon goals into the
economy without political opposition based on limiting economic growth – a useful short-term strategy.
238
See Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, available at
unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 67
converted to the equivalent Climate Stabilization: The The Carbon Mitigation Initiative
amounts of CO2. This is a good Wedge Strategy at Princeton University
practice. Capturing all GHGs is Allowing emissions of GHGs to approaches the climate change
important because all the other rise is risking the ability of the challenge as a choice between
GHGs have more warming Earth to support life as we have two scenarios. A business-as-
potential of CO2. Thus, even known it. GHG levels now usual (or do-nothing) scenario of
smaller releases of these gases present in the atmosphere are continuing the historic growth of
can have dangerous impacts on unprecedented in human history GHG emissions since 1976 to
the climate. Doing this, however, and are increasing every day.239 2056, would lead to a tripling of
requires more sophisticated Given that our GHG emissions to atmospheric carbon from pre-
measures of sources of emissions date already have created climate industrial levels, with 14 billion
than just tracking fossil energy instability, stabilizing emissions tons of carbon added annually.
use. at approximately double the The second strategy would hold
preindustrial level of GHGs in annual carbon emissions at seven
the atmosphere is likely to mean billion tons until 2056, then cut
Outcome-based Goals accepting a very different climate emissions in half for the
than we experience today, one following century to avoid
Local and regional governments about 4 to 5 degrees F warmer doubling atmospheric carbon
have increasingly been held than in the year 2000. As stated from pre-industrial levels.
accountable to specific in the science primer at the
outcomes, particularly with beginning of this chapter, that The Princeton Carbon Mitigation
regard to environmental and will result in enormous Initiative240 outlines 16 basic
health regulations. Stakeholder dislocations around the globe. strategies (below) to achieve the
efforts since the early 1990s to stabilization strategy. Each of
create “progress,” Even so, stabilization at some the strategies would result in the
“sustainability” or other quality relatively safe level is widely reduction of about a billion tons
of life indicators are based on the agreed by scientists to be of carbon a year. To hold
concept of identifying specific preferable to allowing a emissions at 7 billion tons
outcomes that the community continued rise in atmospheric annually the world would need to
wishes to achieve, and levels of GHGs that would mean implement seven of the measures
implementing management temperature increases more than below. Reducing emissions
systems to ensure these twice this great and the much further could be achieved by
outcomes. Climate change greater instability this would implementing more measures:241
outcomes are no different. Good bring.
goals, policies and activities End-user efficiency and
should be tied to consensus Achieving stabilization may conservation
outcomes that are measurable require setting far more 1. Increase fuel economy of two
and that contribute towards all of aggressive goals than cities have billion autos from 30 to 60
the positive outcomes the done to date. It is better to start MPG
community desires. Climate somewhere, even if it is an 2. Cut average use of two billion
stabilization and economic inadequate goal, than to set no autos (at 30 miles per gallon
development are two primary goals at all. However, city (MPG)) from 10,000
goals that should drive your leaders should prepare miles/year to 5,000.
climate protection program. themselves and their citizens for 3. Cut electricity use in
the likelihood that far tougher buildings 25%
standards will be necessary.
239
A useful metaphor for this situation is a comparison to the hormones in our bodies – how would we react to a situation in which one of our
key hormones had risen 35% more than normal levels and was growing further from normal every year. Even if medical science was not
certain of the eventual outcome, any sane doctor would urge immediate changes to return the levels to normal.
240
Robert H. Socolow and Stephen W. Pacala, “A Plan to Keep Carbon in Check,” Scientific American magazine, September 2006.
241
The Princeton Initiative is useful because it describes an example of how to set a plan, but its calculations are based on GHG reduction
goals that are less ambitious than what will likely be needed. www.princeton.edu/~cmi, 30 October 2006.
68 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Fuel switching (“power power plants that make Do carbon-intensive personal
generation” and “alternative hydrogen for 1.5 billion lifestyles (motor sports, and
energy sources”) vehicles long distance air travel) need
4. Drive two billion autos (at 60 • Install Carbon Capture & to be more aggressively
MPG) on ethanol instead of Storage systems at 800 large regulated in order to allow
gasoline coal-fired power plants some growth of carbon-usage
5. Improve power generation by the community’s
efficiency at 1,600 large Authors Socolow and Pacala242 underprivileged?
(1,000 MW) coal-fired note that setting a price for
electric powerplants from 40 carbon emissions between $100 These are thorny issues that
to 60% and $200 per ton—enough to frequently derail efforts to reach
6. Replace 1,400 large coal-fired make it cheaper for owners of international agreement on
plants with gas-fired plants coal plants to sequester carbon carbon / GHG reductions. It is
7. Increase wind-generated rather than vent it—is required to unlikely that individual cities
electricity 80-fold to make “jump-start” the needed will be able to resolve them, but
hydrogen for autos transition. The current price (as awareness of them is important.
8. Increase solar-generated of January, 2007) on both the
electricity 700-fold to Chicago Climate Exchange and
displace coal-fired power the European Exchange is Economic Development
plants running between $4 and $5.
9. Increase wind-generated They also note that holding Since the 1970s, advocates for
electricity 40-fold to displace global population to eight billion environmental health have
coal-fired power plants rather than the projected nine demonstrated that well-designed
10. Double nuclear power plant billion would also be the environmental protection
output to displace coal-fired equivalent of reducing emissions measures increase economic
power plants (or increase by one billion tons over competitiveness.244 Yet the
nuclear power plant output by forecasts, and would thus count climate change debates in the
a factor of five to displace all as one of the seven strategies U.S. have featured unfortunate
coal plants—achieving more required. and acrimonious claims that
than double the effect) economic competitiveness and
Goals must also consider local growth would be unacceptably
Carbon capture and storage and global issues of carbon diminished by climate change
11. Expand conservation tillage equity (or environmental justice). efforts. The discussion in
to 100% of cropland These sorts of issues have been Chapter 2 of this manual shows
12. Stop all deforestation central to international climate that there is actually a strong
13. Curtail emissions of methane change negotiations: business case for aggressively
(primarily from agricultural reducing emissions of GHGs.
sources) Do nations that are now more Based on reading the report on
14. Install Carbon Capture & carbon / GHG intensive (like which Chapter 2 of this manual
Storage systems at all coal-to- the U.S.) need to adopt more is based, the Chamber of
syngas plants (that make aggressive goals in order to Commerce of Boulder, Colorado
enough syngas to replace 1/3 make room for carbon-based switched from opposing a
of today’s oil production) economic development of less proposed municipal carbon tax to
15. Install Carbon Capture & developed nations, at least in supporting it.
Storage systems at coal-fired the short-term?243
242
Ibid.
243
As noted by the World Bank, “Assume, for the sake of fairness, that every person on earth has an equal right to the atmosphere as a
resource. In that case carbon dioxide emission quotas for counties would be determined by population size. Low-income countries would
not yet have reached their quotes and would have the right to continue emitting carbon dioxide. But middle and high income countries
would already have exceeded their quota.” Tatyana P. Soubbotina, World Bank, Beyond Economic Growth – Meeting the Challenges of
Global Development, 2000, Chapter 14.
244
See Florida, Richard L., The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life,
showing that regions that protect their environment economically outperform those that do not. Basic Books, 2004.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 69
A city’s discussions must a 0.5% one-time loss of Gross increasing availability of cost-
examine all sides of the issue: Domestic Product (GDP). effective substitutes), community
the economic consequences of Public policies with policies that support reduced
runaway climate change as well significant impacts are fossil fuel dependence will
as the potential costs or benefits usually phased in over time. enhance your community’s
of responsibly addressing it. As Assuming a ten-year economic competitiveness.248
the Stern Report in the UK transition period, this
found, the costs of doing nothing approach would amount to Climate protection programs also
may far exceed any costs of reduced growth of GDP and confer economic development
action. The California Global real income of less than one benefits. These include quality
Warming Solutions Act leads tenth of 1% per year. of life improvements and
with a warning for other U.S. Pessimistic studies estimate reduction of indirect costs (such
states and regions: that real GDP per employee as costs of traffic congestion) as
Global warming poses a will grow from $54,000 in well as increased job creation.
serious threat to the economic 1995 to $61,000 in 2010
well-being, public health, under Kyoto Protocol The U.S. Mayors Climate
natural resources, and the commitments.246 Protection Agreement states:
environment of California. “…many cities throughout the
Global warming will have nation, both large and small,
detrimental effects on some Similar projections supported the are reducing global warming
of California’s largest U.K. government’s commitment pollutants through programs
industries, including to a 60% reduction goal by that provide economic and
agriculture, wine, tourism, 2050.247 quality of life benefits such as
skiing, recreational and reduced energy bills, green
commercial fishing and Nearly all climate change space preservation, air quality
forestry.245 investments by the private sector improvements, reduced traffic
(and public sector organizations congestion, improved
Predictions that climate change through management of their transportation choices, and
strategies would diminish own operations) actually achieve economic development and
economic health are largely strong rates of return—far job creation through energy
based on the unexamined beyond the cost of money (the conservation and new energy
expectation that the only way to bottom-line of investment technologies…”249
elicit reductions of energy use returns). These rates of return
would be to require higher are amplified if fossil fuel energy The economic development case
energy costs for businesses and prices increase faster than the was important to the Seattle
consumers. However, as rate of inflation. Unless a Green Ribbon Commission’s
described by economic analysts government is prepared to make 2006 findings and
at the non-profit research center, the case that fossil fuel energy recommendations:
Redefining Progress: will decrease in real dollar costs One of the primary obstacles
…credible economic models (a very difficult case to make in a to responsible climate policy
estimate that controlling U.S. time of diminishing U.S. is the perception that reducing
emissions of greenhouse production and global reserves, fossil fuel use will be
gases would result in less than increasing global demand and economically costly. We
245
State of California Assembly Bill 32, “Global Warming Solutions Act 2006,” 38501 sections (a) and (b).
246
Gary Wolff and Gautam Sethi, Redefining Progress, “What’s Fair: Workers, Investors and Climate Change,” 2000. Available at:
www.rprogress.org/newpubs/2000/wf_work_invest.pdf, 19 October 2006.
247
“The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution’s 22nd Report: Energy—The Changing Climate,” available at
www.rcep.org.uk/newenergy.htm, 8 October 2006.
248
See J. Andrew Hoerner, Redefining Progress, “A Golden Opportunity: Strengthening California’s Economy Through Climate Policy,”
2006, www.rprogress.org/newpubs/2006/goldenopp0106.pdf , also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/RedefiningProgress_goldenopp.pdf, 19 October 2006.
249
Seattle’s Letter Calling Mayors to Action, www.seattle.gov/mayor/climate/PDF/USCM_6-page_Climate_Mailing_ALL.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/ Cities/Chapter4/USCM_6-page_Climate_Mailing_ALL.pdf, 19 October 2006.
70 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
believe the opposite is true. Boulder, Colorado Climate
The road to a more climate- Action Plan251;
friendly community is paved
with economic opportunities New York State Energy
ranging from cost-savings for Strategy 2006252;
families to new business
development for companies. Economic development goals
For example, the state’s new are included in the
“clean car” standards are sustainability indicators of
projected to save drivers Santa Monica, California253 ;
$2,500-$3,000 in fuel costs
over the life of the vehicle, and the recommended
while reducing global indicators of the Pikes Peak
warming pollution by 25-30% Sustainability Indicators
per vehicle. Similarly, Project, Colorado.254
investing in more energy
efficient homes and
businesses creates local jobs.
And, here in Seattle, new jobs
already are being created by
climate-friendly businesses
engaged in sustainable
building design and biodiesel
production.250
250
Seattle Green Ribbon Commission, “Seattle, a Climate of Change: Meeting the Kyoto Challenge,” 2006, available at
www.seattle.gov/climate/PDF/SeattleaClimateReport.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/SeattleaClimateReport.pdf 18 October 2006.
251
See Boulder Climate Action portal, www.ci.boulder.co.us/index.php? option=com_content&task=view&id=1058&Itemid=396, 30 October
2006.
252
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, “Facing Energy Challenges in the 21st Century: A Three-year Strategic
Outlook 2006-2009,” 2006. It notes that “Assessing how and when we use energy, while ensuring that our energy use is efficient and
effective, will play an important role in our economic well-being.” Available at: www.nyserda.org/publications/strategicplan.pdf, also
archived at www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/NYSERDA_jun06.pdf, 30 October 2006.
253
City of Santa Monica, “Santa Monica Sustainable City Plan,” 2006, available at santa-
monica.org/epd/scp/pdf/SCP_2006_Adopted_Plan.pdf, Also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/SCP_2006_Adopted_Plan.pdf, 30 October 2006.
254
The Pikes Peak Sustainability Indicators Project is a collaboration of local governments and Fort Carson Mountain Post. Summary report
available from Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments website: www.ppacg.org/Envir/PPSIProject.pdf#search=%22PPSIP%22, also
archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/PikesPeakSustainabilityIndicatorProject.pdf, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 71
Additional • Climate Change Impacts on Pew Climate Center, especially
corporate commitments made
the United States: The
Resources Potential Consequences of through the Business
Climate Variability and Environmental Leadership
Why Science Compels Strong Change”, US Global Change Council program.265
Action, Physical basics: how Research Program,
and why GHGs affect climate Cambridge University Press The Carbon Disclosure Project
• World Resources Institute255 2000.260 supports progress towards
• Intergovernmental Panel on corporate reporting of climate
Climate Change, a project of Science’s predictions of local change impacts.266
the United Nations physical effects
Environment Programme and • “Climate Change Impacts on DriveNeutral, a project of the
the WMO, especially the United States – the Presidio School of Management,
“Climate Change 2001: The Potential Consequences of provides a system for people to
Scientific Basis”.256 Climate Variability and offset the climate impacts of
• Tim Flannery, The Change,” prepared by US their driving.267
Weathermakers, Atlantic Global Change Research
Monthly Press, 2006. Program, 2000.261 The European Climate Forum
• Al Gore, An Inconvenient includes recent information
Truth, Goal-setting Considerations developed by the EU. 268
http://www.climatecrisis.net • Technology and Innovation
Opportunities: US ICLEI Cities for Climate
Science’s predictions of global Government National Climate Protection Campaign.269
physical effects Change Technology
• “The Scientific Consensus on Initiative.262 City of Seattle, Green Ribbon
Climate Change,” Essays • Daniel R. Abbasi, Commission – Resources for
Beyond the Ivory Tower, “Americans and Climate Local Governments web page.270
2004.257 Change: Closing the Gap
• The Climate Group’s “About Between Science and Action
Climate Change” Case studies – A Synthesis of Insights and
of companies and Recommendations from the
governments258 2005 Yale F&ES Conference
• ClimateArk’s Climate on Climate Change,” 2006.263
Change and Global Warming
Portal and its Climate Change Evangelical Climate Initiative
Overview.259 Call to Action, U.S., 2006.264
255
World Resource Insitute, Climate, Energy & Transport, www.wri.org/climate/, 15 October 2006.
256
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, www.ipcc.ch, 8 October 2006.
257
Author: Naomi Oreskes. Available through Aspen Canary Initiative website:
aspenglobalwarming.com/pdf/Science_Consensus_Essay.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/Science_Consensus_Essay.pdf, 8 October 2006.
258
The Climate Group Case Studies, www.theclimategroup.org/index.php?pid=430, 8 October 2006
The Climate Group’s report “Low Carbon Leader: Canada Dec. 2005” at www.theclimategroup.org/assets/TCG_LCL_Canada_01.pdf,
also archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/TCG_LCL_Canada_2005.pdf, 8 October 2006.
259
Climate Ark, www.climateark.org/overview, 8 October 2006.
260
“Climate Change Impacts of the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change”
www.gcrio.org/NationalAssessment/index.htm, 8 October 2006.
261
Available through Aspen Canary Initiative website: aspenglobalwarming.com/pdf/natl_assess_key_findings.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter4/Natl_assess_key_findings.pdf, 8 October 2006.
262
The National Climate Change Technology Initiative, www.climatescience.gov/about/nccti.htm, 8 October 2006.
263
Available at environment.yale.edu/climate/americans_and_climate_change.pdf, 8 October 2006.
264
Evangelical Climate Initiative, www.christiansandclimate.org, 8 October 2006.
265
Pew Center on Global Climate Change, www.pewclimate.org/, 8 October 2006.
266
Carbon Disclosure Project, www.cdproject.net. Also see summary of 2006 report at GreenBiz.com:
www.greenbiz.com/news/news_third.cfm?NewsID=34028, 8 October 2006.
267
Drive Neutral, www.driveneutral.org, 8 October 2006.
268
European Climate Forum, www.european-climate-forum.net/, 8 October 2006.
72 CHAPTER 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
The Heat is On, Economist
Article, Sept 7, 2006. The many
issues surrounding climate
change are explained clearly and
succinctly in this article with a
focus on economics and politics.
http://www.economist.com/opini
on/displaystory.cfm?story_id=78
84738
Amica, a collaborative in EU
trying to establish a regional
development methodology with
climate change considered
http://www.amica-
climate.net/home1.html
269
ICLEI, www.iclei.org/index.php?id=1118, 8 October 2006.
270
Resources for Local Governments on Seattle website, www.seattle.gov/climate/govResources.htm, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES Chapter 4: Set an Emissions Reduction Goal 73
Chapter 5:
Develop a Local
Action Plan
Chapter 5 Table of Contents:
Stakeholder Engagement......................................................................................... ........ 75
Best Bets
Municipal Operations
Buildings ...................................................................................................................... 90
Infrastructure ............................................................................................................. 109
Municipal Transportation............................................................................................ 128
Waste Reduction & Recycling.................................................................................... 144
City Purchasing ......................................................................................................... 149
Utilities ....................................................................................................................... 158
Municipal Interface with Residents and Businesses
Businesses ................................................................................................................ 168
Residential Homes .................................................................................................... 180
Residential Transportation ......................................................................................... 197
Long Term Initiatives
Urban Planning ......................................................................................................... 217
Agriculture ................................................................................................................. 225
Transition to Alternative Fuels ................................................................................... 231
Sustainable Energy .................................................................................................... 241
Education .................................................................................................................. 263
Waste Management ................................................................................................... 269
74 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
Chapter 5: Develop
a Local Action Plan
Stakeholder
Engagement
In a democracy, four groups
DOCUMENT CONTENTS (local governments including
Government Leaders and Municipal their city staff, community
Staff...............................................76 members, organizations and
Non- profit Organizations and Local activists, business leaders and
Activists.........................................77 citizens) will have a stake in any
Business Leaders..........................77
Community Members ....................77
program to protect the climate,
Stakeholder Engagement Strategies and should be involved in the
......................................................77 creation of the plan. Whether
LASER Stakeholder Recruitment78 your city has decided to engage
Tools of Change: Social Marketing stakeholders in the goal setting
to Engage Stakeholders .............84
Business for Social Responsibility: process or has decided to
Organizational Stakeholder announce a climate protection
Engagement...............................85 agreement as an executive
Additional Resources ....................88 action, learning how to engage
the various people in your
community who will be
interested is an important step in
developing and following
through with Climate Action
Plan programs. Many of the
programs described in this
manual can only be done with
the support and enthusiasm of
the community.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 75
Stakeholder Engagement
Government for city staff are listed at the end
of this chapter.
resolution of the city
government.273 Passing such a
Leaders and resolution not only highlights the
Municipal Staff A good first step is to determine importance of climate change to
whether your community has elected officials. It also offers an
If you are reading this manual it signed the MCPA. If not, opportunity to educate the public
is likely that you are already consider whether your Mayor and the local government staff
engaged in Climate Protection. might be interested in joining the while laying out a plan of action
To ensure that your town makes over 355 mayors around the and implementation. Some cities
climate protection a priority, it country who have. have proceeded without such a
will be necessary to involve city resolution, but going through the
officials and staff. Research has shown that even in political process to make the
many of the cities in which the Agreement official will help give
Mayors who sign the Mayor’s mayor signed the MCPA, city it legitimacy and longevity.
Climate Protection Agreement staff members were unaware of
(MCPA)271 commit themselves this and uncertain how to Resolutions that cities have
to reduce GHG emissions. In proceed.272 Remember that in passed may be helpful models
most cities, however, programs any entity as large as a city for government staff:
to achieve reductions will be government, there are differences
implemented by city staff. These of opinion, and a whole array of For a sample resolution
individuals will oversee historical vested interests. Often outlining a city’s commitment,
programs to save energy, to climate protection programs view the city of Seattle
educate the public, and to work originate in an environmental Resolution.274
with the community. They will office, or an executive office.
measure the impacts of Officials in public works, utility View a sample resolution275
programs, and will make services, vehicle operations and from a city participating in
adjustments as the programs other departments may not view ICLEI’s Cities for Climate
unfold. Staff members may proposed changes as Protection Campaign.
know little at first about global enthusiastically. It will be
warming or the science behind it. important to ensure that these The sample above can be
An internal education program to people are given a way to get modified to include language
bring city staff up to speed on the involved, that their opinions are specific to a particular
issue is important. With support heard and their expertise community. See how the city
of local non-profits, such solicited. of Carbondale, Colorado276 has
educational materials as this personalized its resolution.
manual, trainings, and attendance Even if a mayor has signed the
at conferences and workshops, Agreement, city staff may be City staff has the power to place
staff can get the support they will unsure which steps to take next. climate protection as a high
need to implement a successful One of the first actions to priority, or to undermine efforts
Climate Action Plan. Resources consider is to embody the even if the mayor believes this
commitment in a formal should be a focus. Helping staff
271
Seattle U.S. Mayor’s Climate Protection Agreement website, www.seattle.gov/mayor/climate/, 8 October 2006.
272
Natural Capitalism Solutions called every city that had signed the MCPA as of November 2005. At least 75% of officials surveyed were
unaware that their city was officially a member. Most of the rest were unsure what if any programs were being undertaken.
273
ICLEI’s first responder handbook.
274
Seattle ‘s Resolution,clerk.ci.seattle.wa.us/%7Escripts/nph-
brs.exe?s1=&s2=&s3=30316&s4=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESON&Sect3=PLURON&Sect5=RESN1&Sect6=HITOF
F&d=RESN&p=1&u=/%7Epublic/resn1.htm&r=1&f=G, 20 October 2006.
275
ICLEI Sample Resolution, www.iclei.org/documents/USA/resolution.pdf,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/ICLEI_SampleResolution.pdf, 20 October 2006.
276
Carbondale Resolution to Participate in Cities Climate Protection Campaign, www.carbondalegov.org/vertical/Sites/%7BE239F6F5-
CCA3-4F3A-8B27-95E8145FD79A%7D/uploads/%7B736D98B2-4F2F-404F-B554-
B024DA1CDAA8%7D.PDF#search=%22carbondale%20colorado%20ccp%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Carbondale_CCP_resolution.pdf, 20 October 2006.
76 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
to understand the importance of Program planning efforts will achieving reductions, especially
the issue, their role in achieving benefit from inviting all significant ones will depend on
climate protection and how this interested elements of civil the willingness of the public to
can improve their work on behalf society to be involved at the participate.
of their community can earliest possible stage.
dramatically strengthen a Like business leaders, many
program. citizens may feel that protecting
Business Leaders the climate will cost them
money, require higher taxes,
Non- profit Business and community leaders
stifle their quality of life and
otherwise bring changes that they
Organizations and should be invited to participate in
a climate protection program at
will not like. It is important to
Local Activists the earliest possible moment.
explain how reducing the use of
energy saves money, increases
Often business leaders are
Many non-profit organizations community security, strengthens
ignored as such programs are
work on climate protection, from the economy and can be
developed, and may feel that
the local level to the national achieved with a minimum of
proposed changes will negatively
stage. Some groups bring disruption. It is also worth
impact their businesses. In fact,
pressure for change, while others helping the community to
many carbon reduction programs
provide excellent information. understand the significant
will save businesses money and
Some can even provide financial disruption that will come from
will strengthen the entire
support for carbon reduction allowing global warming to
economy, but unless the business
programs. For example, the continue. An educated citizenry
case is explained, the
information in this manual is is one of the best assets that any
commercial sector may react
available due to the partnership community can have.
negatively. The Business Case
between Natural Capitalism for Climate Protection section in
Solutions a non-profit, and the Why Act Now chapter of this
Paradigm Nouveau, a L.L.C., manual contains information that Stakeholder
for-profit company. The city of
Ballard, Washington’s ‘carbon
can be provided to members of
the business community. The
Engagement
neutral’ goals are being put forth early participation of business Strategies
and implemented by the local and community leaders will
non-profit, Net Green. Many significantly improve chances for Cities can take many approaches
NGOs, local and national non- success. to engage its stakeholders. This
profits can bring specialized manual presents several
resources to help stakeholder strategies so that you can
groups in planning and
implementation. The city of
Community determine which one works best
for you. The following three
Denver, Colorado conducted its Members strategies: LASER, Tools of
carbon baseline by using local Change and Businesses for
university students, supervised Finally, even the most aggressive Social Responsibility lay out
by a professor working with city program will fail unless citizens specific steps organizations can
staff. Many houses of worship understand and give it follow to engage their
have made climate protection a legitimacy. It is crucially stakeholders. Each have a
priority, reducing the energy that important to educate and involve different audience and purpose,
they use, holding educational citizens at every step of a climate but follow similar processes.
programs for their members and protection process. Many
speaking out on the issue mayors have taken a leadership
role by signing the Climate
Protection Agreement. But
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 77
Stakeholder Engagement
LASER, Local Action for Business for Social The first step in the process of
Sustainable Economic Renewal, Responsibility281 (BSR) is a non- developing necessary leadership
created by Global Community profit organization that provides is to identify and recruit the
Initiatives277 and Natural information, tools, training and stakeholders from the
Capitalism Solutions278 was advisory services to make community who have an active
developed for use in corporate social responsibility an interest in a sustainable future.
communities interested in integral part of a business’ The legitimacy of the process
economic renewal and in operations and strategies. BSR will depend, in part, on who is
developing sustainability describes the importance of doing the recruiting and how the
programs. This free tool offers engaging the business Stakeholder Group derives its
an array of best practices, tools community, beyond just legitimacy. No matter who you
and templates that communities “touching base.” It provides are—mayor, municipal
throughout the world can use. clear implementation steps to employee, business leader,
You can download it for free achieve success. It is especially community activist—you need
through an interactive web important to present the business allies to enable a major carbon
site.279 In the first chapter, case for climate protection (see reduction effort to succeed.
LASER describes the Chapter 2 of this manual for how
stakeholder recruitment process to present this). Showing how Step One: Gather a Core
and the importance of creating a the climate change programs Team
community vision to bring the described in this manual make The Core Team could be as small
community together and business and financial sense is an as three people, but should not be
motivate it to achieve its goal. important message. A strong much larger than seven to ten. It
program is much easier to deliver should include people who have
Tools of Change280 is founded on to local businesses, residents and credibility within the community.
the principles of community- city planners if it makes Ideally, it will reflect experience
based social marketing, The web economic as well as from such sectors as business,
site offers specific tools, case environmental sense. government and civil society.
studies, and a planning guide to The Core Team should agree on
help people take actions and the general direction of the
adopt habits that promote health LASER Stakeholder project and work to become a
and/or are more Recruitment functional unit before reaching
environmentally-friendly. The out to the rest of the community.
web site includes the best The following is adapted from At a minimum, those you select
practices of many other programs LASER’s Stakeholder for your Core Team should have
- practices that have already been Recruitment and Community thoughtful and optimistic
successful in changing people's Visioning Process.282 Although personalities, good interpersonal
behavior. The planning guide LASER was written with a focus skills and a capacity to have fun
describes the step-by-step on community sustainability and together while getting hard work
processes necessary to change a economic renewal, not done.
community’s behaviors. This specifically climate protection,
site also provides information on the stakeholder engagement
clear tools to use in addressing process has proven successful in
different audiences. communities around the world.
277
Global Community Initiatives, www.global-community.org/, 15 October 2006.
278
Natural Capitalism Solutions, www.natcapsolutions.org, 15 October 2006.
279
LASER Interactive Site, www.global-laser.org/, 15 October 2006.
280
Tools of Change, www.toolsofchange.com/English/planningguide.asp, 15 October 2006.
281
Business for Social Responsibility, www.bsr.org/Meta/About/index.cfm, 15 October 2006.
282
Chapter One of LASER, www.global-laser.org/workbook/LASER_guide_Ch1.pdf, 30 October 2006.
78 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
Consider the following sources The initial responsibilities of the Step Two: Gather Stakeholder
of potential candidates: Core Team include: Group283
A Stakeholder Group gathers a
Local activists within or Identifying the scope of the representative number of
outside local government project interested parties together. A
group of 30-40 people is an
Members of governmental Developing a budget and effective size, but it can be as
boards or commissions planning schedule many as a couple hundred,
depending on the needs of the
Leaders of organizations Recruiting a Stakeholder community. This group will
dedicated to community Group provide the leadership in creating
improvement a shared vision and plan for local
Identifying the other plans and climate protection. In addition to
Leaders of organizations processes that need to be a broad cross-section of the
working on environmental integrated community, the Stakeholder
issues Group can include all the various
Preparing the materials and town leaders—department heads,
Local Service Clubs: Rotary, presentations that will be used for example, and the heads of
Lions, etc. to invite others to participate. significant local institutions.
They all will benefit when others
Local youth leaders see the links between what they
do and the value they add to the
Businesses that benefit most community as a whole.
from a healthy community
To recruit business leaders to the interests. Be prepared to take. structured. This may mean
process, it is important to some additional time and effort meeting for breakfast instead of
understand what will motivate to meet with different business in the evenings, for example and
them. For example businesses people, get their feedback and having very specific and short
may be more motivated by other suggestions for how the process agendas with clear outcomes.
business leaders than should work, and help them Empowerment—the clear
government or community understand all the benefits of a connection between what people
organizations, so recruiting a more vibrant local economy suggest and decide and the way a
prominent business person early pubic process works—is one of
on increases the likelihood of You may want to set up special the most successful ways to
others becoming involved. meetings initially for various engage people and keep them
Giving the business people credit stakeholder groups, to help them engaged. Disempowerment—
and publicity for their feel at home in the process and overriding decisions that don’t fit
involvement will appeal to their have a voice in the way it is with the style of city leadership
283
Additional Stakeholder Recruitment Tool from LASER, www.global-laser.org/resources/stakeholder_recruitment.pdf, 20 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 79
Stakeholder Engagement
or reversing course midstream guide decisions through any later How is it possible to articulate a
without consultation—is an conflict that may arise. shared vision for an entire
equally sure way to make people community? This is a huge task,
drop out of processes like this. Participatory Visioning and one that can easily fail if you
It is important to first create a don’t take the time to engage the
Step Three: Develop Group shared vision for the community whole community in the process.
Process Skills as a whole, one that looks into
Once the Stakeholder Group has the future and captures the Not only must a vision reflect the
been convened, it is important collective aspirations of the core values of the people, it must
that they develop a shared idea people. To achieve the goal of a come from the people. A vision
about how they will work democratically-created local statement drafted by a few
together, how meetings will be vision, you will need to inspire people in leadership—even with
conducted, what the planning and motivate your fellow the best intentions—will never
schedule will be and how citizens—not only to support the engender the sense of ownership
conflict will be resolved. vision, but to take an active role and common purpose that comes
in defining it. from full community
Step Four: Learn to Manage participation. That is why it is
Conflict and Make Decisions284 A vision is a positive forecast of important to work through the
All teams must recognize the the way we want the world to be, public participation process.
need for non-violent approaches an affirmation of values and
to relationships, both within their hopes, an image of the Depending on the size of your
groups and in the community at destination to guide our journey. community, recruiting
large. Moreover, the members of The language of the Vision must participation can be done by
these groups will need to accept be simple enough so anybody asking the community to submit
a responsibility for helping can understand and get excited vision statements through the
community members to about it. It must reflect shared media, or holding a community
communicate peacefully, no values and convincingly depict a meeting where individuals can
matter how impassioned they community changed for the voice their opinions, etc.
may be. better. The process of defining
your Vision should be future The public participation process
It is also helpful to have oriented, and allow people to can generate an enormous
decision-making structures bring their imagination, their amount of information about
articulated in advance, so creativity and their hearts. what people want to see in the
conflict will not emerge simply future. In the city of Calgary,
because the decision-making When visioning processes work, over 18,000 people answered the
process is unclear or ineffective. they motivate people to conceive questions the Stakeholder Group
The exact form that conflict new ventures and new activities, asked the community—online, at
resolution and decision-making to create unexpected festivals, in schools, during
procedures will take can vary opportunities that would not have meetings, on the street, in their
depending on the group involved arisen if it weren’t for the workplaces, in their utility bills
and its particular constraints. collective creativity put to work and in the newspapers. Your
Part of any conflict management and the new connections made. Stakeholder Group will have to
procedure should be a clear Visions that reflect the find a way to compile and digest
articulation of the Vision community’s aspirations can all the information that is
Statement, Mission and conflict generate goals that people will collected. The more successful
resolution criteria. Achieving want to work for, and make it the public participation activities
agreement on these matters in easier to develop practical have been, the more daunting
advance makes it possible to strategies and targets. this project will be.
284
LASER provides an example of the decision making process, www.global-laser.org/resources/decision-making_sample.pdf, 20 October
2006.
80 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
The Stakeholder Group might elicit meaningful feedback from Notice how the questions are
want to set up a subcommittee to the community about the future positive, action oriented and
read all the information and in general. This is not so much personal. This is the type of
prepare a report. This to gather data as it is to identify inquiry that will elicit the most
subcommittee could also take hopes and dreams (the data will useful information.
responsibility for preparing the come later). The questions
first draft of a vision statement. should be broad in nature, but Establishing a campaign theme
can also touch on specific issues. can help to galvanize public
Even if the vision is properly The important thing is to keep interest in creating a Vision.
developed, truly reflecting the the questions open-ended and Seattle Washington, for example,
hopes and aspirations of the positive. In this way, even named their initiative
community, it can still fail in its comments about problems can “Sustainable Seattle.” Many
purpose if the leaders don’t “get contain the seeds of their own communities pick a year on the
it”—if they see it only as words solutions. The following horizon—maybe 20 or 30 years
on paper. A leadership that visioning questions were used in the future—and incorporate
shares the vision will respond to successfully by the city of that. Hamilton, Ontario calls
its community with excitement Calgary’s imagine Calgary their effort “VISION 2020.” All
and a sense of possibility. Project: your efforts at this stage will
Among citizens, likewise, an emphasize the future of the
inspiring vision statement can What do you care about in community.
create a wellspring of energy and Calgary that you want to pass
commitment. on to future generations? Ideas for Public Participation
As noted earlier, your planning
Creating Excitement and What is it like for you to live project will gain real political
Momentum here? support if the broader public
The basic premise of this understands and supports it. The
approach is that genuine What changes would you most Stakeholder Group should
community transformation is like to see? identify messages they want each
built on vision, imagination, member to convey to his or her
courage and other human What are your hopes and own constituency, from business
qualities that unite us across our dreams for Calgary in 100 to labor to youth to
differences. People do not years? neighborhood interests.
necessarily get excited about a
meeting to discuss new types of How could you make this Beyond this targeted approach,
loan funds, but they do care happen? broad community involvement is
about preserving what is special also essential. To create this,
about their home towns. They Examples of Climate Related you need to make creative use of
care about their own ideas being Questions that would work well: a variety of resources, including
heard in the process. In every mainstream and community
stage of your activities, from How could climate change media, publicity efforts, events,
initial surveying to the final influence our community? and visuals. This public
adoption of the plan, you can participation campaign will
draw on the creative and spiritual How can you reduce the use of establish the spirit of genuine
resources of your community energy? two-way communication. The
through the arts, celebrations, trick is to create a buzz and find
challenges, friendly competition What are ways our community new ways to listen to people at
and even humor. could benefit from energy the same time.
efficiency, renewable fuels, or
Asking the Right Questions less traffic? Here are some examples to
One of the first tasks a improve community
Stakeholder Group can take on is How could you contribute to involvement:
to develop a set of questions to protecting our climate?
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 81
Stakeholder Engagement
Invite ideas: already going on, this can not be funny, but our mistakes
Put up a big suggestion box in become a steady source of good dealing with them usually are.
front of town hall, and ask a news. Follow up with reporters
popular radio commentator to and editors and keep your eyes Climate activists have been
read a suggestion each week. open for advertising sponsors to preaching environmental disaster
Have an essay contest on topics underwrite their coverage. as a sole motivator for far too
related to global warming—what long. People are not motivated
are the risks of the future in the Art: by fear and guilt as effectively as
community, or how your Pull together the artists in your they are by hope and novelty.
community could be the community for a public art event
“Climate Protection Capital of to create the future. Find a big The main message about
the World.” Create contests for canvas that everyone can draw engaging all sorts of different
ideas or change within school on. Make musical instruments groups that can be considered
systems. available for improvisation. “the public” is to go to them and
Bring recycled materials for meet them on their terms, rather
people to make sculptures. Have than having them come to you.
Create an online buzz: lots of food and activities for Ask to be put on the agenda for
Start a community-wide Internet young children. their regular meetings; attend the
listserv. Develop a web page on festivals and functions; get
which anyone can contribute his Celebration of Assets: invited to speak at their clubs,
or her thoughts, events and Every single community has churches, synagogues, mosques
community building ideas. Do something it can celebrate. Find and community suppers—all of
training with local high school an excuse for a party, line up these are as important as holding
students on using interactive some local sponsors, and meetings at city hall.
software and ask them to help celebrate what the community
their parents get involved. will look like in 5, 10, or 20 Within the business community
years. A futuristic birthday it is important to appeal to the
Town Hall Meetings: party. Have a parade. Invite things that businesses find
Facilitate the organization of politicians to dress like they’ll important. Find ways to promote
citizen-led meetings to mobilize look in 15 years. Invite young those businesses that are
public participation in people to be the politicians for a participating in your project,
identifying community priorities. day. Make a huge paper maché such that other businesses want
Elect representative community statue in the middle of town to to get on the bandwagon. Full
development groups to plan local commemorate the celebration. page ads with business logos,
initiatives and build dialogue and news stories about how a
cooperation with local Challenge: particular business is cutting its
governments. People like a challenge. They emissions, awards to businesses
like friendly competition, and for innovation, future thinking,
Good news: demonstrating what they do well. community service—all of these
Start sending press releases to Sponsor a prize for the local techniques will help you win
local papers, telling them about business with the highest score credibility and participation from
good things that have happened on energy efficiency. Give a group that is often slow to get
and people who have made a awards to people who have made involved. Portland, Oregon does
difference—from the students the world safe for our this by awarding the BEST
who are turning out lights in grandchildren. (Businesses for Environmentally
classrooms to the elders who are Sustainable Tomorrow) award
switching to compact fluorescent Humor: each year to seven different
light bulbs downtown. As your Find ways to make people laugh, companies demonstrating
climate protection initiative from street theatre to standup excellence in business practices
generates ideas and makes comedy. The tough issues facing that promote economic growth
people aware of the good work communities may and environmental benefits.
82 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
They post the winners on their available technology to needed, users have negotiated
web site and hold an award maximize energy efficiency. contracts with suppliers, often
ceremony to present the award to Computerized controls on through group buying
each winning organization.285 heating, cooling, and lighting programs, to buy electricity
systems automatically adjust from renewable sources.
Completing the Vision for daylight levels and turn Consumer demand is driving
Once the stakeholders have come off when rooms are vacated. the installation of wind power
up with a draft vision statement, Appliances and office turbines in the Berkshires and
bring it back to the community to equipment use much less offshore, large-scale fuel cell
discover whether it captures their energy for the tasks they facilities are running on
ideas adequately. Publishing it perform. Geothermal heat hydrogen, and landfill gas is
in the paper with an easy way to pumps eliminate the need for being recovered to generate
respond, discussing it at city furnaces and boilers in many electricity. Where renewable
council meetings, holding buildings. The demand for energy supply is insufficient,
meetings with many of the same energy conservation services natural gas fuels clean-
groups that contributed at the has created a bustling burning combined cycle
outset—all of these techniques industry with well-paying generators.
can help the Stakeholder Group jobs. Compared to 1990,
determine if what they have citywide energy use is down Rooftop gardens and green
drafted successfully reflects the by 50%. roofs are routinely installed
aspirations of the community. on buildings of all types to
Cambridge also has reduce the need for air
The Vision should be a short, dramatically reduced its conditioners in the summer
inspirational, compelling reliance on centralized and to reduce storm water
statement about what the electricity systems. Buildings runoff to the Charles and
community wants for the future. do not just consume Mystic rivers. The city’s tree
Ideally, it will reflect all the electricity; they also produce canopy has expanded as a
different aspects of community power. Some have fuel cells result of aggressive planting
life, not just economic goals. that provide the energy and maintenance, reducing
This is because a climate reliability important to energy needs for adjacent
protection effort will find its Internet businesses, biotech buildings and increasing
most promising initiatives in laboratories, and public shading to offset the urban
things that meet the broad safety operations. Solar heat island effect. There is
spectrum of human needs. photovoltaic panels and roof enough quantity and variety
tiles are common; any excess of vegetation to support
The following excerpt for power they produce is sold songbirds, and the shaded
Cambridge, Massachusetts’ into the regional electricity sidewalks and pleasant open
Climate Protection Plan286 is a grid, allowing the building space encourage people to
good example of how a vision owners to run their meters enjoy the city in summer
statement around climate backwards. instead of fleeing the heat.
protection can be worded.
Vision Statement287 Solar thermal systems are Fewer cars with single
In 2025, we see our world installed to heat air and to occupants are seen on the
and city doing things better produce hot water, reducing road. The regional transit
and smarter. We live and the need for fuel and system has expanded in
work in “energy smart” electricity. Where electricity response to demand for more
buildings that use readily from the regional grid is still and better service. Vehicles
285
Portland BEST Awards, www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?c=41891, 22 September 2006.
286
City of Cambridge Climate Protection Plan, www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/CDD/et/env/clim_plan/clim_plan_full.pdf, 30 October 2006, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Cambridge_ClimatePlan.pdf, 30 October 2006.
287
Cambridge Vision Statement, www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/CDD/et/env/clim_plan/clim_plan_3.pdf, 30 October 2006, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Cambridge_visionstatement.pdf, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 83
Stakeholder Engagement
running on alternative fuels, previous generation Developing Partners
hybrid technology, and fuel recognized the problem and Determine what/if any
cells have replaced diesel chose to modify their ways to organizations you would like to
buses. Cyclists and protect future generations. partner with to achieve your
pedestrians dominate the objectives. Make sure to assess
street instead of automobiles, LASER provides a database of the pros and cons of partnering
since mixed use communities both throughout the with each organization, what can
neighborhoods mean many workbook and as additional you benefit from in particular
destinations are within resources on its web site.288 from working with each
walking or biking distance. organization.
With so many people on the
street, crime is significantly Tools of Change: Social Getting Informed
lower; with so many fewer Marketing to Engage It is important to gather as much
cars, the streets are safer for Stakeholders information around the subject
everyone. prior to engaging your
The following information stakeholders. This means doing
Very little material is thrown comes from the Tools of Change literature reviews, speaking with
away. Products are web site. Their planning guide is area experts, contacting other
increasingly made out of designed to help organizations cities with similar programs, and
recycled materials. plan, by providing space on the getting a sense of your
Manufacturers and retailers web site to insert their own plans communities existing opinions
take back old products for and programs. The planning and behaviors.
refurbishing or recycling. Stages for any program to
The city provides a welcome engage community members289 Targeting the Audience
home for diverse communities process is broken down into the Determine what group of people
with its clean air, safe seven sections below. More you most want to reach through
neighborhoods, and easy detail on each section is available your program. Who will have
access to jobs, services, and on the web site. the greatest opportunity to
recreation. Children have a 1. Setting Objectives change their behavior and reduce
sense that they are partners 2. Developing Partners GHG emissions? What group of
with adults as community 3. Getting Informed people are already interested, but
stewards, and the city is safe 4. Targeting the Audience do not have the information to
for them to explore. 5. Choosing Tools of Change act?
6. Financing the Program
As a result of all these 7. Measuring Achievement Choosing Tools of Change
changes, the buildup of You must decide now how to
greenhouse gases in the Setting Objectives best motivate action in your
atmosphere is abating and the In this stage you will work to target audience. What tools will
threat of climate change is identify the objectives you aim to engage individuals to make
diminishing. While past achieve. This should be done changes, continue the momentum
emissions have caused the through first evaluating the of programs, spread the
climate to shift, changing current situation, then setting the education, and remind
precipitation patterns, specific actions you want your individuals to act. This will also
average temperatures, and stakeholders to undertake. You involve creating an effective
sea level, scientists have must also determine measurable marketing mix with a variety of
lowered their concern about objectives and how you are messages and language.
the scale of the impacts. This going to measure the success of
has happened because the meeting those objectives.
288
LASER Database, www.global-laser.org/cgi/laser/advancedsearch.html?id=o2Yco9Qc, 15 October 2006.
289
Tools of Change, www.toolsofchange.com/English/planningguide.asp, 15 October 2006.
84 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
Important strategies to engage maintenance/high impact Business for Social
community members are:290 program activities Responsibility: Organizational
• Building Motivation Over • These programs are Stakeholder Engagement293
Time highlighted in the Best Bets
• Feedback Section of Chapter 5. Steps that businesses can use to
• Financial Incentives and engage their stakeholders are
Disincentives Obtain funding from partners very similar to the measures city
• Norm Appeals who benefit from your officials can use to involve the
• Obtaining a Commitment program or who want to community in Climate
• Overcoming Specific Barriers encourage what you are doing. Protection:
• Prompts
Tie program activities to ones Business for Social
• Vivid, Personalized
already being carried out by Responsibility (BSR) is a leading
Communication
your organization and its global resource for the business
• Home Visits Mass Media
partners community and thought leaders
• Neighborhood Coaches and around the world. BSR equips
• City of Boulder is working
Block Leaders its member companies with the
with its utility, Xcel, to assess
• Peer Support Groups expertise to design and
carbon fees (based on a
• School Programs that Involve successful 2006 Ballot implement successful, socially
the Family Measure) on Boulder’s responsible business policies,
• Word-of-mouth residents and businesses.291 practices and processes.
• Work Programs that Influence
the Home Establish partnerships with According to BSR, company
program delivery approaches to developing
Financing the Program organizations, such as service stakeholder engagement are as
The best way to ensure a clubs and community many and varied as the types of
program will continue over time associations, who can offer engagement and the companies'
is to design it to pay for itself. volunteer labor on an ongoing motivations behind them, which
To achieve this goal it is basis range from crisis management to
important to: business strategy development.
Measuring Achievement Regardless of the type of
Assess the value of and charge It is important for any program to engagement, these key issues
for the promotional decide what measures to monitor should be considered:
opportunities you provide frequently or at major
(coupons, demonstrations, milestones. For programs Build the Business Case
referrals, advertising, public designed to educate, it might This is the first and most
relations opportunities). What make sense to have a control important step before entering
other promotional group. Measuring and reporting into stakeholder engagements.
opportunities could you offer? performance is discussed later in Determine the specific goals
this manual, Chapter 7: Monitor being addressed and how the
Assess the value of and charge and Verify Results. stakeholder relationship will help
for the products and services meet those goals. Whatever the
you provide. What other Tools of Change provides goal, it should be articulated as
products and services would numerous case studies about specifically as possible. Among
add value for your organizations and the specific other things, this will help “sell”
participants? programs and social marketing the benefits of the stakeholder
tools they used to be relationship to and help
Choose low cost/low successful.292 stakeholders understand why the
290
Tools of Change, www.toolsofchange.com/English/toolsofchange.asp, 15 October 2006.
291
The Climate Action Plan Tax (CAP-T), Measure 202 on Fall 2006 ballot, is a tax on electricity bills.
www.climatesmartboulder.org/how.html, 15 October 2006.
292
Tools of Change Case Studies, www.toolsofchange.com/English/casestudies.asp, 15 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 85
Stakeholder Engagement
parties are entering into this scan its web site, and research Clarify the Agenda
relationship. media clips about the group. A partnership between
Check references: Was the group stakeholder groups should have a
Examine Costs, Opportunities open-minded, fair, and positive? specific agenda, timetable, and
and Risks Did it keep its promises? goals—ideally, created and
Part of the business case should agreed upon by all parties.
include a rough cost-benefit Understand Expectations Determine what the deliverables
assessment of the actions Important factors to consider will be, and who will deliver
proposed. Costs can include the before actual engagement are the them. Ensure that the goals are
time, personnel, and resources expectations of stakeholders both aggressive and manageable.
that need to be committed to the from engagement. What are the Most experts say that such
relationship, the potential loss of respective drivers for stakeholder relationships should have a fixed
market share or reputation that engagement and how will they duration so that projects don't
could result if things go poorly, influence the initial basis for drag on. Even if a stakeholder
and potential negative reaction understanding? Are there issues relationship succeeds it may be
among shareholders. It also is of language, jargon or technical good to disengage for a while to
important to consider the risks knowledge that will hinder gain perspective on the
associated with not acting at all. communication and relationship and the value—or
At the same time, take stock of understanding? Has it been a lack thereof—it has brought.
the potential opportunities, conflict situation where the
including improved access to different parties are sitting at the Agree on the Ground Rules
new markets, increased sales, same table for the first time, or is Find ways both parties can
greater public support (which it a multi-sector working benefit and further their
could translate into tolerance of partnership, where each party has objectives, and ensure that the
future mistakes or mishaps), different perspectives on risks and benefits to both sides
improved morale, and enhanced successful outcomes. are equitable. There are a
satisfaction. myriad of ground rules to
Get to Know Each Other consider. How much of the
Do Your Homework “Walk a mile in each other’s project will be publicly disclosed
Identify potential stakeholder shoes,” is the advice of one -- and by which parties, when,
organizations with which to stakeholder engagement expert. and under whose control? If
partner or engage, and conduct Whether using one-on-one there will be costs involved, who
due diligence before contacting meetings, group interviews, will bear them? Be careful
them. Use leaders of stakeholder focus groups, workshops, where money is involved. Make
groups to identify other seminars, public meetings, sure it is well understood by all
individuals or groups who should questionnaires, web-based parties what, if anything, is
be involved. Each stakeholder discussion forums or stakeholder expected for the money.
group has unique issues, panels, work to understand each
interests, and willingness to other's viewpoints. Be as open Get Top-Level Support
engage in a partnership or and candid as possible in To give weight and credibility to
dialogue. Learn about answering questions. Be willing the relationship, it should involve
organizations with which you to ask and be asked candid those high up in all the
share vision or values, and, when questions. Become as participating organizations
appropriate, be willing to engage comfortable as possible with the appropriately from the onset of
even your toughest critics. Find specific individuals with whom the relationship. This lets a
out each organization's you will be partnering. Keep in partnership operate easily within
motivations for partnering with mind that partnerships are the rest of the organizations and
you. Check a potential partner's formed among organizations but displays each organization's
reputation, read its publications, succeed because of individuals. commitment to other partners.
293
Business for Social Responsibility Stakeholder Engagement,
www.bsr.org/CSRResources/IssueBriefDetail.cfm?DocumentID=48813#external, 15 October 2006.
86 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
Lack of top-level support can because we feel we should and group or to identify a sample
greatly undermine a partnership's think it will be good for our that is either representative or
chances of success. image?” That is not to say that able to provide information of
communities should (or could) particular value.
Speak with One Voice meet all the demands of all their
Designate someone as the stakeholders. What is the subject of
principal contact for the project engagement? Engagement
or relationship. As much as Analyze and Report the may focus on a particular
possible, flow communication Results issue, or may be linked to a
with the stakeholder group(s) The value of stakeholder particular part of an
through that individual to avoid engagement will be enhanced if a organization's decision-making
conflicting information and to community uses a variety of process. In some cases, there
ensure that you are metrics and indicators and may be no clearly formed
communicating a consistent analyzes and reports on them subject of engagement - the
message. during and after the relationship point is to allow the
to determine whether and how stakeholders to understand
Harness Proven Tools and the project met its goals. each other better and to allow
Techniques Stakeholder-related indicators important issues to arise
Although stakeholder typically cover such things as the unforced.
engagement may appear to be specific, measurable results of
outside the normal realm of daily the relationship, third-party Where does the engagement
management, it can benefit from facilitation, and the direct and take place? This may be
the application of some of the indirect costs of managing the driven by the use of a
business tools and resources process. Periodic reports of the particular technique, for
existing within companies. progress of the relationship are example the use of the Internet
Examples include professional valuable to all involved. At the or postal questionnaire.
meeting facilitation, the use of conclusion of the process, many
indicators and goals to measure communities issue a public When is the engagement
metrics and milestones, and report describing the undertaken? The engagement
information management relationship, including the may be a one-off process either
systems to compile, track, and process and the tangible results. to begin a process of debate or
communicate information. to close off a decision.
Understand the “Who, What,
Respond Where, When & How” How does the organization
It is not enough for a government In summary consider the engage with stakeholders -
to listen to its stakeholders, or following: which methodologies and
use the process to legitimize techniques does it use? A
decisions without the possibility Who is involved it the variety of techniques can be
of change or influence. Ask: engagement? Engagement used to engage with
“Are we doing this because we may focus on one or more stakeholders, including
genuinely feel stakeholders have groups. It may attempt to workshops, telephone hotlines,
something to contribute or is it survey all individuals within a etc.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 87
Stakeholder Engagement
Additional • Conducting employee U.S. Environmental Protection
awareness and orientation Agency – Climate Change:
Resources workshops, which include State and Local Governments
climate change topics such as http://www.epa.gov/climatechan
Clean Air-Cool Planet – the science of climate change ge/wycd/stateandlocalgov/index.
Community Toolkit and actions to reduce GHG html
Clean Air-Cool Planet, with emissions and improve The website provides details on
assistance from Jeffrey H. Taylor energy efficiency; actions by states and efforts by
and Associates, have created this • Establishing employee local agencies to address climate
Toolkit to assist communities in awareness teams and holding change, along with links to
implementing sustainable regular meetings to address relevant EPA voluntary
policies and projects. This web- climate change activities, programs that can help states and
based “how-to” guide for while assessing new localities meet their goals. It
municipal staff and elected or awareness and training also provides a directory of tools
appointed representatives opportunities within the that can help state and local
provides: organization, and governments inventory their
• Step-by-step project guides • Including climate change as a greenhouse gas emissions,
• Important contacts topic at staff meetings. analyze greenhouse gas
• Financing mechanisms This section provides details on reduction opportunities and
• Cost implications how to develop and implement quantify the energy,
• Model ordinances an employee awareness program, environmental and economic
The Toolkit offers projects information on existing benefits of lowering greenhouse
focused on energy, awareness programs and gases.
transportation, waste and land employee awareness
use. tools/resources. The National Center for
Atmospheric Research –
Federal House in Order Global Green USA – Local “Climate Change and Water
Initiative, Government of Government Green Building Resources: A Primer for
Canada: Staff Awareness & Initiative Municipal Water Providers:
Training http://globalgreen.org/greenbuild http://www.ucar.edu/communicat
http://www.fhio- ing/localGov.html Global Green ions/staffnotes/0606/water.shtml
ifppe.gc.ca/Default.asp?lang=En USA works in partnership with Water utility managers now have
&n=C4F1C34D-1 Employee local governments and other a primer to help them learn about
awareness is defined as the public entities to demonstrate the how climate change may affect
process of informing, training benefits of green building, the resource they manage. In the
and involving your employees in outline options for establishing new book, Kathy Miller (ISSE)
any specific issue important to green building programs that and David Yates (RAL) describe
your organization, whether it be protect local quality of life and the science of climate change,
health and safety, waste the environment, provide training suggest how it might affect water
reduction, or in the case of for staff and constituents, and resources, and offer advice on
Federal House in Order, climate encourage the development of planning and adaptation. The
change. Employee awareness incentives for green building book is one of the first to address
activities in the area of climate projects. Current and past climate change and urban water
change can include, but are not partners include San Mateo utilities together. The focus is on
limited to: County and the Cities of San usable information. The book is
• Distributing climate change Francisco, San Jose, Los accessible to people from the
information to employees via Angeles, Santa Monica, West industry, and involves them
emails, newsletters, websites Hollywood, Santa Clarita, and directly in identifying
or other communication Irvine. vulnerabilities and options for
mediums; adaptation.
88 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Stakeholder Engagement
Clearwater Information NCS developed this Climate Thomas Jefferson
Exchange – Council Staff Protection Manual for Cities Sustainability Council
Education & Training presenting case studies, best The council is using a multi-
http://www.clearwater.asn.au/sto practices, cost/benefit analyses, stakeholder process to preserve
rmwater_infoexchange.cfm?areat legislation, technical descriptions and assess the regional
opic=true&AreaID=43&TopicID and contacts to facilitate climate environment. The three-year
=103&CategoryID=1 action planning and program is bringing builders,
The Clearwater InfoExchange implementation. It explains in developers, environmentalists,
Stormwater database provides detail ICLEI’s five-step process social scientists, elected officials,
information to assist councils and in creating Climate Action Plans. teachers and many others
industry groups in Victoria Helps its clients implement together to explore the definition
Australia to manage stormwater energy efficiency auditing and of sustainability, indicators of
more sustainably. This site is retrofits, high performance sustainability and the
designed to be interactive so that municipal building codes, comparative risks of current and
councils and other organizations transportation programs, proposed development policies
can share their experiences and investment in green energy and http://www.smartcommunities.nc
knowledge. many other climate protection at.org/success/thomas_jeff_sust.s
strategies. html
Natural Capitalism Solutions
Natural Capitalism Solutions Orton Family Foundation San Francisco Sustainable City
creates innovative, practical tools database website is a resource for Website
and implementation strategies to communities (their professional The website allows citizens to
enable companies, communities planners, public agencies, and engage in the sustainability
and countries to reduce their concerned citizens) to identify planning and education process
carbon footprint. It facilitates tools and processes for better through a forum on the site. The
stakeholder engagement in such community design and decision “listserv” is for broadcasting
settings as NGO/ corporate making. announcements about events,
disputes, community economic http://www.smartgrowthtools.org workshops, forums, programs,
development and government / publications, websites and other
climate mitigation programs. http://www.orton.org/ resources that are relevant to
sustainability issues.
http://www.sustainable-city.org/
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 89
Stakeholder Engagement
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Municipal Buildings
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Retrofit City Some, such as more efficient
light bulbs will pay for
Retrofit City Buildings....................90
Buildings themselves out of saved labor
Lighting Retrofits .....................90 costs, because they last so much
Compact Fluorescent Light Buildings are responsible for longer.
Bulbs..................................90 50% of greenhouse gas
T8 Fluorescent Lamps with emissions. Reducing the amount
Electronic Ballasts vs. T12
Energy efficiency retrofits of
with Magnetic Ballasts .......91 of energy used in municipal buildings include but are not
Room Occupancy Sensors......91 buildings contribute significantly limited to replacing old lighting
Energy Efficient Windows........91 to a city’s greenhouse gas with high efficiency lighting,
CASE STUDIES: Retrofit City reduction targets. It can also replacing old appliances and
Buildings
Portland, OR.........................92
save an enormous amount of equipment with ENERGY
Tucson, AZ ...........................94 money. Retrofitting a building STAR equivalents
Fort Worth, TX ......................96 means making changes or (www.energystar.gov),
Visalia, CA............................97 additions to a building that has upgrading the HVAC system,
Energy Service Companies and already been constructed.
Energy Savings Performance adding insulation and window-
Contracts.......................................97 Energy efficiency retrofits can be shading, eliminating air leaks
CASE STUDY: performed on any existing from doors and windows, and
New Haven, CT ....................98 building, including city offices, using automated systems like
Energy Efficiency Standards in New libraries, police stations, fire room occupancy sensors.
Construction and Renovations ......99
Benefits of Green Buildings ...100
stations, or any other structure
Life Cycle Cost Analysis ........100 owned by the municipality that
CASE STUDIES: Energy uses electricity or heating fuels Lighting Retrofits
Efficient Standards like natural gas.
Oakland, CA .......................101
Salt Lake City, UT...............102 Compact Fluorescent Light
Scottsdale, AZ ....................103 Although the up-front cost of Bulbs
Austin, TX ...........................105 energy efficient technologies is Compact fluorescent light bulbs
Energy Audits in Major Municipal often higher than their (CFLs) use one-quarter to one-
Buildings .....................................105 conventional counterparts, the third as much electricity as
CASE STUDIES: Energy Audits
Boothbay Harbor, ME .........106
energy efficient options save incandescent bulbs and last up to
Southlake, TX .....................107 money in reduced monthly ten times as long. Replacing a
Berkeley, CA.......................107 electricity bills. Many efficiency 100-watt incandescent with a 32-
Additional Resources ..................108 measures pay back in months, watt CFL can result in energy
and go on to save enough to pay savings of as much as $30 over
for themselves many times over the bulb’s life. They also
in the course of their lifetime. produce less heat so installing
90 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
them can reduce air conditioning significantly. The light produced cost savings from adopting
loads. Their superior quality by the new systems more closely occupancy sensors.299
light can increase worker resembles natural light. The new
productivity and reduce error technology also eliminates the
rates.294 rapid flicker and the faint buzz of Energy Efficient Windows
traditional fluorescent lights. For
ENERGY STAR-qualified each fixture of four lamps that is According to the Department of
CFLs295 provide the same upgraded, the city can save about Energy, 25% of the energy used
amount of light as standard $12 a year in energy costs.296 to heat a building goes right out
incandescent bulbs. CFLs also New T-5 bulbs are even smaller the windows.300 The most
reduce the risk of burns and fires and more efficient.297 efficient windows produced
associated with the use of today insulate four times better
halogen bulbs that can reach than windows produced two
temperatures of 1,000 degrees Room Occupancy Sensors decades ago. Multiple layers of
Fahrenheit. thin plastic films suspended
Occupancy sensors are automatic between the lights of glass can
T8 Flourescent Lamps with controls that detect when people improve the insulation capacity
Electronic Ballasts vs. T12 with enter and exit a room and adjust of a window dramatically.
Magnetic Ballasts lighting, heating and cooling Another factor is the thickness of
All fluorescent lamps utilize within the room as needed. air space locked in between the
bulbs and ballasts. One can Properly installed occupancy panes of glass in the windows.
replace both parts with more sensors can reduce energy costs More air space will insulate
energy-efficient technologies. associated with lighting and much better than a thin air space.
By replacing standard magnetic HVAC by up to 80%.298 Modern The insulation can be improved
ballasts and T-12 fluorescent sensors can self-adjust by even more by substituting a low-
lamps with more efficient T-8 “learning” about occupancy conductivity gas such as argon
lamps and electronic ballasts, a patterns throughout the day and for the air in the sealed air
building can consume 40% less warn room occupants of a space.301 Tinted glass coatings
energy for lighting. pending shutdown. Override and low-emissivity (low-e)
options allow room occupants to coatings reduce the amount of
The standard commercial postpone sensor-triggered solar heat that enters the building
lighting with the 1.5-inch changes until they leave. Two while maintaining necessary
diameter (T-12) cool-white types of occupancy sensors light levels. Thin-walled steel,
fluorescent lamps and currently in the market are silicone foam and butyl rubber
transformer-type magnetic infrared sensors and ultrasonic edge seals also contribute to
ballasts is quickly becoming an sensors. maintaining an airtight seal and
obsolete technology. The increase the insulation of
combination of high-efficiency Utility Savings Initiative Fact windows.
1-inch (T-8) lamps coupled with Sheet-Occupancy Sensors allows
electronic ballasts can reduce cities to estimate the potential
total energy use for lighting
294
Joe Romm, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line, Increasing Productivity Through Energy Efficient Design,
www.rmi.org/store/p12details963.php, 20 December 2006.
295
ENERGY STAR® web site, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cfls.pr_cfls, 22 September 2006.
296
T-8 Fluorescent Lamps and Electronic Ballasts, Madison Gas and Electric website, www.mge.com/business/saving/detail/t8.htm, 19
September 2006.
297
Service Lighting, www.servicelighting.com/library/light_bulbs_fluorescent_t5_lighting.cfm, 20 December 2006.
298
“Low-Cost Occupancy Sensor Saves Money,” Atmel Applications Journal,
www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/Prod_documents/mega88_3_04.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Bulidings/Atmel_mega88_3_04.pdf, 19 September 2006.
299
Occupancy Sensors, Utilities Savings Initiative, www.p2pays.org/ref/32/31316.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/OccupancySensors_factsheet.pdf, 19 September 2006.
300
Divya Abhat, “GREEN LIVING: HOUSE & HOME. Green Glass, Stylish Window Treatments Help Clear the Air,”
www.emagazine.com/view/?2858, 20 December 2006.
301
Alpen Inc.website, www.alpeninc.com/features/hm_low_e/index.html, 20 December 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 91
Best Bets: Buildings
Even more important than the that the cracks around the Most buildings have enough little
type of glass used, is to ensure windows are properly caulked. cracks to amount to leaving a
window open all year.
302
CEC Ten Year Report, Office of Sustainable Development, City of Portland, 2001,
www.portlandonline.com/shared/cfm/image.cfm?id=111736, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/CEC_TenYearReport.pdf, 29 September 2006.
303
Ibid.
304
E-mail from Michael Armstrong, City of Portland, June 30, 2006.
92 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Tons of
Annual Simple CO2 $/ton CO2
City Facility Investment
Savings Payback Avoided avoided
per year
Portland Building $200,000.00 $35,000.00 5.7 years 291.67 - $74.29
Fire Station #1 $80,000.00 $8,000.00 10 years 66.67 - $40.00
Portland City
$105,000.00 $15,000 7 years 125.00 - $25.26
Hall
Table: Returns on Investment and per-ton CO2 Reduction Costs
305
City of Portland Municipal Buildings
Complementing the major one agency. The $75,000 raised goods or services. The
renovations of these and other covers the cost of an energy businesses can then use the tax
municipal buildings is the city of manager for the city. The City credits, keeping the tax benefits
Portland’s policy of purchasing Energy Challenge saves the city within the community and
only ENERGY STAR or an estimated $2.3 million in cultivating competition among
equivalent products, when expenses each year. local businesses for the provision
available, for any equipment that of energy efficient products.
uses electricity, natural gas or In addition to the in-house
fuel oil. It is estimated that each surcharge, the State of Oregon Model Plans
non-ENERGY STAR personal offers tax credits for energy and
computer that is replaced with an building efficiency projects. City of Portland 1990 Energy
ENERGY STAR equivalent Policy
accounts for nearly one ton of Although the city governments of
CO2 avoided and $15-$25 of the State of Oregon do not have City of Portland 2000 Energy
307
annual electricity cost savings.
306 to pay taxes and therefore do not Policy Progress Report —
benefit directly from a tax credit 1990 Energy Policy: Impacts
Funding for CEC program, these tax credits may and Achievements
The Energy Challenge receives be “passed through,” or
its funding through a 1% transferred from the city
surcharge on each municipal government to other entities. CONTACT
bureau's energy bill with an This enables city governments to
annual cap of $15,000 from any trade tax credits with local Alisa Kane
businesses in exchange for Green Building Program
(503) 823-7082
305
Michael Armstrong, city of Portland. City of Portland City Energy Challenge Ten-Year Report, Office of Sustainable Development.
Note: CO2 calculations based on 15-year building lifespan, $0.085/kWh and 0.00065 tons CO2/kWh (from Climate Trust U.S. Marginal
Grid Intensity Factors).
306
Charleston Local Action Plan on Climate Change, December 2003, p. 7, www.cofc.edu/ghgas/Charleston_SC_%20LAP.pdf, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Charleston_LAP.pdf, 29 September 2006.
307
Portland Energy Impacts & Achievements Report, 2000, http://www.caleep.com/docs/resources/policies/Portland-
energypolicyupdate2000.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Portland_Energy2000.pdf, 19
September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 93
Best Bets: Buildings
Retrofit City Buildings
$/ton
Annual Simple Tons of CO2
Project Investment CO2
Savings Payback avoided/year
avoided
Lighting Retrofit $31,300.00 $5,700.00 5.5 years 61.28 - $58.96
Occupancy sensors $3,000.00 $375.00 8 years 4.03 - $43.42
Energy management &
control system/variable air $24.993.00 $22,400.00 5.7 years 240.8 - $57.53
volume system (and others)
New roof coating $24,993.00 $4,000.00 6.25 years 43 - $54.27
TOTAL $187,493.00 $40,000 5.77 years 349.11 - $78.77
309
Table: Returns on Investment and per-ton CO2 Reduction Costs
308
Tucson homepage, www.tucsonaz.gov, 19 September 2006.
309
SWEEP, www.swenergy.org/casestudies/arizona/tucson_topsc.htm
Note: CO2 calculations based on 15-year building lifespan, $0.06/kWh and 0.000645 tons CO2/kWh (from Climate Trust U.S. Marginal
Grid Intensity Factors).
94 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Figure : Thomas O. Price Service Center Building One,
310
Average Monthly Electricity Use (kWh)
CONTACT
Vinnie Hunt
Office of Conservation and
Sustainable Development
Vinnie.Hunt@tucsonaz.gov
310
SWEEP, www.swenergy.org/casestudies/arizona/tucson_topsc.htm, 19 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 95
Best Bets: Buildings
Retrofit City Buildings
311
Texas Legislature Online, http://www.legis.state.tx.us/, 19 September 2006.
312
Rebuild America State and Local Government Success Story, September 2004,
www.rebuild.org/attachments/SolutionCenter/Fort_Worth_FINAL102604(1).pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Fort_Worth_rebuild.pdf, 29 September 2006.
313
ESPS legislation—Florida
www.flsenate.gov/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=Ch0489/SEC145.HTM&Title=-%3e2003-
%3eCh0489-%3eSection%20145,.also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/ESPCFloridaLegislation.pdf, 19 September 2006.
314
ESPS legislation—Wisconsin
folio.legis.state.wi.us/cgi-
bin/om_isapi.dll?clientID=54264357&infobase=stats.nfo&j1=energy%20savings%20performance%20contracts&jump=energy%20savings
%20performance%20contracts&record={CBA4}, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/ESPCWisconsinLegislation.pdf, 19 September 2006.
315
National Association of Energy Service Companies, www.naesco.org, 19 September 2006.
316
Model Performance Contracting Legislation, www.naseo.org/energy_sectors/buildings/performance_contracting.htm, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/ESPCSampleLegislation.pdf, 19 September 2006.
96 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Retrofit City Buildings
317
City of Visalia website, www.ci.visalia.ca.us/, 5 December 2006.
318
Flex Your Power Example, www.fypower.org/pdf/CS_LG_Visalia.pdf, 5 December 2006.
319
“New Report Documents $2 Billion Annual Investment in Energy Efficiency by ESCOs.” National Association of Energy Service
Companies, 2002.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 97
Best Bets: Buildings
Retrofit City Buildings
320
City of New Haven Energy Conservation Program Summary, 30 August 2005, p. 7. Online:
www.cityofnewhaven.com/Finance/pdfs/EnergyConserReport8-30-2005.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/NewHaven_EnergyConserReport.pdf, 21 September 2006.
98 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
321
Table: City of New Haven Energy Conservation Program
CONTACT
Mike Piscitelli
Comprehensive Planning
(203) 946-7814
mpiscite@newhavenct.net
321
Ibid.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 99
Best Bets: Buildings
upfront investment is estimated operating costs. Several studies rapidly becoming a necessity as
to produce a life-cycle savings of suggest that employees are more corporations—as well as home
20% of total construction productive and generally more builders, retailers, health care
costs.322 Another study by Davis satisfied working in a building institutions, governments and
Langdon Seah International that uses more natural light.328 others—push green buildings
suggests that cost premiums for Another study by the Lawrence fully into the mainstream over
efficiency improvements can Berkeley National Laboratory the next five to ten years. In fact
range between 1 and 4% for indicates that reducing indoor air owners of standard buildings
LEED Silver and up to 10% for pollutants through green building face massive obsolescence. They
LEED Platinum certification.323 design could save U.S. must act now to protect their
Over the course of the LEED businesses $58 billion in avoided investments. ‘Building owners
certified buildings’ lives, the sick time and another $200 are starting to do reviews of their
savings in total costs can be as billion in increased worker portfolios to see how green their
much as 10 times more than the productivity.329 Incorporating buildings are and what they need
extra cost of sustainable green building standards for new to do to meet growing market
design.324 An investment of city demand.’”330
$100,000 to integrate sustainable
design features into a new buildings contributes to the
building can therefore produce a protection of ecosystems and Life Cycle Cost Analysis
return of $1 million in saved biodiversity, improves the
costs over the building’s life. quality of the city’s air and The costs to operate and
water, sends fewer tons of waste maintain a building usually
LEED Standards for Retrofits to the city’s landfills and exceed the initial cost of its
include Major Renovations325, conserves the area’s natural construction many times over.
Sustainable Operations and resources. Green buildings can Life cycle cost analysis is an
Maintenance of Existing also be a significant public innovative tool for project
Buildings326 and Tenant relations tool, attracting the best analysis that takes these long-
Improvements of New or and brightest workers to the term costs into account when
Existing Office Space.327 city’s offices. A recent Harvard comparing different design
Business Review article on green options for a new building. It
buildings concluded that the term factors into the equation the
Benefits of Green Buildings “green building,” “Suggest lower following sets of costs:
overhead costs, greater employee
There are several advantages to productivity, less absenteeism, Initial design and construction
incorporating LEED Certified and stronger employee attraction costs
designs into city buildings. By and retention….Green is not
using fewer resources, the city simply getting more respect; it is
will significantly reduce
322
Greg Kats, “The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings: A Report to California’s Sustainable Building Task Force”, October
2003, p. viii, www.usgbc.org/Docs/News/News477.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/USGBC_News477.pdf, 19 September 2006.
323
Lisa Faye Matthiesson and Peter Morris, “Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology”, July 2004, p.
16. Available online davislangdon-usa.com/Attachment%20Files/Research/costinggreen.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/CostingGreen.pdf, 19 September 2006.
324
Kats, “The Costs and Financial Benefits of Green Buildings: A Report to California’s Sustainable Building Task Force.”
325
U.S. Green Building Council, www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=220, 23 September 2006.
326
U.S. Green Building Council, www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=221, 23 September 2006.
327
U.S. Green Building Council, www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=145, 23 September 2006.
328
Judith Heerwagen, “Do Green Buildings Enhance the Well Being of Workers?” Environmental Design and Construction Magazine.
July/August 2000. Available online at www.edcmag.com/CDA/ArticleInformation/coverstory/BNPCoverStoryItem/0,4118,19794,00.html,
21 September 2006.
329
William J. Fisk, “Health and Productivity Gains From Better Indoor Environments and Their Relationship With Energy Efficiency”, Annual
Review of Energy Environment. October, 2000, https://www.usgbc.org/Docs/Resources/Fisk(LBNL)HealthandProductivityEE2000.pdf,
also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Fisk_HealthandProductivity_2000.pdf, 19 September 2006.
330
Charles Lockwood, “Building the Green Way,” Harvard Business Review, June 2006.
100 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Operating costs (energy, water, Social costs/benefits The federal government
wastewater, trash collection, (productivity of workers, evaluates energy and water
recycling, and other utilities) indoor air quality, worker conservation projects and
Maintenance and repair sickness) renewable energy projects in all
federal buildings using life cycle
Environmental costs/benefits Value (positive or negative) of costing methodology.331
(impact on air quality, water the building after specified
quality, natural environment) lifespan timeframe
331
Life Cycle Costing Manual is a guide to understand the LCC methodology established by the Federal Energy Management Program,
www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/publications/handbooks/135.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/LCCA Guide_FEMP.pdf, 27 September 2006.
332
Full provisions of Chapter 15.35 available at www.bpcnet.com/cgi-
bin/hilite.pl/codes/oakland/_DATA/TITLE15/Chapter_15_35_GREEN_BUILDING_R.html, also archived,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Oakland_Chpt15.35.pdf, 30 October 2006.
333
Oakland Sustainable Design Guide, www.oaklandpw.com/page46.aspx, 19 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 101
Best Bets: Buildings
There are a total of one hundred entire life cycle of the buildings. offers a variety of resources on
points that are distributed among The Guide makes it easy for site design, building products,
the strategies according to the everyone involved in the design, energy/water efficiency, and solid
perceived environmental and construction and use of new and waste management.
human impacts and can be renovated city buildings to
weighted to reflect the city’s incorporate the principles of The city of Oakland also offers
priorities. The scoring system sustainable design and meet the monthly lunch training sessions
can also be changed to account requirements that the city has for city staff in green building &
for specific opportunities and established. purchasing strategies.
constraints of the project.
To promote the principles of the
The Oakland Sustainable Design Sustainable Design Guide among CONTACT
Guide is flexible enough to allow local businesses and residents,
it to grow and change with the Oakland created a Green Ferial Mosley
development of new technologies Buildings Resource Center in Public Works Agency
and new city priorities. It is a February 2000. The Center Environmental Services Division
process-oriented guide that is (510) 238-7433
easy to follow and addresses the fmosley@oaklandnet.com
334
Executive Order: www.slcgreen.com/pdfs/execorderLEED.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/LEED_ExecutiveOrder_SLC.pdf, 21 September 2006.
335
Salt Lake City Climate Action Plan, www.slcgreen.com/pages/actionplan.htm, 19 September 2006.
102 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
non-governmental projects amenities for bicyclists. The glass wall facing the expansive
through our Redevelopment additional charge for building Wasatch range and a large
Agency and Community the Intermodal Hub to the park area outside and around
Development Block Grants— LEED “certified” standard was the building.
all of which are opportunities approximately 2% of the total
to encourage high budget. With the LEED design The Sorenson Unity Center:
performance building. saving a projected 20-25% per Planned for Salt Lake City’s
-- Rocky Anderson, Mayor of year in energy costs, it is Burgeoning west side, the
336
Salt Lake City estimated to payback the Sorenson Unity Center is
additional construction costs planned and budgeted for
Results of Salt Lake City High in less than 10 years. LEED certification. This will be
Performance Building Standard the second LEED certified
building constructed by Salt
337
Intermodal Hub: When it Salt Lake City Main Library : Lake City.
reaches full capacity in 2008, The new main library in Salt
the hub will serve as a Lake City opened in 2003 and
transportation nerve center, cost $65 million to construct, CONTACT
complete with an Amtrak and although it has not
station, Greyhound bus depot, received official LEED Environmental Advisor to the
Utah Transit Authority bus certification it incorporates Mayor
transfer station, TRAX light rail many LEED elements in its Jordan Gates
station, commuter rail station, design, including a five-story (801) 535-7939
taxi cab stands and added Jordan.Gates@slcgov.com
336
Salt Lake City Press Release from 10 October 2006, www.slcgov.com/mayor/pressreleases/hp%20buildings.htm, 19 September 2006.
337
Link to Mayor Anderson’s comments on Library Inauguration, archived at
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/MayorAnderson _SLCMainLibrary_2003.pdf, 21 September 2006.
338
City of Scottsdale Green Building Program website, “One Out of Three Scottsdale Homes are Going Green”,
www.scottsdaleaz.gov/news/2006./January/01-12-06.asp, 19 September 2006.
339
Resolution No. 6644: www.ci.scottsdale.az.us/greenbuilding/LEED/LEED_ResNo6644.pdf, also archived at
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Scottsdale_LEED_ResNo664419.pdf, 19 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 103
Best Bets: Buildings
341
built to achieve LEED Gold energy/resource efficiency and Results
certification. In addition, all feature experts in all areas of The new Scottsdale Senior
342
future renovations and non- environmental design and Home is 37,600 square feet
occupied city buildings must be construction. Green and cost nearly $12 million to
designed, contracted and built to homeowners receive a construct. It is the city of
include as many principles of “homeowner’s manual” that Scottsdale’s first LEED Gold
both the LEED program and the explains the different features of municipal building. The city
city's Green Building Program as their new home. estimates that the building’s
possible. The city of Seattle is green features added about 2%
340
the only other US city to The Green Building Program to the total price tag and will use
implement LEED Gold standards rates building projects in the roughly half the power of a
for municipal construction. following six environmental conventional building. The
impact areas: Senior Home design incorporates
For all city of Scottsdale 1. Site use an array of solar panels that
construction projects that have 2. Energy produce 30% of the building’s
an expected simple payback of 3. Indoor air quality electricity.
more than five years, city staff 4. Building materials
must analyze which level of 5. Solid waste The building’s location was
LEED certification is most 6. Water planned in order to maximize
appropriate for that specific natural light and shading. Other
project and make A green building point rating energy saving features include
recommendations to the City system is used to evaluate the an extremely efficient heating
Council. This clause allows the projects. There are over 150 and cooling system and a
Scottsdale City Council to green building options, providing superinsulated roof. The
maintain control over the costs of greater design flexibility while Scottsdale Senior Home has an
municipal construction projects. maintaining a whole building expected simple payback of less
Scottsdale city staff work closely systems approach. The Green than five years.
with local designers and Building Program is voluntary
contractors in the development of and open to all builders in the The ASU Scottsdale Center for
city construction projects, a Scottsdale area. New Technology and Innovation
relationship that stems from the is currently under construction
strength of the Scottsdale Green Builders that participate in the and will be the largest
Building Program. program are required to attend commercial project in Scottsdale
the educational programs the city with LEED certification. The city
The Scottsdale Green Building offers. They must also take part hopes the center’s green
Program provides resources and in the annual events like the features will attract tenants and
incentives to both consumers Green Building Expo. As a businesses that provide
and construction companies for reward for their participation, technology-related services.
the promotion of green buildings builders qualify for expedited
throughout the city. Resources permitting and other assistance Other city projects in the pipeline
available to local designers and from the city, positive media include:
construction contractors include exposure via construction site
a lecture series, workshops, signs and recognition on the Arabia Library (LEED Silver)
special events and green design city’s website, and a listing in the
manuals. The educational Green Building directory. Police Forensic Lab
programs provide information on
340
For more information on Scottsdale’s Green Building program visit -www.ScottsdaleAZ.gov/greenbuilding, 19 September 2006.
341
Scottsdale Green Building Program Progress Report 2005, www.scottsdaleaz.gov/greenbuilding/Reports/0106ProgressRpt.pdf, also
archived at www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/ScottsdaleGrnBuildingReport_2005.pdf, 21 September 2006.
342
Senior Center Green Features, www.ci.scottsdale.az.us/smittys/pdf/SrCtrGreen.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/SrCtrGreen_2006.pdf, 21 September 2006.
104 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Police District Station 1 Scottsdale Center for the CONTACT
Performing Arts Interior
Fire Station No. 2 Remodel (LEED Silver) Director
Anthony Floyd
Westworld Exhibit Hall Green Building Program
(480) 312-7990
afloyd@scottsdaleaz.gov
343
www.austinenergy.com/Energy%20Efficiency/Programs/Green%20Building/index.htm, 19 September 2006.
344
Austin’s main web site: www.ci.austin.tx.us/, 19 September 2006.
345
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection “How to Conduct an Energy Audit: A Short Guide for Local Governments and
Communities” www.njcleanenergy.com/media/Energy_Audit_Guide.pdf#search=%22Municipal%20Buildings%20Energy%20Audit%22,
19 September 2006. This resource explains the audit process, types of audits and the steps required to conduct an audit for local
governments, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Energy_Audit_Guide.pdf, 19 September
2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 105
Best Bets: Buildings
structures. The walk-through careful quantification of complicated systems,
audit provides an initial energy use, including losses. structures or facilities. This
estimate of potential savings The energy efficiencies of the involves using computer
and generates a menu of various systems are simulation software for
inexpensive savings options determined using accepted prediction purposes (i.e.,
usually involving incremental energy engineering performance of buildings and
improvements in O&M. computational techniques. systems) and consideration of
Information from this level of Technical changes and effects of external factors
audit also serves as a basis for improvements in each of the (e.g., changes in weather and
determining if a more systems are analyzed to other conditions). With the
comprehensive audit will be determine the corresponding computer simulation audit, a
needed. potential energy and cost baseline related to a facility’s
savings. In addition, the actual energy use is
2. Standard Audit. standard audit will include an established, against which
This involves a more economic analysis of the effects of system
comprehensive and highly proposed technological improvements are compared.
detailed evaluation. improvements and ECM. This audit often is used for
Facilities, equipment, assessing energy performance
operational systems and 3. Computer Simulation. of new buildings based on
conditions are assessed The computer simulation different design
thoroughly and on-site approach is the most configurations and equipment
measurements and testing are expensive and often is packages.
conducted to arrive at a recommended for more
Energy Audits
346
Boothbay Register, boothbayregister.maine.com/2005-02-03/municipal_makeover.html, 19 September 2006.
106 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Energy Audits
Energy Audits
347
Southlake Policies and Procedures, www.seco.cpa.state.tx.us/zzz_sb5-
tep/sb5southlake.pdf#search=%22city%20municipal%20energy%20audits%22, 19 September 2006.
348
Sustainability Community Inventory, Energy (2003)
www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/sustainable/community/08_Energy.pdf#search=%22city%20municipal%20energy%20audits%20policies%22, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Buildings/Berkeley_Energy.pdf, 19 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 107
Best Bets: Buildings
Additional The ENERGY STAR® G/Rated is Portland’s gateway
to green building innovation,
Challenge
Resources www.energystar.gov/ia/business/ offering initial consultation and
leaders/Summary_of_States3.pdf resources specific to your green
The U.S. Green Building building project. Under the
Council Green Schools Resources direction of Commissioner-in-
www.usgbc.org www.nesea.org/buildings/greens charge Dan Saltzman,G/Rated is
choolsresources.html accelerating the adoption of cost
The State of Minnesota effective green building practices
Sustainable Building Additional Links and as the standard of development
Guidelines Resources in Portland.
www.moea.state.mn.us/greenbuil www.greenbuildingpages.com/li www.green-rated.org
ding/cost.cfm nks/weblinks_gov.html
Seattle’s Sustainable Building
Green Building Professionals Minnesota Sustainable Design Program
Directory Guide www.seattle.gov/light/conserve/s
www.greenbuilder.com www.develop.csbr.umn.edu/msd ustainability/
g2/MSDG/overview.html
Oikos Green Building Source “Implement”- Seattle’s Austin, TX Sustainable
oikos.com/ Sustainable Building Tool Building Sourcebook contains
www2.ci.seattle.wa.us/Implemen information relevant to the
Build It Green promotes t/ Austin area, such as regulatory
healthy, energy and resource- issues, climate, installation
efficient buildings in California U.S. Department of Energy guidelines, and sources of
www.builditgreen.org/ Building Energy Codes assistance. The Sourcebook also
Program is an information provides pertinent information
Green Building Resource resource on national model on various aspects of sustainable
Guide energy codes. They work with building strategies and possible
www.greenguide.com/ other government agencies, state implementation issues that may
and local jurisdictions, national be found in less familiar
California Green Building code organizations, and industry approaches to building.
Design and Construction to promote stronger building www.austinenergy.com/Energy
www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuildi energy codes and help states %20Efficiency/Programs/Green
ng/ adopt, implement, and enforce %20Building/Sourcebook/index.
those codes htm
BuildingGreen.com publishes www.energycodes.gov/ For more resources, check the
Green Building Products, a footnotes of this document.
residential green product Flex Your Power is a resource
directory, and Environmental for energy efficiency and
Building News, a highly conservation information
respected monthly newsletter. www.fypower.org/
www.buildinggreen.com/
108 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Buildings
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Infrastructure
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Replacing bulbs costs money
DOCUMENT CONTENTS
Traffic Signals for materials and labor and
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Traffic the replacement inhibits
Signals and Traffic Flow Many cities have begun replacing traffic flow. Fewer burned-
Management Systems ................ 109 their old incandescent halogen out lights increases safety of
CASE STUDIES: LED Traffic intersections.
Signals bulb traffic lights with much
Sacramento, CA ................. 110 more energy efficient and
Chicago, IL ......................... 111 durable light-emitting diode 3. LEDs consume less energy,
Berkeley, CA....................... 112 (LED) traffic lights. LED arrays about 85% less than
Traffic Flow Management Systems112 incandescent bulbs.
CASE STUDY: Traffic Flow
in the new traffic lights include
Management hundreds of individual LEDs
Colorado Springs, CO ........ 113 each the size of a pencil eraser. Typical incandescent traffic
High Efficiency Street Lighting .... 113 There are three principle lights use 100-watt or 150-watt
High Pressure Sodium Lamps113 advantages to upgrading bulbs that are operating 24 hours
Low Pressure Sodium Lamps 113 a day, utilizing more than 2.4
Metal Halide Lamps............... 114 municipal traffic lights to LEDs:
Induction Lighting .................. 114
kilowatt-hours per day. At 8
Lamp and Light Fixtures ........ 115 1. LEDs are cents per kilowatt-hour, one
Remote Streetlight Control .... 115 brighter. LED intersection can cost almost $600
CASE STUDIES: High Efficiency per year in electricity. Large
Street Lighting ....................... 115
traffic lights emit
light more cities with thousands of
Medford, MA ....................... 115
Flagstaff, AZ ....................... 116 evenly, making intersections spend millions of
San Diego, CA.................... 116 them brighter dollars on electricity just for
Increase Efficiency of Municipal overall and more traffic lights. LED arrays
Water and Wastewater Utilities ... 117 consume 12-20 watts instead of
CASE STUDIES: Water and visible in foggy
Wastewater Efficiency conditions. 100, reducing overall energy
Columbus, GA .................... 118 consumption considerably.
Fairfield, OH ....................... 118 2. LED traffic lights last for Portland spent $2.1 million to
Austin, TX ........................... 119 change out red and green traffic
San Diego, CA.................... 120
100,000 hours, compared to
incandescent bulbs, which lights to LEDs and received a 4-
Landfill Gas-to-Energy Projects .. 121
CASE STUDIES: Landfill Gas- have filaments that burn out year payback on the project.349
to-Energy Projects and may last only 8,000 hours Solar panels can power LED
Los Angeles, CA................. 123 before needing to be replaced. traffic lights in remote areas,
Riverview, MI ...................... 124 reducing the costs of installing
Orange County, FL ............. 125
Additional Resources .................. 125
power lines.
349
Personal communication with David Tooze, Portland’s Energy Specialist.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 109
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Another benefit of LED traffic In an LED, a single diode or a function normally. This feature
signals is the fact that they do not cluster of diodes can stop eliminates the safety risks and
burn out all at once. When an working or burn out, but the traffic congestion problems of
incandescent filament burns out, other diodes operating burnt-out traffic signals.
the entire light ceases to function. independently will continue to
350
SMUD, LED Traffic Signals, www.smud.org/education/led.html, 22 September 2006.
110 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
LED Traffic Signals
351
U.S. Mayors Best Practices Database, www.usmayors.org/uscm/best_practices/traffic/best_traffic_initiative_chicago.htm, 22 September
2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 111
Best Bets: Infrastructure
LED Traffic Signals
352
Berkeley Press Release, January 2003, www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/news/2003/01jan/011403energyrebate.html, 22 September 2006.
353
Berkeley Climate Action Plan, www.baaqmd.gov/pln/GlobalWarming/BerkeleyClimateActionPlan.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Berkeley_CAP.pdf, 29 September 2006.
354
Ibid.
112 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Traffic Flow Management
355
Colorado Springs, Traffic Flow Coordination website, www.springsgov.com/Page.asp?NavID=2482, 5 December 2006.
356
Traffic Signal Coordination Planning Effort, www.springsgov.com/units/traffic/SignalCoordinationPlan.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/ColoradoSprings_SignalCoordinationPlan.pdf, 5 December 2006.
357
Currents: An Energy Newsletter for Local Governments, www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Energy/currents/09_streetlighting99.pdf, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LGC_newsletter.pdf, 29 September 2006.
358
Ibid.
359
City of Los Angeles, Environmental Affairs Office. 2001. Los Angeles Energy Climate Action Plan is under revision in October 2006.
Also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/ Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LAClimateActionPlan.pdf, 25 September 2006.
360
Currents: An Energy Newsletter for Local Governments, www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Energy/currents/09_streetlighting99.pdf, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LGC_newsletter.pdf, 29 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 113
Best Bets: Infrastructure
temperatures and maintain Metal Halide Lamps Induction Lighting362
luminance throughout the lamps’
lifetime. The light produced by Metal halide lamps use an Induction lighting uses the
LPS lamps is a dull yellow color, electric current that passes energy from a magnetic field
does not allow for effective through a gas to create light. The combined with a gas discharge to
peripheral vision, and does not bright white light is very create light. It is very energy
render colors well. It is the effective for rendering colors at efficient, has a long life, and
lighting of choice around night and does not adversely produces a high-quality white
observatories since the affect peripheral vision. Metal light. While the other lamp types
monochromatic light can be halide lamps produce large last on average between 10,000-
filtered by telescopes. LPS color amounts of heat and can burn out 30,000 hours, the induction lamp
limitations make it difficult to quickly. The brightness of the has a100,000-hour life span.
use. Therefore, the intensity of lamps also creates a high Because it is a relatively new
sodium lamp lighting levels may potential for glare. Metal halide technology, induction lighting
need to be adjusted to perform as lamps are twice as energy still has a high upfront cost. The
well as lower wattage, wider efficient as the mercury vapor greater efficiency and lower
spectrum white lighting. lamps they replace. Metal maintenance costs can help to
halides require 60-100 lumens offset the additional cost of the
per watt and last on average system over the life of the bulbs.
10,000-15,000 hours.361
Pros Cons
Inexpensive to install and purchase Expensive to operate due to inefficiency
MERCURY Medium life Tend to be glary due to intense light
VAPOR Dimmable Dramatic lumen depreciation over time
Good color rendering due to white light Use hazardous material (mercury)
HIGH Energy efficient Orangish-yellow light
PRESSURE Widely used, reliable Safety concerns due to color rendition
SODIUM Medium life Cannot restrike immediately
Very energy efficient, medium life
LOW Orangish-yellow color
Minimum glare
PRESSURE Safety concerns due to color rendition
Able to restrike immediately
SODIUM Expensive fixtures
Do not attract most insects
Short life, high maintenance
Good color rendering
METAL Less efficient than HPS, LPS
More efficient than mercury vapor
HALIDE and Induction
Widely used
High temperatures burn out ballasts
Energy efficient High initial cost
Low maintenance costs due to long life Difficult to retrofit existing fixtures
INDUCTION
Good color rendering due to white light Use small amounts of mercury
LIGHTING
Immediate ignition & re-ignition Not dimmable
No flickering Need a high-frequency generator
363
Table: The Pros and Cons of Lamp Options
361
Ibid.
362
Induction Lighting, www.imsasafety.org/journal/septoct04/7.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/InductionLamps.pdf, 25 September 2006.
363
Local Government Commission newsletter www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Energy/currents/09_streetlighting99.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LGC_newsletter.pdf, 29 September 2006.
114 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Lamp and Light Fixtures fixtures. By focusing light in the include the lamp’s height, the
direction it is most needed, a distance between poles, and the
A significant factor in the light fixture can decrease the fixture’s cutoff angle. The most
efficiency of a street lighting total amount of light needed. efficient streetlight design is the
system is the orientation and Additional factors affecting a full cutoff fixture since it does
design of the lamp and light light fixture’s overall efficiency not waste light into the night sky.
Remote Streetlight Control energy and operational savings. Columbia, found that one such
Advocates of the new technology program, the Lumen IQ
A new technology allows cities claim that the ability to remotely system,366 reduced electricity
to remotely program when control street lights could cut consumption for streetlights by
streetlights dim or turn off energy consumption by as much 25%. Estimated payback for
depending on levels of pedestrian as 40%.365 A field study 100, 250 and 400 watt lamps are
and vehicle traffic. The conducted in Vancouver, British 2.68, 1.26, 0.82 years
application may offer significant respectively.367
364
International Dark Sky Association, www.darksky.org/index.php, 25 September 2006.
365
“Streetlight Intelligence Teams With Honeywell to Improve Energy Efficiency,” Business Wire, 17 November 2005.
366
www.streetlightiq.com/products/STI_lumenSIMS.html, 22 September 2006.
367
These estimates are based on turning lights off and no cycling or photo control problems,
www.bpa.gov/energy/n/tech/energyweb/docs/SlidesPubs/Smart%20Pack_short%20presentation.ppt, 31 October 2006.
368
Medford Clean Energy Committee, www.medfordcleanenergy.org/index.html, 30 October 2006.
369
Medford Climate Action Plan 2001, www.massclimateaction.org/pdf/MedfordPlan2001.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/MedfordPlan2001.pdf, 25 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 115
Best Bets: Infrastructure
High Efficiency Street Lighting
370
“Residents warming up to yellow-lit road” (Arizona Daily Sun, 16 Sept. 1987).
www.nofs.navy.mil/about_NOFS/staff/cbl/LPSnet/ADS.870916.html, 22 September 2006.
371
“Romantics, stargazers make case for adding yellow lights” (Arizona Daily Sun, 23 October 1987)
www.nofs.navy.mil/about_NOFS/staff/cbl/LPSnet/ADS.871023.html, 22 September 2006.
372
Letter from Flagstaff Police Department, www.nofs.navy.mil/about_NOFS/staff/cbl/LPSnet/FLAGPDonLPS.doc, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/FlagstaffPD_LPSletter.pdf, 25 September 2006.
373
Currents Newsletter, www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Energy/currents/09_streetlighting99.pdf, also archived
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LGC_newsletter.pdf, 29 September 2006.
116 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Increase Efficiency STAR program has recently inefficiencies in their pumping
systems.377 Life cycle cost
expanded its industrial
of Municipal Water component to include an analysis can provide insight into
and Wastewater evaluation of water and the total returns on investment a
wastewater energy utility can expect from a more
Utilities performance.376 The new efficient system.
program estimates that a 10%
About 3% of the nation’s reduction in energy use at The best way to identify
electricity supply is consumed by publicly-owned water and significant cost saving
water and wastewater utilities.374 wastewater utilities through cost- opportunities within a water/
Water and wastewater systems effective investments and wastewater system is to perform
spend about $4 billion a year on technology upgrades can save 5 an audit. Audits identify the
energy to pump, treat, deliver, billion kWh of electricity and different areas where
collect and clean water.375 This over $400 million annually. The inefficiencies exist and present
cost can account for as much as upgrades can also result in a costs of implementation and
one-third of a municipality’s significant reduction of total potential savings. Many private
total electricity bill. water consumption. energy consulting companies
provide such specialized energy
Many systems operate at less The primary objectives of a audits.
than optimal efficiency. Causes municipal water/wastewater
of inefficiency in a water or system are to supply the water The best bets for significant
wastewater system include: demanded by the public and energy savings in
maintain water quality while water/wastewater facilities
Incorrectly selected and minimizing capital costs. Small include: 378
inefficient pumps publicly-owned utilities may
believe that they cannot justify a Manage demand to avoid peak
Limited capacity in significant investment to reduce electric rate periods
transmission and distribution the energy costs for a
systems water/wastewater system if the Modify or replace inefficient
total energy costs are relatively pumps
Lack of automatic or remote small. However, many
control of pumps/ valves efficiency upgrades can provide Install energy efficient motors
significant cost savings with a
Buying power at peak price relatively small capital Control pump speed and flow
times investment. electronically with variable
frequency drives
Operator error Large utilities can achieve
significant cost savings with a Install efficient lighting
The Environmental Protection whole-system approach to
Agency (EPA) ENERGY identifying sources of
374
EPRI, 1996a, Water and Wastewater Industries: Characteristics and Energy Management Opportunities, Series CR-106941, St. Louis,
MO.
375
Energy Star Water and Wastewater Energy Focus Program Fact Sheet, available online:
energystar.gov/ia/business/government/wastewater_fs.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/EnergyStar_wastewater.pdf, 29 September 2006.
376
Ibid.
377
For more information on cost-saving opportunities, see the following document(s):
1. Todd Elliot, “Energy-Saving Opportunities for Wastewater Facilities: A Review,”Prepared for Energy Center of Wisconsin, June 2003.
www.ndwrcdp.org/userfiles/WU-HT-03-33.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Elliot.pdf,
25 September 2006.
2. Alliance to Save Energy “Watergy” Project, www.watergy.org, 22 September 2006.
378
EPA Wastewater Management Fact Sheet, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/energycon_fasht_final.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/EPA_WWTP.pdf, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 117
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Implement training programs Utilities can reduce the total educational campaigns and
to reduce worker error electricity needed to provide the strategic pricing. Any municipal
required services, including policy that aims to increase the
The use of renewable energy or replacement of inefficient pumps overall efficiency of a
fuel cells for power can also and motors or minimize the flow water/wastewater utility should
increase efficiency, although the rates of water and wastewater on include a combination of both.
initial costs are greater than the the consumer side through
other measures listed above.379
379
King County Fuel Cell Demonstration Project, dnr.metrokc.gov/wtd/fuelcell/, 5 December 2006.
380
“Watergy Taking Advantage of Untapped Energy and Water Efficiency Opportunities in Municipal Water Systems”, 2002,
www.ase.org/uploaded_files/watergy/watergyfull.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Watergy_2002.pdf, 22 September 2006.
381
Ibid.
382
Ibid.
118 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
the utility to maintain optimal years receive automatic energy efficiency ideas. Fairfield
performance authorization. This process Wastewater also encourages
gives project managers much feedback and input from staff at
Fairfield’s utility management more flexibility in including such weekly operations meetings.
uses a general set of guidelines upgrades in their annual
to facilitate investment decisions budgets. CONTACT
in energy efficiency upgrades.
The Fairfield Wastewater policy There is a 21-member team Drew Young
states that efficiency upgrades composed of operations staff Fairfield Wastewater Treatment
that cost less than $15,000 and members that meets regularly to Facility
have a payback of less than five discuss new technology and (513) 867-5369
dyoung@fairfield-city.org
383
Ibid.
384
For more Austin’s pump upgrade project, visit: www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37537.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/NREL_Austin_spotlight.pdf, 29 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 119
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Project managers and CONTACT
employees of the Austin Water
and Wastewater Utility receive Bill Hoffman
regular updates on system City of Austin Water and
performance and are Wastewater Utility
encouraged to suggest (512) 974-2893
improvements. www.ci.austin.tx.us/watercon/
385
Point Loma Wastewater Treatment Plant, www.sandiego.gov/mwwd/facilities/ptloma.shtml, 22 September 2006.
386
City of San Diego MWWD website, www.sandiego.gov/mwwd/initiatives/energy.shtml, 22 September 2006.
387
“Watergy Taking Advantage of Untapped Energy and Water Efficiency Opportunities in Municipal Water Systems”, 2002,
www.ase.org/uploaded_files/watergy/watergyfull.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Watergy_2002.pdf, 22 September 2006.
120 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
$1,300/kW for microturbines, and wastewater. One of the city’s system to minimize undetected
$4,500/kW for fuel cells on reclamation plants treats up to 30 sewage spills.
renewable fuels like digester gas million gallons of wastewater
and landfill gas. every day. MWWD sells the
reclaimed water at a reduced CONTACT
The city of San Diego price to customers for use in
complements its energy landscaping, irrigation, industrial, Public Information Officer
efficiency upgrades with an and agricultural purposes. Michael Scahill,
388
aggressive demand-side Pipelines and equipment used in San Diego MWWD
management policy to minimize the reclaimed water process are (858) 292 6415
the total water consumed by the specially marked or color coded
city. Consumers receive to differentiate them from Chair of Energy Committee
information on how to minimize drinking water pipes. MWWD Jesse Pagliaro
water consumption. San Diego also uses a flow metering alarm (619) 221 8728
also treats and reuses j3p@sdcity.sannet.gov
388
City of San Diego, Metropolitan Wastewater, www.sannet.gov/mwwd/, 29 September 2006.
389
EPA Global Warming Emissions, yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/emissions.html, 22 September 2006.
390
EPA Landfill Methane Outreach Program, www.epa.gov/lmop/overview.htm#methane, 22 September 2006.
391
"Investigation of Cancer Incidence and Residence Near 38 Landfills With Soil Gas Migration Conditions, New York State, 1980-1989,"
State of New York Department of Health, (Atlanta, Ga: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, June, 1998). Available from
the National Technical Information Service in Springfield, Virginia [800-553-6847]; publication PB98-142144.
392
EPA landfill map of projects, www.epa.gov/lmop/docs/map.pdf, also archived 25 September 2006 at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/LandfillGas_ProjectsMap.pdf..
393
EPA LMOP Benefits, www.epa.gov/lmop/benefits.htm, 22 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 121
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Recovery Act (RCRA)394— requirements apply to a landfill projects facilitate the
which regulates the design and during operation and for a period achievement of these standards
operation of municipal solid of 30 years after closure. by minimizing the quantity of
waste landfills—have required Landfills affected by RCRA gas underground and by
controls on migration of landfill Subtitle D must control gas by providing a cash flow in the form
gas. The regulations require establishing a program to of energy to offset the upfront
methane monitoring and periodically check for methane costs of the gas recovery
establish standards for methane emissions and prevent off-site infrastructure.
migration control. Monitoring migration. Gas-to-energy
395
Image courtesy of EPA
Landfill gas can also be used Cement and brick for heating, cooling or other
directly in several industrial manufacturing applications.
processes including the operation
of boilers, kilns and greenhouses. Wastewater treatment Landfill gas recovery and reuse:
Most processes that use natural
gas or require quantities of heat Consumer electronics and Reduces emissions of a potent
can substitute the use of landfill products greenhouse gas
gas. The EPA lists the following
industries that used landfill gas Paper and steel production Offsets use of non-renewable
in their manufacturing and/or sources of energy (natural gas,
industrial processes: Some landfill gas recovery coal, oil)
projects utilize cogeneration to
Auto manufacturing increase the overall efficiency of Provides low-cost source of
the recovery and reuse process. electricity
Chemical production The thermal energy produced as
part of the electricity generation Minimizes odors emitted from
Food processing process can be stored in the form landfills
of steam or hot water and used
Pharmaceuticals
394
RCRA Regulations: www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfrhtml_00/Title_40/40cfr258_00.html, 22 September 2006.
395
EPA LMOP, www.epa.gov/lmop/over-photos.htm#3, 27 September 2006.
122 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Eliminates health risks Reduces risk of explosion from Reduces cost of compliance
associated with organic built-up methane gas pockets with local, state and federal air
compounds in landfill gas quality regulations
Benefits local economy
398
Image courtesy of Los Angeles County Sanitation District
396
LA County Sanitation Districts, www.lacsd.org/swaste/Facilities/LFGas/CNGFacility.htm, 22 September 2006.
397
LA County Sanitation District, www.lacsd.org/swaste/Facilities/LFGas/Gas-To-EnergyFacilities.htm, 27 September 2006.
398
LA County Sanitation District, www.lacsd.org/swaste/Facilities/LFGas/CNGFacility.htm, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 123
Best Bets: Infrastructure
The project prevents the release now being regulated in CONTACT
of large quantities of landfill gas California, the project may
to the atmosphere and helps potentially minimize the Sanitation Districts of Los
minimize the accumulation of regulatory costs of compliance Angeles County
nitrogen oxides (NOx) that that other landfills without gas Solid Waste Management
contribute to the formation of recovery mechanisms may face. Department
smog. With greenhouse gases 1955 Workman Mill Road
P.O. Box 4998
Whittier, CA 90607
(562) 908-4288, extension 2428
399
EPA LMOP Riverview Project, www.epa.gov/lmop/res/riverview.htm, 27 September 2006.
124 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Landfill to Gas Energy Projects
400
EPA Landfill Methane Outreach Program www.epa.gov/lmop/res/orange.htm, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 125
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Additional Seattle Department of Efficient Water and
Transportation Traffic Signal Wastewater Utilities
Resources Optimization Program,
www.seattle.gov/transportation/s Consortium for Energy
ignaloptimization.htm Efficiency (CEE) Resources
LED and Traffic Flow Page
Management: Institute of Transportation www.cee1.org/ind/mot-
Engineers, Traffic Signal sys/ww/cr.php3
Margaret Suozzo, A Market Timing,
Transformation Opportunity www.ite.org/signal/optimization. EPA Wastewater Management
Assessment for LED Traffic asp Fact Sheet
Signals, April 1998 www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/energyc
www.cee1.org/gov/led/led- on_fasht_final.pdf
ace3/ace3led.pdf#search=%22be Efficient Streetlights
rkeley%20led%20traffic%20ligh Watergy
ts%20pacific%20gas%22 Lincoln, NE street lighting www.watergy.org
policies
Optimizing Traffic Light www.ci.lincoln.ne.us/City/attorn/ Alliance to Save Energy
timing through simulations designs/ds230.pdf www.ase.org
www.informs-
cs.org/wsc04papers/188.pdf Issues and Facts about Low U.S. Department of Energy,
Pressure Sodium Lighting Office of Industrial Technology
Dallas Light timing program to www.nofs.navy.mil/about_NOF www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/
improve air quality S/staff/cbl/LPSnet/LPS-
www.dallascityhall.com/pdf/pio/ references.html Office of Industrial Technology
CooperativeProgram.pdf Software Tools
Lighting Rates for Palo Alto www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/
U.S. Climate Change www.cpau.com/docs/rates/ratesp bestpractices/software.html
Technology Program df/E14-070105.pdf
www.climatetechnology.gov/libr Wisconsin Wastewater
ary/2005/tech-options/tor2005- International Dark-Sky Operator’s Association
114.pdf Association www.wwoa.org
www.darksky.org/
California Energy Commission King County Fuel Cell
LED Replacement Program The Local Government Demonstration Project
(Has list of project costs for Commission (LGC) is a dnr.metrokc.gov/wtd/fuelcell/
many California cities) nonprofit, nonpartisan,
www.energy.ca.gov/releases/200 membership organization that World Health Organization
2_releases/2002-03- provides inspiration, technical (WHO)-Regional Centre for
14_led_signals.html assistance, and networking to Environmental Health
local elected officials and other Activities
State of Illinois LED Traffic dedicated community leaders www.emro.who.int/ceha/clearing
Signal Rebate Program who are working to create h_waterdemand/portals/wutiliz/i
Application healthy, walkable, and resource- ndex.asp
www.illinoiscleanenergy.org/ima efficient communities.
ges/ICEFC_PDFs/2006%20LED www.lgc.org/index.html “Major Sources of Efficiency
%20Application%20Fill- Savings,” Future Investment in
in.pdf#search=%22chicago%20L Drinking Water and Wastewater
ED%20traffic%20%22 Infrastructure, November 2002.
www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?inde
x=3983&sequence=6
126 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Motor System Efficiency in DMOZ Water Utility Open Landfill Gas Control Measures
Water and Wastewater Directory of Companies U.S. Department of Health and
Systems: A Call to Action,” dmoz.org/Business/Energy_and_ Human Services
American Council for an Environment/Utilities/Water/ Agency for Toxic Substances
Energy-Efficient Economy, and Disease Registry
2002. City of San Diego Metropolitan www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/landfill
www.cee1.org/ind/mot- Wastewater Energy Efficiency /PDFs/Landfill_2001_ch5.pdf#se
sys/ww/call.pdf Program arch=%22riverview%20michiga
www.sandiego.gov/mwwd/initiat n%20landfill%20gas%22
Green Pages – Service ives/energy.shtml
Providers for Municipal EPA LMOP Database of
Wastewater Treatment Water and Wastewater Participating Municipalities
Systems International Publication www.epa.gov/lmop/proj/xls/lmo
www.eco- Article on Cogeneration for pdatami.xls
web.com/index/category/2.2.htm Municipal Wastewater (link to Excel spreadsheet)
l ww.pennnet.com/Articles/Article
_Display.cfm?Section=ARTCL More Case Studies
Lawrence Berkeley National &ARTICLE_ID=254314&VERS www.epa.gov/lmop/res/index.ht
Laboratory Water and Energy ION_NUM=2&p=20 m#4
Technology Team
water- Anaerobic Digester Methane to
energy.lbl.gov/index.php?waste Energy A Statewide
water Assessment, 2003, Prepared for
Focus on Energy
Water Conservation Program www.focusonenergy.com/data/co
in Mountain View, CA mmon/pageBuilderFiles/Anaerob
The city of Mountain View, ic_Report.pdf
California has a very
comprehensive water
conservation program to provide Landfill Gas to Energy:
resources and incentives to both
commercial and residential EPA Landfill Methane
customers. For information on Outreach Program
the program, visit: www.epa.gov/lmop/
www.ci.mtnview.ca.us/living/wa
ter_conservation.htm
401
Case study archived, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Ellensburg_case.pdf, 27 September 2006.
402
Case study archived, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/Kennewick_case.pdf, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 127
Best Bets: Infrastructure
Chapter 5: Develop a
Local Action Plan
Best Bets
Municipal
Transportation
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Reduce Municipal
Programs to Reduce Driving....... 136
Vehicle Fleet
Reduce Municipal Vehicle Fleet
Emissions.................................... 128 CASE STUDIES: Emissions
Hybrid ....................................129 Oakland, CA....................... 137
CASE STUDY: Pleasanton, CA .................. 137
Modify Transportation Contracts to Reducing the amount of
King County, WA ..........129
Alternative Fuels....................130 Incentivize Alternative Fuel Use..138 emissions produced by municipal
Electricity .........................130 Alternative Fuels for School vehicle fleets has the potential to
CASE STUDY: Buses ....................................138 make a significant contribution
Chattanooga, TN.....130 CASE STUDIES:
Saint Johns, MI.............139 to a city’s greenhouse gas (GHG)
Biodiesel ..........................131
CASE STUDY: Warwick, RI ..................139 reduction targets. It will also
San Francisco, CA ..131 Alternative Fuels for Waste save money and create a more
Hydrogen .........................132 Haulers..................................140 beautiful place to live, work and
Compressed Natural Gas 132 CASE STUDIES:
Los Angeles, CA...........141
play. Vehicle emissions
Ethanol ............................132 reductions are a particularly
CASE STUDY: Hybrid Technology for
Minneapolis, MN .....133 Refuse Vehicles............142 visible area for improvement
Idle Reduction Campaigns ....133 Bio-Methane .................142 given the highly publicized
CASE STUDIES: Additional Resources..................143 nature of rising gasoline prices
Mississauga, Canada....134 and the ensuing debate over
Lane County, Oregon....135
foreign oil dependency. Vehicle
emissions reductions can be
applied to city transit, employee
cars, police patrol cars, waste
removal trucks, school buses,
street sweepers or any other
vehicle in the municipal fleet.
128 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Although the initial cost of document still available on their emissions of GHG, hybrid
emissions reduction options is website summarizes Seattle’s vehicle technologies are worthy
often higher than continuing to plan to implement cleaner of adoption due to their high fuel
use conventional vehicles, in the operating vehicles and increase economy, which helps reduce
longer-term, fuel-efficient or vehicle efficiency and use by dependence on petroleum from
alternative fuel options will save breaking down the programs, foreign sources and saves
costs and pay for themselves recommended actions, cost money.
many times over. impacts, environmental impacts
and departmental lead. The State One practical and highly visible
Municipal vehicle fleet of Washington is modifying the method of implementing hybrid
emissions reductions can occur guide for its own use.403 vehicles in any city is to ensure
through the use of hybrid and that the Mayor is transported
other highly efficient vehicles, around the city in a hybrid. This
the introduction of alternative Hybrid provides leadership by example
fuels, and campaigning for idle and serves as a visual statement
reduction policies. The best Hybrid electric vehicles that reducing emissions and air
strategy is diversification in (HEVs)404 are efficient vehicles pollution, and contributing to
order to try out pilot projects for that use a small motor and an climate protection are important
what works best and still prepare electric engine to generate the priorities.
for advancements in different power to operate the vehicle.
sectors. The city of Seattle’s Today, most people have heard Efficiency savings depends on
Clean and Green Fleet Action of an HEV and many people the make and model of HEV,
Plan (being revised and updated) have a basic understanding of since some use the technology to
is a good model for how to create how they work. increase power instead of
a diversified strategy. The 2003 mileage efficiency.405
In addition to offering reduced
403
Seattle Clean and Green Fleet Action Plan, www.seattle.gov/environment/Documents/CleanGreenFleetAP.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/Seattle_CleanGreenFleetAP_2003.pdf, 5 December 2006.
404
For more information about Hybrid electric vehicles, www.eere.energy.gov/cleancitie/hev/what_is_hev.html, 29 September 2007
405
To determine what the mileage savings are refer to www.fueleconomy.gov, 30 October 2006.
406
For more information, www.metrokc.gov/kcdot/news/2004/nr040527_hybrids.htm, 27 July 2006.
407
Personal Communication with Jim Boon, 2 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 129
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Alternative Fuels alternative fuel programs to both by plugging the vehicle into an
to try different programs and electrical source. The electricity
Alternative fuels, as defined by prepare for advancement in for recharging the batteries can
the Energy Policy Act of 1992, different sectors technology. come from the existing power
include ethanol, natural gas, grid, or from distributed
propane, hydrogen, biodiesel, Electricity renewable sources such as solar
electricity, methanol and p-series Electricity can be used as a or wind energy. Plug-in Hybrid
fuels. Using these alternative transportation fuel to power vehicles use smaller batteries
fuels in vehicles can generally battery electric and plug-in changes when a power source is
reduce harmful pollutants and hybrid vehicles. Pure electric available, or their fuel tank when
exhaust emissions. Also, most of vehicles or EVs, require a large it is not, hence the name “plug-
these fuels are produced energy storage device, such as a in.” See Fuel Transitioning for
domestically and derived from battery. EV batteries have a more information on plug-in
renewable sources. It is limited storage capacity and their hybrids 408
important to diversify the cities’ electricity must be replenished
408
U.S. DOE www.eere.energy.gov, 27 September 2006.
409
Smart Communities Network, www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/success/chattano.shtml, 27 September 206.
130 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Biodiesel410 it may require certain engine Currently, a federal biodiesel tax
Biodiesel is a domestically modifications to avoid incentive is helping reduce the
produced, renewable fuel that maintenance and performance cost of biodiesel.412 The credit
can be manufactured from problems and may not be equates to a one penny per
vegetable oils, animal fats, or suitable for wintertime use. percent of biodiesel in a fuel
recycled restaurant greases. blend made from agricultural
Biodiesel is safe, biodegradable According to the U.S. products like vegetable oils, and
and reduces serious air pollutants Department of Energy, B100 one-half penny per percent for
such as particulates, carbon reduces CO2 emissions by more recycled oils. This incentive is
monoxide, hydrocarbons and air than 75% over petroleum diesel. taken by petroleum distributors
toxics. Blends of 20% biodiesel Using a blend of 20% biodiesel and passed on to consumers. A
with 80% petroleum diesel (B20) reduces carbon dioxide USDA a study estimated this
can generally be used in emissions by 15%. Biodiesel incentive will increase the
unmodified diesel engines; also produces less of other air demand for biodiesel to at least
however, users should consult pollutants, including particulate 124 million gallons per year.
their original equipment matter, carbon monoxide (CO) And depending on other factors,
manufacturer engine warranty and sulfur dioxide (SO2) including crude oil prices, the
statement. Biodiesel can also be emissions.411 industry projects that demand
used in its pure form (B100), but could be much higher.
410
U.S. DOE, www.eere.energy.gov, 5 October 2006.
411
An Overview of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Lifecycles, USDA and DOE joint report, 1998, www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24772.pdf,
also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/USDA_DOE1998.pdf, 30 October 2006.
412
To learn more about the biodiesel tax incentive, go to the National Biodiesel Board's Tax Incentive website:
www.nbb.org/news/taxincentive/, 30 October 2006.
413
National Biodiesel Board
www.biodiesel.org/resources/pressreleases/fle/20060522_sanfran_b20nrfinal.pdf#search=%22San%20Francisco%20Biodiesel%20progr
am%22, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/2006_sanfran_b20nrfinal.pdf, 27
September 2006.
414
San Francisco Executive Directive, www.newrules.org/de/archives/000124.html, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 131
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Hydrogen particulate matter and more than these owners to have access to
Hydrogen (H2) could play an 50% reduction in NOx relative to E85 stations, due to the limited
important role in developing commercial diesel engines. suppliers in many states, is now
sustainable transportation in the Natural gas can either be stored the challenge.419
U.S., because in the future it may onboard a vehicle as compressed
be produced in virtually natural gas (CNG) at 3,000 or Benefits of using Ethanol (E 85)
unlimited quantities using 3,600 psi or as liquefied natural include:
renewable resources. While gas (LNG) typically at 20-150
hydrogen technology is still psi. Ethanol reduces demand for
evolving, the fuel has been used imported oil.
effectively in a number of Ethanol
internal combustion engine Ethanol is an alcohol-based Ethanol is a renewable fuel
vehicles mixed with natural gas. alternative fuel produced by source. In MN ethanol is made
Hydrogen has the potential to be fermenting and distilling starch from starch found in corn and
a major fuel source in the longer crops that have been converted cheese-making byproducts.
term, but the technology will not into simple sugars. Feedstocks
be market-ready in the short for this fuel include corn, sugar, It is safe and approved. E85 is
term. (See Renewable Energy barley and wheat. Ethanol can made from 85% ethyl alcohol
Planning for more information also be produced from (ethanol) and just 15%
on Hydrogen as an alternative “cellulosic biomass” such as petroleum, and is approved by
energy source) trees and grasses. The all flexible fuel vehicle
technology for this “cellulosic manufacturers.
Compressed Natural Gas ethanol” still needs further
(CNG) development for the fuel to be E85 reduces ozone-forming
Natural gas is domestically cost effective. However, this pollution by 20% and GHGs
produced and readily available to fuel source has great potential. by nearly 30%.
end-users through the utility Ethanol is most commonly used
infrastructure. It is also cleaner to increase octane and improve Ethanol is less toxic and
burning and produces the emissions quality of gasoline. therefore reduces the release of
significantly fewer harmful the compounds like benzene,
emissions than reformulated Ethanol can be blended with toluene and xylene, which are
gasoline or diesel when used in gasoline to create E85, a blend of required in gasoline.
natural gas vehicles.415 A study 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.
conducted by NREL in 2000 E85 and blends with even higher Ethanol boosts engine
compared CNG, bi-fuel CNG concentrations of ethanol, E95, horsepower. E85 has a 105
and gasoline vans on pre-existing for example, qualify as octane rating and burns cooler
routes in Colorado. The study alternative fuels under the than gasoline, keeping engines
found CO2 emissions were 22% Energy Policy Act of 1992 clean.
to 25% less for the CNG vans (EPAct)417. Vehicles that run on
than their gasoline E85 are called flexible fuel Cost. E85 is typically costs less
counterparts.416 In addition, vehicles (FFVs) and are offered than gasoline.
commercially available medium- by several car manufacturers.
and heavy-duty natural gas There are already more than 6 Cleanup. Ethanol degrades
engines have demonstrated over million E85 compatible vehicles quickly in water, which
90% reductions of CO and on American roads. 418 Enabling reduces gasoline spills and
leaks.
415
U.S. DOE Alternative Fuels, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/afv/gas_vehicles.html, 30 October 2006.
416
NREL SuperShuttle CNG Fleet Evaluation Report, 2000, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/supershuttle_final.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/NREL_supershuttle.pdf, 30 October 2006.
417
Freedom Car and Vehicle Technologies Program www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/epact/, 30 October 2006.
418
National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, www.e85fuel.com/index.php, 5 December 2006.
419
National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, Refueling station locator, www.e85refueling.com/, 5 December 2006.
132 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Municipal Fleet Emission Reduction
Idle Reduction Campaigns • Your engine should be must take the lead on issues
warmed up for long periods like idling, so launch a
“Idle reduction” is typically used before driving; workplace initiative to reduce
to describe technologies and • Idling is good for your idling across municipal
practices that reduce the amount engine; and operations.
of time heavy-duty trucks and • Shutting off and restarting 3. Partnerships are key to
cars idle their engines. Reducing your vehicle is hard on the success
idle time saves fuel, engine wear engine. To effectively implement
and money. In addition, it You need to put these front your campaign, you need to
reduces emissions and noise. and center in your campaign develop local community
along with the facts. The partners, for example, local
Ten Tips to Conduct an Anti- myths and facts are important school boards and
Idling Campaign422423 from information that should be in universities.
Missauagua, Canada the information materials, 4. Finding and managing project
Web site, etc. staff
1. Attack the myths about 2. Get your own house in order Use a community-based
engine idling For municipalities, your social marketing approach.
Three major idling myths message goes a long way with This involves personal
need to be challenged: the public if you first get your “interventions” or, personal
own house in order. The
420
U.S. Conference of Mayors Energy & Environment Best Practices Survey Report,
mayors.org/uscm/best_practices/EnergySummitBP06.pdf#search=%22ethanol%20E85%20best%20practices%20city%22, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/EnergySummitBP06.pdf, 26 October 2006.
421
Ultra low sulfur diesel can reduce GHG and other air pollutants. EPA National Clean Diesel Campaign, www.epa.gov/cleandiesel/, 19
October 2006.
422
Missauagua, Canada
www.mississauga.ca/portal/residents/idlefree?paf_gear_id=10200022&itemId=42200036&returnUrl=%2Fportal%2Fresidents%2Fidlefree,
27 September 2006.
423
Canada Natural Resource Idling Information Page, oee.rncan.gc.ca/communities-government/idling.cfm?attr=12, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 133
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
interactions by project staff to graphic materials available on caregivers) at elementary
encourage drivers in reducing NRCan's Idle-Free Zone Web schools who are concerned
idling at community tool kit. Create your own about the health of their
locations. You need people new tools using the web site children. Information kits
power to do the interventions images, including t-shirts, distributed to schools
and it can be tricky to find radio spots, letterhead, a educated children about idling
and manage the staff. dedicated anti-idling web site, and the kids then took the
Determine if there are etc. The tool kit is a great message home.
environmental internship starting point, and you can
programs at the local tailor it for local use. You 9. Build a campaign web site
university for resource help. need to know your A web site is a great low-cost
community and what the local way to make anti-idling
5. Council and senior hooks are. information readily accessible
management support is and allows regular updates as
critical 7. Schedule field work during the campaign progresses. A
For municipalities, foster consistently moderate contact e-mail address allows
strong support from your temperatures visitors to make inquiries,
council and senior Schedule the implementation comments or suggestions
management. Your mayor of initiatives when easily, and response time and
could help launch the temperatures are expected to printing costs can be
campaign and formal council be consistently moderate, minimized by referring to the
endorsement should be such as spring and early fall, Web site.
sought. In Greater Sudbury, for all aspects of field work
the anti-idling campaign was (re: pre-intervention data 10. The message should be
adopted by Earthcare collection, interventions, and visible and memorable /
Sudbury, a partnership of the post-intervention data communications input
city and 40 community collection. Use strong messaging and
groups; this helped to images (i.e., vehicle tailpipe
cultivate broad-based 8. Focus on your target audience that looks like a smoking
community support and Some audiences are more gun), and colors to promote
awareness. receptive to the anti-idling the campaign. Your
message than others. In the campaign will also go
6. Utilize pre-existing campaign city of Mississauga's smoother if you have
materials experience, the most communications expertise on
Draw extensively on the successful component was your project team.
images, information and drivers (i.e., parents and
424
Mississauga Idle Free Campaign, www.mississauga.ca/portal/residents/idlefree, 27 September 2006.
134 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
31% reported that the Before the interventions were The duration of idling
campaign had changed their conducted, 54% of drivers decreased from 8 minutes to
idling behavior; were observed idling their 3.5 minutes.
vehicles while waiting for
Meetings with transit children.
management have resulted in CONTACT
a new policy reducing the Almost 500 drivers were
maximum idling time for city approached at 20 elementary Environmental Coordinator
buses from 15 minutes to 5 schools visited by campaign Brenda Sakauye
425
minutes staff Transportation and Works
Department
Results of School Initiative The frequency of idling (905) 615-3217
decreased from 54% to 29% brenda.sakauye@mississauga.ca
425
oee.rncan.gc.ca/transportation/idling/material/reports-research/cppi-final-report.cfm?attr=28, 27 September 2006.
426
Lane Regional Air Protection Agency, www.lrapa.org/projects/everybody_wins/, 5 December 2006.
427
West Coast Diesel, www.westcoastdiesel.org/programs.htm, 5 December 2006.
428
Cascade Sierra Solutions, www.cascadesierrasolutions.org, 5 December 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 135
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Programs to Reduce significant reduction in
emissions, but also a diminution
by 10-30%, and is fairer, since it
gives non-drivers benefits
Driving in traffic accidents, congestion comparable to those offered
and fossil fuel consumption. motorists. More strategies to
Many commuters are offered reduce driving for residents are
subsidized parking but get no Parking cash out430 means that discussed in the Chapter 5,
comparable benefit if they use commuters who are offered a Residential Transportation
such alternative modes as subsidized parking space can Section.
walking, biking, telecommuting instead choose the equivalent
or public transit. When cash value or other benefits. For A study of 1,110 Los Angeles
commuters are offered example, employees might be area employee commute trip
subsidized parking or its cash able to choose between a free reduction programs found that
equivalent, automobile parking space, a monthly transit financial incentives were the
commuting trips typically pass, vanpool subsidies or $50 most effective of all the
decline 15-25%.429 The result cash per month. This typically strategies evaluated.431 The table
would not only include reduces automobile commuting below summarizes the findings.
Transit voucher programs introduced at various urban and commuting continued to decline
typically shift 20-percentage suburban worksites, as illustrated each year after Parking Cash Out
points of recipients’ commute in the next figure.434 These was introduced, as more
travel from auto to transit.432 433 automobile trips reductions tend employees found opportunities to
Another study found that total to increase over time: one reduce their driving and take
vehicle trips declined by 17% employer found that solo advantage of the benefit.
after Parking Cash Out was
429
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute www.vtpi.org/wwclimate.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationMunicipal/wwclimate.pdf, 27 September 2006
430
Ibid.
431
Cambridge Systematics, The Effects of Land Use and Travel Demand Management Strategies on Commuting Behavior, Travel Model
Improvement Program, USDOT (www.bts.gov/tmip), 1994.
432
Oram Associates, Impact of the Bay Area Commuter Check Program: Results of 1994 Employee Survey, Metropolitan Transportation
Commission (Oakland; www.commutercheck.com), 1995.
433
Judith Schwenk, TransitChek in the New York City and Philadelphia Areas, Volpe Transportation Systems Centre, USDOT
(www.volpe.dot.gov), October 1995.
434
Donald Shoup, “Evaluating the Effects of California’s Parking Cash-out Law: Eight Case Studies,” Transport Policy, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1997,
pp. 201-216.
136 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
80% 76%
40%
23%
20% 14%
9%
6% 4%
3%
0%
Drive Alone Car Pool Ride Transit Bike/Walk
435
Figure: Cashing Out Impacts on Commute Mode
435
Ibid.
436
Oakland Commuter Check Program, www.oaklandnet.com/government/fwawebsite/personnel/personnel_benefitsp3.htm, 27 September
2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 137
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
employees per month and grew participation was up to 62 their innovative programs to
437
to 66 participants in 1995. By employees per month. The promote alternative commute
439
2004 average participation was program has increased its programs.
438
57 employees per month incentive rate to $2.00 per day.
representing a steady interest in CONTACT
the first ten years of operation. The city of Pleasanton is also
At the close of the 2006 fiscal listed on the Best Workplaces for Lisa Adomalis
year, average monthly Commuters web site because of City Economic Development
(925) 931-5039
437
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm8.htm, 24 October 2006.
438
Personal Communication with Lisa Adomalis, 27 October 2006.
439
Best Workplace for Commuters, www.bwc.gov/empkit/case-studies.htm#city, 27 October 2006.
440
“Biodiesel, Growing a New Energy Economy” by Greg Pahl, Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 2005,
441
National Biodiesel Board, www.biodiesel.org/resources/users/stories/medfordnj.shtm, 27 September 2006.
442
Clark County School District Insider, www.ccsd.net/news/publications/insider/05-06/Insider_Fall.pdf#search=%22biodiesel%22, 30
October 2006.
443
For information on the six districts participating in Clean Cities pilot program:
www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/apps/toolkit/pdfs/kentucky_success.pdf#search=%22school%20districts%20and%20biodiesel%22, 30 October
2006.
444
EPA Clean School Bus www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus/ 27 September 2006.
138 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Transportation Contracts
Transportation Contracts
445
Michigan Soybean Committee http://www.michigansoybean.org/ , 30 October 2006.
446
Rebuild America www.rebuild.gov, 27 September 2006.
447
Rebuild Warwick,
www.rebuild.org/attachments/successstories/RhodeIslandBiodiesel.pdf#search=%22warwick%20public%20schools%2C%20energy%20
management%20program%22, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 139
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Alternative Fuels for Waste Greening Garbage Trucks, (between 2002 and 2004) in
Haulers448 authored by James S. Cannon, natural gas vehicle use
documents changes since 2002: nationwide.
Waste haulers are one of the
most inefficient vehicles on U.S. Use of alternative fuel refuse New natural gas fleets have
roads. They burn approximately trucks—nearly all powered by come into operation in Paris,
a gallon of fuel for every 2.8 natural gas—has doubled from Madrid and Mechlun, Belgium.
miles, travel approximately 692 to almost 1,500. The
25,000 miles annually and number of cities in which these Although natural gas truck use
consume 8,900 gallons of diesel trucks operate has also has risen dramatically, the
per year. The 136,000 refuse doubled, from 26 to 57. number now on U.S. roadways
trucks operating on U.S. constitutes less than 1% of the
roadways may burn nearly 1.2 Refuse trucks have become the total refuse truck population of
billion gallons of diesel fuel per most rapidly growing natural 136,000. Even so, this sector is
year—equivalent to almost 30 gas vehicle sector in the U.S. the second most promising
million barrels of oil. Their use has expanded more market for natural gas vehicle
rapidly as a percentage than use after the transit bus sector,
Alternative fuel sources are any other vehicle sector. Its which has a market
becoming more apparent and 89% increase was four times penetration of 12%.
economically viable. the overall 20% increase
449
Table: Location of California Natural Gas Fleet Owners, Including Size of Fleet
U.S. fleet operators identified sparked fleet interest in 5. Strong natural gas vehicle
seven factors that encouraged alternatives to petroleum- industry presence in the refuse
their shift from diesel to natural based fuels truck market
gas fuel trucks and three major 3. Looming new environmental 6. Concern among urban leaders
obstacles to change. standards for heavy-duty and health officials about the
engines, which natural gas health effects of diesel
The seven positive factors were: engine manufacturers are exhaust, which contains
1. State government programs already prepared to meet carcinogens
that provide incentives for 4. Growing concerns about 7. Recognized benefits of less
purchasers of alternative fuel national security and US noise
2. Concern about rising gasoline dependence on foreign oil
and diesel prices, which have
448
Greening Garbage Trucks, Trends in Alternative Fuel Use 2002-2005, James S. Canon. informinc.org/ggt_project1.php, also archived at
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationResidential/GGT_2005.pdf, 27 September 2006.
449
Ibid.
140 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
The three primary obstacles to
change were:
1. The higher costs of natural
gas vehicles and their
refueling infrastructure and
the higher costs of biodiesel
fuel
2. Performance issues that still
affect natural gas trucks
3. Reduced federal funding for
key DOE programs and a
legal setback for the most
ambitious
Transportation Contracts
Other clean fuels and advanced Angeles) and use of bio-methane fuel (with projects in Burlington,
technologies are emerging in fuel, a win-win strategy capturing New Jersey; Los Angeles & San
refuse vehicles: use of biodiesel a powerful GHG that was Diego, California and
(San Jose, California), hydraulic escaping from landfills for use as Gothenburg, Sweden.)
hybrid technology (in Los a clean renewable refuse truck
450
Ibid.
451
Rule 1193. Clean On-Road Residential and Commercial Refuse Collection Vehicles
www.aqmd.gov/tao/FleetRules/1193Refuse/index.htm, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 141
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Transportation Contracts
Transportation Contracts
452
Greening Garbage Trucks, Trends in Alternative Fuel Use 2002-2005, James S. Canon. informinc.org/ggt_project1.php, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationResidential/GGT_2005.pdf, 27 September 2006.
453
Ibid.
142 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Additional related links, and more, Clean
Cities' toolkits point users in the
National Biodiesel Board is the
national trade association
Resources right direction. Choose the representing the biodiesel
following toolkits to learn how to industry as the coordinating body
Hybrid Resources build niche markets, install for research and development in
• Hybrid Center provides alternative fuel infrastructure, the United States
information on consumer and and calculate the cost savings of www.biodiesel.org
technology hybrid electric vehicles.
www.hybridcenter.org/ www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities Chicago Locomotive Idle
• Calculate the potential / Reduction Project.
mileage savings for hybrid Alternative Fuels Data Center Environmental Protection
vehicles www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/ Agency, March 2004.
www.fueleconomy.gov www.epa.gov/smartway/docume
• Clean Cities' HEV Cost Toolkits Available for nts/420r04003.pdf
Calculator allows fleets to Alternative Fuels
compare the costs, benefits, www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities Wisconsin Diesel Truck Idling
and emissions of HEV with /toolkits.html Grant Program
those of conventional vehicles • Airport Shuttle Outreach www.legis.state.wi.us/lc/2_PUB
www.eere.energy.gov/cleancit Toolkit LICATIONS/Other%20Publicati
ies/hev/cost_calc.html www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/ap ons/Reports%20By%20Subject/E
ps/toolkit/airport_shuttle_tool nvironment%20and%20Natural
Natural Resources Canada has kit.html %20Resources/IM05_02.pdf
developed ready-to-use graphic • E85 Fleet Toolkit
materials, articles, tools and www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/e8 Chicago districts’ alternative
templates that can help you 5toolkit/ fueled fleet success stories,
organize a public education • School Bus Toolkit www.chicagocleancities.org/stori
campaign at your workplace or www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/ap es.shtml
develop a larger-scale awareness ps/toolkit/school_bus_toolkit.
and outreach campaign in your html
community. • Transit Bus Niche Market
oee.rncan.gc.ca/communities- Toolkit
government/idling.cfm?attr=12 www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/ap
ps/toolkit/transit_bus_toolkit.
U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency html
and Renewable Energy • HEV Cost Calculator
Resources Clean Cities www.eere.energy.gov/cleancit
Clean Cities develops ies/hev/cost_calc.html
comprehensive toolkits that help
coalitions and stakeholders reach
their petroleum displacement
goals. With technical
information, step-by-step
instructions, answers to
frequently asked questions,
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 143
Best Bets: Municipal Transportation
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Office Waste
Reduction and
Recycling
Cities and municipalities can supplies. An enormous amount
DOCUMENT CONTENTS realize substantial economic of waste is generated every year
Office Practices to Reduce Waste144 savings simply by reducing the in offices due to inefficient use
Reduce..................................145 amount of office waste they patterns. One of the first places
Reuse....................................146 generate. Reduced use, to start is reducing paper use in
Recycle..................................146 increased efficiency, recycling offices:455
Reduce Packaging ................146
CASE STUDIES
and the reuse of materials can
Miami, FL............................147 deliver numerous economic and The average office worker
New York, NY .....................148 environmental benefits to cities. uses 10,000 sheets of copy
There are many forms of waste. paper each year. Producing
This chapter focuses on office and delivering that paper
wastes, especially paper. Similar requires energy, whose use
analyses can be made for all releases carbon.
forms of municipal waste.
The U.S. consumes 30% of the
world’s paper with 5% of the
Office Practices to world’s population.
454
For more information visit California Integrated Waste Management Board Waste Prevention and Recycling,
www.ciwmb.ca.gov/WPW/Office/, 29 September 2006.
455
Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance, www.reduce.org/, 29 September 2006.
144 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Waste Reduction & Recycling
Increasing efficiency increases Electronic files also save floor 2. InfoUSA maintains
profits. First place an emphasis and file space, and most information on more than 12
on reducing use, then on electronic documents are safer million businesses in the U.S.
reducing waste and finally than paper. Backup copies can To remove your business
recycling the waste that is still be easily transferred to high- from their lists, fax a letter to
generated. Cities should start capacity, low-cost removable (402) 331-0176 with:
with the concepts and practices media, such as compact discs or “Attention—Business Update
that staff are most familiar with, removable hard drives and stored Department” on top. The
and are thus more likely to off-site. Backups can also be letter should include the
rapidly embrace. Do what is transferred over secure Internet complete business name,
easiest to get staff started, but connections for off-site storage. address, and phone number;
recognize that even the easy Offices are then safer from fire the name and title of the
things require a commitment to or flood and theft. person requesting the
making changes in daily habits. deletion; and that person's
Fight junk mail—Take steps to signature. You can also send
Reduce reduce the amount of junk mail this letter by regular mail to
that offices receive. While this InfoUSA, P.O. Box 27347,
Here are some simple ways to may take a little staff time at Omaha, NE, 68127.
significantly reduce paper waste. first, in the end staff time will be
saved by not having to weed out • Remove Your Business from
Set photocopiers and printers the junk, fewer trees will be lost Specific Company Mailing
to print on both sides by to produce the paper, less fuel Lists:
default. If this is not possible, will be used in the production Not every company uses the
save paper that can be used on and sale of the paper not to mailing list databases
the second side, and reuse it. mention the saved printing and maintained by Dun &
delivery costs. Bradstreet and InfoUSA.
Make computer files instead of You can either establish a
paper files whenever possible. • Remove Your Business From system where one person is
There are many free or Two Major Mailing List designated to contact
inexpensive software programs, Databases: individual, persistent mail
such as Stickies456 or solicitors or encourage all
NoteWhen457 that reduce or 1. Dun & Bradstreet (D&B) your employees to contact
eliminate the need for sticky maintains the largest mail solicitors. You can
notes and note pads. Small company database worldwide, create a preprinted postcard to
handheld computers are collecting information on make it easier for employees
especially good for note taking, more than 70 million business to contact solicitors, thus
calendar scheduling, and other establishments from 217 increasing the likelihood that
tasks that traditionally use paper. countries. An authorized they will. When sending a
With recent advances in representative of the business mailing list deletion request
computer software, it is now can request the “delisting” card, be sure to write “Attn:
easier than ever to create process orally or in writing, Direct Marketing Dept.”
documents that are encrypted, resulting in its removal from under the company address.
password protected, and safe marketing directories, Even if the company does not
from either unauthorized access publications and/or mailing have a separate direct
or alteration using sophisticated lists. To have your business marketing department, this
free and low cost software. delisted, call D&B’s customer will help the card be delivered
Electronic signatures are service center at 1-800-333- to an individual within the
increasingly becoming accepted 0505 or send an e-mail to company who can delete your
and are legally binding. custserv@dnb.com. name from their mailing list.
456
Zhorn Stickies, www.zhornsoftware.co.uk/stickies/index.html, 29 September 2006.
457
PC Magazine Article, www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1559699,00.asp, 29 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 145
Best Bets: Waste Reduction & Recycling
• If a company continues to Have each staff set aside paper Reduce Packaging
send unwanted mail, report that they use on only one side
the persistent offender to the so that it can be reused for Select products from suppliers
National Waste Prevention printing drafts in your printer, or and manufactures that use
Coalition’s “Business Junk stapled together to make scratch minimal packaging.
Mail Complaint Bureau.” If pads. As employees accumulate
the bureau receives several paper, they can transfer it to a Reuse packing material
complaints about a particular storage box near a printer or whenever possible464
company, it will notify that photocopier.
company.458 Spread the word. A good
example is the best motivator,
• The Federal Trade Recycle and you might help persuade
Commission website on local residents and businesses
unsolicited mail gives Start a recycling program to practice waste prevention.
direction on how to remove Determine which material you Eliminating excess packaging
yourself from unwanted want to recycle, find someone to in one Wal-Mart product line
mail.459 The Direct pick up the material (for example saved the company $2.4 million
Marketing Association Mail Yellow Pages directories a year and 1 million barrels of
Preference Service also gives generally have recycling vendors oil in shipping.
people a way to opt out of who will pick up old directories),
junk mail.460 The Center for a put recycling bins around your
New American Dream office, and get staff to
provides a free Junk Mail participate. Having management
Organizers Kit.461 participate is important to
creating a successful recycling
program.463 Look under headings
Reuse such as recycling, refuse, waste
disposal for local programs.
Reuse envelopes to send mail
whenever possible.
Use labels to cover the old
address on used envelopes.
Some companies sell reuse
labels462 for envelopes, which
have a discrete message at the
bottom explaining that this
envelope was reused to save
trees.
458
Contact Tom Watson, Coordinator, National Waste Prevention Coalition. Phone: (206) 296-4481, tom.watson@metrokc.gov.
459
Federal Trade Commission, Consumer Alert, www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/pubs/consumer/alerts/alt063.htm, 7 January 2007.
460
P.O. Box 9008, Farmingdale NY 11735-9008.
461
The Center for a New American Dream, www.newdream.org/cnad/user/junkmail_kit.php?params=bf76072cf86a5bb1396c012786c1028d,
7 January 2007.
462
Northern Sun, Save A Tree Labels. www.northernsun.com/cgi-bin/ns/2032.html, 29 September 2006.
463
For a more thorough explanation of how to begin a recycling program visit: www.ciwmb.ca.gov/BizWaste/OfficePaper/Campaign.htm, 29
September 2006.
464
CIWMB, Packaging Waste Reduction. www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Packaging/, 29 September 2006.
146 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Waste Reduction & Recycling
Office Paper Reduction
465
Clerk of Courts, 11th Judicial Circuit of Florida, Miami-Dade County, www.miami-
dadeclerk.com/dadecoc/SPIRIT.asp#SPIRIT_System_Overview, 29 September 2006.
466
Accenture website, www.accenture.com, 29 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 147
Best Bets: Waste Reduction & Recycling
Office Paper Reduction
467
NYCWasteLe$$ Program. www.nyc.gov/html/nycwasteless/html/at_agencies/govt_case_studies_waste.shtml, 29 September 2006.
468
To calculate the waste prevention benefits and cost savings of duplex copying visit:
www.nyc.gov/html/nycwasteless/html/at_agencies/measurement_tools_copying.shtml, 29 September 2006.
469
To calculate the waste prevention benefits and cost savings associated with establishing a toner-cartridge recycling program visit:
www.nyc.gov/html/nycwasteless/html/ at_agencies/measurement_tools_toner.shtml, 29 September 2006.
148 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Waste Reduction & Recycling
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Municipal
Purchasing
Programs
The purchasing decisions that huge potential market for green
DOCUMENT CONTENTS municipal offices make can have products. The magnitude also
Energy Efficient Standards for a substantial impact on the means that there are ample
Municipal Office Equipment ........150 overall environmental impact of opportunities for cost savings.
CASE STUDIES the office while serving as an Just sending printers and
New York City, NY..............151 example to the community. copying cartridges for
Washington, D.C. ...............152
Recycled/Salvage Product Use
Purchasing “green” or more remanufacturing could save U.S.
Policies........................................152 environmentally friendly offices $1.5 billion and at least
Architectural Salvage and products can also support local 100,000 barrels of oil
Deconstruction ......................152 vendors, and often helps annually.470 Yet despite the fact
CASE STUDIES recycling programs by creating that two-thirds of U.S. businesses
Davis, CA............................153
San Jose, CA......................153 markets for the collected have policies on recycling, only
Establish Local Purchasing materials that are processed and 40% have policies regarding the
Programs ....................................154 used to manufacture new purchase of recycled materials.
CASE STUDIES products. In turn, this creates
Philadelphia, PA .................155
Portland, ME.......................155
new jobs and helps strengthen Recommendations for making a
Santa Fe, NM .....................155 the economy. It conserves green purchasing program a
Additional Resources ..................156 natural resources, saves energy, success:471
and reduces solid waste, air, and
water pollutants, and greenhouse Evaluate each recycled or
gases that contribute to global environmentally preferable
warming. product to determine the extent
to which the product may be used
In 2002, the U.S. spent around in practice by the agency and its
$50 billion on office supplies—a contractors.
470
Green Seal’s Choose Green Report, seattle.gov/environment/Documents/GreenSealOfficeSupplies_finalCE.pdf, 29 September 2006.
471
King County Environmental Purchasing Program, Model Environmentally Preferable Products Policy. Feb. 2004.
www.metrokc.gov/procure/green/mdpolicy.htm, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 149
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Purchase recycled products with
the best balance of recycled
Energy Efficient has successfully delivered energy
and cost savings across the
material and cost. Standards for country, saving businesses,
Municipal Office organizations and consumers
Ensure contracts that the office about $12 billion in 2005
issues require recycled and Equipment alone—while saving enough
environmentally preferable energy to avoid annual
products whenever possible. ENERGY STAR® was greenhouse gas emissions
introduced in 1992 by the U.S. equivalent to those from 23
Ensure contracts for recycled Environmental Protection million cars.473
products require that contractors Agency (EPA) as a voluntary
provide certification of this labeling program designed to The ENERGY STAR® website
content and report the amounts identify and promote energy is a good source of information
used. efficient products to save energy on every product available
and reduce GHG emissions. containing the ENERGY
Ensure that all printing by city Computers and monitors were STAR® label. The site can
agencies uses recycled paper and the first labeled products. identify the best ways to reduce
bears the chasing arrow logo or Through 1995, EPA expanded total energy costs using
other imprint identifying it as the label to additional office ENERGY STAR® products.
such. equipment products and
residential heating and cooling
Use both sides of paper sheets equipment. In 1996, EPA
whenever practicable in printing partnered with the U.S.
and copying. See Chapter 5 Department of Energy for
Waste Reduction Section. particular product categories.
Ensure that requests for bids and The ENERGY STAR® label is
proposals issued by the city now on major appliances, office
require that contractors and equipment, lighting, home
consultants use recycled paper electronics and much more. EPA
and both sides of paper sheets has also extended the label to
whenever possible. cover new homes and
commercial and industrial
Report total purchases of buildings. Overall, ENERGY
environmentally preferable, STAR® office products use
recycled, and non-recycled about 50% less energy than
products by the agency and its standard office equipment.472
contractors annually to the
climate protection agency. ENERGY STAR® has
partnerships with more than
Promote the use of recycled and 8,000 private and public sector
other environmentally preferable organizations, and so delivers the
products by publicizing and technical information and tools
educating others about the that organizations and consumers
procurement program. need to choose energy-efficient
solutions and best management
practices. ENERGY STAR®
472
ENERGY STAR® website, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=ofc_equip.pr_office_equipment, 27 September 2006.
473
Ibid.
150 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Energy Efficient Office Equipment
474
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Environmental Energy Technologies Division Newsletter. eetdnews.lbl.gov/nl16/estar.html, 27
September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 151
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Energy Efficient Office Equipment
475
www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=government.local_gov_news, 27 September 2006.
476
ReSource, www.resourceyard.org. To contact call 303-419-5427 or e-mail decon@resourceyard.org.
152 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
online waste exchanges for Directories are available to market for and supplier of
residential, industrial and citizen.477 salvaged goods. The city of
construction demolition waste Portland developed a Furniture
facilitate the sale or donation of Implementing a city policy of Surplus program where city
good used items and material for purchasing salvaged products employees can post and view
reuse and recycling. They whenever possible, and sending surplus furniture so that it may
bundle these waste exchanges used office equipment to a non- be reused by another bureau.
within green community profit salvage company instead The program reduces waste and
websites where requested, so that of sending it to the landfill can saves costs associated with
other tools like Green Business stimulate local business and procuring new supplies as well
Directories, Green Events and create new jobs by creating a as disposal and recycling fees.478
Calendars, Reuse and Recycling
477
iWasteNot Systems, www.i-wastenot.com/site/, 15 January 2007.
478
City of Portland, Office of Sustainable Development, www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?a=117682&c=42401, 27 September 2006.
479
New Renaissance, Vol 11, No.3, www.ru.org/113-Davis-California.htm, 27 September 2006.
480
Davis Municipal Code, www.city.davis.ca.us/cmo/citycode/detail.cfm?p=15&q=473, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 153
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
city council adopted a policy that recycled paper. The city has set The city saves around $10,000
addresses Environmentally a standard of using up to 95% every year through purchasing of
Preferable Purchasing (EPP). recycled material for street signs, recycled products, and reaps
as well as refurbished aluminum. unquantifiable environmental
Within city offices, everything benefits.
from copy paper to printer paper, San Jose’s vehicular fleet
as well as post it notes and maintenance crew utilizes
folders contain post-consumer recycled oil and antifreeze CONTACT
waste. Janitorial products such products in its fleet. At first this
as paper towels and trash bags was a tough sell, but the recycled Committee Member
are made of recycled material, as automotive products have greatly Gay Gale
is the compost used in city parks. exceeded the crew’s EPP Steering
All paper products and printing expectations. They now prefer (408) 535-7054
done through contracts outside of the recycled oil because it burns Gay.Gale@sanjoseca.gov
the city is mandated to be on better and runs cleaner.
481
BALLE, Business Alliance for Local Living Economies. www.livingeconomies.org/localfirst/whylocalfirst/, 27 September 2006.
482
Buy Local Philly website, www.buylocalphilly.com/, 27 September 2006.
154 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Local Purchasing
Local Purchasing
Local Purchasing
483
Ibid.
484
Portland Buy Local Campaign, www.portlandbuylocal.org/index.html, 27 September 2006.
485
Santa Fe Alliance, www.santafealliance.com, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 155
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Additional • Binders and Folders: Binders • Bio-based lubricants,etc.
made from 100% post- (fleet uses)
Resources consumer recycled cardboard
and 100% post-consumer The Federal Energy
Other websites dedicated to recycled PET (from soft drink Management Program
building strong local economies bottles) are available. (FEMP)
through uniting local businesses • Self-Stick Notes: Buy 100% FEMP criteria and the federal
and educating citizens on the recycled or use electronic ENERGY STAR® energy
benefits of local purchasing programs like Stickies487 efficiency labeling program
include: • Envelopes: Buy unbleached, identify efficient products,
light-weight and recycled. helping agencies “buy efficient.”
The American Independent FedEx and other shippers use often as part of an agency’s
Business Alliance envelopes made of Tyvek broader policy to “buy green.”
www.amiba.net/ because of their lighter eetdnews.lbl.gov/nl16/estar.html
weight and strength. The
Business Alliance for Local lighter weight translates City of Berkeley Resolution to
Living Economies (BALLE) directly into fuel savings, adopt an Environmental
www.livingeconomies.org particularly in the case of Preferable Purchasing Policy.
long-distance shipments. A portion of the resolution
Local Town USA.COM Tyvek also incorporates 25% states: Policy requires purchase
www.localtownusa.com post-consumer recycled of products and services that
content from plastic milk and minimize environmental and
Institute for Local Self- water jugs, and the used health impacts, toxics, pollution,
Reliance envelopes are recyclable. and hazards to workers and
www.ilsr.org • Pens and Pencils: Buy community safety and to the
refillable pens, and pens made larger global community to the
The following is a list of some from recycled materials. Buy greatest extent practicable
office products with green pencils made from recycled
alternatives: 486 materials, such as lunch trays Specifications are described for
• Highlighters, Markers, and shredded dollar bills. Source Reduction, Toxics
Correction Fluid: Buy non- • Toner Cartridges: Reduction and Pollution
toxic, water-based. Remanufactured cartridges Prevention, Recycled Content
Conventional aromatic can be obtained at roughly products, Energy and Water
solvent and alcohol-based half the price of a new one Savings, Green Building
contain toxic materials. while significantly reducing Construction and Renovation,
Choose refillable markers if the environmental impact of Landscaping, Forest
available. discarding cartridges. Conservation, and Agricultural
• Clipboards: Buy recycled. • Presentation Transparencies: and Bio-based products.
Clipboards made of 100 Buy at least 50% total www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/sustainab
percent post-consumer plastic recycled content with at least le/government/101904.EPPPolic
are now available. 25% post-consumer recycled y.pdf
• Paper-based Office Products: content.
Buy recycled, chlorine-free. • Slag cement (95% less CO2
Paper manufacture using emitted than regular cement
virgin pulp consumes trees • 80 PLUS computer power
and is highly water intensive, supplies for PCs and servers
energy intensive, and
polluting.
486
Ibid.
487
www.zhornsoftware.co.uk/stickies/index.html, 29 September 2006.
156 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
California Integrated Waste
Management Board
For a directory of companies that
meet or exceed these standards,
please visit the California
Integrated Waste Management
Board’s website488: A good deal
of information can also be found
on the best ways to reduce, reuse,
recycle, and where to purchase
recycled office supplies in this
document hosted by Seattle’s
municipal website.489
488
www.ciwmb.ca.gov/RCP/Product.asp?VW=CAT&CATID=264, 27 September 2006.
489
seattle.gov/environment/Documents/GreenSealOfficeSupplies_finalCE.pdf, May 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 157
Best Bets: Municipal Purchasing
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Utilities
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Encourage Utility service territory.490
490
In recent years activists from San Francisco, Berkeley, CA, Eugene OR, Boulder CO, Enid OK, Las Cruces NM, DeKalm, Hermon,
Lisbon, Potsdam, and Russell, New York, and hundreds of other town have pressed for their city to take over the delivery of electric
service. Some succeeded, others decided to stay with the private utility, www.local.org/gatekeep.html, 30 November 2006.
158 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Utilities
lowered costs for everyone in the Obviously, it is in everyone’s In the early 1990’s there were an
system. Utility regulations were interests to pursue efficiency array of experiments underway
structured to reward building first, but few utility programs to enable the market for
more plants, customers were achieve this outcome. Until delivering customer value to
urged to buy “All Electric recently, utilities have tended to function better. Eight states
Homes” and incentives were pursue only as much efficiency request for proposals to vendors
given to use more electricity. as regulators require them to. to compete in an open auction for
For a variety of reasons, this is Only a few jurisdictions all ways to make or save
no longer true: every new plant decoupled sales of electricity electricity at, say 1¢ per kilowatt
that is added to a system raises from utility profits, so utilities hour. On receipt of bids they
every customer’s rates, and has will no longer be rewarded for signed contracts. If they needed
for almost 30 years. In many selling more electricity nor more capacity, they then
states, however, utilities are still penalized for selling less. reopened bidding for efficiency
rewarded for building more or supply at 2¢ per kWh, then 3¢.
plants.491 There have been some notable At around 2 – 3¢ they met all of
exceptions. In California in the their required capacity,
Various states have late 1980’s, the Public Utility dramatically cheaper than
experimented with regulations to Commission shifted its building a new fossil fired plant.
encourage utilities to meet regulations to reward utilities
customers’ needs in the cheapest with a portion of the savings they Some utilities traded saved
way. Programs like Integrated created for their customers by electricity, rewarding customers
Resource Planning, which implementing efficiency. Within for actively reducing electricity
require utilities to compare the a few years, no utility in use, or for saving other
cost of building new capacity California projected the need to customers´ electricity. There is
with the cost of doing the same build any more power plants, and talk of creating spot and futures,
job of meeting customers’ needs all projected that they would markets in saved electricity (in
through energy efficiency, meet all future demand growth 1993, Britain created such a
sought to level the playing through renewable generation. futures market). Some electric
field.492 Every competent Under this plan Pacific Gas and utilities sold unregulated electric
analysis has shown that Electric, the country’s biggest efficiency in other utilities´
efficiency costs far less than new private utility, spent $150 million territories. Some jurisdictions
supply. For example, good in 1991 to help make its implemented programs to charge
efficiency programs, to, say, customers more efficient, and fees to connect inefficient
retrofit light bulbs, cost about 1 - kept 15% of the resulting buildings to the grid, and paid
2¢ per kilowatt hour saved, while savings, boosting its 1990 profits rebates for connecting efficient
just running a coal plant costs 4 – by $40-50 million. Doing this buildings, both on an open-ended
5 ¢. New wind, in good sites can returned over $40 million to sliding scale.
cost as low as 3¢. Running an PG&E’s bottom line and saved
existing gas plant typically costs its customers nine times that Cities should discuss all of these
5 – 6¢. The average price of much. The PUC found that are measures with their utility or
electricity from the grid is at between 1990 – 93 such Public Utility Commission.
least 8¢ per kilowatt hour, and efficiency measures saved
building a new nuclear plant can customers a net present value of It is important to recognize that
cost as much as 20¢. And these almost $2 billion.493 despite the fixation of utilities
numbers do not count the cost of Unfortunately free market and most policy experts on
emitting carbon and threatening advocates overturned this supplying kilowatt-hours at the
the climate. program. lowest price, what customers
491
The Negawatt Revolution, www.eco-web.com/editorial/00892.html, 30 November 2006.
492
Western Area Power Administration, www.wapa.gov/powerm/pmirp.htm, 30 November 2006.
493
Hawken, Lovins and Lovins, Natural Capitalism, P 273 – 74, Little Brown, 1999.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 159
Best Bets: Utilities
really want are the services that evolving very rapidly, and a city energy efficiency and energy
energy can deliver at least cost. would be unwise to assume that research programs were
And it is essentially always true the past must govern the future. adequately maintained during the
that efficiency will do this state's transition toward a more
cheapest, most reliably and with In New York, state regulators competitive electric market.496
the fewest carbon emissions. have imposed what is called a
Two programs, ENERGY “system Benefit charge” (SBC) As part of its utility restructuring,
STAR, run by the Federal on all sales of electricity to pay electric utilities in the State of
Department of Energy,494 and the for energy efficiency measures. New Hampshire established
State Scorecard on Utility Since 1998 most low-income energy efficiency programs for
Energy Efficiency Programs, run energy efficiency programs have statewide implementation by
by the American Council for an been funded through this SBC on utilities regulated by the Public
Energy Efficient Economy495 electricity bills and administered Utilities Commission. These
offer assistance to utilities by the New York State Energy programs serve residential,
wishing to create energy Research and Development commercial and industrial
efficiency programs. Authority (NYSERDA). customers. They include
programs for new construction,
Many states are now reviewing The SBC program, known as retrofitting existing structures,
their utility policies. Simply New York Energy $mart SM, and rebate programs for selected
entering “utility efficiency provides efficiency programs for lighting and appliances. In
programs” in Google will return all customer classes, including addition to the statewide
a wealth of information on what low-income renters and programs, individual utility-
different states are doing. This is homeowners. The SBC program specific programs exist,
now a realm in which policy is was created to ensure that certain including a pilot Pay-As-You-
Save (PAYS) program.497
494
Energy Star EEPS Resources, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=reps.pt_reps, 30 November 2006.
495
ACEEE, Steven Nadel, Toru Kubo, and Howard Geller, April, 2000, www.aceee.org/pubs/u004.htm, 30 November 2006.
496
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.sustainable.doe.gov/dereg/states/nyork.htm, 30 November 2006.
497
New Hampshire CORE Energy Efficiency Programs, www.puc.state.nh.us/Electric/coreenergyefficiencyprograms.htm, 20 January. 2007.
498
TXU Electric Delivery Press Release, www.oncorgroup.com/about/newsroom/detail.asp?prid=1013, 29 January 2007.
160 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Utilities
Encourage Utility solar cells. It will cut the local Electric, Florida Power and
utility paid for half the year, Light and many others.503
Providers to Set a and of the cost.
Minimum Cities can purchase renewable
Since 1975, the city of Santa energy directly. Many
Commodity From Clara, CA has taken a leading municipalities are realizing the
Renewable Energy role in the development and benefits of diversifying their
promotion of the use of solar energy portfolio not only by
Purchases energy. That year, the city implementing energy efficiency,
established the nation's first but also by investing in
municipal solar utility. Under renewable technologies (often
When a utility has achieved all of this program the city will called green power). Doing this
the cost effective efficiency it supply, install and maintain can strengthen the local
can, the next best bet is often the solar water heating systems for economy, have a positive impact
various renewable forms of residents and businesses within on the local job market.504 Using
supply. Renewable energy Santa Clara.501 local renewable power also
sources include wind, solar increases the security of the
power, geothermal, hydropower, Utilities across the country are community.505 Fossil fuel
and various forms of biomass. offering wind electricity to generated power generally comes
Increasingly, electricity their customers. Fort Collins from across state and even
customers are being given supply was the first utility in Colorado international borders, far from
options, either as retail power and among the first in the customer demand; whereas
markets open to competition or nation to deliver wind energy renewable energy sources are
when their regulated utilities to customers. Its Wind Power mostly smaller in size and locally
develop green energy or Program started in 1998. owned and operated.506
efficiency pricing programs. Strong customer demand
More than 50% of retail expanded the program in 1999 Cities that purchase a green
customers in the U.S. now have and 2000. power product demonstrate
an option of purchasing a green increased demand for renewable
power product directly from their In June 2004, the program technology. Such demand helps
electricity supplier.499500 expanded again in order to to develop further renewable
meet the goals of the City energy sources, which can
Utilities have created programs Council’s Electric Energy reduce the burning of fossil fuels.
to help finance solar Supply Policy. At that time,
installations on customers’ the price for wind energy Municipal or commercial
homes and factories. For dropped from 2.5¢ per kWh to utilities can set up green power
Earth day 2005, Alameda 1¢ per kWh.502 programs for communities. In
County in California these programs residents have
commissioned a 2.3 megawatt Other utilities offering wind the opportunity to purchase
power plant, spread out on power include Austin, Texas, renewable energy for their
roofs all over the county, using Xcel Energy, Basin Electric in homes, businesses, etc.
county’s energy bill $700,000 a Montana, Oklahoma Gas and
499
U.S. DOE Green Power Network, www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/index.shtml, 19 September 2006.
500
Check to see if your State offers Green Power Programs.
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/buying_power.shtml, 19 September 2006.
501
City of Santa Clara, www.ci.santa-clara.ca.us/pub_utility/ws_muni_solar.html , 30 November 2006. For information, call the Solar
Engineer at 615-2000.
502
Fort Collins, Wind Power Program, fcgov.com/utilities/wind-history.php, 30 November 2006.
503
U.S. DOE, www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/resources/tables/topten.shtml, 30 November 2006.
504
Robert Sanders, “Investment in Renewable Energy Better for Jobs As Well As the Environment,”
www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/04/13_kamm.shtml, 30 November 2006.
505
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's web site provides an additional discussion of the benefits of renewable energy.
www.nrel.gov/learning/, 19 September 2006.
506
Interstate Renewable Energy Council, www.irecusa.org/municipal/municipal_guide.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Utilities/IREC_municipal_guide.pdf, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 161
Best Bets: Utilities
Such programs often charge a electricity is delivered into the have paid a premium to create
premium rate, although power pool, where it mixes that benefit.508
increasingly renewables such with all the other electricity
as wind power are cheaper being generated at the time. Many cities, states, federal
than running existing coal Finally, the power is delivered agencies, universities and
plants.507 to all customers of that utility. businesses have worked with
The mix of “green” and their municipalities to offer green
In a green power transaction, a “brown” power is actually power purchasing programs.509
510
utility (or power marketer) shared by everyone while the For more information about
buys renewable energy from a environmental attributes are Renewable Energy Planning,
renewable energy facility. This credited to the customers who refer to Chapter 5, Long Term
Initiatives.
507
In 2006, Xcel Energy was forced to rebate to its “Windsource” customers, because wind was the cheapest resource on the system.
Recent documents released by the Colorado PUC show that the utility’s projections that coal power would be the cheapest resource are
wrong, and that limitations to rail capacity haul coal, rising coal prices and falling renewables costs are reversing the calculation.
508
Bonneville Environmental Foundation www.greentagsusa.org/GreenTags/faq.cfm, 19 September 2006.
509
Green Power Network www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/customers.shtml, 19 September 2006.
510
A number of programs or initiatives have been developed in the U.S. to help address green power product credibility, such as certification
programs and advertising and marketing guidelines. These programs help to verify green power marketer claims as well as to educate
and inform customers about environmentally preferable competitive market choices.
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/consumer_protection.shtml, 19 September 2006.
511
Green Power Network, Large Green Purchasers Database;
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/customers.shtml?page=1&companyid=379, 19 September 2006.
512
Western Resource Advocates, www.westernresourceadvocates.org/, 19 September 2006.
162 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Utilities
513
Green Power Partnership has News Releases: CONTACT
designated the city a “Green
Power Community,” making Boulder exceeds goals of Wind Susan Innis
Boulder the first community in Challenge; Becomes Green Power Western Resource Advocates
519
Colorado to receive this Community (303) 444-1188, ext 221
distinction. The following local susan@westernresources.org
renewable energy suppliers City of Boulder challenges
participated in the city's wind community to increase wind power Yael Gichon
520
power challenge: Clean and purchases City of Boulder
514
Green; Community Energy, (303) 441-1914
515
Inc.; Renewable Choice Gichony@bouldercolorado.gov
516
Energy; and Xcel Energy
517
through its Windsource
518
program.
513
EPA Green Power, www.epa.gov/greenpower/, 19 September 2006.
514
Clean and Green, www.cleanandgreen.us/map.php, 19 September 2006.
515
New Wind Energy, www.newwindenergy.com/, 19 September 2006.
516
Renewable Choice, www.renewablechoice.com/, 19 September 2006.
517
Xcel Energy Windsource Program, www.xcelenergy.com/XLWEB/CDA/0,3080,1-1-2_735_16310-221-2_68_133-0,00.html, 19 September
2006.
518
Green Power Network, Large Green Purchasers Database;
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/customers.shtml?page=1&companyid=469, 19 September 2006.
519
City Boulder Wind Challenge, www.ci.boulder.co.us/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1778&Itemid=165, 29 September
2006.
520
City of Boulder Wind Challenge, www.bouldercolorado.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1273&Itemid=165, 29
September 2006.
521
Green Power Network, Large Green Purchasers Database;
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/customers.shtml?page=1&companyid=215, 19 September 2006.
522
Radnor Township website, www.radnor.com/, 19 September 2006.
523
New Wind Energy, www.newwindenergy.com/, 19 September 2006.
524
Philadelphia Energy Cooperative, www.theenergyco-op.com/index.html, 19 September 2006.
525
U.S. DOE Energy Power Network, www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/buying/pr/0303_radnor_pr.html, 19 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 163
Best Bets: Utilities
Renewable Energy Purchasing
526
Energy Vortex, www.energyvortex.com/pages/headlinedetails.cfm?id=1114&archive=1, 19 September 2006.
527
LAWDP Green Power 2005 Annual Report, www.ladwp.com/ladwp/cms/ladwp005196.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Utilities/LADWP_2005Report.pdf, 19 September 2006.
528
Ibid.
164 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Utilities
Renewable Energy Purchasing
529
City Data, www.city-data.com/city/Lenox-Iowa.html, 19 September 2006.
530
U.S. DOE Green Power Markets, www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/pr/1203_lenox_pr.html, 19 September 2006.
531
Ibid.
532
lbid.
533
Energy Services Bulletin, www.wapa.gov/es/pubs/esb/2004/feb/feb043.htm, 19 September 2006.
534
Ibid.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 165
Best Bets: Utilities
Additional
Resources
The Interstate Renewable
Energy Council’s website
contains a wealth of useful
information on municipal
purchasing and implementation
of renewable energy programs.
www.irecusa.org/
DSIRE is a comprehensive
source of information on state,
local, utility, and federal
incentives that promote
renewable energy and energy
efficiency. www.dsireusa.org
166 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Utilities
Top Ten Green Power Programs as of 2005535
Source: NREL
Notes:
a
An “average megawatt” (aMW) is a measure of continuous capacity equivalent (i.e., operating at a 100% capacity factor).
b
Some products marketed in partnership with Green Mountain Energy Company.
c
Includes Pacific Power and Utah Power.
d
Some Oregon products marketed in partnership with 3 Phases Energy Services.
e
Product is Green-e certified (www.green-e.org). For Xcel Energy, only the Public Service Company of Colorado product is Green-e certified.
f
Includes Northern States Power, Public Service Company of Colorado, and Southwestern Public Service.
g
Includes Niagara Mohawk, Massachusetts Electric, Narragansett Electric, and Nantucket Electric
h
Marketed in partnership with Community Energy, EnviroGen, Green Mountain Energy Company, Mass Energy, People's Power & Light, and
Sterling Planet
i
Some products are certified by Green-e (www.green-e.org) or Environmental Resources Trust (www.ert.net).
535
NREL has compiled extensive data on utility green power programs and produced the following "Top Ten" lists of program characteristics
and results: total sales of renewable energy to program participants; total number of customer participants; customer participation rates;
and the premium charged to support new renewable development.
www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/resources/tables/pdfs/0306_topten_pr.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Utilities/GreenPricingProgam_NREL2005.pdf, 27 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 167
Best Bets: Utilities
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Businesses
In any city, the business sector is help business people cut their
DOCUMENT CONTENTS a major user of energy, and thus use of energy.536 It works with
Promote Use of Energy, Water and an emitter of greenhouse gases local partners to help businesses
Waste Audits by Businesses .......169 (GHGs). There is a great deal implement lighting retrofits and
CASE STUDIES: that businesses can do to reduce other energy savings programs.
Portland, OR.......................171 their emissions profitably, but The following example is
Anaheim, CA ......................171
Provide Incentives to Encourage
businesses, especially the small described on the ENERGY
Energy Efficiency Standards .......171 businesses that are the backbone STAR website:537
CASE STUDIES: of any community’s economy
Flower Mound, TX ..............172 need help to capture these Small business owner Joel
Scottsdale, AZ ....................172 opportunities. Most small Whitaker added $800 per year to
San Diego, CA....................173
Energy Efficiency Standards in businesses give little thought to the bottom line of Whitaker
Commercial Building Codes ........174 how they use energy, have few Newsletters by installing more
CASE STUDIES: resources to help them reduce energy efficient light bulbs in the
Santa Monica, CA...............174 their energy bills, and are 24 fixtures in his 2,000 square
State of California ...............175
Working with Power Plants and
reluctant to devote scarce foot office. The cost was partly
Other Significant Emitters ...........175 management time, or scarcer financed by his local utility, an
CASE STUDIES: funds to implementing significant ENERGY STAR Utility Ally,
State of Oregon ..................176 changes in the way they do and partly by savings on his
Seattle, WA.........................177 business.
Help Small Businesses Prosper and
electric bill. The upgrades paid
Protect the Climate......................177 back in less than two years.
CASE STUDY: Smart communities around the After that even this very small
Seattle, WA.........................178 country are implementing office started saving almost $800
Additional Resources ..................179 programs to help their business per year.
community become more energy
efficient. Mr. Whitaker’s utility, Public
Service Electric & Gas
One of the easiest programs to (PSE&G), sent him a flyer about
encourage a business to energy efficient. Soon after
implement is a lighting retrofit. calling the utility's 800 number,
The U.S. Environmental he signed a Memorandum of
Protection Agency (EPA) offers Understanding with EPA. Mr.
the ENERGY STAR program to Whitaker had previously called a
536
EPA Small Business, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=small_business.sb_index, 30 October 2006.
537
EPA Small Business Success Story, www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=sb_success.sb_successstories_whitaker, 30 October 2006.
168 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
local electrician to learn more
about lighting efficiency, but
never before performed this type
of lighting upgrade, but the
Promote Use of
found he knew more than the straightforward directions make Energy, Water and
electrician. EPA's Financing installation of 24 energy-efficient Waste Audits by
Directory guided Whitaker to T-8 florescent lamps with
Atlantic Lighting and Supply Co., electronic ballasts easy. Businesses
an ENERGY STAR Distributor Although the number of lamps
Ally. Atlantic surveyed his space per fixture was decreased, the The building sector is the major
for free and provided employees thought the lighting consumer of energy in the U.S,
specifications, a cost analysis, was improved. And the using over one third of all energy
and an environmental analysis. improvement in lighting color and two thirds of electricity.538
This process took Atlantic less gave the office a nice glow. Yet it is cost effective to fix up
than one hour. Atlantic included almost any existing building to
PSE&G rebates in their Whitaker also revamped one exit use dramatically less energy.
economic analysis and predicted sign from incandescent to LED, New buildings can be 10 times
the payback. an upgrade that increased the more efficient than an ordinary
lamp life from 9 months to 50 building, existing ones three fold
Whitaker then applied for years. This is especially more efficient. Many businesses
financial assistance. Atlantic important to Whitaker, since the own their own building, but the
agreed to finance more than half local fire inspector had, in the majority rent space in someone
of the upgrade cost. Whitaker past, warned the company about else’s building. Programs to
simply repaid Atlantic with the a burned-out exit lamp. reduce the carbon footprint of
savings from its electric bill, buildings need to address both
including signing over the rebate Mr. Whitaker was particularly owner-occupied spaces and
check it received from PSE&G. impressed with the pollution rental space.
prevention equivalency
Once Atlantic delivered the information supplied by EPA. As described in the municipal
project materials, Mr. Whitaker His employees were impressed building section of this chapter,
contracted a different electrician that he had done something good many cities have made it
he found listed on a church flyer for the environment. Mr. mandatory to perform energy,
to install them. The entire Whitaker was so happy with the waste and water audits on their
upgrade process, from survey to results of his lighting upgrade municipal buildings. Because of
installation, took a little over a that he convinced a local these audits, cities have
month. “Our lighting upgrade,” municipality and a local school retrofitted numerous buildings,
Mr. Whitaker explains, “was a district to upgrade their updating technology and
piece of cake: the financing was facilities. He also helped capturing financial savings.
easily handled, and we got a PSE&G publicize energy Many communities support their
local electrician to install efficiency programs by businesses in conducting their
everything. It was really no participating on the radio spots. own audits and making retrofits
sweat.” and updates to their buildings,
ENERGY STAR helps but all should do this.
Before the upgrade, Whitaker businesses with energy efficiency
Newsletter's 24 fixtures were information about lights and
inefficient T-12 florescent lamps appliances, buildings and
with magnetic ballasts. Such facilities, manufacturing, retail
fixtures are common in small operations, and much more.
businesses. The electrician had
538
U.S. Green Building Council, www.USGBC.org, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 169
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy, Waster and Waste Audits
Phase Incentive
Screening Provided by Program, in collaboration with Service Provider when
applicable
RCx Investigation Custom incentive ranging from $0.05 - $0.10 per square foot, paid to
Service Provider
Quick Fixes Up to $2,000, paid to Service Provider
Implementation Up to $0.03 per square foot, applies to measures with a simple payback
of longer than one year, paid to Customer
Persistence Up to $4,500, paid to Customer
Portland also has significant Energy Trust provides 100% of different projects. Energy Trust
programs to encourage the use operating costs for the program also provides similar incentives
of renewable resources by to make it viable for a business. for businesses to install solar
541
businesses. For instance, the In addition, they will also provide water heaters.
biofuels program supports assistance with initial feasibility
businesses that seek to create studies.
energy through the use of CONTACT
biofuels available in the state of Energy Trust also provides
Oregon. These fuels include, but incentives of 35% of the system Jan Schaeffer
are not limited to landfill gas, cost for businesses to install solar (503) 445-7603
energy crops, and solid fuels energy systems. During its first jan@energytrust.org
based on residual material from year, this program provided $1.4
forestry. million in incentives for 126
539
Energy Trust Building Tune-up and Operations, www.energytrust.org/bto/btu.html, 27 September 2006.
540
Energy Trust website, www.energytrust.org/index.html, 27 September 2006.
541
Energy Trust, Wind Energy, www.energytrust.org/RR/wind/index.html, 27 September 2006.
170 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy, Water and Waste Audits
CONTACT
542
Anaheim Public Utilities Exit Sign Programs, www.anaheim.net/utilities/adv_svc_prog/led_exit_sign/index.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Businesses/Anahaim_ExitSignProgram.pdf, 27 September 2006.
543
U.S Green Building Council, www.usgbc.org, 3 October 2006.
544
County of San Diego Building Department, www.sdcounty.ca.gov/dplu/greenbuildings.html, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 171
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy Efficiency Incentives
545
Flower Mound Green Building website, www.flower-mound.com/env_res/env_res_green.php, 3 October 2006.
546
Flower Mound Green Building Program brochure, www.flower-mound.com/env_res/green_building_program.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Businesses/FlowerMound_grnbuilding.pdf, 3 October 2006.
547
City of Scottsdale Green Building Program, www.ci.scottsdale.az.us/greenbuilding/HowToJoin/Invitation.asp, 3 October 2006.
172 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy Efficiency Incentives
548
County of San Diego Building Program, www.sdcounty.ca.gov/dplu/greenbuildings.html, 3 October 2006.
549
Brochure on San Diego Incentive Program, www.sdcounty.ca.gov/dplu/docs/DPLU%20273.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Businesses/SanDiego_BuildGreen.pdf, 3 October 2006.
550
CPC Title 24, Part 5, California Administrative Code, Appendix G.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 173
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy Efficiency The types of codes used to
encourage energy efficiency
meet Santa Monica’s allowable
energy budget for multi-family
Standards in standards can be categorized into homes of 10%.
Commercial Building two categories: Prescriptive and
Codes551
Performance Codes. Prescriptive codes establish
specific requirements for
Performance codes set a materials: for example, efficient
Many cities have energy mandatory target for the building boiler and furnace units with a
efficiency standards for their to meet. These codes drive minimum combustion efficiency
own buildings and have set a innovation for building of 80%.
good example of how energy developers, architects,
efficiency retrofits can pay back contractors, etc. by allowing The following case studies
costs. Cities should extend these them to decide how to meet set demonstrate how cities and states
standards to commercial targets. For example, builders are setting energy efficiency
buildings. must determine the best way to standards using both prescriptive
and performance codes.
551
Sustainable Green Building Guidelines, www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Design/Guidelines.htm, 3 October 2006. Includes
performance or prescriptive instructions for designers and builders to use in construction projects. These instructions address materials
use, design principles and construction techniques.
552
The U.S. Green Building Council has found that there is no evidence that there has to be a premium for building green. In studies in
which an initial premium of up to 2% was found, the green measures saved 20% of the construction costs over the lifetime of the building,
www.usgbc.com, 3 October 2006.
553
Santa Monica Green Building Program, greenbuildings.santa-monica.org/requirements/projectrequirements.html, 27 September 2006.
554
Santa Monica Green Building Ordinance, greenbuildings.santa-monica.org/whatsnew/green-building-ordinance/green-building-Ord-1-5-
2002.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Businesses/SantaMonica_Ordinance.pdf, 3 October 2006.
555
Santa Monica Waste Recycling Ordinance, greenbuildings.santa-monica.org/whatsnew/waste.ordinance.html, 30 October 2006.
556
Santa Monica Design Adviser, greenbuildings.santa-monica.org/GBDA.htm, 27 September 2006.
174 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
Energy Efficient Commercial Building Codes
557
Green Building Tiers www.ciwmb.ca.gov/GreenBuilding/Design/Tiers.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Businesses/GrnBuildingTiers.pdf, 27 September 2006.
558
Oregon’s Power plant Codes, www.newrules.org/electricity/climateor.html, 27 September 2006.
559
EPA Climate Leaders, www.epa.gov/stateply/, 5 October 2006.
560
Business Environmental Leadership Council, www.pewclimate.org/companies_leading_the_way_belc/company_profiles/, 5 October 2006.
561
Bustillo, Miguel, “A Shift To Green” Los Angeles Times 12 June, 2005.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 175
Best Bets: Businesses
Targeting Significant GHG Emitters
The standard for base load gas efficiency of the facility. definition appears also in Council
567
plants applies only to natural gas- Generating plants have the rules (OAR 345-001-0010(45)).
fired plants. The standards for option of offsetting part or all of The Climate Trust takes
non-base load plants and non- their excess carbon dioxide responsibility for obtaining offsets
generating facilities apply to all emissions through guaranteed when an applicant uses the
fuels. The Council has not yet cogeneration. “monetary path.” Once a site
set carbon dioxide emissions certificate holder has provided
standards for base load power At their discretion, applicants can adequate funds to The Climate
plants using other fossil fuels. propose carbon dioxide offset Trust, it has met its obligations
Rules allow base load gas plants projects they or a third party will under the carbon dioxide
that have power augmentation manage, or they can provide standard.
equipment to meet both the base funds via the “monetary path” to
565
load and non-base load the The Climate Trust. The
standards for the respective parts Council recognizes The Climate CONTACT
of the plant. The definitions for Trust as a “qualified
564
the facilities are in Division 1. organization,” as defined in Tom Stoops
566
statute (ORS 469.503). This Energy Facility Siting Council
The calculations for compliance Tom.Stoops@state.org.us
with the standard account for the
562
Oregon Energy Facility standard, www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/SITING/ standards.shtml#Carbon_Dioxide_Emissions, 27 September 2006.
563
Oregon Energy Facility standard, egov.oregon.gov/ENERGY/SITING/docs/rules/div24.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/ BestBets/Businesses/Oregon_Div24.pdf, 3 October 2006.
564
Oregon Energy Facility standard, egov.oregon.gov/ENERGY/SITING/docs/rules/div1.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/ Businesses/Oregon_Div1.pdf, 3 October 2006.
565
The Climate Trust, www.climatetrust.org/, 3 October 2006.
566
Oregon Legislative, Energy; Conservation Programs; Energy Facilities, landru.leg.state.or.us/ors/469.html, 3 October 2006.
567
Oregon Energy Facility standard, egov.oregon.gov/ENERGY/SITING/docs/rules/div1.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/ Businesses/Oregon_Div1.pdf, 3 October 2006.
176 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
Targeting Significant GHG Emitters
568
Stiffler, Lisa. ”No global warming at City Light.” Seattle Post- Intelligent Reporter. 10 November, 2005. seattlepi.nwsource.com, 5
October 2006.
569
Ibid.
570
Ibid.
571
Seattle Climate Wise Partners, www.seattle.gov/light/conserve/business/climatewise/, 5 October 2006.
572
Ibid.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 177
Best Bets: Businesses
Small Business Assistance
573
Seattle City Light $mart Business Program, www.seattle.gov/light/conserve/business/cv5_sbiz.htm, 27 September 2006.
574
Puget Sound Business Journal, June 2000, www.bizjournals.com/seattle/stories/2000/06/05/story1.html, 27 September 2006.
178 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Businesses
Additional • Incentives related to Green
Building,579 including grants
Resources for projects and programs,
plan review expediency and
California Sustainability Leadership in Energy and
Financial Incentives Environmental Design
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainabili (LEED) submission cost
ty/incentives.htm coverage.
• Incentives related to
California Department of Landscaping,580 including
Energy provides information on education, tree-planting,
incentives in the areas of Energy, mitigation and restoration.
Water, Materials, Siting, Green • Incentives relating to
Building, Landscaping and Transportation,581 including:
Transportation. This list will be bicycle and pedestrian safety
updated quarterly and does not and facilities construction and
claim to contain all existing alternatively fueled vehicles.
funding options. If you know of • Incentives relating to
a financial assistance program Miscellaneous,582 including:
that is not on this list or should financing programs granted
no longer be on this list then by private institutions.
please contact:
Panama.Bartholomy@dgs.ca.gov Center for Small Business and
or Shweta.Bhatt@dgs.ca.gov the Environment offers an array
• Incentives relating to of information for small
Energy575, including businesses interested in climate
conservation, efficiency, protection. Contact:
renewables, self-generation Byron Kennard, Executive
and commissioning. Director
• Incentives related to Water,576 The Center for Small Business
including conservation, and the Environment
effiency and re-use. P.O. Box 53127
• Incentives related to Material Washington DC, 20009
selection and Waste 202 – 332-6875
management,577 including www.aboutcsbe.org
recycled content, re-use and
waste reduction.
• Incentives related to Siting,578
including brownfield
redevelopment and “Smart
Growth” strategic planning.
575
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/energy.htm, 3 October 2006.
576
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/water.htm, 3 October 2006.
577
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/wastemgmt.htm, 3 October 2006.
578
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/siting.htm, 3 October 2006.
579
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/greenbldg.htm, 3 October 2006.
580
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/landscaping.htm, 3 October 2006.
581
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/transportation.htm, 3 October 2006.
582
www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Sustainability/Miscellaneous.htm, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 179
Best Bets: Businesses
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Climate Friendly
Residences
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Residential Home
Residential Home Efficiency Home Size Restrictions, Taxing
Efficiency Upgrades
Upgrades .................................... 180 Large Residential Energy
CASE STUDIES: Consumers ................................. 192 Residents can help cities achieve
Anita, IA.............................. 181 CASE STUDIES: carbon-footprint reduction goals
Osage, IA ........................... 181 Aspen, CO (Pitkin County) . 193 by increasing the energy
Wakefield, MA .................... 182 Marin County, CA............... 193
Palo Alto, CA ...................... 182 Energy and Water Efficiency by efficiency of their homes. New
Seattle, WA......................... 182 Smart-Metering, Price Signals and replacement electrical
Local Policies to Promote and Price Structuring.............. 194 appliances are prime targets for
Renewable Energy...................... 183 Innovative Electrical Metering . 194 efficiency upgrades. A number
CASE STUDIES: Additional Resources.................. 195
Sacramento, CA ................. 183
of community-owned public
Mahonoy Township, PA...... 184 utilities and some investor owned
Boulder, CO........................ 184 utilities offer appliance rebates to
Palo Alto, CA ...................... 184 help residents choose energy
El Centro, CA...................... 185 efficiency. The easy targets for
Aspen, CO .......................... 185
State of Minnesota.............. 185 rebates are lighting, refrigerators
Lower-income Weatherization and water heaters. Other
Assistance 113 electrical and water-conservation
CASE STUDIES: targets include clothes washers
Moose Jaw, Canada........... 187
Seattle, WA......................... 187
and dishwashers. In some cases,
Dearborn, MI....................... 188 special utilities create special
Portland, OR....................... 188 opportunities for rebates and
Split Incentives in Renter Occupied incentives.
Homes......................................... 189
CASE STUDIES:
State of Maine .................... 189
State of Vermont................. 190
Allegheny, PA ..................... 191
Lake Champlain, VT ........... 191
State of New York............... 192
San Diego, CA.................... 192
180 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Home Efficiency Upgrades
583
Anita Municipal Utilities, www.anitaiowa.com/utility.html#program, 3 October 2006.
584
“Osage Municipal Utilities Demand-Side Management” Smart Communities Network website.
www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/success/osage_muni.shtml, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 181
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Home Efficiency Upgrades
585
Home Energy Loss Prevention Service, www.munihelps.org, 5 October 2006.
586
ENERGY STAR catalog for participating customers, www.energyfederation.org/estarlights/default.php, 3 October 2006.
587
Palo Alto Appliance Rebates, www.cpau.com/programs/appliance/aplusindex.html, 3 October 2006.
588
Palo Alto Smart Energy Program, 2006-2008. www.cpau.com/programs/smtenergy/smartenergyform.pdf, also archived at
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/PaloAlto_smartenergy.pdf, 3 October 2006.
589
Seattle Residential Conservation Programs and Services, www.ci.seattle.wa.us/light/conserve/resident/, 3 October 2006.
182 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Local Policies to
Promote Renewable
Energy
There are a range of challenges
for residents seeking to use
renewable energy in their homes,
including siting restrictions, lack
of understanding of the
technology, and long payback
periods. Municipalities can
shape regulation and provide
incentives to assist residents in
overcoming these hurdles.
590
Sacramento Municipal Utility District, www.smud.org, 3 October 2006.
591
DSIRE, California Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency,
www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/incentive2.cfm?Incentive_Code=CA13F&state=CA&CurrentPageID=1&RE=1&EE=1, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 183
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Policies to Promote Renewable Energy
592
Mahoney Ordinance: www.celdf.org/Ordinances/SustainableEnergyOrdinance/tabid/256/Default.aspx, 29 September 2006.
593
Solar Access Compliance, www.bouldercolorado.gov/files/PDS/codes/solrshad.pdf, also archived:
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/Boulder_SolarAccess.pdf, 5 October 2006.
594
Boulder Planning and Development Services, www.ci.boulder.co.us/buildingservices, 3 October 2006.
595
Palo Alto PV Partners Program, www.cpau.com/programs/pv-partners/pvindex.html, 3 October 2006.
184 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Policies to Promote Renewable Energy
596
IID Energy – Energy Saving-Tips, www.iid.com/, 3 October 2006.
597
IID Energy - PV Solutions Rebate Program,
www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/incentive2.cfm?Incentive_Code=CA50F&state=CA&CurrentPageID=1&RE=1&EE=1, 3 October 2006.
598
Aspen Community Office for Resource Efficiency, www.aspencore.org/sitepages/pid46.php, 3 October 2006.
599
The Community Banks of Colorado is the partner for this program. Call their Aspen branch at (970) 544-8282 for more information.
600
Minnesota Department of Commerce, www.commerce.state.mn.us, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 185
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Lower-income estimated for high-energy-use
houses in the warmer climate
electricity consumption, and
delivering fuel bill savings, and
Weatherization regions.603 The report’s CO2 reductions).
Assistance extensive data and assessments
are a valuable resource for Data reported by DOE in 1997604
Programs to help homeowners communities seeking to design shows positive results for
weatherize their homes can help successful programs. The level surveys from 1989 and 1996 and
a city reduce its carbon footprint. of energy savings achieved increased benefits over the years.
This is particularly true of low to obviously depends on the extent The “installation benefit/cost
middle income homeowners, of the weatherization undertaken, ratio,” reported at 2.39 (up from
who are otherwise unlikely to both in terms of cost, and which 1.58 in 1989), verifies the
participate. Numerous public measures will be effective in effectiveness of the programs.
utilities, and non-profit each climate. Thus regional These increased benefits will be
organizations, offer services that considerations are important amplified given current energy
come into the home to help when deciding on which steps to costs. In fact, by 1996 a savings
residents assess energy take. of 33% was demonstrated for gas
inefficiencies and remedy them. space heat consumption. At that
Also, in many cases there is state For example, the report shows time, the household savings were
and federal funding administered that a $2,400 weatherization almost $200/year, and compared
by municipalities to cover the package can enable a “typical” with the data reported in 2002
costs of adding insulation and home in the Midwest to achieve above, savings are still on the
increasing efficiency when energy savings of about 20% and rise.
repairing or remodeling a CO2 reductions of about 20%. A
home.601 “high-energy use” house can Another report, from the
achieve greater savings (about American Council for an Energy
A 2002 report on weatherization 22%) and CO2 reductions (22%). Efficient Economy written in
programs, Meeting the An “expanded” package achieves 1997,605 discusses city, state and
Challenge: The Prospect of even greater gains. utility policy instruments for
Achieving 30% Energy Savings Weatherization measures achieving energy efficiency in
Through The Weatherization resulting in relatively high existing homes and rentals, and
Assistance Program, by the savings for most of the houses outlines case studies on
DOE, surveyed four cities, one studied are air sealing, installing Residential Energy Conservation
from the Northeast (Schenectedy, attic and wall insulation, Ordinances (RECO's) and Home
NY), Midwest (Moline, IL), replacing an old refrigerator with Energy Ratings Systems
South (Birmingham, AL), and a high-efficiency unit, resetting (HERS).
West (Eureka, CA).602 The the temperature on an existing
report states that “high-energy water heater, and installing a
use” homes in colder climates programmable thermostat on the
can achieve savings over 30%, central heating system.
and in warmer climates savings
of about 25%. Annual savings of Refrigerator replacement is
approximately $370 to $410 are particularly effective at reducing
601
Habitat for Humanity has a how to guide to make homes more energy efficient, www.habitat.org/env/energy_bulletins.aspx, 3 October
2006.
602
“Meeting the Challenge: The Prospect of Achieving 30 Percent Energy Savings through the Weatherization Assistance Program”, M.
Schweitzer & J.F. Eisenberg, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, weatherization.ornl.gov/pdf/Con-479%20May22-FINAL.pdf. Summary of
key findings, table, p. 13, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/Weatherization_2002.pdf, 3
October 2006.
603
Ibid. p. 14.
604
Progress Report of the National Weatherization Assistance Program, 1997, ORNL, www.eere.energy.gov/weatherization/pdfs/con450.pdf,
also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/ORNL_weatherization.pdf, 3 October 2006.
605
American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, Report Overview of “Policy Options for Improving Existing Housing Efficiency, 1997.
www.aceee.org/pubs/a971.htm, 3 October 2006.
186 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Weatherization Assistance
Weatherization Assistance
606
Saskatchewan Energy Share, www.skenergyshare.com/share_the_warmth.htm, 3 October 2006.
607
SaskEnergy Share the Warmth Media Release, www.siast.sk.ca/departments/mktgcomms/pdf05/sharethewarmthday.pdf, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/MooseJaw_sharethewarmth.pdf, 3 October 2006.
608
Seattle Office of Housing, www.seattle.gov/housing/06-HomeWise/HomeRepair&.htm, 5 October 2006.
609
Berkeley Office of Energy and Sustainable Development, www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/sustainable/, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 187
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Weatherization Assistance
Weatherization Assistance
610
Dearborn Home Weatherization Program, www.cityofdearborn.org/departments/economicdev/wx.shtml, 5 October 2006. Program funding
provided through the State of Michigan Department of Human Services.
611
Contact each county for information:
Multnomah 503-248-3999, ext. 22816
Washington 503-648-6646
Clackamas 503-534-5500
www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?c=41816&a=111233, 3 October 2006.
612
Portland Multi-Family Home Energy Savings, www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?&a=111266&c=41818, 3 October 2006.
188 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Split Incentives in for capital improvements to the
home they are renting for relatively
Several interesting projects are
attempting to address this problem.
Renter Occupied short periods. Owners of rental They range from business tax
property get federal tax write-offs incentives, to performance
Homes for repairs made to a rental contracting, time-of-sale efficiency
property, but not for improvements standards ordinances, rebate
(the opposite is true of an owner- programs and rental efficiency
Energy efficiency in rental homes is occupied home). Businesses and ratings. Also, in many larger cities a
neglected by many parties on both commercial real estate may benefit public housing authority may be the
sides of the owner/renter from local tax incentives, but local largest landlord in town. This offers
relationship since neither party has (city) taxes usually do not affect the an opportunity for the central
an economic incentives to make rental homeowner significantly, municipal government to make
energy-efficient improvements. In making city tax incentives less changes to a large number of rental
most cases, rental home owners are attractive to that group. Thus both properties directly.
not the ones who pay for utilities, groups are lacking in incentives to
this falls to the renters. However, make improvements to the home
the renters generally get no payback that increase energy efficiency.
613
Efficiency Maine, www.efficiencymaine.com, 5 October 2006.
614
Maine Energy Efficiency Disclosure Form www.maine.gov/mpuc/doing_business/forms/FactSheet_000.doc, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/Maine_EErentals.doc, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 189
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Split Incentives in Renter-Occupied Homes
615
EPA Climate Change Solutions,
yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BWJ4R/$File/vermonttrimsenergybills.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/Vermont_climate.pdf, 3 October 2006.
616
Vermont Energy Investment Corporation, www.veic.org/, 12 October 2006.
190 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Split Incentives in Renter-Occupied Homes
617
Meadville Community Energy Project (MCEP), based at Allegheny College
homeenergy.org/archive/hem.dis.anl.gov/eehem/00/000706.html, 5 October 2006.
618
Commonwealth Community Energy Project, energy.allegheny.edu/, 30 October 2006.
619
Allegheny newsletter, onthehill.allegheny.edu/autumn02/mcep.html, 5 October 2006.
620
Champlain Valley Weatherization Service www.cvoeo.org/wx/rentalpropownwx.htm, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 191
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Split Incentives in Renter-Occupied Homes
621
New York Energy Smart www.getenergysmart.org/WhereYouLive/AssistedHomePerformance/overview.asp, 3 October 2006.
622
The AMP is a grant program implemented by Hamilton, Rabinovitz & Alschuler, Inc. on behalf of NYSERDA. This is the contact person
listed for the AMP program and can be found at this website:
www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/GenericIncentive.cfm?Incentive_Code=NY23F¤tpageid=3&EE=0&RE=0, 3 October 2006.
623
San Diego Multifamily Rebate and Service, www.sdge.com/residential/multi_family.shtml, 3 October 2006.
624
Discussion of these claims, relative to Gunnison County, CO, www.hccaonline.org/page.cfm?pageid=2053, 3 October 2006.
192 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Home Size Restrictions and Energy Taxes
625
Aspen Canary Initiative, www.aspenglobalwarming.com/, 3 October 2006.
626
Aspen and Pitkin County REMP Program, www.newrules.org/environment/climateaspen.html, 30 October 2006.
627
CORE, REMP Projects, www.aspencore.org/sitepages/pid56.php, 30 October 2006.
628
Interview with Pitkin County community development director Cindy Houben: www.kcfr.org/cgi-
bin/comatters/comatters_play.asx?play=2473&type=comatters.asx.
629
Marin County Energy Efficiency Ordinance,
www.caleep.com/docs/resources/greenbuildings/Marin%20County%20Res%20EE%20Ordinance.pdf#search=%22marin%20county%20h
ome%20size%20square%20feet%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Residential/Marin_Ordinance3356.pdf, 5 October 2006.
630
Marin County Community Development Agency, www.co.marin.ca.us/depts/CD/main/comdev/advance/best/dwelling.cfm, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 193
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Energy and Water reduce peak demand. In some
cases, appliances are also
part of the Pacific Northwest
GridWise Demonstration, a
Efficiency by Smart- programmed by the consumer to project funded primarily by
Metering, Price shut off according to utility DOE. Northwest utilities,
system load and price signals. appliance manufacturers and
Signals and Price Many states are leading the way technology companies are
Structuring by recommending the supporting this effort to
development and dispersal of demonstrate the devices and
Energy use fluctuates throughout smart meters and removing any assess the resulting consumer
the day by hour, and by day of barriers that have previously response. In the pricing study,
the week. Wholesale energy existed.632 automated controls will adjust
prices usually vary according to appliances and thermostats based
peak demand cycles. Allowing on predetermined instructions
consumers to easily see how Innovative Electrical Metering from homeowners. The
much energy they are using, and volunteers can choose to curtail
what the real-time prices are In early 2006, Pacific Northwest or reduce energy use when prices
enables residents to vary their National Laboratory began are higher. At any point,
energy use according to demand testing the Pacific Northwest homeowners have the ability to
cycles and fluctuations in price. GridWiseTM Demonstration override even their
Doing this lowers energy use, project, a regional initiative to preprogrammed preferences to
cuts consumer bills and dampens test and speed adoption of new achieve maximum comfort and
price fluctuations. smart grid technologies to make convenience. If homeowners
the power grid more resilient and choose to reduce electric
So-called “smart-meters” provide efficient. About 300 volunteers consumption at times of higher
a feedback loop between in Washington's Olympic prices, the banked money they
customers and suppliers to Peninsula, in Yakima and save becomes real as they are
regulate usage according to price Gresham, Oregon are testing the issued a check from the
signals. The aim of smart- system for a year. GridWise program each quarter.
metering is to change consumers' Approximately 200 homes will Price conscious participants are
behavior as they become aware receive real-time price expected to earn about $150
of how they use energy and what information through a broadband during the year. Nobody will
this is costing them.631 Internet connection. Automated lose money during the
Currently, consumers purchase equipment will adjust energy use experiment, but higher prices for
energy for their homes unaware based on price. In addition, some peak usage could become a
of the unit costs at the time of customers will have computer feature in the future.
use. Most consumers can only chips embedded in their dryers
find out the cost (on their bill), and water heaters that can sense A PNNL study shows that
long after they could have when the power transmission creating a smarter grid through
changed their consumption system is under stress and information technology could
patterns. Smart metering would automatically turn off certain save $80 billion over 20 years
alert consumers to peak and off- functions briefly until the grid nationally by offsetting costs of
peak prices at the time they are can be stabilized by power building new electric
happening, allowing them to help operators. The year-long study is infrastructure – the generators,
the utility
631
Informational articles: seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002734592_smartgrid12.html, 5 October 2006
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4754109.stm, 5 October 2006.
www.americanenergyindependence.com/smartmeters.html, 5 October 2006.
632
On August 1st, 2006 the New York Public Service Commission issued an order to support utility investment in advanced metering
technology,
www3.dps.state.ny.us/pscweb/WebFileRoom.nsf/ArticlesByCategory/BDD11878B2AC5A98852571B20061CF54/$File/94e0952_ord_08_
01_06.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/Infrastructure/NYOrder_metering_2006.pdf, 5 December
2006.
194 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
transmission lines and
substations that will be required
to meet estimated load growth.633
It would also save significant
carbon emissions.634
633
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, www.pnl.gov/news/2006/06-01.stm, 3 October 2006.
634
For more information contact: 1-888-375-PNNL or inquiry@pnl.gov, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 195
Best Bets: Residential Homes
A Primer on Smart Metering,
New York State Energy Research
and Development Authority
www.nyserda.org/programs/pdfs/
meteringprimer.pdf
196 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Homes
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Best Bets
Residential
Transportation
635
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Most of the best practices for transportation represents about
Make City Pedestrian-Friendly and transportation in this section 60%, and commercial transport
Bicycle-Friendly ........................198 focus on how municipalities use about 40% of total
CASE STUDY: incentives to encourage residents transportation energy
Toronto, Canada ..............199 and businesses to modify their consumption.
Implement School and Campus
Transportation Programs ..........200
transportation uses.
CASE STUDY: Stanford, CA201 “Transportation Demand
Encourage or Require Motor vehicles are major Management” (TDM) is a term
Implementation of Commute Trip greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters used to describe strategies that
Reduction Programs .................202 and sources of air, noise and result in more efficient uses of
Benefits and Costs ..............203
CASE STUDY: water pollution. Transportation transportation resources. Below
Trip Reduction Ordinances204 represents about 27% of total are highlighted some of the best
Implement Parking Management U.S. energy consumption and practices that cities can use to
Programs ..................................205 70% of total petroleum decrease GHG emissions and
How to Implement ...............206
Parking Management Benefits206
consumption.636 Transportation increase the mobility of the
CASE STUDY: Chattanooga, energy consumed by mode is community.
TN .......................................207 summarized below. Personal
Better Public Transportation .....208
CASE STUDY: Boulder, CO209
Car Sharing Programs and % of Total
Trillion BTUs
Installation of Park and Ride Consumption
Facilities....................................210 Automobiles 9,126 34%
Rideshare............................210 Light Trucks (including vans 6,617 25%
CASE STUDY: and SUVs)
King County, WA..............211
Trucks & Private Buses 4,563 17%
Park and Ride .....................211
CASE STUDY: Aviation 2,546 10%
Space Coast Area Transit, Water 1,300 4.9%
FL .....................................212 Pipeline 1,009 3.8%
Location Efficient Mortgages.....212 Off-highway (construction and 680 2.5%
Travel Impacts.....................213 agriculture)
CASE STUDY: Denver, CO214
Provide Incentives for Hybrid and
Railroads 607 2.3%
Low Emission Vehicle Use........215 Buses 207 0.8%
CASE STUDY: Ferndale, MI215 Motorcycles 26 0.1%
Additional Resources ................216 Table: Vehicle Energy Use637
635
All of the information in this section can be found at Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, unless otherwise noted.
636
ORNL, Transportation Energy Book, Oak Ridge National Laboratories, U.S. Department of Energy.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 197
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Make City particularly effective at energy
conservation and emission
transportation improvements are
also increase transit use and
Pedestrian-Friendly reductions as short motor vehicle create more pedestrian accessible
and Bicycle-Friendly trips have high per-mile fuel land use patterns. 640
consumption and emission rates.
Each 1% shift of mileage from Studies have found that in many
Improve walking and cycling automobile to non-motorized communities people would walk
conditions. Establish local modes tends to reduce energy more frequently if they had
walking and cycling plans and consumption and pollution suitable facilities and resources.
fund sidewalk and bike-lane emissions by 2-4%. One U.S. survey found that 38%
improvements.638 of respondents would like to
Moreover, a short pedestrian or walk to work, and 80% would
According to some estimates, 5- cycle trip often replaces a longer like to walk more for exercise.641
10% of urban automobile trips automobile trip (for example,
can reasonably be shifted to non- consumers may choose between The table below summarizes a
motorized transport.639 Shifts shopping at a local store or Canadian public survey
from automobile to non- driving to a major shopping indicating high levels of interest
motorized transportation can be center). Non-motorized in cycling and walking.
Currently use this mode for leisure and recreation. 48% 85%
Would cycle to work if there “were a dedicated bike lane which would take me to my
70% NA
workplace in less than 30 minutes at a comfortable pace.”
However, citizens’ ability to communities have 5-10 times as and geographic conditions.
walk or cycle depends on city many non-motorized trips
planning. The Victoria compared to automobile Best practices for improving
Transportation Policy Institute643 dependent communities with walkability and encouraging
estimates that pedestrian-friendly otherwise similar demographic walking, include:644
637
Ibid, Table 2.5.
638
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm92.htm, 26 September 2006.
639
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm92.htm, 3 October 2006.
640
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm84.htm, 3 October 2006.
641
STPP, Americans Attitudes Toward Walking and Creating More Walkable Communities, Surface Transportation Policy Project
(www.transact.org), 2003.
642
Environics, National Survey on Active Transportation, Go for Green, (www.goforgreen.ca), 1998. This survey indicates a high level of
interest in cycling and walking.
643
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm100.htm, 3 October 2006.
644
A number of guides and resources provide information about best practices:
1) ADONIS, Best Practice to Promote Cycling and Walking and How to Substitute Short Car Trips by Cycling and Walking, ADONIS
Transport RTD Program, European Union (www.cordis.lu/transport/src/adonisrep.htm), 1999. This 300-page catalogue describes dozens
of strategies to help improve and encourage walking and cycling, ranging from special facilities, to safety campaigns and traffic
management to facilitate street crossing).
2) Todd Litman, et al., Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning; A Guide to Best Practices, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 2000. Comprehensive guide with
extensive references.
3) Zeeger, et al, Pedestrian Facilities User Guide: Providing Safety and Mobility, Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center
(www.walkinginfo.org), Highway Safety Research Center, Federal Highway Administration, Publication FHWA-RD-01-102, February
2002.
4) GDOT, Pedestrian & Streetscape Guide, Georgia Department of Transportation (www.dot.state.ga.us), Sept. 2003.
198 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Integrate non-motorized specifically prohibited and Create pedestrian-oriented
transportation into all suitable alternatives are centers and neighborhoods.
transport and land-use available.
planning activities. Perform user surveys to
Use current planning practices identify problems and barriers
Educate city planners in non- and design standards, to pedestrian travel.
motorized transportation including facility designs that
planning principles. accommodate the widest range Use design features and
of potential users, including strategies intended to reduce
Increase funds for non- people with mobility and visual vehicle traffic speeds and
motorized planning relative to impairments (disabilities) and volumes on a particular
the rates of funding for other special needs. roadway, and other traffic
automobile infrastructure. control measures to make
Include non-motorized travel street environments safer and
Insure that all roadways are in transportation surveys and more pleasant for walking. 645
suitable for walking unless it is models.
645
For more information on ‘traffic calming’ techniques see: www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm4.htm, 3 October 2006.
646
Toronto Pedestrian Charter, www.toronto.ca/pedestrian/, 26 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 199
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Implement School transportation management
programs encourage parents,
significantly discounted transit
passes to students and staff
and Campus students and staff to use (sometimes called a “UPASS”).
Transportation alternative transportation when UPASS programs often require
traveling to school, college and students to approve a special fee
Management universities.647 to fund universal transit passes.
Programs The table below summarizes the
An increasing number of colleges costs and impacts of several
School and campus and universities offer free or UPASS programs.
647
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm5.htm, 26 September 2006.
648
Jeffrey Brown, Daniel Hess and Donald Shoup, Unlimited Access, Institute of Transportation Studies, UCLA, 1998. Published in
Transportation, Volume 28, number 3, 2001, pp. 233-267. www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm5.htm, 18 October 2006.
200 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Students at the following streets. Student and employee Best practices for Campus TDM
universities voted organizations are often involved programs include:
overwhelmingly (most referenda in program planning and
received 75% or more approval) management. Some student Provide a variety of alternative
to support many of these groups initiate programs to transportation services,
programs, even though it improve their travel options and including specialty services
increases their fees. The table on achieve environmental or such as transport for
the next page summarizes some community goals. recreational trips and special
campus UPASS programs in events.
North America. Campus TDM programs can
reduce automobile trips by 10- Involve administrators,
Some campuses use vehicle 30%.650 For example, a program managers, students and staff in
restrictions649 and regulations to at the University of Wisconsin- planning and implementing the
limit automobile use. For Milwaukee reduced student program.
example, some colleges do not driving by 26%.651 A University
provide parking permits to of Washington program reduced Emphasize benefits to students
freshmen who live on campus. total vehicle trips to campus by and staff from improved
This encourages students to 16% during its first year of transportation services,
become more involved in operation.652 A study in Bilboa, including financial savings,
campus activities, and Portugal found that students are expanded choice, exercise
discourages them from taking relatively sensitive to bus prices, opportunities (for cycling and
jobs to finance a car. rail frequency and overall transit walking) and environmental
service quality. A combination benefits.
Facility managers and of increased rail service Improve pedestrian and
administrators often implement frequency and reduced bus fares bicycle conditions on campus
campus TDM programs to can significantly increase and surrounding areas.
address a particular problem, ridership and help reduce local
such as a parking shortage or traffic congestion and pollution
traffic congestion on nearby emissions at campuses.653
649
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm33.htm, 3 October 2006.
650
Ibid.
651
James Meyer and Edward Beimborn, Evaluation of an Innovative Transit Pass Program: the UPASS, Wisconsin Department of
Transportation (www.uwm.edu/dept/cuts/upassum.htm), 1996.
652
(Michael E. Williams and Kathleen L. Petrait, “U-PASS: A Model Transportation Management Program that Works,” Transportation
Research Record 1404, 1993, pp. 73-81; website: www.washington.edu/upass.
653
J. Bilbao Ubillos and A. Fernandez Sainz, “The Influence Of Quality and Price On The Demand For Urban Transport: The Case Of
University Students,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 38, No. 8 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), October 2004, pp. 607-614; website:
www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm5.htm, 26 October 2006.
654
Stanford University Parking & Transportation Services, transportation.stanford.edu, 26 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 201
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Staff parking “cash-out” individual projects. The campus are available to students,
(offering commuters cash also avoided significant parking employees and the general
equivalent if they choose not and roadway costs. Planners public.
to use subsidized calculate that the university saves
parking) nearly $2,000 annually for every
commuter shifted out of a car and CONTACT
Ridesharing program into another mode.
Parking Operations Director
Other transportation demand Public benefits included Brodie Hamilton
management elements decreased congestion and
improved safety on surrounding
By using this approach, the roadways and regional traffic TDM Coordinator
campus was able to add $500 system, reduced air, noise and Stephanie Manning
million in new projects with water pollution, and improved (650) 723-9362
minimal planning or local transit options. All of transportation@stanford.edu
environmental review required for Stanford’s transportation services
202 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Preferred parking for they had good mobility increase demand for alternative
carpools/vanpools alternatives with adequate modes, providing economies of
comfort, convenience and scale. By reducing road and
Secure bicycle parking, prestige. parking facility requirements, it
showers and/or lockers supports more efficient land use,
Employer Benefits658 compact development and more
Financial or recognition CTR programs can benefit pedestrian-oriented streetscapes.
incentives for bicyclists or employers by reducing their
walkers parking costs or freeing up CTR costs
parking for customers. Programs Costs include program
that improve travel choices or administration expenses and any
Benefits and Costs provide financial benefits tend to additional employee time
improve employee morale and requirements.660 Administrative
Shifting commute travel from recruitment, and reduce costs typically average $1-8 per
peak period automobile trips to employee turnover. For employee per month to cover
alternative times and modes can example, employee turnover at program planning, marketing,
provide a variety of benefits the Calvert Group (an investment management and evaluation
firm) declined from 25% to 12% activities.661 A survey by
Employee Benefits after a comprehensive package of Pollution Probe found that the
CTR programs can benefit commute benefits were American employers with
employees by increasing their introduced, and other surveys successful CTR programs spend
travel options, reducing travel find that telecommuting reduces an average of $156 annually per
stress and by providing financial employee turnover by 16%.659 employer, with the majority
savings. Some studies show that spending $33 to $89.662
many workers place a high value Community Benefits However, there are also savings
on having commute CTR is particularly effective at and benefits to businesses that
alternatives.657 Even people who reducing traffic congestion since may offset much of these
generally enjoy driving do not commute trips are the largest costs.663
necessarily want to drive to work share of peak-period travel. It
every day. At the margin (i.e., can reduce road, on-street Some costs and benefits are
relative to current levels of parking and traffic service costs. economic transfers, in which
vehicle travel), many consumers Along with reducing GHG costs to one group are offset by
would probably prefer to drive emissions, it can also help reduce benefits to another. For
somewhat less, provided that pollution and crash risk, and example, charging motorists
directly for using parking
657
Raymond Novaco and Cheryl Collier, Commuting Stress, Ridesharing, and Gender: Analyses from the 1993 State of the Commute Study
in Southern California, University of California Transportation Center (Berkeley), Working Paper #208 (www.uctc.net), 1994.
658
The SMART Trip Reduction Manual published by Pollution Probe (2001) provides information on calculating the benefits of CTR
programs to employers and employees. (www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm), 2001.
659
EPA, What Employers are Saying About Commuter Benefits, Report EPA420-F-01-013, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001.
660
CTR Task Force, 2001 Report to the Washington State Legislature, Washington State Department of Transportation, Transportation
Demand Management Office (www.wsdot.wa.gov/tdm/tripreduction/download/CTR_Report_01.pdf), December 2001, also archived
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationResidential/CTR_Report_01.pdf, 26 October 2006.
661
Ali Modarres, “Evaluating Employer-Based Transportation Demand Management Programs,” Transportation Research Record A, Vol. 27,
No. 4, 1993, pp. 291-297.
Waldo Lopez-Aqueres, “Employer Trip Reduction Programs: How Costly? Who Pays?” TDM Review, Association for Commuter
Transportation (tmi.cob.fsu.edu/act/act.htm), 1994.
662
The SMART Trip Reduction Manual published by Pollution Probe (2001) www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm, 26 October 2006.
663
Phil L. Winters and Sara J. Hendricks, Quantifying The Business Benefits of TDM, Center for Urban Transportation Research, for the
Office of Research and Special Programs, USDOT, www.nctr.usf.edu/html/416-11.htm, 2003, 26 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 203
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
facilities increases costs to incentives for commuters that employers to employees, and
automobile commuters but choose alternative forms of often substitute for other
provides additional revenue to transportation represent an employee benefits such as free
businesses.664 Financial economic transfer from parking.665
664
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm26.htm, 3 October 2006.
665
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm8.htm, 3 October 2006.
666
University of South Florida Trip Reduction Ordinances, www.nctr.usf.edu/clearinghouse/tro, 3 October 2006.
667
Washington State Ridesharing Organization, wsro.net/, 3 October 2006
Washington State Department of Transportation Environmental Services website, www.wsdot.wa.gov/environment/, 3 October 2006.
668
Contact: Mr. Keith Cotton, Commute Options Developer, (360) 705-7910, cottonk@wsdot.wa.gov.
669
Valley Metro Rideshare, www.valleymetro.org/Rideshare/default.asp, 3 October 2006.
670
Contact: 602.262.RIDE, rideshareinfo@ValleyMetro.org.
671
Cambridge Parking and Transportation Demand Management, www.cambridgema.gov/cdd/et/tdm/index.html, 3 October 2006.
672
Contact: Jean Clark, the City's PTDM Planning Officer, at jclark@cambridgema.gov, (617) 349-4673.
673
South Natomas Transportation Management Association, www.SouthNatomasTMA.org, 3 October 2006.
674
Contact: Ken Loman, Executive Director, (916) 646-0928, ken@sntma.org.
675
Bay Area Air Quality Management District, www.baaqmd.gov/, 3 October 2006
Or to view the ordinance, www.arb.ca.gov/DRDB/BA/CURHTML/R13-1.HTM, 3 October 2006.
676
Contact: Juan Ortellado, Manager, Grant Programs, (415) 749-5000.
677
Pima Association of Governments Travel Reduction Program, www.pagnet.org/TRP/, 3 October 2006.
678
Pima Travel Reduction Ordinance, www.pima.gov/cob/code/c1711.html#3796, 3 October 2006.
204 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Implement Parking reduction into parking
management systems. For
Strategic parking management
programs can also maximize
Management example, implementing storm parking space, and encourage
Programs679 water management fees based on alternative transport that reduce
the amount of pavement on a lot, the number of parking spaces
Managing the type and number and per-space parking levies, act needed in a community. The
of parking lots can reduce as incentives to property owners next table summarizes these
pavement space and vehicle use to reduce parking supply and parking management strategies,
in a city. A variety of techniques implement transportation and indicates the potential
allow cities to incorporate GHG management programs. reduction in parking supply that
they can typically provide.
679
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/park_man.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org//ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationResidential/park_man.pdf, 26 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 205
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Strategies that Reduce Negative Impacts
Develop Overflow Parking Encourage use of remote parking facilities and promote use of alternative modes during
Plans peak periods, such as busy shopping times and major events.
Address spillover parking problems directly with management, pricing and enforcement
Address Spillover Problems
strategies.
Parking Facility Design and Improved parking facility design to address safety, stormwater management, user
Management comfort, security and aesthetic objectives.
Table: Typical Parking Management Strategies con’t.
The table below indicates the requirements provided by strategies, and indicates those
typical reductions in parking various parking management that also tend to reduce vehicle
traffic.
Reduce
Strategy Parking Requirement Reductions
Vehicle Traffic
Low Medium High
Shared Parking 10% 20% 30%
Parking Regulations 10% 20% 30%
More Accurate Standards 10% 20% 30%
Parking Maximums 10% 20% 30%
Remote Parking 10% 20% 30%
Smart Growth 10% 20% 30%
Walking and Cycling Improvements 5% 10% 15%
Increase Capacity of Existing Facilities 5% 10% 15%
Mobility Management 10% 20% 30%
Parking Pricing 10% 20% 30%
Improve Pricing Methods NA NA NA
Financial Incentives 10% 20% 30%
Unbundle Parking 10% 20% 30%
Parking Tax Reform 5% 10% 15%
Bicycle Facilities 5% 10% 15%
Improve User Information 5% 10% 15%
Improve Enforcement and Control NA NA NA
Transportation Management Associations NA NA NA
Overflow Parking Plans NA NA NA
Address Spillover Problems NA NA NA
Parking Facility Design NA NA NA
Table: Typical Reductions in Parking Requirements and Vehicle Traffic
206 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Below is the typical five-step • Projections of how Parking Management Benefits
process for developing a parking supply and
contingency-based680 parking demand are likely to Efficiency and Savings
management plan: change in the future, A comprehensive parking
taking into account management program that
1. Define general problems to be expected changes in land includes several strategies
addressed (climate protection, use, population, (shared parking,682 more accurate
parking congestion, traffic commercial activity, travel parking requirements, pricing,
congestion, excessive parking patterns, etc. cash out,683 etc.) can often reduce
facility costs, poor pedestrian • Use this information to parking requirements by 30-50%
environments, etc.) and the identify when and where compared with generous
geographic areas to be parking supply is or will minimum parking requirements,
considered. be inadequate or unpriced parking, and each space
2. Perform the following excessive. assigned to an individual
studies: 3. Identify potential solutions.681 motorist. With appropriate
• A parking supply 4. Work with stakeholders to parking management motorists
inventory (how many evaluate the effectiveness, still have adequate parking,
spaces exist of each type benefits, costs, equity although they may need to walk
of parking: public and impacts, feasibility and somewhat farther, and pay
private, on- and off-street, barriers of each potential directly rather than indirectly for
short- and long-term, free solution. Use this information parking.
and paid, etc.) for each to prioritize these options.
geographic area. 5. Develop an integrated parking The magnitude of savings that
• A parking utilization study plan that identifies changes in result from parking management
(what portion of each type policies and practices, tasks, depends on specific conditions,
of parking is used at responsibilities, budgets, including the cost per parking
various time, particularly schedules, etc. space and how much parking can
peak-periods) for each be reduced.
geographic area.
680
A contingency-based strategy deals with uncertainly by identifying specific responses to possible future conditions.
www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm123.htm, 3 October 2006.
681
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm72.htm, 3 October 2006.
682
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm89.htm, 3 October 2006.
683
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm8.htm, 3 October 2006.
684
USEPA, Parking Spaces / Community Places: Finding the Balance Through Smart Growth Solutions, Development, Community, and
Environment Division (DCED); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/parking.htm, 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 207
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Better Coverage of Believe that mass transit travel Restraint of parking and
saves wear-and-tear on their reallocation of road space to
Public car more sustainable modes
Transportation685
Want transit service within Integration of regional,
Making public transportation convenient walking distance of multimodal ticketing systems
more accessible is an important their homes and destinations
step for increased public transit Long-term planning and
usage. This can be done through Want clean transit vehicles and implementation of these
information programs, business safe waiting areas policies. To be effective, these
subsidies for employee use of polices must be in place for a
mass transit; higher urban Want reliable, on-time service long time (a decade or more),
parking fees to encourage public with good connections which implies consistent
transit; safer transit stations and political consensus on their
stops and convenient fare Want fast, direct service efficacy
structures and payment systems.
Stanley and Hyman (2005) Adequate regulation of bus
Transit encouragement programs identify a number of factors and transit systems; the most
are usually implemented by strategies that tend to increase successful systems are run on a
transit agencies, often with transit ridership in an area, franchised (quality contract-
support from other government including improved service, type) basis.
agencies and businesses. It is reduced fares, marketing, and
usually best to begin with a more integrated planning and Strategies include:
survey of potential users to partnerships with other
determine what improvements organizations.687 Fare reductions
and marketing strategies could
increase ridership, before A study688 comparing various New fare options, particularly
developing a transit plan. For European regions and cities discounted tickets and passes
example, one transportation user identified the following transport
survey686 from the greater policies that tend to increase Free transit areas
Vancouver, Canada area found public transit ridership:
that discretionary transit riders More convenient routing (e.g.,
(those that have the option of Availability of adequate capital eliminating the need for
traveling by automobile): funding for public transport transfers)
Believe that mass transit travel Relatively low public transport Regularized schedules (such as
can be less stressful than fares having a bus every hour and
driving a car half-hour)
Integration of public transport
Believe that mass transit travel services (timed connections, Special route to serve
is more convenient than new journey opportunities etc) particular travel requirements,
driving for some trips such as access to employment
centers
685
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm112.htm, 26 September 2006.
686
TransLink, Regional Travel Survey - Revised, TransLink Marketing Research Department, January 2003,
www.translink.bc.ca/files/polls_surveys/regtravel.pdf also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/BestBets/TransportationResidential/regtravel.pdf, 30 October 2006.
687
Robert G. Stanley and Robert Hyman, Evaluation Of Recent Ridership Increases, TCRP Research Results Digest 69, Transportation
Research Board (www.trb.org), 2005.
688
Colin Buchanan and Partners, Transferability Of Best Practice In Transport Policy Delivery, Scottish Executive July 2003,
www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/development/bpitp-00.asp, 30 October 2006.
208 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Government agencies (such as Survey potential users and “smart cards”) to attract new
the Federal Transit evaluate travel trends to riders.
Administration) and professional determine what improvements
organizations (such as the and marketing strategies are Identify and respond to the
American Transit Association) likely to increase ridership. various market segments that
provide resources for Transit they can serve, including Basic
Encouragement program Consider using innovative Mobility for people who are
planning. These include: marketing techniques, price transportation disadvantaged,
discounts and new fare and fast, convenient travel for
collection methods (such as urban commuters.
Public Transportation
689
City of Boulder Transportation website, www.ci.boulder.co.us/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=707&Itemid=1206, 26
September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 209
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Car Sharing significant economies of scale
(the more people who register,
reduces congestion, road and
parking facility costs, crash risk
Programs and the more effective they are at and pollution emissions.
Installation of Park successfully matching riders), it Ridesharing tends to have the
is helpful if one well-publicized lowest cost per passenger-mile of
and Ride ride-matching program serves an any motorized mode of
Facilities690 entire geographic region. transportation, since it makes use
of a vehicle seat that would
Rideshare programs that include otherwise be empty. Ridesharing
Rideshare incentives such as HOV priority provides consumer financial
often reduce commute trips by savings (as estimated in the table
Rideshare programs typically 10-30%693. If implemented below), and time savings if there
provide carpool matching, without such incentives travel are HOV priority facilities.
vanpool sponsorship, marketing impacts are usually smaller. Crash risk declines due to fewer
programs, and incentives to Evans and Pratt (2005) describe vehicles on the road.694
reduce driving. Rideshare several worksites where 5-20% Rideshare programs improve
incentives may include giving of employees commute by transportation options and are
High Occupant Vehicles (HOV) vanpool. The most effective particularly helpful to commuters
priority691 (e.g., HOV highway programs tend to have paid who cannot drive or lack a
lanes), preferential parking parking, subsidies for alternative reliable automobile.695
spaces, and awards. Some modes and other incentives to
employers offer commuter encourage reduced automobile Organizations such as the
financial incentives692 such as a commuting. Association for Commuter
cash payment to employees who Transportation and Commuter
carpool, or a voucher that covers Ridesharing can reduce peak- Connections can provide advice
vanpool fees, provided as an period vehicle trips and increase and resources for developing an
alternative to a free parking commuter’s travel choices. It
space. Because they have
690
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute Ridesharing, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm34.htm, 3October 2006.
691
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm19.htm, 3 October 2006.
692
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm8.htm, 3 October 2006.
693
Philip Winters and Daniel Rudge, Commute Alternatives Educational Outreach, National Urban Transit Institute, Center for Urban
Transportation Research, USF (Tampa; www.cutr.eng.usf.edu), 1995.
694
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm58.htm, 3 October 2006.
695
The SMART Trip Reduction Manual published by Pollution Probe (2001) provides information on calculating the benefits of ridesharing
programs to employers and employees. (www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm), 2001, 26 October 2006.
210 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
effective ridesharing program. A Should include ridematching Transportation agencies,
study in the Seattle area services, HOV priority, and businesses and employees
identified several ways of other trip reduction strategies. should all be involved in
improving and increasing planning Rideshare Programs.
vanpooling.696 Ridematching services should
cover a large geographic area Provide incentives to attract
Ride share best practices: (such as an entire region) in and retain rideshare users,
Should be implemented as part order to create the largest such as mileage-points and
of a comprehensive TDM possible pool of users. vehicle insurance discounts.
Program.
Park and Ride lighting are sometimes provided traffic congestion and worksite
to address security concerns that parking demand. These benefits
Park & Ride699 facilities are users may have about leaving can be significant since Park &
usually implemented by regional their vehicles. Ride tends to be most effective
transportation or transit agencies. where traffic congestion and
In some cases, existing, Benefits and Costs parking problems are worst.
underutilized parking (such as a By encouraging shifts to transit However, automobile Park &
mall parking lot) is designated and ridesharing, Park & Ride Ride only provides modest
for Park & Ride use. Patrols and facilities reduce urban highway reductions in local road traffic,
696
Bryon York and David Fabricatore (2Plus), Puget Sound Vanpool Market Assessment, Office of Urban Mobility, WSDOT
(www.wsdot.wa.gov/Mobility/TDM/vanpoolmarket.htm), 2001.
697
Rideshare Online, www.RideshareOnline.com, 3 October 2006.
698
King County Department of Transportation, www.metrokc.gov/kcdot/news/picturearch/pw010319_ridematch.htm, 3 October 2006.
699
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm27.htm, 26 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 211
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
pollution, energy use and thousand dollars per space, Facilities should include bike
consumer costs, since a local which is usually lower than the storage lockers, or other secure
automobile trip is still made. costs of providing parking at city bike storage if demand exists.
Bicycle Park & Ride can provide centers due to lower land values.
greater economic and Facilities should have adequate
environmental benefits. Best Practices for Park & Ride lighting, landscaping and other
Shopping centers adjacent to facilities: amenities (bus shelters,
Park & Ride facilities tend to Facilities should be developed garbage cans, etc.).
benefit from additional shopping as part of an overall transit
by the commuters who park and rideshare improvement It is usually best to have
there.700 program. several smaller Park & Ride
facilities in different locations,
Costs are primarily associated Facilities should be located rather than one large one.
with facility construction and within view of businesses or
operation. Construction costs homes, for the sake of security.
typically average several
700
Francis Wambalaba and Julie Goodwill, Evaluation of Shared Use Park & Ride Impact on Properties, National Center for Transit
Research, University of South Florida (www.nctr.usf.edu), April 2004, 26 October 2006.
701
Space Coast Area Transit, www.ridescat.com/aboutscat/history.php, 3 October 2006.
702
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm22.htm, 3 October 2006.
212 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Number of public services evaluate whether a development Is it reflect good design
within convenient walking qualifies for a location efficient features?
distance (schools, shops, parks, mortgage: Is it being developed with
medical services, pharmacy, substantial community input?
etc.) Is it located in an urban area
within a half-mile of quality Does it include a significant
Carshare services within public transit? portion of affordable housing
convenient walking distance units?
Does it include, or is it located
Options for residents who do near, commonly-used public
not own an automobile to not services such as grocery stores, Travel Impacts
pay for parking video stores and public
schools? Per capita automobile travel is
Location efficient developments often 20-50% lower in location
are designed and located to Will it reduce dependency on efficient developments than in
improve overall accessibility and automobiles? automobile-dependent, urban
affordability of residential and fringe locations. Table 1
commercial real estate. They are Does it have a minimum summarizes the projected vehicle
often implemented as part of density of 20 units per acre? miles traveled (VMT) reduction
“Smart Growth”703 and “New impacts of various location-
Urbanist”704 planning.705 The Does it have at least 20 units? efficient, infill developments.
following criteria can be used to
Location efficient developments Developers can benefit from infill development, fewer motor
and mortgages can provide having more design flexibility, vehicles and less vehicle traffic.
several benefits: including more opportunities
for infill development, reduced By reducing per capita vehicle
Consumers benefit from more parking costs, and because ownership use, Location
housing, transportation choices LEMs increase the amount a Efficient Development can
and financial savings. Non- household can spend on reduce regional traffic
drivers, in particular, benefit housing. It creates new congestion, road and parking
from having housing options markets and financing options. facility costs, traffic crashes,
designed for maximum pollution and sprawl.
accessibility, and financial Urban neighborhoods can
savings from reduced parking benefit from more Regional economies tend to
costs. opportunities for middle-class benefit when consumers shift
703
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm38.htm, 3 October 2006.
704
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm24.htm, 3 October 2006.
705
Danielle Arigoni, Affordable Housing and Smart Growth: Making the Connections, Subgroup on Affordable Housing, Smart Growth
Network (www.smartgrowth.org) and National Neighborhood Coalition (www.neighborhoodcoalition.org), 2001.
706
CCAP, State and Local Leadership On Transportation And Climate Change, Center for Clean Air Policy (www.ccap.org), 2003, 26
October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 213
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
their transportation transportation features that Parking requirements should
expenditures from vehicles and improve access and mobility be reduced or eliminated for
fuel to transit services or options, including pedestrian location efficient housing.
general consumer goods. and cycling improvements, Rather than including parking
transit improvements, and with housing, parking should
Here are some specific mixed land use. be rented separately, so
recommendations for households only pay for the
implementing Location Efficient It should also include a range amount of parking they
Developments and Mortgages707: of housing types and prices, so actually use.
that people in various lifecycle
A location efficient stages and income classes can Parking should be managed to
development should include a choose such housing. avoid spillover problems.
variety of land use and
707
Danielle Arigoni, Affordable Housing and Smart Growth: Making the Connections, Subgroup on Affordable Housing, Smart Growth
Network (www.smartgrowth.org) and National Neighborhood Coalition (www.neighborhoodcoalition.org), 2001.
708
Metro Mayor Caucus, www.metromayors.org/Housing.html, 3 October 2006.
709
Colorado Housing and Finance, www.colohfa.org/, 3 October 2006.
710
Denver Fastracks Plans, www.rtd-denver.com/fastracks/index.html, 3 October 2006.
214 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Provide Incentives transportation options to deter
automobile ownership, many
emissions. For example, cities
such as Salt Lake City, Aspen,
for Hybrid and Low citizens, especially those living Baltimore, Los Angeles,
Emission Vehicle outside dense urban areas, still Albuquerque, Hartford and New
need or want to purchase their Haven already have various
Use own automobiles. Municipalities forms of free or discounted
can create incentives to parking for hybrid or high
While the ideal (from a climate encourage citizens to purchase efficiency drivers.711 712
perspective) is that citizens have vehicles that produce less GHG
access to alternative
711
“Save on fuel, and park free, too. Councilor suggests hybrid owner perk” Boston Globe, Nov 2005,
www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/11/03/save_on_fuel_and_park_free_too/, 15 October 2006.
712
City of Hartford, Connecticut (www.hartford.gov/news/PR71405parking.pdf ). Vehicle owners who can demonstrate that they drive a
vehicle that gets at least 30 miles per gallon - both city and highway-qualify for a 50% discount for monthly parking patrons at three
Downtown Hartford parking garages, www.newenglandfutures.org/issues/energy/bestpractices/, 3 October 2006.
713
“Drive a hybrid? You don't have to feed the meter in Ferndale” Detroit Free Press, April 2006,
www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060829/NEWS99/60829020, 3 October 2006.
714
Ibid.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 215
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Additional Ride Arrangers, Denver
Regional Council of
Resources Governments
RideArrangers helps businesses
Road Tax Discount for Car- and individuals ease traffic
Free Households. The City of congestion and reduce pollution
Austin, Texas has an innovative by promoting use of alternative
way of financing transportation transportation. Using the latest
infrastructure that rewards transportation management ideas
households that reduce their to keep traffic moving,
vehicle ownership. City utility RideArrangers maintains air
bills include a “Transportation quality and preserves the quality
User Fee” that averages $30 to of life that Denver metro area
$40 annually for a typical residents know and expect.
household. This charge is based www.drcog.org/index.cfm?page
on the average number of daily =RideArrangers
motor vehicle trips made per
property, reflecting its size and Stormwater Management Fees
use. The city provides to reduce parking supply and
exemptions to residential instigate transportation
properties with occupants that do management programs. The City
not own or regularly use a of Bellingham charges
private motor vehicle for stormwater fees of $3 a month
transportation, or if they are 65 for smaller buildings with 300 to
years of age or older. 715 1,000 square feet of impervious
surfaces and $5 per 3,000 square
Commuter Choice is a for larger buildings. This
nationwide partnership designed indicates annualized costs 2 to
to help employers create 5.5 cents per square foot of
customized solutions to their impervious surface.
employees' commuting (www.vtpi.org/tca/tca0515.pdf )
challenges. Commuter Choice
can also include communities Travel Matters
working with residents, schools Includes an interactive emissions
working with students, and even calculator, on-line emissions
developers working with future maps and a learning/resource
tenants to provide and promote center.
choices for travelers. www.travelmatters.org
www.commuterchoice.com/inde
x.php?page=employers
715
See www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm119.htm and www.ci.austin.tx.us, 30 September 2006.
216 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Best Bets: Residential Transportation
Chapter 5: Develop
a Local Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Sustainable Urban
Planning
In the Ecology of Cities,716 Lester carbon protection programs,717
DOCUMENT CONTENTS R. Brown states that, “By 2007 but it is important that efforts to
Denser Communities................... 218 more than half of us will live in reduce greenhouse gas emissions
CASE STUDIES: cities—making us, for the first be conducted with an eye to the
Eugene, OR........................ 218 time, an urban species.” This impacts they will have on the
Saint Paul, MN.................... 220 means that urban planning whole system of the city.718
Glenwood Park, Atlanta, GA
........................................... 221
decisions made now will have an
Civano, AZ.......................... 222 enormous effect for a long time Sustainable urban development
Additional Resources .................. 224 to come. The field of urban includes planning that promotes
planning connects many topics mixed-use development
discussed in this guide, such as, (residential and commercial use
energy infrastructure; in the same area), transportation
environmental and land alternatives, walkable/denser
management; construction and communities, compact building
architecture; transportation design, open/ green space and
infrastructure and much more. attractive/ distinctive
communities. Such approaches
The field of sustainable city can enable a community to fight
planning is a rapidly growing climate change (and improve
one, with entire organizations local quality of life) by reducing
dedicated to it, books written personal automobile dependence
about it, conferences held and (See Chapter 5, Residential
professional associations Transportation Section),
forming (a Google search returns increasing green space (See
over 11 million hits). It is Chapter 5, Reducing the Impact
impossible here to describe the of Continued Emissions Section)
extent to which this global and providing incentives for
movement intersects with green building (see Chapter 5,
community efforts to implement Buildings Section).
716
Earth Policy Institute, Ecology of Cities, www.earth-policy.org/Books/Seg/PB2ch11_ss2.htm, 15 October 2006.
717
An enormous amount of work on this topic is being done in Europe. The Scandinavians, in particular are leaders in this field. See
www.emagazine.com/view/?2842, the European Commission adopted the Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment on 11. January
2006, ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/home_en.htm. The Ministry for the environment in New Zealand also has some excellent
material, www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/urban/sustainable-cities/, 5 December 2006.
3 00 0 0
2 50 0 0
Annual VMT/Hh
2 00 0 0
SF
1 50 0 0 LA
C hic ag o
1 00 0 0
50 0 0
0
0 50 100 150 200
Ho u s e h o ld s /Re s id e n tia l Ac r e
Table: Driving vs. Residential Density
The following case studies communities have taken to begin, sustainable planning goals.
illustrate policies that different enhance and reach their
718
The UN Habitat Sustainable Cities Program, www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=369, 5 December 2006.
719
National Resources Defense Council, www.arb.ca.gov/ch/presentations/nrdc.pdf, 15 October 2006.
720
Eugene website: www.eugene-or.gov/portal/server.pt, 15 October 2006.
721
The Green Guide Top 10 Green Cities in 2006 www.thegreenguide.com/docprint.mhtml?i=113&s=top10cities, 15 October 2006.
218 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Urban Planning
722
Political Action and Policies: To ease the financial burden of The city has over 2,500 acres
this process, the city has of publicly owned wetlands,
The city staff began a new applied for grants from the and its West Eugene Wetlands
community-wide pedestrian State of Oregon Program has been nationally
and bicycle strategic planning recognized as a model for
process in 2006. The program Transportation Growth resource protection and
728
includes public education and Management (TGM) program enhancement.
input activities to help direct every two years since 1997.
the planning process. The “These grants funded a Eugene offers 120 public
goal of the planning effort is to demonstration of parks, 45 playgrounds, 6
increase the use of non- transportation-efficient land community gardens, 60 miles
motorized transportation in use planning focusing on the of trails and over 3,000 acres
Eugene. preparation and adoption of a of natural areas.
concept design, strategies and
723
Mixed Use Development: ordinances for several Construction Techniques/Energy
potential mixed-use Efficiency:
725
In 2001, the concept of mixed- development sites.”
use development became the In July 2006, the City
726
official growth management Transportation: Council unanimously
policy for the city of Eugene. adopted the city of
By 2006, Eugene had Eugene’s first formal
The city has identified dozens developed 30 miles of off- “green building” policy,
of potential “centers” that can street paths, 89 miles of on- requiring city-owned and
eventually be developed to street bicycle lanes and 5 occupied buildings to be
have greater density, yet bicycle/pedestrian bridges constructed and maintained
become desirable, pedestrian- spanning the Willamette River. in environmentally and
friendly, neighborhoods, economically sustainable
featuring shops, residences, Eugene holds an annual ways.
green space and quality Walking and Biking Summit,
transportation options. “When providing input on ways to Examples of the new policy
combined with improved make the city a more include two new fire stations
transit, such centers will “walkable and bikable” city. that incorporate day- lighting,
reduce reliance on automobile solar hot water, highly
727
travel, offset the need for Open/Green Space: reflective roofing, high
costly street improvements, efficiency heating and cooling
slow sprawl onto nearby Eugene has preserved over systems, preference for local
agricultural and forest lands 16% of its land as green space, and renewable materials, low
and provide a greater variety including athletic fields, city emission paints and laminates
of housing types inside the parks, public gardens, trails and 90% recycling of
724
Urban Growth Boundary.” and waterfront. construction waste.
722
Sustainable Eugene: www.eugene-
or.gov/portal/server.pt?space=Opener&control=OpenObject&cached=true&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=0&in_hi_ClassID=51
4&in_hi_userid=2&in_hi_ObjectID=1553&in_hi_OpenerMode=2&, 15 October 2006.
723
Mixed-use Development: www.eugene-
or.gov/portal/server.pt?space=CommunityPage&cached=true&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=5&in_hi_userid=2&control=SetCo
mmunity&CommunityID=334&PageID=0, 15 October 2006.
724
The Green Guide, www.greenguide.com, 15 October 2006.
725
Eugene website, www.Eugene-or.gov, 15 October 2006.
726
Eugene Transportation: www.eugene-
or.gov/portal/server.pt?space=CommunityPage&cached=true&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=2&in_hi_userid=2&control=SetCo
mmunity&CommunityID=435&PageID=0, 15 October 2006.
727
Parks and Open Space Planning: www.eugene-
or.gov/portal/server.pt?space=CommunityPage&cached=true&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=2&in_hi_userid=2&control=SetCo
mmunity&CommunityID=668&PageID=0, 18 October 2006.
728
Greener Buildings, www.greenerbuildings.com, 15 October 2006.
729
Unless otherwise cited information on sustainable programs in the city of St. Paul can be found on the “Sustainable St. Paul: Initiatives
and Programs” page of the city’s website. This page includes links to transit and transportation; planning and development; natural
resources and parks and recreation; energy conservation; and clean air: stpaul.gov/initiatives/sustainable/programs/initiatives.html, 15
October 2006.
730
Greener Buildings, www.greenerbuildings.com, 15 October 2006.
220 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Urban Planning
Sustainable Urban Planning
731
For more information on Glenwood Park visit:
Terrain.org Unsprawl Case Study, www.terrain.org/unsprawl/17, 15 October 2006.
Glenwood Park homepage: www.glenwoodpark.com/glenwood/default.aspx, 15 October 2006.
732
Developing on empty lots of land within an urban area rather than on new undeveloped land outside the city or town.
733
Brownfields are real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential
presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant. More Information on Brownfields: EPA Brownfields Cleanup and
Redevelopment, www.epa.gov/brownfields/, 18 October 2006.
734
Terrain.org Unsprawl Case Study, www.terrain.org/unsprawl/17/, 15 October 2006.
735
The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH) article, April 1999, www.pathnet.org/sp.asp?id=1628, 15 October 2006.
736
Terrain.org Unsprawl Case Study, www.terrain.org/unsprawl/5/, 15 October 2006.
222 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Urban Planning
Water harvesting, in which water Developed by Civano CONTACT
from the structure's roof is Development Company, city of
collected and stored in Tucson, Fannie Mae American Fannie Mae
underground cisterns for cooling Communities Fund, Arizona Colleen Haggerty
will help designers meet their Department of Commerce (626) 396-5225
goal of reducing the community’s Energy Office, Congress for New
potable water consumption by Urbanism and other partners. Civano Development Company
737
65%. The community will Lynn Hudson
feature xeriscaping. (520) 889-8888
737
For more information on the Community of Civano, visit:
City of Tucson Featured Project www.tucsonaz.gov/lv-goal11.html, 15 October 2006.
224 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Urban Planning
Chapter 5:
Local Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Sustainable
Agriculture
DOCUMENT CONTENTS The Role of Agriculture is responsible for
about 50% of human-related
The Role of Agriculture in Global
Agriculture in Global methane emissions and 70% of
Warming...................................... 225 Warming nitrous oxide emissions.739
Solutions: Local Sustainable
Agriculture................................... 225 Because the average molecule of
Government Incentives for Agriculture contributes an
Climate Protection Through Local estimated 20% of the greenhouse food travels 1500 miles before
Sustainable Agriculture.......... 227 gases (GHGs) that are someone eats it, the transport of
School Programs to Promote responsible for global agricultural goods also releases
Local Sustainable Agriculture 228 CO2.
Protect the Climate and warming.738 Plowing the soil
Strengthen Local Economies. 229 causes the release of significant
Additional Resources .................. 230 amounts of carbon previously Solutions: Local
fixed in soil structure by
speeding the microbial activity
Sustainable
that causes decomposition of the Agriculture
organic matter in the soil.
Conventional farming activities Local governments can
also release substantial amounts significantly reduce their
of methane and nitrous oxide. community’s contribution of
Methane is produced by the GHGs by supporting local
decomposition of organic matter sustainable agriculture. Locally
like crop residues and also by the produced fruits, vegetables, dairy
digestive processes of grazing products and other agricultural
livestock like cattle. The goods require far less
excessive use of nitrogen transportation than products
fertilizer contributes to the shipped into the community over
emission of nitrous oxide. long distances. They can also be
grown in ways that substantially
reduce emissions of GHGs.
738
International Food Policy Research Institute, www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/ufa/ufa_ch24.pdf#
search=%22tilling%20and%20global%20warming%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/UFA_ch24.pdf, 3 October 2006.
739
International Food Policy Research Institute,
www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/ufa/ufa_ch24.pdf#search=%22tilling%20and%20global%20warming%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/UFA_ch24.pdf, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 225
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
Low-till or no-till farming, a reduces or eliminates the use of 35% less and organic dairy 74%
practice called conservation industrially produced agro- less energy per unit of
tillage, does not disrupt the soil chemicals that require significant production when compared to
as much as heavily mechanized amounts of oil and natural gas to conventional agriculture.745
tilling practices, allowing the soil produce, deliver and use.
to retain a much higher Organic farming methods Local operations are especially
percentage of the carbon that is improve soil productivity, reduce well suited to organic
naturally fixed within it. This the potentially hazardous production. This can also confer
also reduces CO2 emissions handling of chemicals and reduce significant competitive
released from farm equipment water pollution. Sustainable advantage to local farmers.
used to till the fields. In addition farming also sequesters carbon in Organic farming was a $14.6
to reducing the amount of carbon the soil by using organic wastes billion dollar industry in the U.S.
released, conservation tillage as fertilizer. in 2005 and continues to grow
reduces the soil’s exposure to around 17% annually.746 By
wind and water erosion, Organic farming is more energy enabling local farmers to remain
increases options for multiple efficient than conventional viable by entering this market, as
cropping, improves the soil’s farming. A study begun in 1978 well as to grow food for local
ability to retain moisture, and and released in 2006 by the consumption, a community is
moderates the soil’s Swiss government found organic investing in the future of its
temperature.740 Farmers can farms to be 20-56% more energy farmers and ranchers, boosting
even be paid, through a program efficient than conventional local economic development and
conducted by Chicago Climate farms.743 Increased energy reducing the carbon footprint of
Exchange for converting their efficiency came in part from its agricultural sector, and of its
land to no or low-till practices.741 decreased fertilizer and pesticide citizens as they feed their
use and decreased transportation families.
An estimated 38% of the of external animal feed
country's total farmland (109 sources.744 A U.K. government A recent study by the U.S.
million acres) uses conservation study found that, “Organic Department of Agriculture’s
tillage practices, according to the systems had a lower energy input Agricultural Research Service
group Conservation for largely because of an absence of (ARS)747 concluded that
Agriculture's Future (Core 4).742 indirect energy inputs in the form Minnesota grain farmers could
It is an especially attractive of nitrogren fertilizer.” The make more money by switching
practice for smaller, local study estimated that large to organic grain crops. With the
operations. Organic farming organic arable production used 130 acre Swan Lake Farm as a
740
A conflict has existed between the practices of organic farming and conservation tillage. Organic farmers do not use chemical herbicides
to control weeds and therefore have traditionally used mildly intensive tillage practices to turn weeds under the soil. Recent
developments in low-till methods and alternative weed control methods are bringing conservation tillage and organic farming closer
together. However, there is growing interest in organic no-till crop production.
741
CCX Agricultural Soil Carbon Offsets, www.chicagoclimatex.com/news/publications/pdf/CCX_Soil_Offsets.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/CCX_SoilOffsets.pdf, 30 October 2006.
742
Conservation for Agriculture’s Future, www2.ctic.purdue.edu/Core4/news/annc/CTfact.html, 3 October 2006.
743
Paul Mader, et.al., “Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming,” Science magazine, 31 May 2002.
744
www.organicconsumers.org/organic/stabalize062404.cfm, 15 October 2006.
745
Mark Shepard et al, An Assessment of Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming
www.defra.gov.uk/farm/organic/policy/research/pdf/env-impacts2.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/Organic_Env-impacts.pdf, 15 October 2006.
746
Organic Trade Association,
www.ota.com/pics/documents/short%20overview%20MMS.pdf#search=%22organic%20industry%20billion%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/OTA_Survey_2006.pdf, 3 October 2006.
747
USDA Agricultural Research Service, July 25, 2006 www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2006/060725.htm, 3 October 2006.
226 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
representative farm, ARS effect of reducing global to support salmon habitat, yet
researchers used four years of warming as well. Increasingly, also reduce flood threats and
trial data to predict that over 20 local governments are linking the a premier multi-modal,
years organic soybeans would benefits of local production with regional trail system.752
fetch up to $14 more per bushel, the need for climate protection.
organic corn up to $3 more per The county has partnered with
bushel, and wheat up to $5 more. King County, Washington, the national and local land protection
Another projection showed county that encompasses Seattle, organizations to establish this
farmers netting an average of preserves local farmland, in part network of protected lands
$50-60 more per acre even if to reduce the carbon footprint of surrounding the urban areas of
organic prices were to drop by agriculture, to enable residents to the county. It is also working
half.748 be more secure in their sources with the four county region to
of food and to enhance and encourage similar land protection
According to a study by the preserve the commercial viability to ensure local food security and
leaders of the Consortium for of agriculture as an economic to reduce the climate footprint of
Agricultural Soils Mitigation of sector.750 meeting its citizens’ needs.
Greenhouse Gases (CASMGS),
such agriculture practices that Ron Sims, the visionary County The policies needed to connect
reverse the decarbonization of Executive, described how the communities to local farmers are
the soil, and increase carbon county’s Greenprint for King not complex or innovative.
sequestration by farmers in the County751 would deliver many Something as simple as
U.S. could reduce the expected benefits beyond climate mandating the purchase of local
increase in CO2 emissions by protection: and organic foods for
20% per year.749 The Greenprint gives us a government agencies, school
powerful tool to protect an districts and any other
additional 100,000 acres of organization that use municipal
Government Incentives for open space and resource lands funds for procurement of food
Climate Protection Through by 2010, and strengthen a will have a rippling effect on the
Local Sustainable Agriculture green infrastructure capable local economy. Farmers will
of ensuring that King respond favorably to the
Many local governments are County’s incredible natural expansion of a new market by
implementing programs to assets are safeguarded for providing more goods and more
encourage local food production, generations to come. King variety.
increased use of organic produce County currently owns more
and preservation of farmland. than 25,000 acres of lands Woodbury and Cherokee
Some of these programs are and more than 106,000 acres County, Iowa have created
designed to strengthen local of development rights for the policies to support local
economies, some to increase purpose of preserving producers of organically grown
health and some to preserve a working forests, productive agricultural products. Woodbury
way of life. But all have the farms, rivers that are managed County instituted a Local Food
748
One criticism of organic agriculture is that production yields are not as high as traditional farming. Yields are often reduced as a farmer
transitions from conventional production and learns the techniques of organic farming. The process of establishing healthy soil, which is
the foundation of successful organic production can take as long as a few years. Once an organic system is in place, however, many
organic producers have yields that are as large as or greater than those of conventional operations. According to a study by Holly Born of
the National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT), average productivity per acre in organic systems is 90 to 93% that of
conventional agriculture. With lower input costs and comparable productivity, organic agriculture can be just as profitable if not more so
than conventional farms. For example, organic dairy farmers may see reduced average production in the herd, but their animals tend to
live longer and require less veterinary care. www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/nwl/2006/2006-2-leoletter/rotations.htm, 3 October 2006.
749
Consortium for Agriculture Soils Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases, www.casmgs.colostate.edu/, 3 October 2006.
750
King County climate change news, www.metrokc.gov/exec/climate.htm, 30 October 2006.
751
King County Greenprint, www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=18178&folder_id=262, 30 October 2006.
752
King County News Release, dnr.metrokc.gov/dnrp/press/2005/0422Greenprint.htm, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 227
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
Purchase Policy to “increase farming and become certified Service (NRCS) offices in
regional per capita income, organic growers755. Farmers in several states across the country,
provide incentives for job the program will also receive including Minnesota, Nebraska,
creation, attract economic support from the Iowa Iowa and Montana, offer cost-
investment, and promote the Department of Agriculture and share incentive programs that
health and safety of its citizens Land Stewardship, the Leopold help farmers transition from
and communities.”753 It Center for Sustainable conventional agriculture to
mandates that all county agencies Agriculture, the Iowa State organic agriculture.757
that regularly procure food as University Extension office and a
part of their operations purchase network of regional organic In Montana, the state helps
locally produced organic food. growers. The Whole Foods farmers convert by sharing the
This includes the Woodbury stores in the region provided cost for organic crop transition,
County Jail, Work Release additional help by promising to paying $35 per acre for up to 100
Center and the Juvenile buy organic produce from the acres for a maximum of three
Detention facilities. region indefinitely. years. To help ranchers make
their livestock operations organic
Woodbury County also provides The program also hopes to make the state pays $3.50 per acre for
grants of up to $50,000 each year farming a more economically up to 1,000 acres for a maximum
in real property tax rebate viable profession for young of three years.758
incentives for farms that convert Iowans who want to stay in the
from conventional farming area as farmers. An Iowa study
techniques to organic farming. showed that increasing School Programs to Promote
The “Organics Conversion consumption of locally grown Local Sustainable Agriculture
Policy” is designed to offset produce would create an influx
costs associated with establishing of an additional $302 million in A growing number of school
the new techniques and losses sales and more than 4,000 jobs districts across the country are
due to the three-year conversion added to the Iowa economy. 756 teaming up with local farmers
period that is required in order to The Environmental Quality and organic and local produce
attain organic certification.754 Incentives Program (EQIP) was distributors to offer
established within the 2002 schoolchildren healthier options
Cherokee County, Iowa, Federal Farm Bill. EQIP is a in their food programs, while
followed Woodbury County’s federal program offering encouraging local production.
“Organics Conversion Policy” financial and technical assistance Schools in Washington State and
with a county tax relief program to implement structural and California have introduced
of their own. It provides up to management practices on eligible organic food as part of healthy
100% relief of property taxes for agricultural land. USDA Natural school lunch programs. Thanks
up to five years to growers who Resources and Conservation to the popularity and lower costs
convert from conventional
753
Woodbury Organic Conversion Policy, www.woodbury-ia.com/departments/economicdevelopment/wc%20organics%20policyv4.pdf, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/Woodbury_OrganicsPolicy.pdf, 3 October 2006.
754
Woodbury Local Food Purchase Policy, www.woodbury-ia.com/departments/economicdevelopment/WC%20LFPP%20v3.pdf, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/Woodbury_LocalFoodPolicy.pdf, 3 October 2006.
755
Sioux City Journal, September 2006 www.siouxcityjournal.com/articles/2006/09/20/news/local/54322a2cf28dd753862571ef000a6c3a.txt,
3 October 2006.
756
Iowa State, Leopold Center, www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/staff/files/health_0606.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Agriculture/IowaState_economic_2006.pdf, 3 October 2006. For more
information, contact: Rich Pirog, Marketing and Food Systems Initiative, (515) 294-1854, rspirog@iastate.edu or Dave Swenson, ISU
Economics, (515) 294-7458, dswenson@iastate.edu or Laura Miller, Leopold Center communications, (515) 294-5272,
lwmiller@iastate.edu.
757
USDA Environmental Quality Incentives Program, www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/eqip, 3 October 2006.
758
Montana NRCS, www.mt.nrcs.usda.gov/news/releases/progdeadline06-4.html, 3 October 2006.
228 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
of an organic salad bar at Lincoln Programs provide guidance and
Elementary School in Olympia, resources to Oklahoma Schools
Washington, all grade schools in so that they may partner with
the city now have one.759 In local farmers to provide healthy,
2004, the Seattle school district locally grown food and the
adopted a Breakfast and Lunch educational opportunity for
Program Procedure banning junk schoolchildren.762
food and encouraging organic
food in school cafeterias.
California public school districts Protect the Climate and
in Berkeley, Santa Monica and Strengthen Local Economies
Palo Alto also have organic food
programs. People who eat locally grown
food support local farmers and
Several states across the country the local economy, while
use Farm to School programs to reducing GHG emissions from
connect local farmers and their transporting food from long
products with schools. distances. Community initiatives
Oklahoma’s Farm to School that assist local farmers to make
Programs “provide schools with their practices more sustainable
fresh and minimally processed (i.e., converting to organics,
farm commodities for inclusion attaining organic certification or
in school meals and snacks, to implementing conservation
help children develop healthy tillage) can help the farming
eating habits, and to improve community significantly reduce
Oklahoma farmers’ incomes and its contribution to global
direct access to markets,”760 as warming. A community that
described in the legislation expands its supply of sustainable
creating the programs. The bill and locally grown food will help
lists the many benefits of Farm to protect the climate while
School Programs, including promoting healthier lifestyles, a
“activities that provide students stronger local economy, cleaner
with hands-on learning air and water and greater
opportunities, such as farm visits, community security.
cooking demonstrations and
school gardening and
composting programs, and
integrating nutrition and
agriculture education into school
curricula.”761 Schoolchildren can
use the programs to learn about
healthy living and the importance
of sustainable agricultural
practices. The Farm to School
759
Grinning Planet, www.grinningplanet.com/2006/05-02/healthy-school-lunch-article.htm, 3 October 2006.
760
Oklahoma Legislation, Farm to School Program Act www.oscn.net/applications/oscn/DeliverDocument.asp?CiteID=446211, 3 October
2006.
761
Ibid.
762
Farm to School Program, www.farmtoschool.org/, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 229
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
Additional
Resources
Leopold Center for Sustainable
Agriculture
www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/leop
old/
National Sustainable
Agriculture Information
Service
attra.ncat.org/
Local Harvest
www.localharvest.org/
230 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Agriculture
Chapter 5: Develop
a Local Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Transition to
Alternative Fuels
This section discusses the the highest consumption rate of
DOCUMENT CONTENTS opportunities that may exist to any country in the world.
Biofuels .......................................232 use fuels other than the Consumption reached 400
CASE STUDY: conventional, carbon intensive million gallons per day in 2006.
Washington, D.C. ..................232 ones. High levels of uncertainty The 2005 Energy Policy Act764
Ethanol........................................233 and risk in the international oil introduced the Renewable Fuel
Biodiesel .....................................234
CASE STUDIES:
market have caused a Standard, which will nearly
Seattle and King County, WA234 tremendous amount of volatility double the use of ethanol and
Channel Island National Park235 in domestic oil prices over the biodiesel in the U.S. by 2012.765
Bi-Fuel and Compressed Natural past few decades. To hedge their
Gas .............................................236 bets against high energy prices, Organizations such as the Post
Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles...............237
CASE STUDY: many cities have begun to Carbon Institute work with
Austin, TX..............................237 diversify their fuel sources. communities to help them lay out
Federal Biofuel Tax Incentives ....238 Making such a switch has a strategy for meeting their
CASE STUDY: advantages to communities energy needs without reliance on
Sarasota, FL..........................239
Additional Resources ..................240
beyond reducing carbon. Most imported oil.766
towns now spend approximately
20% of their gross income This section describes some of
purchasing energy from outside the strategies that communities
the community. Approximately can use to do this and lower
80% of these dollars leave the transportation costs to
community.763 In 2004, the consumers, achieve
United States consumed about independence from imported oil
140 billion gallons of gasoline, and promote the development of
or about 380 million gallons of a domestic fuel source industry.
gasoline per day in 2004, by far
763
“The Jobs Connection: Energy Use and Local Economic Development”, Cities and Counties Project, U.S. Department of Energy, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1996., http://www.localenergy.org/pdfs/Document%20Library/The%20Jobs%20Connection.pdf, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/JobsConnection.pdf, 5 December 2006.
764
Energy Policy Act of 2005, www.doi.gov/iepa/EnergyPolicyActof2005.pdf, 5 December 2006.
765
Renewable Fuels Association, Federal Standards, www.ethanolrfa.org/policy/regulations/federal/standard/, 5 December 2006.
766
The Post Carbon Institute, www.postcarbon.org/, 5 December 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 231
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Biofuels from dependence on expensive,
polluting and insecure oil
governments have also begun to
purchase AFVs for the same
supplies. reasons.
Biofuels are forms of energy
derived from recently living
The U.S. produced 3.4 billion This includes switching their
substances such as plants and
gallons of ethanol in 2004 and vehicle fleets—maintenance
animal by-products. They can
around 75 million gallons of trucks, shuttle buses, delivery
include waste to energy, ethanol,
biodiesel in 2005, representing vans, and other light-duty
bio-diesel and others. There is a
about 2% of total domestic vehicles—from conventional
potential to replace a significant
gasoline consumption.767 internal combustion engine
amount of our current fuel use
Through federal tax incentive vehicles that consume only
with biofuels. For example, the
programs and market gasoline to AFVs that consume
U.S. Department of Energy
development initiatives, the U.S. ethanol, biodiesel, electricity,
(DOE) hopes to displace 30% of
government hopes to stimulate gasoline or any combination
the country’s 2004 levels of
the growth of the alternative therein. Since the fuels for AFV
gasoline demand with biofuels,
fuels market share. Part of this fleets can be produced
mostly ethanol, by the year 2030.
strategy includes mandates that domestically, there is much less
Other analysts believe that even
federal vehicle fleets transition volatility in price. Also, as the
more petroleum use can be
from conventional fuel vehicles technology for producing
displaced. If combined with
to any number of alternative fuel alternative fuels improves, the
much more efficient vehicles,
vehicles (AFVs). Although not prices should continue to go
this begins to be a strategy for
yet required by law, many local down.
helping communities escape
767
U.S. Dept. of Energy Biofuels page, genomicsgtl.energy.gov/biofuels/transportation.shtml, 4 October 2006.
768
EPAct Fleet Information and Regulations, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/37407.pdf#search=%22ethanol%20city%20policy%22, 4
October 2006, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Fuel Transition/EPAact_fuel.pdf, 5 October
2006.
232 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
and equipment, a CNG fuel sweepers. It is also working to and improve air quality in the
dispenser, and promotional expand the public availability of Washington, D.C. area.
materials. alternative fuels by contracting
with privately owned fueling
Washington is currently seeking stations. Increasing the use of CONTACT
ways to expand its AFV use in AFVs throughout the community
heavy-duty vehicles like garbage will decrease vehicle emissions Ron Flowers
trucks, dump trucks and street ronald.flowers@dc.gov
769
Leiby and Ruben, The Alternative Fuel Transition, 2000, http://pzl1.ed.ornl.gov/tafv99report31a_ornltm.pdf, 5 December 2006.
770
BioCycle, 2005 News Bulletin, www.harvestcleanenergy.org/enews/enews_0505/enews_0505_Cellulosic_Ethanol.htm, 5 December
2006.
771
U.S. DOE, Ethanol Technologies webpage, www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/ethanol.html, 5 December 2006.
772
“Effects of Fuel Ethanol Use on Fuel-Cycle Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions”, Argonne National Laboratory, www-
db.research.anl.gov/db1/ttrdc/document/DDD/58.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/FuelEhtanol_1999.pdf, 4 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 233
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Use of E85 achieves: 70% more energy to fertilize,
plant and harvest corn and to
Biodiesel
73–75% reduction in convert and transport the ethanol
Biodiesel, a substitute for diesel
petroleum use, than the output energy derived
fuel, is created by chemically
from the ethanol. Supporters774
reacting vegetable oils or animal
14–19% reduction in GHG of ethanol disagree with these
fats with alcohol in a process
emissions, and claims, pointing out that Exxon
known as transesterification.
funded the proponents. They
The majority of biodiesel in the
34–35% reduction in fossil present data that suggests a
U.S. comes from soybean oil or
energy use. positive net energy balance—
restaurant greases. The big
with only 1.3 British thermal unit
advantage of biodiesel is that it
There is debate about the net (BTU) of petroleum used to
can be used in existing diesel
energy balance of ethanol, given produce 1 BTU of ethanol. All
engines with little or no
current production techniques. such debates depend on the
modification, and can be blended
This is a comparison of the assumptions used about the crop
at any ratio with petroleum
energy derived from a gallon of that supplies the feedstock, the
diesel. In 2005, U.S. production
ethanol with the total amount of fermentation techniques used and
of biodiesel was nearly 75
energy needed to produce it. the overall efficiency of the
million gallons, an increase of
Critics773 assert that it takes up to process.
300% from 2004.775 Production
was expected to reach 200 to 250
million gallons in 2006.776
Biodiesel
773
“Ethanol Fuels: Energy Balance, Economics and Environmental Impacts are Negative, D. Pimentel, www.ethanol-
gec.org/netenergy/neypimentel.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/Ehtanol_2002.pdf, 4 October 2006.
774
“A Rebuttal to “Ethanol Fuels: Energy, Economics and Environmental Impacts” by D. Pimentel”, Graboski & McClelland,
www.ncga.com/ethanol/pdfs/EthanolfFuelsRebuttal.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/EthanolFuelsRebuttal.pdf, 4 October 2006.
775
U.S. Dept. of Energy Biofuels page, genomicsgtl.energy.gov/biofuels/transportation.shtml, 3 October 2006.
776
National Biodiesel Board, nbb.grassroots.com/07Releases/gov/, 15 November 2006
777
Seattle City Light GHG Mitigation Program helps pay for the cost of biodiesel in local transportation fleets using trucks, buses, garbage
trucks, and ferries. Partnering with large users of petroleum fuels leverages Seattle City Light's greenhouse gas mitigation efforts by
helping to build demand for biodiesel. www.seattle.gov/light/conserve/globalwarming/, 30 October 2006.
778
King County News Release, www.metrokc.gov/exec/news/2006/0817biodiesel.aspx, 3 October 2006.
234 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
biodiesel throughout the local its increased consumption of CONTACT
community. The industry has biodiesel will help stimulate the
grown rapidly and may reach a production of farm commodities Director
point where commercial-scale that are used to manufacture Harold S. Taniguchi
production is an economically biodiesel, creating benefits for King County Department of
viable option in the State of local farmers and the local Transportation
Washington. King County hopes economy. (206) 684-1481
The use of B20 (20% biodiesel Reduction of carbon monoxide modification to the engine or
mixed with 80% diesel) in a emissions of 10% (B20) and fuel system
conventional diesel engine 50% (B100).
results in substantial reductions Disadvantages to biodiesel:
of unburned hydrocarbons, Biodegradeable
carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides Biodiesel tends to gel at lower
and sulfates, and particulate Significantly decreases net temperatures. Biodiesel
matter compared to emissions greenhouse gas inputs, because vehicles can therefore have
from diesel fuel.779 Emissions of the crops soak up carbon cold start problems relative to
nitrogen oxides are slightly dioxide from the atmosphere as petrodiesel, but this is more of
increased. B20 reduces carbon they grow. The resulting an issue for B100 than B20.
dioxide emissions by 15%. Neat biodiesel releases some CO2, B20 freezes at 3 to 5 degrees
biodiesel (100% biodiesel) but some of the carbon is Fahrenheit, while B100 can
reduces carbon dioxide sequestered in the soil, freeze at 25 degrees
emissions by more than 75% especially if the feedstock is Fahrenheit.
over petroleum diesel.780 grown using poly-cultures of
perennials.781 Biodiesel fuels will soften and
Advantages to biodiesel: degrade certain types of
Only alternative fuel that elastomers and natural rubber
Reduces our dependency on requires little or no compounds over time.782
fossil fuel imports
Biodiesel
779
National Biodiesel Board, www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/RegulatedFleet_QA.pdf, also archived at
http://www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/RegulatedFlelet_QA.pdf, 3 October 2006.
780
DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/altfuel/bio_benefits.html, 3 October 2006.
781
Iowa State University’s Bio-economy program has shown how to do this, www.iastate.edu/~biorenew/, 5 December 2006.
782
World Energy, Advantages of Biodiesel Use for Emissions Reductions and Regulatory Compliance,
www.epa.gov/air/caaac/mstrs/ciampa.pdf#search=%22advantages%20to%20biodiesel%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/ciampa.pdf, 5 October 2006.
783
Renewable Energy Applications at Channel Island National Park, www.nps.gov/archive/chis/energy.htm, 29 September 2006.
784
Ventura Harbor Marine Fuel, www.vhmf.com/, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 235
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Because Channel Island did not backing up to the fuel dock to fill Show a market demand
have enough land to establish up with B100. existed for biodiesel
their own facility, they had to
work with a public facility. Once Not only has the local community Put themselves out of
the fuel dock was up and picked up on the new renewable business when a stationary
running, Channel Island initially technology, Kent Bullard has fueling station decided to
provided 98% of the dock’s worked to extend his enthusiasm distribute biodiesel
business. Once biodiesel was for biodiesel to other
available, other businesses and communities in California. In Within two months, the group
ships began to come to Ventura January 2006, Kent help start a had established a stationary
786
Harbor just to access the B100 LA Biodiesel Coop. Originally supplier in Calvert City and within
dock. Earth Race stopped by starting with 30 members, the the first month the station
Ventura Harbor on September group provided B99 and B100 pumped 4600 lbs of B100.
th,
5 2006 on its world tour to biodiesel made from California
785
promote renewable energy. walnut oil to members through a
mobile trailer. The goal of the CONTACT
In town, a gas station also coop was to:
adopted B100 fuel. This station Kent Bullard
was recently shut down, but not Provide a renewable fuel Channel Island National Park
for lack of customers. In fact, Educate others about the (805) 658-5745
without the gas station present, benefits of biodiesel kent_bullard@nps.gov
vehicles can now be seen
785
The Earthrace, www.earthrace.net/, 3 October 2006.
786
Biodiesel Coop, www.biodiesel-coop.org/, 3 October 2006.
787
DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center, Natural Gas, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/altfuel/gas_benefits.html, 3 October 2006.
788
DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center, Natural Gas Vehicles, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/afv/gas_vehicles.html, 5 October 2006.
789
DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center, Aftermarket Alternative Fuel Vehicle Conversions
www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/afv/conversion.html, 5 October 2006.
790
DOE Alternative Fuels Data Center, State and Federal Incentives, www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/incen_laws.html, 5 October 2006.
236 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles hybrid vehicle, the plug-in 2005. There is considerable
hybrid or PHEV, uses the battery promise for the growth of the
Hybrid vehicles use both internal primarily and the Internal domestic market. The city of
combustion engines and Combustion Engine (ICE) as a Austin, Texas and the state of
electricity from batteries for supplement only when needed. California are just two of the
propulsion. A new variety of The first prototypes of the PHEV governments promoting the use
were released in November of PHEV.791
Plug-in Hybrids
791
The California Cars Initiative, www.calcars.org/, 5 December 2006.
792
For more information on Austin
• Austin Energy Plug-In Hybrid Program www.austinenergy.com/About%20Us/Environmental%20Initiatives/Plug-
in%20Hybrid%20Vehicles/index.htm, 3 October 2006.
• State Energy Alternatives, www.eere.energy.gov/states/alternatives/, 3 October 2006.
• CalCars, The California Cars Initiative, www.calcars.org/calcars-news/115.html, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 237
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
PHEVs are most likely to be 5000 miles. At current prices, for off-peak electricity. Roger
introduced as fleet vehicles. total electricity costs amount to Duncan, deputy general manager
They can be vehicles of any size, about $170-$215 annually, of Austin Energy, asserts that the
including delivery vans, shuttle compared to annual fuel costs for national power system could
buses and maintenance vehicles, the same amount of driving of charge tens of millions of
among others. With daily routes $750-$825 (at 18 miles a PHEVs without requiring any
typically less than 20 miles, most gallon).794 Assuming national new production capacity due to
PHEV fleet vehicles used by a average cost of electricity at 8.5 the idle electricity load at
local government may almost cents per kilowatt hour, a PHEV night.797 Also, wind energy that
never need to visit a gas station. runs on an equivalent of 75 cents is generated mostly during the
If the vehicle exceeds the limits per gallon.795 night could be coupled to PHEV
of the battery power, the PHEV charging to provide a zero-
will automatically switch to its Widespread use of PHEVs could emissions source of electricity.
internal combustion significantly reduce urban According to the California Air
engine/battery combination and emissions. Idling in urban Resources Board, a vehicle that
operate as a typical hybrid. driving situations accounts for runs exclusively on battery
about 10-15% of total vehicle power generates only a third of
A typical PHEV sedan can be carbon emissions796, and PHEVs the GHGs produced by an
charged through a 120-V outlet under normal conditions (short equivalent gasoline vehicle.798
in 3-4 hours, while larger trips at moderate speeds) do not
vehicles can be charged in the
same amount of time on a 240-V
use their ICE. Federal Biofuel Tax
connection.793 Assuming a PHEVs can be recharged at night Incentives
PHEV drives 20 miles a day for when the electricity from utilities
five days a week solely on its is underutilized. This could Comprehensive Guide to Federal
batteries, it will use around 2000- create a significant new market Biofuels Incentives799
2500 kWh of electricity to cover
793
Lucy Sanna, Driving the Solution: the Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle, EPRI Journal, Fall 2005, p. 5, www.calcars.org/epri-driving-solution-
1012885_PHEV.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Fuel Transition/CalCars_plugin.pdf, 3
October 2006.
794
Ibid.
795
Ibid.
796
Ibid.
797
Ibid.
798
Ibid.
799
Federal Biofuel Incentives
cantwell.senate.gov/services/Biofuels/Comprehensive_Guide_to_Federal%20Biofuel_Incentives.pdf#search=%22biofuels%20federal%22
also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Fuel Transition/FederalBiofuel_Incentives.pdf, 3 October
2006.
800
Ibid.
238 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Biofuel Tax Incentives
801
For more information on Sarasota
• NREL Presentation on Renewable Communities www.solar2006.org/presentations/forums/f15-
penney.pdf#search=%22renewable%20community%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/NREL_plugin.pdf, 3 October 2006.
• Sarasota County Press Release
scg.co.sarasota.fl.us/Media/media_documents/scgovFACTS.pdf#search=%22renewable%20community%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/FuelTransition/Sarasota_plugin.pdf, 3 October 2006.
• www.floridagreenbuilding.org/news/news2006/jun2006.htm, 3 October 2006.
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory on PHEVs www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/hev/plugins.html, 3 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 239
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Additional Natural Resources Defense
Council—Growing Energy:
Resources How Biofuels Can Help End
America’s Oil Dependence
Alternative Fuel Vehicles www.nrdc.org/air/energy/biofuel
www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/curre s/contents.asp
nt.shtml
Powerpoint from NREL about
Clean Cities the plug-in hybrid system.
www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities sustainablecommunities.scgov.ne
/ t/ssDocuments/1270/powerpoint/
transportation.ppt
Alternative Fuel Station
Locator Seattle’s Clean and Green
afdcmap2.nrel.gov/locator/ Fleet Action Plan
www.seattle.gov/environment/D
Driving the Solution: the Plug- ocuments/CleanGreenFleetAP.pd
In Hybrid Vehicle by Lucy f
Sanna
EPRI Journal, Fall 2005
www.calcars.org/epri-driving-
solution-1012885_PHEV.pdf
Comprehensive Guide to
Federal Biofuels Incentives
cantwell.senate.gov/services/Biof
uels/Comprehensive_Guide_to_F
ederal%20Biofuel_Incentives.pd
f#search=%22biofuels%20federa
l%22
240 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Fuel Transitions
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Sustainable Energy
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Planning for energy. Most citizens in a
community have no idea where
Planning for Sustainable Energy241
Sustainable Energy their energy comes from. Many
How Does Your Community Meet have no idea that a typical
its Needs for Energy Now.... 241 Every community can move community now spends as much
Envisioning a Sustainable toward supplying its energy in as 20% of its gross income
Energy System .................... 243 ways that are clean, secure,
Efficient Use of Energy .. 243
buying energy. Because most of
Renewable Energy Sources 246 affordable, and that meet this energy comes from outside
CASE STUDIES: citizens’ needs abundantly. This the community, 80% of those
State of California ....... 248 is called a sustainable energy dollars immediately leave the
State of New Jersey.... 248 system. Achieving it will mean local economy. This means that
Santa Monica, CA....... 249
San Diego, CA ............ 250
increasing the supply of energy most towns are slowly bleeding
Chicago, IL.................. 250 that comes from locally based, to death economically.
Bridging the Gaps Between renewable sources. It will also
Alternative Energy Scenarios251 mean using sources of energy Achieving a sustainable energy
Best Renewable Energy more efficiently. Many
Practices to Supply Fuel
future will require putting in
Examples....................... 251 communities are already moving place a very different energy
Delivering a Sustainable Energy in this direction. You can, too. supply system than most cities
Plan ..................................... 253 have now. On average for the
Balancing the Existing U.S. communities use very little
Marketplace Away from
Business-as-Usual......... 254
How Does Your Community renewable energy. The
Primer on Sustainable Energy Meet its Needs for Energy Department of Energy (DOE)
Sources ............................... 256 Now estimates that the U.S. in 2004
Primary Barriers to Address 260 got only 5.7% of its energy from
Conclusion ................................ 261 A good first step in developing a
Additional Resources ................ 262
renewable sources. Business as
plan to meet a community’s usual projections forecast that the
energy needs now and into the U.S would get only 1% more
future is to understand how the renewable energy by 2030.802
community currently gets its
802
U.S. DOE, U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Annual Energy Outlook 2006,” p. 11. The EIA also forecasts annual world energy
consumption growth by fuel to 2030 as follows (reference case IEO2006 model): Oil – 1.5%; Natural Gas – 2.5%; Coal – 2.5%; Nuclear –
0.9%; Renewable/other – 2.4%. This projects an overall annual growth of energy consumption of 2%. Source: Energy Information
Administration, “International Energy Outlook 2006,” June 2006. Both sources available at www.eia.doe.gov, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 241
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
U.S. Primary Energy Sources 2004 2030 (projected)
Petroleum products 40.3% 40.0%
Natural Gas 23.2% 20.7%
Coal 22.6% 25.7%
Nuclear Power 8.2% 6.8%
Renewable Energy 5.7% 6.7%
Table: Business as Usual Energy Projections
The projection from the Energy generation and distribution In addition, existing energy
Information Administration systems mean that electricity systems are vulnerable.805
(EIA) for 2030 could also be supplies only 16% of the energy Recent estimates of the economic
called the “do-nothing” option. that is delivered to customers. costs of ordinary power outages
It illustrates that little progress and power fluctuations in the
towards using renewable energy The remaining 60% of primary U.S. put the cost of such
can be expected without energy is used directly in disruptions as high as $188
deliberate action on the part of buildings, industrial processes billion annually.806 This number
cities, regions, states and the and transportation. There are would obviously be dwarfed by
federal government. But as large inefficiencies in these uses significant natural or terrorist
described throughout this as well. For instance, an disruptions.
manual, change is coming. The automobile is approximately 1%
way we currently meet our efficient at converting the energy In part because of this, many
energy needs will not continue. stored in fuel into actually industries have moved to supply
moving the driver. All of the part or all of their own energy.
Nearly 40% of primary energy remaining energy produces heat By 2001, “non-utility” providers
used in the U.S. now goes to and pollution.803 Following the (an owner of electric generating
producing electricity. Most of 1979 oil price increase, tougher capacity that is not an electric
this is coal that is burned in vehicle efficiency standards utility) were providing one-sixth
central station power plants, reduced U.S. use of oil 15% over of the nation’s electricity. There
contributing to global warming the five years at the same time is a rapidly expanding
and producing enormous that the economy grew by 16%. marketplace for distributed
quantities of waste heat and Given that there are cars now on energy.
pollution. The resulting the road getting over 60 miles
electricity is then shipped per gallon, and the vehicle fleet Enormous economic and energy
through massive power lines to average is 21 MPH, there security benefits can be obtained
the final customers. In the whole obviously remains a large scope through greater use of
process, well over two thirds of for increased efficiency.804 “distributed” energy sources,
the original energy is lost. These meaning energy sources
huge inefficiencies in electrical physically close to, and matched
803
Because of heat and combustion losses, the engine, transmission, and tires (and other energy-consuming components such as options)
of a standard automobile convert only 20% of the gasoline’s energy into movement of the vehicle. The people in the car may constitute
only 5% of the weight of the car that is moved forward (150 lbs of 3000 lbs). Hence, 20% efficiency to move only 5% of the car’s weight
means only 1% of the fuel’s energy moves the people forward. See Paul Hawken, Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins, Natural
Capitalism – Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Little, Brown, 1999, p. 24, and generally Chapter 2: “Reinventing the Wheels.”
Steve Heckeroth, a contributing editor to Mother Earth News and electric vehicle advocate, estimates that the lifecycle of carbon-based
fuels used in internal combustion engines (the “sun to wheel efficiency of biofuels”) is only 0.01% to 0.07% – see Steve Heckeroth, “Why
We Need Electric Cars,” Mother Earth News, October/November 2006.
804
CAFÉ (Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency) standards for vehicles enabled the country to increase the fuel efficiency of new U.S.-built cars
7 mpg in six years. Europe achieved similar savings but did it through higher fuel taxes rather than efficiency standards. Between 1977
and 1985, U.S. oil imports fell 42%, depriving OPEC of one-eighth of its market. The entire world oil market shrank by one-tenth; OPEC’s
share was cut from 52% to 30%, driving down world oil prices. The U.S. alone accounted for one-fourth of that reduction. On average,
new cars each drove 1% fewer miles, but used 20% fewer gallons. Only 4% of those savings came from making the cars smaller.
805
For a full discussion of the vulnerability of domestic energy systems see Lovins, A and Lovins H, Brittle Power, available for free download
from www.natcapsolutions.org/resources.htm#ART, 30 October 2006.
806
Craig Morris, Energy Switch – Proven Solutions for a Renewable Future, New Society Publishers, 2006, p. 10, citing a report by Primen.
Morris notes that power problems are much less in the EU, partly due to underground power lines.
242 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
in scale with end-uses.807 Most aggressive transition to the best Partnerships with key
of current “distributed technologies now available will stakeholders: utilities, vehicle
generation” is not renewable. actually penalize a town. For fuel providers, other levels of
Much of it is gas-fired instance, an examination of one government, and major
cogeneration, but increasingly utility’s reluctance to buy wind employers or energy users.
new additions of distributed electricity instead of natural gas
generation feature solar or wind plants showed that the decision
power. forced consumers to pay nearly Efficient Use of Energy
$200 million in unnecessary A sustainable energy plan will be
U.S. Department of Energy electricity bills over the past five founded on the efficient use of
Assistant Secretary David years. If the utility had energy. The actions presented in
Garman notes: purchased wind, the bills would this manual to reduce emissions
have been lower, and the of GHGs are an excellent starting
Aside from its obvious community would have been on point. When undertaking an
environmental benefits, solar its way to a carbon neutral analysis of the opportunities to
and other distributed energy future.809 save energy it is wise to
resources can enhance our disaggregate energy use so that it
energy security. Distributed A community that wishes to is clear what kinds of energy
generation at many locations meet the energy needs of its different end-uses require.
around the grid increases citizens without emitting GHGs Studies that aggregate
power reliability and quality must lay out a strategy for information into sectors such as
while reducing the strain on transitioning its energy supply residential or commercial make it
the electricity transmission from fossil fuels to renewable hard to understand what
system.808 energy.810 programs will work best, and
then what supply measures will
Such a plan sets forth: enable users to run vehicles, or
Envisioning a Sustainable deliver power to computers most
Energy System A vision of a sustainable effectively.
energy system that will meet
Before a town can decide what the community’s greenhouse Based on the actual needs of a
energy future it wishes to gas (GHG) goals/limits and community, a plan will describe
develop, its citizens need to be renewable energy goals; where to get additional energy
educated about the technologies supplies once all the cost
that are available and in use in A plan to meet the needs for effective energy savings
other communities. The vehicle fuels, electricity, and measures have been
community should also facility energy needs and implemented. Fortunately, many
understand the costs associated production opportunities; studies have shown that it is
with doing things in a different possible to meet all of the energy
way and as well as the costs that City/regional government’s needs of a dynamic growing
inaction would impose. For all intent to take short- and long- industrial society using energy
of the reasons outlined in this term renewable energy actions efficiently and deriving it from
manual, continuing to meet our on a local and regional scale;
energy needs as we have in the and
past may not be an option.
Failure to undertake an
807
Amory B. Lovins et.al., Small is Profitable – The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size,” Rocky
Mountain Institute, 2002. Available at www.smallisprofitable.org, 30 October 2006.
808
Lovins, Small is Profitable, p. 47.
809
Jane E. Pater, “Wind On The Public Service Company of Colorado System,” North American Windpower magazine, October 2006, p. 44.
The study conducted by the Interwest Energy Alliance found that Public Service Company of Colorado’s decisions to purchase 775 MW
of wind power beginning 1999, which saved consumers over $251 million 1999-2005, could have been 1,038 MW instead – which would
have saved over $438 million.
810
For more on this topic, see James Kunstler, The Long Emergency – Surviving the End of Oil, Climate Change, and Other Converging
Catastrophes of the Twenty-First Century, Grove Press, 2005.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 243
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
the various renewable forms of 90% of office and retail capital cost, faster
energy.811 lighting energy, yet the light construction, and better
quality is more attractive and performance. Early adopters
In most cases, new sources of the occupants can see better. will prosper.
energy are more expensive than In most cases, the better
older ones. A good strategy both lighting equipment lasts far Many of these examples
for protecting the climate and for longer and so more than pays illustrate a new design concept:
keeping your local energy bill for itself by costing less to that whole-system engineering
lower is to buy enough energy maintain. can often make it cheaper to
efficiency to avoid the need to save a larger than a smaller
bring on new sources of power— Motors use three-fourths of fraction of energy use. This
for example, in the case of industrial electricity, three- typically comes from
electricity, achieving “no load fifths of all electricity, and integrating the design of an
growth.” This is a relatively more primary energy than entire package of measures so
simple equation to manage: highway vehicles. This use is they do multiple duty (such as
ensure that what the community highly concentrated: about half better design saving on both
invests in energy efficiency each of all motor electricity is used energy and equipment costs),
year is sufficient to offset any in the million largest motors, or piggyback on renovations
population growth, economic three-fourths in the three being done anyway for other
growth and energy-use growth million largest. Since big reasons, or both. Good
unrelated to the first two. So motors use their own capital engineers think this is fun.
long as energy end-uses remain cost’s worth of electricity every Most economic theorists
unregulated and/or customers do few weeks, switching to more assume it is impossible.
not see effective efficiency efficient motors can pay back
incentives, it can be expected quickly. This plus retrofitting Efficiency opportunities expand
that consumers will add devices the rest of the motor system far into the future:
such as plasma televisions saves about half its energy and
(which use five times the energy pays back in around 16 Just selling “waste” heat to
of a regular television) and other months. other users could cost-
energy-inefficient appliances that effectively save up to about
in the aggregate are costly to the The chemical industry saved 30% of U.S. and 45% of
community’s residents and half its energy per unit of Japanese industrial energy.
businesses. product during 1973–90 by (America’s power stations
plugging steam leaks, installing waste more heat than Japan’s
Proven examples of energy insulation, and recovering lost total energy use.)
savings opportunities 812: heat. Now it’s discovered that
better catalysts and matching Still largely unexploited are
Properly choosing office heat to the required new kinds of heat exchangers
equipment and commercial temperature can often save and motors, membrane
and household appliances has 70% or so of what’s left, yet separators and smart
saved over two-thirds of their pay back within two years. materials, sensors and controls,
energy use with the same or Next-generation industrial rapid prototyping and
better service and comparable plant design, now moving from ultraprecision fabrication, and
or lower cost. the chemical industry into radically more frugal processes
semiconductors, is uncovering using enzymes, bacteria, and
Skilled retrofits have saved 70– 50–75% savings with lower biological design principles.
811
ASES, Tackling Climate Change in the U.S., www.ases.org/climatechange, 1 February 2007
NRDC, Reducing U.S. Oil Dependence A Real Energy Security Policy, www.nrdc.org/air/energy/fensec.asp, 1 February 2007
Apollo Alliance, www.fypower.org/pdf/ApolloAll_StateReport.pdf 1 February 2007
Nuclear Information and Resource Services, www.nirs.org/press/10-05-2006/1, 1 February 2007.
812
This list is taken from Lovins, A and Lovins H, Climate Making Sense and Making Money, 1998,
www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/climate_sense.pdf, 30 October 2006.
244 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Saving materials also saves the and ozone-disrupting cfcs from goal of conducting energy
energy needed to produce, insulation and refrigerant. savings with less than a ten
process, transport, and dispose Landfill and coal-mine gas years payback.814 The DoD’s
of them. Product longevity, recovery turns heat-trapping Energy Conservation
minimum-materials design and and hazardous methane Investment Program saves $3-4
manufacturing, recovery of emissions into a valuable fuel for every $1 invested over the
any scrap not designed out, while making electricity that investment lifecycle.815
repair, reuse, remanufacturing displaces coal-burning (see the
and recycling together present chapter on waste Leading companies pursuing
a formidable menu of business management). Recycling best practices regarding end-
opportunities that also save paper (the average person in a use energy management
energy, pollution, mining, and rich country uses as much include multi-national firms
landfilling. Japan cut its wood for paper, mostly wasted, Interface Inc., DuPont Corp.,
materials intensity by 40% just as the average person in a poor STMicroelectronics, ALCOA,
during 1973–84; but far more country uses for fuel) saves it ALCAN, Wal-Mart, Honda
is yet to come. Americans from turning into landfill and SC Johnson. Mid-size or
throw away enough aluminum methane, and also saves the small businesses include Hot
to rebuild the country’s fossil-fueled used in Lips Pizza of Portland, OR;
commercial aircraft fleet every manufacturing and New Belgium Brewing of Ft.
three months, even though transportation. These and Collins, CO; the IGA Market
recycling aluminum takes 95% scores more examples in Sacramento, CA.816
less energy than making it represent business
from scratch. Smart opportunities with multiple Clean Air Cool Planet is a
manufacturers now take their profit streams. small, compelling organization
products back for profitable dedicated to finding and
remanufacturing, as IBM did Best Practice Examples of promoting solutions to global
with computers in Japan and Community End-Use warming. They’re a great
Xerox does with photocopiers Strategies: example of a small non-profit
worldwide. The U.S. Federal Government that is making impressive
conducts extensive programs to changes in the carbon
Many energy savings reduce reduce energy end-use at emissions of all sorts of
climatic threats from more facilities, with an overall goal industries. They partner with
gases than just CO2. Advanced of 2% annual reduction in each companies (Timberland,
refrigerators, using vacuum facility. This is achieved Verizon, Harbec Plastics),
insulation and helium-engine through systematic audits campuses (Harvard, MIT,
coolers, can save over 90% of through operations such as the Yale) and communities in the
the energy of a standard Federal Energy Management Northeast to help them reduce
refrigerator, thus avoid Program of the National their carbon emissions in ways
burning enough coal to fill the Renewable Energy Lab and that make financial sense.817
refrigerator every year. They Oak Ridge National Lab.813
also eliminate climate- The Department of Defense’s Leading academic institutions
(DoD) Energy Policy includes a pursuing best practices include
813
For an overview of the U.S. Department of Energy’s facilities program see “Department of Energy – Energy Conservation at Federal
Facilities Report” at www.er.doe.gov/epic/docs/FedFacilitiesReport.pdf. Outstanding environmental management examples receive
Closing the Circle awards, given annually, from the White House’s Office of the Federal Environmental Executive – see www.ofee.gov, 30
October 2006.
814
The DoD policy to implement all projects with less than a 10 yr. payback is from “The Department of Defense Energy Manager’s
Handbook”, prepared by the Intuitive Research and Technology Corporation, August 2005, available at
www.acq.osd.mil/ie/irm/Energy/Energy%20Manager%20Support/EnergyManagerSupport.htm, 30 October 2006.
815
See Commander Rob Tomiak, “Department of Defense Energy Management Program”, powerpoint presentation, 17 August 2005.
816
For other small business examples, see the EPA Energy Star awards for small businesses at
www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=sb_success.sb_2006winners, 30 October 2006.
817
Clean Air- Cool Planet, www.cleanair-coolplanet.org/, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 245
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
the University of Calgary, devices—cars, buildings, signal, and indeed can
Canada; Tufts of Boston, MA. refrigerators, lighting systems, influence energy-saving choices
etc.—doubled their efficiency, even more than can price
Many utilities have programs improving at an annual rate alone. That is, people can save
similar to Nevada Power, averaging around 7%. energy faster if they have
which provides cash rebates extensive ability to respond to
for energy efficient appliances If all Americans saved a weak price signal than if they
and air conditioners, and electricity as quickly and have little ability to respond to
installs devices that reduce air cheaply as ten million people a strong one.
conditioning electrical demand served by Southern California
during summer peaks.818 Edison Company did during Investor-owned utilities, when
1983–85, then each year they’d rewarded for cutting bills, sold
The consumer-owned electric decrease the forecast need for efficiency ever faster and more
utility serving Gainesville, power supplies a decade hence skillfully despite falling
Florida decoupled profits from by about 7%, at a cost to the electricity prices. In 1990, New
energy sales to help promote utility around one-tenth that of England Electric System
efficiency.819 today’s cheapest new power captured 90% of a small-
stations. commercial pilot retrofit
Seattle adopted an energy market in two months. Pacific
building code in 2004 stronger In the 1980s, skillful utilities Gas and Electric Company
than the International Energy captured ~70–90+% of captured 25% of its entire
Conservation Code particular efficiency markets, new-commercial-construction
standards.820 mainly difficult ones like market—150% of the year’s
retrofitting house shells, in just target—in three months, so it
Berkeley requires energy one or two years. raised its 1991 target…and
saving retrofits when homes captured all of it in the first
are sold or significantly During 1990–96, utility nine days of January.
upgraded.821 facilitation enabled electric
customers in Seattle—with the
Several cities, including cheapest electricity of any Renewable Energy Sources
Ashland, Oregon provide major U.S. city—to save
extensive assistance to electric load nearly 12 times as Renewable energy generally
homeowners for energy audits fast as those in Chicago, and means power that comes from
and energy-use upgrades.822 electric energy more than 3,600 natural processes such as
times as fast, even though sunlight, wind, water flows, or
Energy efficiency can be Seattle electricity prices are earth’s natural heat sources
implemented very rapidly, by about half of Chicago’s. This (geothermal) and that are
either or both of two quite conclusively shows that making inexhaustible. These are also
different methods.823 In the an informed, effective, and called clean energy sources.
1970s and ’80s, as now, there efficient market in energy- Whether these sources are truly
were high or rising energy saving devices and practices— sustainable depends on whether
prices and a sense of urgency: as Seattle City Light’s efforts they take no more from the earth
During roughly 1975–85, most helped to do—can fully than can truly be renewed,
new U.S. energy-using substitute for a bare price whether they are produced in
818
Apollo Alliance, “New Energy for Cities – Energy Saving and Job Creation Policies for Local Governments,” p. 1:21,
www.apolloalliance.org/docUploads/new%5Fenergy%5Fcities%2Epdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/ApolloAlliance_EnergyforCities.pdf, 30 October 2006.
819
Ibid. p. 1:24.
820
Ibid. p. 1:13.
821
Ibid. p. 1:15.
822
Ibid.
823
This list is taken from Lovins, A and Lovins H, Climate Making Sense and Making Money, 1998,
www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/climate_sense.pdf, 30 October 2006.
246 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
ways that do not pollute and plan to meet the community’s The Apollo Alliance plan for
whether they are deployed in needs sustainably. clean energy cities in the U.S.
ways that respect people and includes the following goals:826
nature. There are many ways to What is a realistic but aggressive
supply energy, but some, like vision for maximizing renewable Generate 25% of electricity
nuclear power, are neither clean, energy for your community by, from renewable sources;
safe nor cost-effective. Others say, 2025? How much change
like hydrogen are still can actually be achieved in the Reduce oil consumption by
experimental. Others like solar next 20 years? A dramatically 25% by 2025; and
space satellites have unfortunate different future from the one
military applications, and are foreseen by the U.S. Department Build efficient transportation
extremely costly. None of these of Energy, is both desirable and systems and high-performance
are considered “clean doable. Several organizations (green) buildings.
technologies,” even though they have offered maps for increasing
may be argued to be renewable sustainable energy use: The Rocky Mountain Institute’s
or non-carbon. “Oil End-Game”827 plan
The Union of Concerned proposes that the U.S. could
Sustainable energy planning does Scientists offers a Clean Energy eliminate its petroleum products
not necessarily mean that the Blueprint that would achieve by dependence for energy through:
municipal government must go 2020:825
into the energy business using Highly efficient buildings and
municipal enterprises. This may Renewable sources meeting vehicles that double fuel
be a good idea, and many cities 20% of U.S. electricity needs; efficiency (52% savings);
are considering “municipalizing”
their energy suppliers, but a city Consumer savings of $105 Domestic biofuels production
can equally well work with billion per year; (25%); and
existing utilities to ensure that
energy efficiency and renewable Avoidance of 975 new power Substitution of natural gas for
energy are made available for its plants and billions of energy the remaining petroleum
citizens and to future infrastructure costs (such as (25%).
generations.824 pipelines, etc.) and retirement
of 180 old coal plants and nine Numerous strategies developed
Some cities find that it is useful major nuclear plants; and both abroad and domestically
to work with their citizens to illustrate proactive means of
develop a long-term vision of Reduction of natural gas creating more sustainable energy
what sustainability can mean for consumption by 18%, coal policy. For example, the EU has
their community. Such a vision consumption by 60%, carbon adopted the Energy Intelligent
can motivate people and guide dioxide emissions by 67%, Europe Initiative, tying European
community investment. Without sulfur dioxide emissions by competitiveness and quality of
a vision, investments for 55%, and nitrogen oxide life to a transition away from
incremental improvements may emissions by 55% from fossil fuels to energy efficiency
not achieve the economic and “business as usual” and renewables.828
social advantages of a strategic projections.
824
See Johnston, David Cay, Some Californians to Pick Their Utility at the Polls New York Times, 3 Nov 2006
www.nytimes.com/2006/11/03/business/03utility.html?_r=1&ref=science&oref=slogin, 30 October 2006.
825
Union of Concerned Scientists, with the American Council for an Energy-efficient Economy and The Tellus Institute, “Clean Energy
Blueprint – A Smarter National Energy Policy for Today and the Future,” available at www.ucsusa.org, 30 October 2006.
826
The Apollo Alliance, “New Energy for Cities,” 2006, available at www.apolloalliance.org, 30 October 2006.
827
Amory B. Lovins et.al., “Winning the Oil End Game – Innovation for Profits, Jobs and Security,” Rocky Mountain Institute, 2004; available
from www.oilendgame.com, 30 October 2006.
828
The strategy was first laid out in Energy for the Future: Renewable Sources of Energy See p. 9, section 1.3.1. An Ambitious Target for the
Union europa.eu.int/comm/energy/library/599fi_en.pdf, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 247
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
The German Renewable Energy for solar photovoltaic) that is City and state governments in the
Act (2001) outlined a renewable reevaluated every two years U.S. are also adopting innovative
energy strategy for that country. strategies to promote renewable
The German approach included Simple and transparent energy.
the “eco-tax” (Ökosteuer) that structure
raised gasoline costs by As of Spring 2006, 20 states plus
$.18/gallon by 2004.829 The Incentives for continuous the District of Columbia have
German Renewable Energy Act renewable energy cost adopted programs that mandate
calls for reaching 20% of reduction getting a certain percentage of
electricity and 10% of primary electricity production from
energy from renewable sources High security for investors renewable sources.831 These
by 2020; and 50% of primary “renewable portfolio” programs
energy from renewable sources No dependence on public encourage utilities and citizens to
by 2050, through the following budgets use more renewable energy.
strategies: 830 California and New Jersey have
Financed by energy utilities adopted particularly ambitious
Fixed remuneration that gives goals. Examples of U.S.
incentives for renewable Steps taken towards renewable energy programs
energy sources (ranging from internalizing external costs include:
$.055/kwhr for wind to $.574
Renewable Energy
829
According to Morris, following adoption of the Eco-tax, gasoline sales fell for four consecutive years and 87% of consumers want a car
with higher gas mileage. Gas tax revenues were used to reduce non-wage labor costs such as health insurance.
830
Dr. Manfred Fischedick, Wuppertal Institute, “The German Renewable Energy Act – Success and Ongoing Challenges,” 2004. Available
at: www.wupperinst.org/download/renewables/ICORE.pdf, 30 October 2006.
831
See map of state systems as of 2005 provided by U.S. Department of Energy at
www.eere.energy.gov/states/maps/renewable_portfolio_states.cfm, 30 October 2006.
832
The incentives apply only to investor owned utilities because the California PUC does not have jurisdiction over municipal utilities. See
www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUBLISHED/News_release/52745.htm, 30 October 2006.
www.seia.org/solarnews.php?id=93, 30 October 2006.
248 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
833
A report on the program found that overwhelming demand was causing significant rebate delays – see Steven Lacey,
RenewableEnergyAccess.com, “The Price of Success – Inside the New Jersey Clean Energy Program, 12 October 2006, at
www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=46172, 30 October 2006.
834
See New Jersey Clean Energy website: www.njcep.com, 30 October 2006.
835
City of Santa Monica Environmental Programs Division website, www.santa-monica.org/epd, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 249
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
836
San Diego Regional Energy Office, “Energy 2030 – the San Diego Regional Energy Strategy,” 2003, available at www.sdenergy.org, 30
October 2006.
837
The Chicago Solar Partnership web site, www.chicagosolarpartnership.com, 30 October 2006.
838
See www.bike2015plan.org/, 30 October 2006.
250 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Bridging the Gaps Between Communities can intervene in emissions from converting
Alternative Energy Scenarios these systems to ensure that natural gas to hydrogen (4
energy is supplied in ways that million tons per year) are
At present, most energy planning are cost-effective and secure. planned to be sequestered
is done in a disintegrated fashion. underground.842
Little connection (i.e., whole-
system thinking) is drawn Best Renewable Energy Air quality planning:
between the planning that is done Practices to Supply Fuel • The South Coast Air Quality
to supply vehicle fuels and Examples Management District serving
planning that ensures supply to the Los Angeles metro area
residential and commercial Private sector: has an extensive Clean Fuels
facilities (electricity and direct • As of summer 2006, 65 program that co-funds dozens
consumption). Vehicle fuel is privately owned biodiesel of demonstration projects
delivered by the private sector, manufacturing plants had annually.843
partially in response to state and opened in the U.S. with 49 • British Columbia
federal government more under construction.839 government’s climate change
taxes/incentives and regulations. plan includes programs of the
In 2005, BP launched its “low- air quality division designed
For example, vehicle fuel carbon energy” business, an $8 to reduce GHGs and improve
planning typically takes three billion investment over ten years efficient use of vehicle fuels,
forms: to provide cleaner power including the “Scrap-it
sources.840 Through the U.S. Program” that rewards
Fuel production and Department of Energy’s demolition of older, highly
distribution planning by Hydrogen Plan, BP, which polluting vehicles in
private energy providers (e.g., produces 5,000 tons of hydrogen exchange for rebates on
petroleum companies and, daily, collaborated with Ford cleaner vehicles and a goal
increasingly, bio-fuel Motor Co. and DaimlerChrysler for attaining 30% green
companies); in 2004 to build hydrogen fleet vehicles in the government’s
fueling stations in California, fleet by 2008. The program
Air quality planning by local Florida and Michigan.841 The also publishes tests of hybrid
air quality boards or districts; company expects to complete performance.844
engineering studies in 2006 of a
Alternative fuel plans created hydrogen power plant in Carson,
by state or local governments. CA, using petroleum coke as a
fuel. The carbon
839
Information about the growth of biodiesel through private investments is available at the website of the National Biodiesel Board;
www.biodiesel.org/resources/pressreleases/gen/20060629_willienelsonpacificbiodieselopening.pdf, 30 October 2006.
840
BP Sustainability Report 2005 “Making Energy More,”
www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/STAGING/global_assets/downloads/S/bp_sustainability_report_2.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/bp_report_2005.pdf, 30 October 2006.
841
BP corporate website, press release 27 April 2004: www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=2012968&contentId=2017980, 30 October
2006. The first Los Angeles area hydrogen fueling station was a partnership with the South Coast Air Quality Management District. BP
has also invested in several hydrogen fueling sites in the EU.
842
BP Sustainability Report 2005, p. 43.,
www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/STAGING/global_assets/downloads/S/bp_sustainability_report_2.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/bp_report_2005.pdf, 30 October 2006.
843
In 2004, the AQMD contributed $15 million to the total of $44 million that funded 63 projects including expansion of natural gas and
hydrogen fueling infrastructure and natural gas vehicles. See www.aqmd.gov/tao/Demonstration/index.htm, 30 October 2006.
844
See “Weather, Climate and the Future – BC’s Plan” at www.env.gov.bc.ca/air/climate/cc_plan/pdfs/bc_climatechange_plan.pdf, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/bc_climatechange_plan.pdf, 30 October
2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 251
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Alternative fuel plans845: Residential and commercial Programs to integrate the use of
• Plug-in hybrid vehicles may facility energy planning differs energy efficiency and renewable
be available in the U.S. by states. Sometimes it is highly energy can deliver significant
market by 2008. These regulated by agencies (e.g. public value to a community.
vehicles represent an utility commissions or the
opportunity for vehicle Federal Energy Regulatory Sacramento Municipal Utility
fueling to help (if such Commission). In other locales it District. In 1989, Sacramento,
vehicles are recharged during is a function of the private California shut down its 1,000-
off-peak electrical production sector’s handling of fuels. megawatt nuclear plant.
hours) or hinder community Rather than invest in any
energy security (if charging Community-level facility energy conventional centralized fossil
boosts existing peak end-use planning typically fuel plant, the local utility met
demands). Both the State of involves education and/or its citizens’ needs by investing
California and the city of incentives that affect choices by in energy efficiency and such
Austin, Texas have programs end-users. Programs to renewable supply technologies
underway to encourage the encourage customers to use as wind, solar, biofuels and
use of plug-in hybrids. energy wisely this are described distributed technologies like
• Hydrogen fuel-cell hybrid in this Manual’s Chapter 5, co-generation, fuel cells, etc. In
vehicles represent an Residential Section. 2000, an econometric study
opportunity for distributed showed that the program has
power generation. The Without such programs electric increased the regional
vehicles are small electric utilities are vulnerable to major economic health by over $180
powerplants on wheels that system problems when the million, compared to just
could generate power for a utility’s projection (guess) of running the existing nuclear
facility or the electrical grid total potential electrical demand plant. The utility was able to
while parked, if a connection falls short of actual demand. hold rates level for a decade,
were supplied that delivered This happened to Los Angeles retaining 2,000 jobs in factories
hydrogen, and delivered the Water and Power in the summer that would have been lost
resulting electricity to the of 2006 when it underestimated under the 80% increase in
larger electric grid. electrical demand during a rates that just operating the
• The “Hydrogen Highway summer heat wave by 500 MW power plant would have
Network Action Plan” project and blackouts resulted.847 Had caused. The program
of the California Air LA’s energy planning enabled generated 880 new jobs, and
Resources Board (2004) aims customers to live in buildings enabled the utility to pay off all
“to support and catalyze a that kept inhabitants comfortable of its debt.
rapid transition to a clean, without air conditioning, this
hydrogen transportation problem would not have arisen, Fort Carson Mountain Post in
economy” specifically co- everyone’s bills would have been Colorado has set forth a plan
funding for three hydrogen lower and far less carbon would to meet 100% of its energy
fueling stations and the state have been emitted. needs with renewable energy
lease of hydrogen-fueled by 2027848
vehicles 846
845
For more information on alternative fuel vehicles see: autos.yahoo.com/green_center/.
846
See Executive Order S-7-04 of California Governor Schwarzenegger at www.hydrogenhighway.ca.gov/media/execorder_s704.pdf, also
archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/CA_execorder_s704.pdf, 30 October 2006.
847
The utility’s response to the blackouts was to increase its planning assumptions about the peak demands from its residential customers –
shifting from one megawatt of power being able to serve 750 homes to only 650 homes. (For energy planning in the late 20th century, the
general assumption was one megawatt for 1000 homes). Source: Sharon Bernstein and Amanda Covarrubias, “Heat Wave Caught
DWP Unprepared,” Los Angeles Times, July 28, 2006.
848
Fort Carson sustainability program website, sems.carson.army.mil, 30 October 2006.
252 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Delivering a Sustainable “externalities.” These impacts resources is the denial of that
Energy Plan are massive, but are not reflected resource to future generations.
in the market prices of energy. Interface Inc. CEO Ray
Delivering cost-effective One study estimated the Anderson, one of many business
sustainable energy involves two externalities of coal-fired leaders dismayed by the
essential tasks: electricity to be approximately consequences of externalities,
1. Moving the existing energy four times the market price— notes that externalities mean that
marketplace away from the meaning that in a truthful the market alone cannot provide
business-as-usual scenario by marketplace, coal-fired sufficient constraints on
reducing various market electricity would be closer to corporations’ tendency to cause
failures $0.21/kwhr instead of the present harm. A true market, he argues,
2. Progressing on an investment $.04-$.06 cents. For nuclear would force companies to
path towards a sustainable power, externalities are estimated include externalities in the price
energy future at nine cents per kilowatt hour— of their offerings.851
nearly double the market cost of
In undertaking these tasks, it is running existing plants.849 In contrast, solar electricity is
good to solicit input from such estimated to have externality
community partners as utilities, According to the U.S. costs of one cent per kilowatt
vehicle fuel providers, other Department of Energy, coal-fired hour, in addition to its current
levels of government, and major electricity externalities include estimated costs of 15 to 20 cents.
employers or energy users acid rain, urban ozone and global Wind energy is presently cost
climate change.850 Other competitive with coal and
Balancing the Existing externalities include mercury nuclear, with similarly few
Marketplace Away from pollution, radioactivity, pollution externalities.852
Business-as-Usual from mining, milling, transport
Environmental economists have and waste disposal, externalities To achieve a more balanced
long noted a fundamental flaw in from the use of water, and marketplace, communities can:
market prices: Most prices fall habitat losses or other ecosystem 1. Use regulations and/or
short of capturing the full costs damage incurred during the coal taxes/fees to increase the
of producing the product or lifecycle. In the past four price of non-renewable
service being offered. decades, governments have energy and provide incentives
slightly reduced price to providers of clean energy
Costs such as the impact of externalities by implementing sources of all kinds (e.g., to
releasing carbon into the regulations to protect the make solar energy panels
atmosphere, the cost of environment and reduce damage with fewer toxic materials)
vulnerabilities of central to human health. Even so, the 2. Use regulations and financial
electricity generation, and the majority of externalities listed mechanisms to
various subsidies that the Federal above remain unresolved. • Reduce the effective costs of
government gives to make renewable and in distributed
historic forms of energy like coal A case can be made that another energy
or oil look cheaper, are called externality of non-renewable
849
Externality estimates by Thomas Sundqvist, “Power Generation Choice in the Presence of Environmental Externalities,” Lulea University
of Technology, 2002, at epubl.ltu.se/1402-1544/2002/26/index-en.html, 30 October 2006.
See also Thomas Sundqvist, Patrik Soderholm and and Andrew Stirling, “Electric Power Generation: Valuation of Environmental Costs”
in Enclyclopedia of Energy, Vol. 2, Elsevier Ltd., 2004, pp. 229-243. Mr. Sundqvist estimated coal-fired electricity externalities at
$.16/kwhr, nuclear power at $.09/kwhr, and $.01/kwhr for solar power. Current price of coal-fired electricity from Daniel M. Kammen, “the
Rise of Renewable Energy,” Scientific American, September 2006, p. 86.
850
See John Carlin, “Environmental Externalities in Electric Power Markets: Acid Rain, Urban Ozone and Climate Change,” U.S.
Department of Energy website: www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/pubs_html/rea/feature1.html, 30 October 2006.
851
For a cogent explanation of the set-up for corporations in the modern marketplace, including externalities, see Joel Bakan, The
Corporation – The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power, Viking Canada, 2004. Anderson quotes from p. 72; also see DVD of the
same name.
852
See Renewable sources of energy, with special emphasis on wind energy, Report of the Secretary General, Committee on New and
Renewable Sources of Energy and on Energy for Development, 1998, at www.uneprisoe.org/WindEnergy/UNreportwind.pdf, 30 October
2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 253
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
• Increase the incentives for The municipal utility in Sustainable Energy Investing
energy utilities and Bowling Green, Ohio, led a
community collaborative effort among ten Energy is almost entirely
citizens/organizations to municipal utilities to finance a produced and consumed by what
invest in energy efficiency wind-energy farm.858 accountants call “capital”
and renewable energy goods—long-term investments in
Mason City, Iowa, changed such energy producing devices as
Examples of leading-edge zoning ordinances to allow power plants, wind turbines,
actions include: appropriately sized wind solar cells and the infrastructure
turbines to be installed in like power lines to support
Seattle City Light, the city of residential zones.859 them.865 Energy is usually
Seattle’s public utility, has consumed by other capital
committed to be carbon- The city of Chicago and 47 goods—the heating, cooling, and
neutral. This utility is other local government lighting systems in buildings,
reducing its carbon footprint agencies formed the Local transit options like cars, and
through use of renewable Government Power Alliance. industrial equipment. Capital
energy sources and purchasing Through it, they negotiated goods are meant to have a multi-
carbon credits to achieve lower-cost electrical service year life, and are often paid for
carbon neutrality. The scheme that includes higher levels of over the item’s lifetime. Large
effectively prices its energy as renewable energy. 860 energy producing or consuming
if it had few externalities.853 systems are expected to last
Seattle City Light achieved For additional examples, see: several decades.
zero net greenhouse gas The Apollo Alliance, “New
emissions in 2005 and 2006.854 Energy for Cities—Energy Setting and delivering on short-
Saving and Job Creation term goals to replace wasteful,
Thief River Falls, Minnesota, Policies for Local fossil fuel energy systems
offers low interest loans and Government.” 861 generates excitement,
incentives to customers who demonstrates commitment and
install ground-source heat ICLEI, the International builds institutional momentum
pumps—a less electricity Council for Local towards sustainable strategies,
intensive system for heating Environmental Initiatives.862 but requires a plan to finance
and cooling buildings.855 these alternative capital
The U.S. Department of investments.
Santa Clara, California, rents Energy’s Energy Efficiency
solar hot water systems to and Renewable Energy home The success of renewable power
citizens and businesses.856 page.863 efforts will be partly determined
by whether such efforts are given
Honolulu, Hawaii, offers 0-2% The National Renewable consistent support by local and
loans to homeowners to install Energy Laboratory’s home regional governments. Some
solar hot water systems.857 page.864 local governments will be
853
Seattle City Light: www.seattle.gov/light/, 30 October 2006.
854
City of Seattle, www.seattle.gov/light/conserve/globalwarming/default.asp, 5 December 2006.
855
Apollo Alliance, “New Energy for Cities – Energy Saving and Job Creation Policies for Local Governments,” p..6,
www.apolloalliance.org/docUploads/new%5Fenergy%5Fcities%2Epdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/ApolloAlliance_EnergyforCities.pdf, 30 October 2006.
856
Ibid. p. 4.
857
Ibid. p. 5.
858
Ibid. p. 7.
859
Ibid. p. 7.
860
“Customer Aggregation: An Opportunity for Green Power?” by Edward Holt of Ed Holt & Associates, and Lori Bird of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2001: www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/resources/pdfs/lb29408.pdf, 30 October 2006.
861
The Apollo Alliance, “New Energy for Cities – Energy Saving and Job Creation Policies for Local Government, www.apolloalliance.org/
and www.apolloalliance.org/docUploads/new_energy_cities.pdf, 30 October 2006.
862
ICLEI’s web site: www.iclei.org, 30 October 2006.
863
The Department of Energy, www.eere.energy.gov/, 30 October 2006.
864
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, www.nrel.gov/, 30 October 2006.
254 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
hesitant to take on a leadership and market forces beyond our equipment choices that provides
role if increased short-term costs control and it does not lasting value because it uses less
threaten to temporarily dampen contribute to global warming. energy. For example, investing
their business climate. We look forward to in high performance green
increasing Burlington's buildings that can be expected to
The solar energy industry in supply of renewables such as be 50% less costly to operate is a
California hailed the California wind energy not only as a good deal, even if there are
Solar Initiative because it created way of providing the citizens higher initial design costs.867
an 11-year certainty of support and business owners of
for the industry through rebates. Burlington with clean Every time a community chooses
This long-term approach will electricity but also providing inefficient options like
allow the industry to give them with an affordable and centralized energy supplies, it
investors a stable planning reliable supply. Renewable locks citizens into years of being
horizon that will give them the energy is part of a sustainable less competitive. It is important
confidence to change from the and fiscally sound power to articulate a sustainable energy
business-as-usual course. supply portfolio.866 future that looks two decades or
so into the future, that maximizes
The city utility in Burlington, The city of San Francisco boasts your chances for widespread use
Vermont has invested heavily in one of the nation’s most of distributed, renewable energy,
renewable generation: comprehensive sustainable and that uses energy efficiently
Over 46% of Burlington energy programs. It required the to help avoid long-term
Electric Department (BED)'s use of B20 biodiesel in all city investments that will be
power mix was from diesel vehicles in 2006, moving uncompetitive or
renewable sources in fiscal to the use of B100 (100% environmentally untenable in the
year 2005. This was up from biodlesel) in 2007. All city future.
42% in 2004. BED is buildings must meet the U.S.
continuing to pursue Green Building Council’s LEED
additional renewable sources Silver criteria for green Primer on Sustainable Energy
of power such as wind energy buildings. The city passed a Sources
in an effort to add fuel bond to fund putting solar
diversity and to stabilize electric systems on residential The primer below is offered as a
power costs for Burlington buildings, and will replace its guide. It obviously cannot
consumers. With fossil fuel payroll tax with a green tax address current or specific
prices at record highs, credit for solar energy. market conditions, since these
renewables act as a means to are constantly changing.
balance the high cost of fossil Community leaders need to Renewable technologies are
fuel based energy. The cost realize that every day new capital evolving rapidly as well. Every
of generating renewable investment decisions are made community should undertake an
energy, especially in-state that will affect energy production up-to-date investigation at the
renewable energy, is level and and consumption patterns for time of a sustainable energy
generally predictable; unlike decades to come. To minimize planning process.
fossil fuel its price is not energy needs a community will
influenced by international need to invest in different
865
Former Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber, on launching a more sustainable energy future, said that “digging, drilling and burning” is a 19th
century technology.
866
Burlington Electric Department Sources of Power, www.burlingtonelectric.com/sourcepower.htm, 30 October 2006.
867
The US Green Building Council has documented that good green buildings typically cost no more to build than ordinary, energy wasting
structures. Even if there are an up-front costs, green buildings will typically result in a lifetime savings of up to 20% of total building cost.
www.USGBC.org, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 255
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
The following renewable energy Sustainability Attributes: Getting power lines built to
sources will be explored further: Wind accommodate intermittent
• Wind energy can be used in a wind resources is a challenge
Wind-generated electricity; decentralized network but can in the current structure of
also be used in a conventional U.S. power grids.
Solar-generated electricity and grid system; wind has no
hot water; ongoing emissions; requires Potential Community Support
minimal toxic or hazardous Actions: Wind
Biomass-generation; materials for construction and • Begin with giving priority to
operations. Its costs are building wind energy
Waste-generated electricity; competitive to coal and infrastructure, and giving
natural gas, meaning that incentives to utilities and
Hydro-generation; taking externalities into customers to buy wind and
account, it may be several transition away from coal.
Earth-generation; times less expensive than
nuclear or fossil electricity Solar-Generated Electricity
Hydrogen power; and that require ongoing fueling and Hot Water
and avoidance of full-costs.
Nuclear power. Examples: Solar
Sustainability Challenges: • Active or passive solar energy
Wind used to heat water, which
Wind-Generated Electricity • Include potential wildlife may be used directly or used
impacts, other ecological to heat buildings.
Examples: Wind impacts,870 visual impacts, • Solar lighting design.
• Horizontal-axis wind turbines maintenance challenges.871 • Photovoltaics used to
(the most common type of generate electricity directly
turbine). Market Challenges: Wind from sunlight.
• Vertical-axis wind turbines • Include educating
(designed for capturing wind government leaders and Sustainability Attributes: Solar
closer to the ground or tops of customers about wind • Sunlight is the ultimate
buildings).868 energy’s potential, siting and energy resource; it needs no
• Wind-capturing devices in the regulatory challenges,872 fuel, in most parts of the
atmosphere e.g. floating wind evolving technology, wind’s world it is reliable (some of
turbines.869 intermittency, and challenges the largest recent solar
(given intermittency) in photovoltaic installations are
integrating with traditional in cloudy Bavaria, Germany),
electrical grid management. and it is able to operate for
long periods without
maintenance, making it
optimal for “off-the-grid” and
dispersed applications.
868
Companies developing and marketing vertical axis wind turbines include Aerotecture International Inc., (Chicago, IL – see
www.aerotecture.com) and Quiet Revolution Ltd., (UK – see www.quietrevolution.co.uk ).
869
Such devices are held aloft in the atmosphere where wind speeds are higher by various means including balloons or virtual kites – for
more see www.magenn.com, 30 October 2006.
870
For a summary of the current environmental challenges and solutions with offshore installations, see James O. Jones and Christine Love,
“Bringing Offshore Wind Energy to Shore,” North American Windpower magazine, October 2006, p. 16.
871
Gearboxes have been a trouble spot for older wind turbines – given the expense of downtime and of gearbox repairs.
872
Regarding offshore siting challenges, see John S. Hingtgen, “Shorelines Might Welcome Wind – From a Distance,” North American
Windpower magazine, October 2006, p. 25.
256 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Sustainability Challenges: Agricultural biomass is used • Separate collection of
Solar directly or for electrical biomass from other wastes.
• Use of toxics in generation. • Incentives for use of local
manufacturing; siting • Wood-generated energy— agricultural products or
challenges; net energy wood-fired electrical power wastes in biofuel
contribution concerns.873 plants; direct burning of wood development, including
for electricity and/ or process public support of small
Market Challenges: Solar heat; wood can also be business development to
• The cost (15+ cents per converted to hydrogen fuel. supply local wastes or other
kilowatt hour for solar Biofuels for vehicles and biofuels to processing plants
electricity) makes some solar other users of portable liquid and/or convert vehicles to
options a difficult choice. high-energy-density fuels, better use biofuels.876
More people will buy solar as including ethanol and • Support (such as economic
the costs will decrease. biodiesel from agricultural development tax or financial
About a dozen new products, agricultural wastes incentives) for pioneering
companies promise to have and food wastes. biofuel retail outlets and/or
competitive solar electricity distribution systems.
within four years. Sustainability Attributes:
Biomass Waste-Generated Electricity
Potential Community Support • Biomass generated waste is
Actions: Solar carbon-neutral in that the Examples: Waste
• Homeowners and businesses biomass stored carbon during • Waste to energy systems –
have shown themselves to be growth that is released during using landfill-destined
enthusiastic buyers of solar combustion (though not at the materials to generate
when incentives are great same rate). electricity and/or process
enough to reduce up-front heat.
costs. Sustainability Challenges: • Waste biomass to energy (see
Biomass biomass section).
Biomass-Generated Electricity • Though technically carbon-
neutral, biomass is Sustainability Attributes:
Examples: Biomass nevertheless carbon-based Waste
• Bio-gas (a substitute for and does not necessarily • Can reduce impacts of waste
natural gas or propane) contribute to the dramatic hauling and management.
generated from biomass. reductions in carbon • Can reduce market and
Biomass can either be emissions needed for climate hauling/shipping challenges
specially grown or derived stabilization.874 of recycling markets.
from waste streams—either • Market challenges include • Support local energy
prior to or after landfilling. potentially fluctuating prices production enhancing energy
and supply.875 security.
• Potential community support
actions.
873
Author David Kimble found six studies of the energy returned for the energy input of existing solar PV electricity cells – the results ranged
from .86 to 1.4 (1.4 means 40% more energy returned than invested). See www.energybulletin.net/14849.html, 30 October 2006. A solar
installer in California states that in California, solar cells provide more energy than was required to make them after three years – see
www.solarexpert.com/future2.html, 30 October 2006.
874
For more on this see US Department of Energy, “Our Changing Earth, Our Changing Climate – Biofuels: A Solution for Climate Change”,
1999, available at www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/24052.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/SustainableEnergy/BiofuelsSolution.pdf, 30 October 2006.
875
Christopher Juniper of Natural Capitalism Solutions interview with Burlington VT’s municipal utility that operates a wood-fired power plant
– wood cutters were leaving the market due to closure of paper mills, causing a shortage of wood for the power plant in 2004.
876
For example, a small Florida company has developed an efficient way to convert water into a clean burning fuel akin to hydrogen, and is
developing auto conversion kits that boost gas mileage and use of cleaner fuels. See website of Hydrogen Technology Applications, Inc.,
www.hytechapps.com, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 257
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Sustainability Challenges: • Tidal-power electrical hydro sites are not often
Waste generation. close to where the power
will be consumed.
• Waste to energy plants can Sustainability Attributes:
release toxics into the Hydro Potential Community Support
biosphere—the amount and • Essentially a solar-powered Actions: Hydro
type depending on the plant’s and infinite resource. • Land use and permitting
design and operation and the • Uses mechanical systems that regulations that facilitate
waste inputs.877 require few toxic materials power generation at low-head
• Diverts waste to energy uses although coatings are likely or other hydro sites that are
rather than reuse or recycling. toxic-based to withstand less ecologically destructive
water damage. than big dam projects.
Market Challenges: Waste • Operations have low
ecological impact though are Earth-Generation
• High infrastructure costs up removing energy from an
front require dedication of ecological system. Examples: Earth
waste streams to energy • Geo-thermal heat converted
production rather than Sustainability Challenges: to steam and/or electricity.
progressively more recycling. Hydro • Earth-based heat pumps that
• Power production not more efficiently heat or cool
Potential Community Support proximate to electrical buildings using the earth’s
Actions: Waste demand–leading to materials ambient temperature.
• Examine legislative and potential ecological • Passive earth berming
definitions of toxic or damage from transmissions systems that moderate
hazardous waste to ensure system installation and building temperature
they do not interfere with maintenance. swings—reducing
economical and sustainable • Dams flood ecological heating/cooling loads—
recycling of such wastes systems and human land-uses including thick earth-based
through incineration or other (including villages/towns) walls of buildings.
energy-generating means. and are difficult for migrating
• Ensure that landfill costs fish to navigate. Sustainability Attributes:
nearly always exceed the Earth
costs of recycling, reusing or Market Challenges: Hydro • Perhaps the least damaging to
incinerating wastes.878 • A limited number of ecosystems, unless critical
sustainable hydro habitats or unique areas are
Hydro-Generation Electricity opportunities damaged by the loss of heat
• Potentially long permitting to human uses.
Examples: Hydro processes–often for good
• Freshwater storage power reason since hydro can easily
systems (dams). cause long-lasting damage to
• Wave-power electrical riverine ecosystems and
generation.
877
Waste to energy plants are highly controversial – knowledgeable experts are not yet convinced that burning temperatures will always be
high enough to break down all potential toxics prior to air emission. For more on this technology – see the Waste to Energy Research
and Technology Council website at Columbia University www.seas.columbia.edu./earth/wtert/, 30 October 2006.
“Pollution from Waste-to-Energy Incinerators,” October 2006, at Alternative Energy website: www.alternative-energy-news.info/pollution-
from-waste-to-energy-incinerators/, 30 October 2006.
878
This fundamental strategy is at the heart of highly successful waste reduction systems such as those of Portland, OR; Seattle, WA; and
Alameda County, CA.
258 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Sustainability Challenges: “liberate” hydrogen takes energy. infrastructure as this technology
Earth Once liberated, the hydrogen is develops.
• Ecosystem damage from attracted to rebond with oxygen
development and heat to again form water. The flow of Nuclear Power
removal. electrons generated by this
process is the basis for the Nuclear electricity can substitute
Market Challenges: Earth electricity produced by fuel cells. for coal-fired generation as a
• Relatively few sites available utility baseload resource.
for active geothermal. Critical questions regarding Because the fissioning of nuclear
• Building codes can whether and how the U.S. should material does not release GHG
intentionally or accidentally adopt hydrogen as a preferred emissions (though the nuclear
interfere with innovative earth carrier of its energy future lifecycle releases large amounts),
berming or heat pump include: nuclear advocates claim that the
systems. technology is carbon neutral.
Is hydrogen a more efficient
Potential Community Support carrier of energy than While some people are
Actions: Earth electricity—enough so to concerned enough about climate
• Facilitate use of earth-based justify massive investments in change to advocate using nuclear
energy sources through hydrogen carrying power as a coal substitute, most
friendly zone and infrastructure? advocates do not consider
development processes. nuclear to be a cost-effective
• Support studies and pilot How easily can existing fleets substitute, a sustainable
projects demonstrating be adapted to use hydrogen, if technology, or a viable solution.
efficacy of new technologies. at all? The first challenge with nuclear
is its cost. New nuclear plants
A sustainable energy primer is What storage technologies will rival solar electric in price.
not complete without briefly emerge as the standards for the Advocates claim that new
addressing the sustainable marketplace – facilitating varieties of reactors will be
attributes of a promising new investments in fueling cheaper, but the past history of
energy carrier, hydrogen, and the infrastructure?879 nuclear went, in the words of the
continued controversy regarding Economist Magazine, “from too
whether nuclear energy can be Can fuel cells that convert cheap to meter to too costly to
considered a sustainable hydrogen to electricity both matter.”880 Nuclear technology
technology for generating come down in price and find is also strongly proliferative of
energy. alternatives to premium metals nuclear bombs. Spreading the
as the catalyst? domestic power technology
Hydrogen around the world would certainly
Auto companies expect encourage more nations to
Hydrogen, like electricity, is an technology debates regarding develop weapons capability.881
energy carrier. Though a natural hydrogen vehicle technology to
element, on earth hydrogen is continue until about 2015. The multi-generation liability of
bound with oxygen in the very Meanwhile, the question for your toxic waste still plagues the
strong bonds of water. To community is whether there are nuclear fuel cycle, even after a
cost-effective ways to support half-century of determined
the development of a hydrogen research. A litmus test: would
879
Three distinct fuel systems continue to compete to become the preferred system for vehicles: pressurized hydrogen gas, hydrogen
cooled to a liquid (becoming denser), and solid hydrogen fuel packs. For information on the latter, visit the website of Uni-Solar, which
demonstrated solid hydrogen fuel packs in 2005: www.uni-solar.com, 30 October 2006.
880
Economist magazine, August 27th, 2001.
881
Lovins, A, Lovins, H, Energy/ War: Breaking the Nuclear Link, Friends of the Earth 1980.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 259
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
your community be willing to Misalignment of the incentives this Manual has shown, utilities
site a new nuclear plant or waste that electric utilities see with can be slow to move slowly
dump nearby? New reactor the boader interests of the towards a sustainable energy
designs may hold promise of community future for a variety of reasons,
reducing the likelihood of primarily including institutional
catastrophic accidents, but such The lack of “communicators” momentum or skepticism,
accidents are only the tip of the who can help all stakeholders regulatory systems and their
iceberg of the unsustainable understand the benefits of financial incentive structures.
aspects of nuclear power. Given renewable energy Utilities are critical economic
that few communities would development partners and can be
undertake to construct a reactor Failure to acknowledge encouraged to embrace the
on their own, this debate is likely people’s perceptions of risks economic advantages of
to be irrelevant to a community and how those risks can be distributed and sustainable
energy plan.882 mitigated, or how risk energy as part of rate-reduction
perceptions can be reduced strategy that will help your
businesses become more globally
Primary Barriers to Address Conservatism of banks and competitive. Unless your
hesitancy to deal with utilities are taking a leadership
There are hundreds of barriers renewable energy role in sustainable energy, they
that inhibit people from investment/loan opportunities. will benefit from prompting – the
implementing energy systems nearly four-decade history of
that are preferable to what are in Some local municipalities have environmental activism with
place now. The 1998 analysis of zoning rules against solar utilities demonstrates that not all
climate protecting opportunities, panels & wind turbines the best ideas come from the
Climate Making Sense and “experts.” In short, the issues are
Making Money883 listed 60–80 Three barriers are particular complex but can be grasped by
specific market failures of 8 challenges: talented citizen’s committees for
types: a sustainable energy future that
1. Capital misallocation The hassle factor will empower a community to
2. Organizational failures Things are working fine, why take on matching production
3. Informational failures change them? Margaret Mead with end-uses, and maximizing
4. Regulatory failures said that the only person who the economic development
5. Value-chain risks likes change is a wet baby. The benefits of keeping power
6. Perverse incentives challenges posed by climate generation dollars in the local
7. False or absent price signals change will dictate change. economy.
8. Absent markets Cities that undertake such
programs on their own timeline The market challenges of
These include such market will enjoy a significant distributed power (sustainable
imperfections as: advantage. But overcoming the or not).
basic hassle factor will take
Lack of clarity of benefits to inspired leadership. Distributed power generation
local community located near the people who will
The complexity factor use the power, and scaled to the
Lack of confidence in the Why should the city government size of consumption is a new
numbers (payback, lifecycle get involved in a complex field concept for nearly all Americans.
costs) both with city full of experts at utility and Key barriers to overcome
departments and private energy service companies? As through sustainable energy
businesses planning include:
882
For more on the challenges of nuclear see Nuclear Information and Resource Service www.nirs.org, 30 October 2006.
883
For a systematic discussion of such barriers and how to clear them see Lovins, A, Lovins H, Climate: Making Sense and Making Money,
1998, www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/climate_sense.pdf, 30 October 2006.
260 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Reluctance of citizens or energy is a far cry from early
organizations to enter the systems. Public education is the
power production business remedy. Many communities
themselves and/or make long sponsor sustainable living fairs
term utility-type investments or events that help citizens
understand and welcome
Reluctance of financial sustainable technologies.884
institutions to fund utility-type
investments at competitive
interest rates – especially of Conclusion
new technologies with little
collateral value Cities and regions can plan for a
sustainable energy future:
Lack of information flow to all maximizing renewable energy
but highly motivated citizens sources; using market forces to
balance energy prices through
All of these barriers can be
inclusion of externalities in
reduced through visionary
energy prices; and supporting
planning that helps the
renewable investments through
community understand that its
favorable regulations and
energy future should be in its
financing.
own hands; that the experts do
not have all the answers; and that
While much research and
the energy security and other
experimentation to determine the
benefits of a more sustainable
right strategy for your
approach are serious economic
community, a significant
development advantages.
community of sustainable energy
planning practitioners and
Early sustainable power
proven practices is already
technologies systems gained a
available to guide the efforts of
reputation, (deserved or not) for
your community. Modern
poor performance/ excessive
technologies to save energy and
maintenance, safety, cost,
generate renewable energy
aesthetics and provider
communities can profitably
reliability/ stability.
protect the climate and the
economy.
Like most pioneering
technologies, sustainable energy
efforts have suffered from some
ideas being ahead of available
materials, design or maintenance
capabilities. Too many people
remain stuck in that past rather
than observing the almost daily
maturation of sustainable energy
systems. Modern renewable
884
A leading example is the annual Community Sustainability Conference and Expo produced with multiple community partners by Fort
Carson Mountain Post of the US Army in the three county Pikes Peak region of south-central Colorado, sems.carson.army.mil, 30
October 2006. Numerous other conference formats have been developed – such conferences are also strong economic development
opportunities.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 261
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Additional inspiring the public and
policymakers on the importance
Prince Edward Island
Renewable Portfolio—Prince
Resources of renewable energy to the Edward Island is planning to
economic, environmental and produce 30% of its total energy
Race to the Top: The national security of the United needs from local, renewable
expanding role of U.S. State States. The report, American resources by 2016.
Renewable Portfolio Energy: The Renewable Path to www.nawindpower.com/naw/pri
Standards, Prepared for the Pew Energy Security, demonstrates nt.php?plugin:content.175
Center on Global Climate the potential of renewable energy
Change, June 2006, Author: and energy efficiency and BioTown, USA—this project’s
Barry G. Rabe, University of presents a practical policy long term goal is to meet all the
Michigan agenda for achieving them.” energy needs of Reynolds,
Indiana via biorenewable
This report builds on earlier Pew A copy of the report is available resources, including electricity,
Center analyses of the evolving on the web at: natural gas replacement, and
state role in climate policy http://americanenergynow.org/ab transportation fuel
development, placing a particular out/ http://www.biotownusa.com/
focus on the RPS experience to
date. It presents an overview of Funding Opportunity - U.S.
this policy tool and examines key Department of Energy Grant,
factors in both policy formation Solar America Initiative (SAI)
and implementation. This work Market Transformation: Solar
considers the experience of all City Strategic Partnerships.
RPS states but devotes particular For incorporated cities with
attention to five case studies: populations greater than 100,000.
Texas, Massachusetts, Application deadline: January
Pennsylvania, Nevada and 10, 2007
Colorado that illustrate both tinyurl.com/yyyxja, 2 November,
common themes and points of 2006
divergence among individual
state programs. The analysis
concludes with an examination
of RPS performance to date and
some of the leading opportunities
and challenges facing future
development.
www.pewclimate.org/global-
warming-in-
depth/all_reports/race_to_the_to
p/index.cfm
262 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Sustainable Energy
Chapter 5: Develop a
Local Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Education
DOCUMENT CONTENTS
Education is one of the most
important long-term initiatives
Community
Community Education Initiatives:263 that a city can use to address its Education Initiatives
CASE STUDIES: greenhouse gas (GHG)
Burlington, VT................... 264 emissions. Through education, a Initiatives to educate
Telluride, CO .................... 265 city gains greater engagement communities on climate change
SYNERGY, Actus and GHG reduction include:
Lend Lease ..................... 265
and support from the community
State of Maine .................. 267 to reduce carbon emissions. At
Albuquerque, NM.............. 267 the same time, education fosters School Initiatives
Additional Resources: ............. 268 critical thinking and nurtures the Create a challenge for local
environmental leaders and schools to meet, such as reducing
experts of the future. their school’s energy use or
reducing waste. Give the
There is no right way a city winning school or class a prize
should go about creating an (such as a field trip, school event,
education initiative, but many award or prize related to
cities are trying different reducing emissions). Some
programs with great success. A schools have offered faculty and
few will be highlighted in case students a share of the savings
studies below. The most they achieved by shutting off
important thing to remember is unneeded lights and otherwise
that in order to create a reducing energy waste. They
successful education initiative, have often been surprised by the
people must be interested, size of the resulting savings.
engaged and feel that they can Similar programs can be offered
take steps in their own lives to to the facilities staff. Resulting
make a difference. awards can be used to increase
staff salaries, hold a party or buy
needed equipment for programs.
Or even better, the savings can
go into a fund to capitalize
further savings.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 263
Long Term Initiatives: Education
School Curriculum Community Emissions Museum and Science Centers
Develop a curriculum for schools Reduction Challenges Encourage local museums and
focused on a specific grade, Create a community-wide goal. science centers to include
specific class or a course section For example, Burlington, interactive, hand-on displays on
for all grades. The curriculum Vermont challenged the climate change and its relation to
can be either optional or community to reduce carbon energy use. Encourage and
mandatory. Focus on making the emissions 10% by 2010. Provide provide incentives to local
curriculum engaging and incentives, education and schools to take students to
interactive.885 The electric utility resources for participants. The visit.886
BC Hydro worked with schools more people know about the
in the Vancouver area to create a climate reduction program, the Engage Community
software program that students greater its likely success. Stakeholders
could use in their school to Successful education programs
identify and capture energy Distribute Educational incorporate local groups, experts
savings, and another that they Materials and activists in all stages of the
could take home to do an audit of Make educational materials planning and implementation
their own houses. widely accessible and engaging processes. Refer to Chapter 5,
to all ages and groups. Stakeholder Engagement section
for more information and
resources.
Community Education
885
For ideas on school curriculum see resources at end of this document.
886
For more information and ideas for museum and science center displays see, globalwarmingcalifornia.net/museums.htm, 5 October 2006.
887
Clean Air—Cool Planet, www.cleanair-coolplanet.org/for_communities/behavior_change.php, 29 September, 2006.
888
The 10% Challenge. www.10percentchallenge.org/, 5 October 2006.
264 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Education
Community Education
Community Education
889
Town of Telluride, www.town.telluride.co.us/home/index.asp?page=2, 5 October 2006.
890
Katie Klingsporn, “Town Launches Unplugged Campaign.” Telluride Daily Planet, Oct. 1, 2006.
www.telluridegateway.com/articles/2006/10/02/news/news01.txt, 5 October 2006.
891
Actus Lend Lease, www.actuslendlease.com/, 5 October 2006.
892
Full Case Study archived, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/Education/ActusLendLease_Synergy.pdf, 5
October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 265
Long Term Initiatives: Education
Providing children’s activity species awareness and CONTACT
books, complete with energy protection
conservation checklists and Sustainability and Innovation
prizes for completion Providing free technology, like Coordinator—Actus Lend Lease
COSMEO from Discovery Tabitha Crawford
Partnering with national zoo Learning, to residents to test (615) 324-7545
educational staff to use energy management behavior TCrawford@ActusLendLease.com
characters in activity books modification
that promote endangered
Community Education
893
MEEP Homepage, www.meepnews.org, 5 October 2006.
266 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Education
Community Education
894
Albuquerque’s Environmental Story, www.cabq.gov/aes/index.html, 5 October 2006.
895
How to Create your own Community’s Environmental Story, www.cabq.gov/aes/process/index.html, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 267
Long Term Initiatives: Education
Additional Community-Based Projects to The Colorado Energy Science
Center School Program teaches
Help Reduce Greenhouse Gas
Resources Emissions students about the sources of
www.mb.ec.gc.ca/info/news/cc0 energy and the economics and
School Initiatives and 1s43.en.html environmental issues associated
Curriculum: www.on.ec.gc.ca/announce.cfm? with energy use. For the 2006-
• California Climate Change ID=679&Lang=e 2007 school year, CESC offers
and Energy, Education the following programs to
Resources Catalog Texas State Energy students, teachers and schools:
globalwarmingcalifornia.net/k Conservation Office, Energy • Energy Hog Traveling Road
12.htm Education Links Show—interactive school
• Clean Air Kids www.seco.cpa.state.tx.us/sch- assembly program that
www.clean-air- gov_ed-links.htm teaches 3rd-6th grade
kids.org.uk/information.html students about the sources
• Climate Change Museum and Science Center
of energy, how we waste
Education.Org. Website Resources:
Marian Koshland Science energy and how to
dedicated to education on
global warming and climate Museum, Washington, D.C. conserve energy
change. Offers science, www.koshland-science- www.energyscience.org/educ
solutions, curriculum and museum.org/exhibitgcc/index.jsp ation/EnergyHog/index1.htm
resource directory • Energy Science in the
www.climatechangeeducation Alliance to Save Energy, Green Home:
.org Schools Program Hands-on Activities for the
www.ase.org/section/program/gr Middle Grades—inquiry-
Hike & Bike Challenge eenschl based program that helps
www.environmentalsociety.ca/hi students explore the
kebike/how-to.html Students Leading the Way dynamics of home energy
2004-2005: Energy Saving use through investigations
The Sierra Club has released a Success Stories from
that integrate math, science
guide, “Cool Cities: Solving California’s Schools
www.ase.org/images/lib/educator and economics
Global Warming One City at a
Time.” The guide explains the s/Success%20Book%2005.pdf. • Home Energy Investigation
steps toward making cities “cool” Also archived: Contest event for middle
and tells success stories from a www.natcapsolutions.org/Climat and high school students
broad range of cities, from eManual/Cities/Chapter5/LongTe which is a project-based
greening municipal vehicle fleets rmInitiatives/Education/CAScho learning experience to
with hybrid cars in Houston and ols_energysavings.pdf, 5 October investigate home energy
Charlotte; energy efficient street 2006 use; home energy
lights and buildings in Salt Lake efficiency, and;
City and Scottsdale, Arizona; to Science Museum of Virginia improvements in home
renewable energy investments in virginia.science.museum/Educati
energy efficiency
Waverly, Iowa and Columbia, on/MiniMarine.html
www.energyscience.org/educ
Missouri. The guide is available ation/homeenergy/index.html
online at
• Special Projects for 2006-
www.sierraclub.org/globalwarmi
ng/coolcities.
2007
www.energyscience.org/educ
ation/Special.Projects.html
Maine Energy Education
Program • www.energyscience.org/educ
home.psouth.net/~meep/ ation/index.html
268 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Education
Chapter 5: Develop
a Local Action Plan
Long Term Initiatives
Waste Management
This process of generating The United States Environmental
DOCUMENT CONTENTS garbage and what becomes of it Protection Agency (EPA) website
Strategies for Municipal Solid Waste when it is thrown away produces explains:
Management ...............................270 greenhouse gases (GHGs) in a
Source Reduction..................270 variety of ways. There is an The anaerobic decomposition of
Recycling/ Composting..........270 enormous amount that a waste in landfills produces
Recycling ........................271
Composting .....................271
community can do to reduce the methane.
Incineration/ Combustion.......272 waste that it produces. Helping
Landfill...................................273 citizens reduce waste is part of a The incineration of waste
CASE STUDIES: program to protect the climate. produces CO2 as a by-product.
Rapid City, SD ....................274
Northwest Indiana...............274
Palo Alto, CA ......................276 In 2003 the U.S produced more The transportation of waste to
San Jose, CA......................276 than 236 million tons of disposal sites produces GHGs
Tools for Community Waste Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), from the equipment’s fuel
Prevention...................................276 or trash. This is equal to combustion.
Additional Resources ..................279
approximately 4.5 pounds of
waste per person per day.896 The The disposal of materials
sources of waste generation indicates that new products are
break down as follows897: being produced as
• Paper: 35.2% replacements; this production
• Yard Trimmings: 12.1% often requires the use of fossil
• Food Scraps: 11.7% fuels to obtain raw materials
• Plastics: 11.3% and manufacture the items.”898
• Metals: 8.0%
• Rubber, Leather, and EPA describes four main stages
Textiles: 7.4% of product life-cycle (raw
• Glass: 5.3% material acquisition,
manufacturing, recycling, and
• Wood: 5.8%
waste management) and
• Other: 3.4%
illustrates how they connect with
GHG emissions. Similarly,
896
If all forms of the materials flow required to produce what Americans use are counted, including all of the water, gasses and mine tailings,
it amounts to 20 times your body weight for every American every day. Yet of all of this stuff, less that 1% is ever embodied in a product
and is still there six months after sales. All the rest is waste. For more information on the staggering amounts that we waste, see
Hawken, Lovins and Lovins, Natural Capitalism, P52, Little Brown, 1999.
897
These are 2003 numbers courtesy of EPA Municipal Solid Waste Facts www.epa.gov/msw/facts.htm, 30 September 2006.
898
U.S. EPA Global Warming, yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ActionsWasteBasicInfoGeneral.html, 5 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 269
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
reducing this waste (through GHG emissions from and paper products decreases
source reduction, recycling and incinerators, and carbon dioxide deforestation and can result in
composting) can reduce the emitted from energy increased capacity of forests to
methane emitted from landfills, consumption. Using fewer wood sequester carbon.899
899
U.S. EPA, yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ActionsWasteBasicInfoGeneral.html, 6 October 2006.
900
U.S. EPA, yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ActionsWasteBasicInfoGeneralLifeCycle.html, 6 October 2006.
901
EPA Municipal Solid Waste Facts www.epa.gov/msw/facts.htm, 30 September 2006.
902
For more information on Design for Environment see: www.epa.gov/dfe/. For more information on lean manufacturing see:
www.sme.org/leandirections and www.isixsigma.com/me/lean_manufacturing/, 15 January 2007.
270 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Recycling programs drop-off centers, buy- the virgin material. Energy
Materials that are recycled back programs and deposit savings that can be achieved
include batteries, recycled at a systems.903 Recycling reduces from recycling depend in part on
rate of 93%, paper and GHG emissions at two levels: energy intensity of virgin versus
paperboard at 48%, and yard emissions from landfill or recycled material, but range as
trimmings at 56%. Some cities incineration and emissions saved illustrated by the table below.
provide curbside recycling from avoiding further need for
904
Table: EPA Waste Management and Energy Savings: Benefits by the Numbers
Composting Clifton, New Jersey has been the annual emissions of one car.”
Composting is the process of actively engaged in educating Due to composting grass and
diverting organic waste from the citizens about waste reduction food waste, the city estimates
landfill, enabling it to be and climate change. As part of citizens have reduced GHG
converted to a soil amendment this, the city promotes backyard emissions equivalent to 582 cars’
and using it as fertilizer. Not composting and leaving grass annual emissions.905
only does this keep the material clippings on the lawn. An
from rotting in the landfill and education campaign explains Yard trimmings and food
releasing methane, but it that, “for every 7.4 tons of residuals together constitute 23%
reintroduces the carbon to the materials the city composts, it of the U.S. municipal solid waste
soil where it can be held for decreases greenhouse gas stream.906 Compostable material
years. Since 1997 the city of emissions by an amount equal to includes907:
903
Ibid.
904
Choate,A., Pederson, L. ,Scharfenberg, J. (ICF Consulting) & Ferland, H,(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). “Waste Management
and Energy Savings: Benefits by the Numbers.”
yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/TMAL6GDR3K/$File/Energy%20Savings.pdf, 6 October 2006.
905
“City of Clifton: Education is Key to Reducing Climate Change”
www.epa.gov/wastewise/pubs/clifton.pdf#search=%22climate%20change%20composting%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/Clifton_WasteWise.pdf, 19 October 2006.
906
EPA Composting website, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/composting/index.htm, 4 October 2006.
907
EPA Composting website, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/composting/basic.htm, 4 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 271
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
• Animal manure a higher quality, less maintaining home compost.
• Cardboard rolls contaminated compost, as Upon completing the program,
• Clean paper well as maximize the master composters are required
• Coffee grounds and filters recycling of glass and paper. to volunteer 50 hours to conduct
• Cotton rags And while source separation composting workshops and
• Dryer and vacuum cleaner is generally less convenient educational outreach in their
lint for the waste generator, pilot community. In the past 10 years,
• Eggshells programs are finding that the program has trained 275
• Fireplace ashes many generators like to do it. people, who have collectively
• Fruits and vegetables However, two other important donated over 24,000 hours of
• Grass clippings factors, the overall system volunteer time.910
• Hair and fur cost and the quantities of
• Hay and straw materials recovered for
• Houseplants recycling and composting, Incineration/ Combustion
• Leaves have not yet been adequately
• Nut shells researched or evaluated.908 According to EPA, “To reduce
• Sawdust waste volume, local governments
• Shredded newspaper Although it is generally believed or private operators can
• Tea bags that mixed waste collection leads implement a controlled burning
• Wood chips to in increased participation, the process called combustion or
• Wool rags results are not conclusive. A few incineration. In addition to
• Yard trimmings pilot studies have shown that reducing volume, combustors,
programs requiring separated when properly equipped, can
Compost programs can be compostables can have high convert water into steam to fuel
carried out differently depending participation rates as well. For heating systems or generate
upon the cities’ needs. Common example, projections for electricity. Materials can be
composting methods include materials diverted from landfills removed for recycling prior to
source separation of organic for separated streams usually incineration facilities.”911
compostables done by residents range from 25-50%. Fillmore
or businesses and separation of County in Minnesota has Burning MSW can generate
mixed waste streams at a exceeded these projections with energy while reducing the
centralized location. Major 50% compostable diversion rate amount of waste by up to 90% in
concerns in any composting with an additional 15-20% for volume and 75% in weight. In
program include the quality of recycled material.909 2001, there were 97 combustors
the compost produced, the cost, in the United States with energy
and residential involvement. Obtaining residential and recovery with the capacity to
business involvement is clearly burn up to 95,000 tons of MSW
According to Cornell Waste important to maximize the per day.
Management Institute Fact success of composting programs.
Sheets on Composting: To educate and encourage While scrubbers and filters can
There are several trade-offs participation, the city of Santa reduce pollutants emitted into the
between source separation Clara offers a master composter air, incineration still produces
and centralized separation of training course. The program carbon dioxide as a by-product,
compostables. It is clear that started in 1995 to educate as well as other harmful
source separation can produce residents in starting and emissions.
908
Tom Richard, Municipal Solid Waste Composting Fact Sheet, Cornell Waste Management Institute,
compost.css.cornell.edu/MSWFactSheets/msw.fs1.html, 4 October 2006.
909
Tom Richard, Municipal Solid Waste Composting Fact Sheet, Cornell Waste Management Institute,
compost.css.cornell.edu/MSWFactSheets/msw.fs3.html, 4 October 2006.
910
Santa Clara County Composting, www.sccgov.org/portal/site/iwm/menuitem.
244564f66e6d425580b558bb35cda429/?path=%2Fv7%2FIntegrated%20Waste%20Management%20%28DIV%29%2FHome%20Compo
sting, 4 October 2006.
911
EPA Waste, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/landfill/sw_combst.htm, 5 October 2006.
272 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Environmental impacts of MSW- Refuse-derived fuel systems capture and use a significant
fired power generation plants process solid waste before it is energy resource. Landfill gas
include: burned. A typical plant will (LFG) is created as organic solid
• Air emission impacts912 remove non-combustible items, waste decomposes in a landfill.
• Water Resources such as glass, metals and other This gas consists of about 50%
• Water Discharge recyclable materials. The methane (CH4), the primary
• Solid Waste remaining solid waste is then component of natural gas, about
• Land Use Resources shredded into smaller pieces 50% carbon dioxide (CO2), and a
for burning. RDF plants small amount of non-methane
Types of incinerators include: 913 require significantly more organic compounds.915 916 917
Modular incinerators, which sorting and handling than mass Projects to capture and use
burn 15-100 tons per day, are burn, but can recover landfill gas are explained and
small mass burn plants. The recyclables and remove examples provided in Chapter 5,
main advantage to this system potentially environmentally Best Bets, Municipal
is flexibility - if more capacity harmful materials prior to Infrastructure Section.
is needed, more units can be combustion. RDF can be
added onto existing ones. Costs burned in power boilers at
limit the use of this technology factories or even at large
because the payback in terms housing complexes.
of energy produced over time is
much lower than in mass burn
plants. Landfill
912
The average air emission rates in the United States from municipal solid waste-fired generation are: 2988 lbs/MWh of CO2, (it is
estimated that the fossil fuel-derived portion of carbon dioxide emissions represent approximately one-third of the total carbon emissions)
0.8 lbs/MWh of sulfur dioxide, and 5.4 lbs/MWh of nitrogen oxides. U.S. EPA, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42),
taken from the www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/, 15 October 2006.
913
Keep America Beautiful, www.kab.org/partners.asp?id=538&rid=539#MB, 15 October 2006.
914
To learn more about methane emissions from landfills in the U.S., visit EPA's methane emissions and sources page,
www.epa.gov/methane/sources.html, 4 October 2006.
915
EPA Methane, www.epa.gov/methane/sources.html, 4 October 2006.
916
For more information on methane emissions from landfills internationally, visit EPA's International Analyses, www.epa.gov/nonco2/econ-
inv/international.html, 4 October 2006.
917
EPA LMOP, www.epa.gov/outreach/lmop/overview.htm, 4 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 273
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Municipal Solid Waste Management
918
Rapid City Solid Waste Operations, www.rcgov.com/pubworks/solidwaste/04_solidwaste_report.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/RapidCity_solidwaste_report.pdf, 19 October 2006.
919
Turning Cash into Trash, www.dnrec.delaware.gov/NR/rdonlyres/BB472D80-ECCC-4397-9EAF-
B7BE6A544A9E/63/RapidCitySDTurningTrashIntoCashcomposting.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/RapidCity_TurningTrashIntoCash.pdf, 4 October 2006.
920
Northwest Indiana Solid Waste District, www.nwiswd.org, 5 October 2006.
921
Northwest Indiana Solid Waste District Grants,
www.nwiswd.org/grants/citiesandtowns.pdf#search=%22cities%20waste%20reduction%20goals%22, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/NorthwestIndiana_grants.pdf, 4 October 2006.
274 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
unique planning for projects. A Educational or promotional
short list of some suggestions is Starting a backyard activities–fairs, festivals, etc.
provided here: composting program–
organizing a sale of bins and Buying recycled products–
Starting a curbside recycling education large items for public places to
program–purchasing bins and promote recycled items
promotion Equipment purchases–to
expand current recycling or
waste reduction programs CONTACT
Starting a drop-off recycling
program–purchasing Market enhancement Director
equipment and promotion activities–organizing events to Carol Stradling
promote recycled items Northwest Indiana Solid Waste
Starting a yardwaste collection (574) 583-5976
program–purchasing info@nwiswd.org
equipment and promotion
922
Palo Alto Zero Waste Resolution, www.city.palo-alto.ca.us/zerowaste/documents/zw-Palo_Alto_ZW_Resolution.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/Palo_Alto_ZW_Resolution.pdf, 4 October 2006.
923
Palo Alto, Zero Waste Strategic Plan, www.city.palo-alto.ca.us/zerowaste/documents/Strategic_Plan_FInal_100405.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/LongTermInitiatives/WasteManagement/PaloAlto_Strategic_Plan.pdf, 4 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 275
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Municipal Solid Waste Management
926
San Jose Curbside Setup
CONTACT
Environmental Services
Department
City of San Jose
(408) 535-8550
CleanNGreen@sanjoseca.gov
924
EPA Pay as You Throw Program www.epa.gov/payt/, 4 October 2006.
925
San Jose Pay as you Throw Program, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/payt/tools/ssanjose.htm, 5 October 2006.
926
San Jose Curbside Setup, www.recycleplus.org/images/curb_setout_lg.jpg, 4 October 2006.
927
INFORM, www.informinc.org/cwp_03.php, 4 October 2006.
276 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
oversight or funding other state or municipal • Does the community
capacity? goals? Have the recycling operate or fund on-site
• Who is the community and waste prevention composting, “leave-it-on-
(and state) waste goals been met? How the-lawn,” or other waste
prevention program much waste prevention is prevention programs for
manager? If there is no projected over the next grass, leaves, food scraps,
such position, who is the five years? and other types of organic
recycling coordinator? Is materials? Does it help
promoting waste 4. How does the community residents to set up their
prevention officially part handle its waste? own backyard composting
of his or her job • Is it collected by the systems? Do any public
responsibility? Does the municipality or by private offices or institutions
community have any carters? Is waste compost their own waste?
additional staff devoted to generated by residents, • Does the local government
waste prevention programs institutions and businesses have a program to send
and policy development? handled differently? How surplus items to other
What are their much waste goes to public offices or
responsibilities? landfill, to incineration, institutions for reuse?
and to recycling? What Does it operate a surplus
2. What is the size of the waste are the landfill, warehouse? How does the
challenge? incineration and recycling government agency in
• How much waste does the trends over the last five charge of the surplus
community/state generate years? What is projected program publicize the
each year, either by weight for the next five years? availability of reusable
(tonnage) or volume items to potential
(cubic yards)? Are waste 5. What waste prevention recipients? Is the
generation rates strategies are being used? warehouse easily
increasing, as they are • Does the community accessible to government
nationally? Where is this operate or fund any employees? Are available
information published? materials reuse programs, items listed on the
How much waste did the such as drop-off sites, a Internet?
community/state generate telephone hotline or a web • Do local schools and other
in the most recent year? site facilitating donations public institutions with
What is the trend in and/or exchanges of food service facilities use
generation over the last furniture, appliances, reusable dishes and/or
five years? Absolute office equipment, art cutlery? If not, do they
waste and waste per supplies and other items have access to (and space
capita? What is projected that can be reused? for) dishwashing
for the next five? • Has the community or equipment? How much
Absolute and per capita? state banned curbside are they paying to buy and
collection or disposal of dispose of single-use
3. What goals have been set certain items such as tires, items?
for waste generation, batteries, yard waste, • Are leftover paint, carpet,
disposal, recycling, and appliances and computer fixtures and other items
waste prevention? monitors in order to from construction projects
Do specific goals for promote reuse and diverted to other
waste prevention exist? recycling? community projects?
Are they distinct from
goals for recycling? How
do the goals compare to
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 277
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
6. How does the community 8. What laws and public • to use rechargeable
educate the public about policies promote waste batteries? Do public
waste prevention and prevention? agencies use duplexing
recycling? Has the local or state copiers and printers,
• Are there any ad government adopted any remanufactured laser
campaigns devoted goals or mandates for toner cartridges and other
specifically to waste reducing the amount of waste-reducing products?
prevention? Are any waste generated (in Who is in charge of the
written materials provided addition to recycling goals community's EPP
to residents, businesses and mandates)? What are program?
and public institutions? the respective timeframes • Does the local
How are they for reaching these goals or government encourage
disseminated? mandates? How does the vendors to practice waste
community plan to prevention? For example,
7. What is the waste economic measure whether waste have government
picture? reduction goals or contracts been written to
• How much of the mandates have been met? give preference to or
community's budget is • Has the community or require vendors to ship
used to pay for solid waste state passed any their products in bulk or
collection, processing, and legislation promoting reusable containers?
disposal (tipping fees)? waste prevention, such as • Does the local
What is the budget for mandatory bottle deposits government or state
waste prevention (beyond or requirements that provide incentives for
what is available to product manufacturers businesses to practice
promote recycling)? Is the collect electronics, waste prevention? For
waste prevention budget batteries, carpeting or example, does it provide
commensurate with the other items for reuse or financial support to
portion of waste it is recycling (considered to businesses that want to
expected to address? be “extended producer acquire dishwashing
What is the cost per ton of responsibility” equipment? Is technical
the community's waste requirements). support available to
prevention, recycling and • Has the locality enacted facilitate waste
disposal programs? any executive orders or prevention among
• Does the community laws directing businesses? Does the
provide residents, government agencies to community reward or
businesses, and/or public practice waste prevention publicize companies that
institutions with economic and/or environmentally encourage waste
incentives to reduce their preferable purchasing? prevention (for example,
generation of waste? For Are public agencies by taking back hangers
example, do residents, encouraged to use and packaging material
businesses or public products powered by for reuse)?
institutions pay for alternatives to batteries or
disposal based on the
amount of waste they
generate?
278 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Additional Grassroots Recycling Network
Zero waste Briefing Kit,
Toronto Study on New
Technologies—good brief
Resources www.grrn.org/zerowaste/kit/brief descriptions
ing/index.html www.toronto.ca/wes/techservices
List of Waste Management /involved/swm/net/pdf/overview
Resources Conversion facility, _net.pdf
www.dnrec.delaware.gov/SWM fermentation to methane
TWG/Documents.htm www.jgpress.com/archives/_free/ UC Davis Review of New
EPA WasteWise Program 000479.html Technology
WasteWise is a free, voluntary, Gasification for Power biomass.ucdavis.edu/pages/repor
EPA program through which Generation ts/Conversion-PhaseI_IWM-
organizations eliminate costly www.alamedapt.com/newsroom/ C0172.pdf
municipal solid waste and select reports/finalgasification.html
industrial wastes, benefiting their City of Berkeley Resolution
bottom line and the environment. No. 62,849–N.S, Adopted March
WasteWise is a flexible program 22, 2005
that allows partners to design Reaffirming the city’s zero waste
their own waste reduction goal and referring the issue to the
programs tailored to their needs. solid waste commission.
www.epa.gov/wastewise/ www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/sustainabl
EPA Waste Reduction Model e/government/62849.pdf
(WARM) For more resources, check the
EPA online calculator created to footnotes of this document.
help solid waste planners and
organizations track and
voluntarily report greenhouse
gas emissions reductions
from several different waste
management practices.
yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwar
ming.nsf/content/ActionsWaste
WARM.html
U.S. Composting Council
The USCC is a trade and
professional organization
promoting compost. They are
involved in research, public
education, composting and
compost standards, expansion of
compost markets and the
enlistment of public support.
www.compostingcouncil.org/ind
ex.cfm
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 279
Long Term Initiatives: Waste Management
Chapter 5: Local
Action Plan
Reducing the
Impact of
Continuing
Emissions
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Carbon Offsets For example, both the
Republican and Democratic 2004
Carbon Offsets ............................280 Conventions in New York City
In the summer of 2006, Ballard,
The Carbon Offset Concept...280 offset the emissions that their
Washington announced its goal
The Regulatory Context.........281 meetings caused, and were
The United States Voluntary to become the United States’ first
declared carbon neutral. The
Market ...................................282 “Climate Neutral City,”
Chicago Climate Exchange:
National Football League offset
producing net zero greenhouse
Membership for Cities......282 the 2006 Super Bowl in Detroit.
gas (GHG) emissions .The cities
CASE STUDIES: Nike has a partnership with Delta
Ballard, WA.........................286
plan includes both reducing
Airlines to ensure that carbon
Vail, CO ..............................286 emissions as much as it can and
credits are purchased for all
Carbon Sequestration .................287 then ‘offsetting’ the remainder.
Urban Forests and Green employee flights.928 Likewise
Spaces ..................................287 numerous cities, including Vail,
The city’s program to eliminate
Soil Conservation ..................289 Colorado; Chicago, Illinois; and
Technical Sequestration........290 its carbon footprint includes
Berkley, California, have used
Additional Resources ..................291 encouraging citizens and
carbon credits or renewable
businesses to reduce their
energy credits to offset some of
emissions and, as well as
their emissions.
purchasing carbon offsets from
the state chartered non-profit The
Climate Trust. The city’s efforts
follow in the ‘low carbon’ The Carbon Offset Concept
footprints of numerous
A carbon offset is designed to
businesses and organizations.
‘cancel out’ emissions of one
928
Hamilton, Katherine (2006) Master’s Thesis. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. (Available December 2006) Archived
at: www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Hamilton_USVoluntaryMarket_DRAFT.pdf, 5 December 2006.
280 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
activity by causing equivalent ‘cap and trade’ regimes. Most Others choose to offset the GHG
GHG reductions from another cap and trade regimes around the emissions from a particular
activity. The unit of trade is a world are created by government activity, such as an event or
‘carbon credit,’ which represents regulations, which “cap” the transportation. For example,
the equivalent of one metric ton quantity of emissions that Chicago’s Bike Chicago festival
of carbon dioxide (CO2). participants are permitted to and Boulevard Lakefront Tour, a
Various GHGs’ global warming emit. The government then partnership with the
potentials are used as conversion issues tradable allowances, Metropolitan Mayors Caucus
factors. For example, methane is which allow participants who initiative, the non- profit Clean
estimated to have a global have not been able to meet the Air Counts, and the company
warming potential (GWP) 23 caps to buy the allowances. CLIF BAR, Inc. was declared a
times higher than CO2. Thus one These allowances can be bought ‘carbon neutral event’ because
ton of methane equals about 23 and sold between participants they used a zero carbon bike
carbon credits.929 with the goal of cost effectively transportation system and
reducing net emissions. The because CLIF BAR, Inc donated
Carbon offsets can be created largest carbon trading scheme is Renewable Energy Credits
through “project-based the European Union Greenhouse (RECs) to offset energy use.
transactions” or “allowance- Gas Emission Trading Scheme. (For more information on RECs
based transactions.” see below).
The most significant exception to
Project based transactions create this approach is the Chicago Carbon offset credits allow
credits through projects to reduce Climate Exchange (CCX, see actors to indirectly reduce
GHG emissions. These projects below). It is a trading system in emissions that cannot practically
are financed by funds from offset which members voluntary agree be reduced at the moment.
purchases. For example, when to what then become for them a Buyers of carbon offset credits
students at the Yale School of legally binding commitments to should always first investigate
Forestry and Environmental reduce emissions. Members are means of directly reducing their
Studies decided to offset some of then able to trade reductions that own emissions before investing
the emissions resulting from their exceed their reductions in other project’s emission
graduation, they purchased two obligations. All voluntary offset reductions.
different types of project based purchases, with the exception of
credits: forestry-based offset CCX transactions, and credits
credits from a native tree- permanently retired from a The Regulatory Context
planting project in the regulatory market, are based on
Mississippi River Valley and project- based transactions.930 Since the U.S. does not have
credits generated from the Institutions claiming to have national climate change
replacement of diesel generators offset their GHG emissions must regulation, the majority of U.S.
with solar panels in a Nigerian retire credits purchased. based purchases of carbon offsets
village. By purchasing third are voluntary. However, it is
party verified credits from these Institutions and cities voluntarily important to note that several
project developers the school purchasing credits often set their state level initiatives have
claimed the offsets and the own operations reductions goals, created regulated cap and trade
projects received additional such as matching Kyoto Protocol systems that are currently in
funding. goals. They frequently use place or will be operating soon.
offsets to help reach these goals. For example, in 1997, Oregon
Allowance-based transactions created the first regulated CO2
involve credits created through market in the U.S. by capping the
929
Source: Bayon, R., Hawn, A., and K. Hamilton (December 2006) Voluntary Carbon Markets: An International Business Guide to What
they are and How they Work, Earthscan.
930
Hamilton, Katherine (2006) Master’s Thesis. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Archived at
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Hamilton_USVoluntaryMarket_DRAFT.pdf, 5 December 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 281
Reducing Impact
emissions of new power plants. against climate change continues. energy credits (RECs) from a
Oregon plants that do not meet AB 32 strengthens our economy, range of suppliers in the broader
this cap may propose their own cleans our environment and, voluntary market.
carbon offset projects or once again, establishes California
purchase carbon credits from The as the leader in environmental
Climate Trust. protection.”933 Chicago Climate Exchange:
Membership for Cities
A larger greenhouse gas market As with many initiatives that CCX
is being created by the Regional begin in California, it is likely currently
Greenhouse Gas Initiative. This that this trend will reach other has over
agreement between Maine, New states soon. Within a week of 200
Hampshire, Vermont, the California announcement, the Members
Connecticut, New Jersey, New Governor of Arizona issued a that range
York, Delaware, and most similar executive order. In 2006 from large US corporations like
recently, Massachusetts will the Governors of Arizona and Ford and Motorola, to
utilize a cap and trade program to New Mexico Governor signed an universities such as Tufts and
regulate the CO2 emissions of agreement launching the University of Minnesota, to
power plants. Credits will be Southwest Climate Change small businesses like Natural
created via allowance based and Initiative, which establishes a Capitalism, to farmers in Iowa
project based transactions. 931 framework for the two states to and Nebraska and the Iowa Farm
collaborate on strategies to Bureau. Member Municipalities
In addition to this carbon dioxide address the impacts of climate include Chicago, Illinois;
regulation in the Northeast and change in the Southwest and Oakland, California; Boulder,
Mid-Atlantic states, it is probable reduce greenhouse gas emissions Colorado; Aspen, Colorado and
that a cap and trade system will in the region. New Mexico has Portland, Oregon.
also develop in the West. also joined the Chicago Climate
California recently set the target Exchange, becoming the first In Phase I, CCX Members made
of reducing emissions to 1990 state in the nation to sign up for a voluntary but legally binding
emissions levels by 2020. The this greenhouse gas emission commitment to reduce GHG
“AB 32: Global Warming reduction and trading program.934 emissions 1% per year for each
Solutions Act” bill mandates that of years 2003 through 2006,
by 2012 the state will cap below an average baseline period
emissions from major industries, The United States Voluntary 1998-2001. Phase II parameters
including utilities, oil and gas Market extend the reduction period
refineries and cement through 2010, with an additional
manufacturers.932 Cities interested in offsetting 2% reduction commitment for
their emissions have two main current Members and a total of
In signing the bill, Governor options. The first is joining the 6% reduction commitment by
Schwarzenegger stated, “We can Chicago Climate Exchange 2010 for new Members below
now move forward with (CCX). CCX is “the world’s baseline. CCX Members that
developing a market-based first and North America’s only reduce emissions beyond their
system that makes California a legally binding, multi-sector, targets can sell the surplus
world leader in the effort to rule-based and integrated GHG allowances on the Exchange or
reduce carbon emission. The registry, trading and reduction bank them for later use.
success of our system will be an system.”935 A second option is Members that do not achieve the
example for other states and purchasing and retiring carbon annual reduction target must
nations to follow as the fight offset credits or renewable
931
Point Carbon “Carbon Market Analyst: Carbon Trading in the U.S.: The Hibernating Giant.” 13 September, 2006, www.pointcarbon.com/,
5 October 2006.
932
Ibid.
933
Judy Li “Governor, Democrats reach pact” The Sacramento Bee, Thursday, August 31, 2006, Page A1.
282 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
meet their compliance electricity, and its corresponding Contribute to shaping
commitment by purchasing emissions. environmental policy by
emission allowances from seller joining a leading group of
Members. The NASD, the To become a member, a city organizations proactively
largest private-sector financial must: building the institutions to
regulators, independently solve climate change
reviews emissions. 936 Assemble inventory and
baseline—energy consumption Increase visibility as a leader
Goals of CCX are data for city operations and innovator
To establish GHG emissions Submit baseline data to CCX— Develop employee capacities in
trading with transparency, CCX will provide preliminary GHG emissions calculation and
design excellence and analysis trading
environmental integrity
Weigh reduction trends Master municipal GHG data,
To build the skills and planned, establish reduction which is essential to achieving
institutions needed to cost- schedule any climate change goal
effectively manage GHGs in
both public and private sectors Make a legally binding Acquire a state-of-the art,
reduction commitment. This turn-key greenhouse gas
To strengthen the intellectual entails joining CCX emissions management system
framework required for cost-
effective and valid GHG Demonstrate progress through Lead by example—setting
reduction annual true-up of actual standards, increase
emissions with predicted understanding in business and
To incorporate a diverse reductions. This will then residential community
portfolio of credible GHG enable a member to buy credits
emissions offsets from forestry, if necessary, sell extra Reduce cost effectively—while
agriculture and other products reductions, or trade them technologies and policies
advance, buying allowances
To help inform the public Participate in CCX governance may be the most cost effective
debate on managing the risks committees (optional) option for reducing GHG
of global climate change emissions
Benefits of CCX Membership for
Becoming a Municipal Member Municipalities Earn possible revenue through
of CCX emission reductions
Membership for cities in CCX Ability to take action now—for
covers emissions from operations citizens and future generations Have confidence through “gold
of city government only standard” of NASD
(buildings, vehicle fleets, etc.). Achieve a first mover role in independent verification.
Direct emissions result from the GHG mitigation efforts—CCX
on-site burning of fossil fuels is synergistic with all policy Range of Offset Credit Options
such as natural gas to heat city and precludes none, whether CCX is a popular means for
buildings and gasoline to operate state, regional, national, cities to offset emissions.
the municipal vehicle fleet. mandatory or voluntary However, municipalities and
Indirect emissions result from the institutions may choose to
purchase of power, such as purchase credits outside of the
934
Press conference at the National Governors’ Association Meeting Feb 2006,
216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:Rq87W1n0RsMJ:www.governor.state.nm.us/press/2006/feb/022806_01.pdf+New+Mexico+climate+initi
ative&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=6&gl=us&client=safari, 15 January 2007.
935
Chicago Climate Exchange, www.chicagoclimatex.com, 5 October 2006.
936
NASD, www.nasd.com/index.htm, 10 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 283
Reducing Impact
CCX system. Some means taking GHGs that would reserves and then trapping the
municipalities may not yet be otherwise have been emitted and gas in the underlying bedrock) is
willing to commit to CCX. locking them up either in trees, less common in the voluntary
Others are interested in soil or deep geological market. However, one
encouraging citizens to offset formations. The most common organization, Blue Source, in
their own emissions (which is project type for sequestering is partnership with Natsource, is
not possible via CCX), wish to forestry. Trees, and other plants selling retail level credits from
offset only a specific activity, or (especially grasses), absorb CO2 such geological sequestration.
want to invest in specific offset from the air as they grow, and For more information on
projects. For example, the city convert it to woody material. sequestration see below.
of Boulder is a member of CCX, Conversely, when they die or are
but employees in the Office of burned, they release the CO2. Emissions reductions can be
Environmental Affairs use a Sequestration programs must further divided into two other
variety of retail offset providers ensure that the trees planted categories: fossil fuel reductions
to purchase credits to offset the actually grow to maturity, and versus the capture and
GHG resulting from office that the resulting wood is not destruction of other greenhouse
travel. Cities may choose to burned on fast rotation. gases, such as methane. The
purchase directly from offset following diagram, modified
project managers, seek out a CCX has also begun offering from the book Voluntary Carbon
broker to facilitate the credits generated from forestry, Markets: An International
transaction or simply purchase no-till farming and conversion Business Guide to What they are
credits from the numerous offset from conventional farming to and How they Work,938 provides
retailers now entering the organic farming. These examples of the range of project
market.937 techniques build carbon in the types used to create credits.
soil instead of stripping it out, Because different projects have a
Offset credits evolve from a and thus count as a program to range of co-benefits, prices,
variety of sources. As illustrated remove carbon from the air advantages and disadvantages,
by the diagram below, project durably. Technological depending on the type, size and
types can be categorized by sequestration (for example, location, municipalities
whether they abate or sequester capturing waste CO2 that purchasing credits should be
greenhouse gases. Abatement otherwise would have been aware of stakeholder interests
means reducing the amount of vented into the atmosphere, and the type of projects behind
GHGs emitted into the injecting it into oil fields to offsets that providers are
atmosphere. Sequestration pressurize hard to reach oil offering.
939
Figure: Carbon Offset Sources
937
A directory of retail offset sellers and description of various certification programs is included in: Bayon, R., Hawn, A., and K. Hamilton
(2006) Voluntary Carbon Markets: An International Business Guide to What they are and How they Work, Earthscan.
938
Bayon, R., Hawn, A., and K. Hamilton (2006) Voluntary Carbon Markets: An International Business Guide to What they are and How they
Work, Earthscan.
939
Source: Hamilton, Katherine (2006) “Navigating a Nebula: Institutional Use of the U.S. Voluntary Carbon Market. Master’s thesis. Yale
School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.
284 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
Under the category of fossil fuel represent the environmental on how these certificates should
emissions reductions, it is attributes that renewable energy fit within the carbon credit
especially important to generation provides, such as market. For example, one
differentiate between reducing displaced pollution. According concern is the difficulty of
what are often regarded as ‘direct to EPA’s Green Power measuring exactly how much
emissions’ and buying Partnership, voluntary RECs fossil fuel is backed off the grid
Renewable Energy Credits account for 25% of renewable due to additions of renewable
(RECs), often called “indirect energy currently sold to energy. New renewable energy
reduction’ of emissions. RECs commercial and industrial projects may only displace future
are also referred to as Tradable customers.940 While RECs do power plants that would
Renewable Energy Certificates mean that fewer emissions are otherwise be built, not lead to
(TRECs) or Green Tags. They produced when renewable less use of current fossil energy.
are a separate commodity from energy is substituted for fossil Hence, RECs are best used to
the electricity generated and fuel energy, there is some debate only offset electricity use.
ADVANTAGES CHALLENGES
- Efficient means of reducing GHG emissions
- Captured methane can be used as fuel
Methane capture - Accounting and baseline concerns
- Somewhat reduced odors
from landfills should be carefully considered
- Reduced risk of ground water contamination
- Relatively inexpensive
- Efficient means of reducing emissions
- Captured methane can be used as fuel
Methane capture - Accounting and baseline concerns
- Reduced odors and co-pollutants
from livestock should be carefully considered
- Reduced risk of ground water contamination
- Relatively inexpensive
- Efficient means of reducing emissions
- Captured methane can be used as fuel
Methane capture - Accounting and baseline concerns
- Few leakage concerns
from coal mines should be carefully considered
- Can improve safety for mine workers
- Relatively inexpensive
- Very efficient
Industrial gas
- Highly additional - Potential supply is limited
destruction
- Relatively inexpensive
- Supports clean technology
- Creates cost savings - Less efficient means of reducing GHGs
Direct fossil fuel
- Reduces co-pollutants (ex. Sox, PM, VOCs) that industrial gas or methane
reduction
- Reduces fossil fuel dependency destruction
- Potential social benefits
- Compatibility issues between markets
- Already established market with certification/verification for RECs and carbon offsets
systems - Accounting and baseline concerns
Renewable Energy
- Supporting on-grid renewable energy important for decreasing should be carefully considered
Credits
reliance on fossil fuels - Less efficient means of reducing GHGs
- Reduces co-pollutants (ex. Sox, PM, VOCs) from fossil fuels that industrial gas or methane
destruction
- Lack of permanence
- Large number of potential social co-benefits - Relatively inefficient means of reducing
Reforestation/
- Contributes to biodiversity conservation GHGs
Afforestation of
- Addresses deforestation which is an important part of the - Less efficient than many mono-crop
native tree species
climate change problem projects
- Relatively expensive
- Lack of permanence
- Large number of potential social co-benefits - Relatively inefficient means of reducing
Avoided
- Contributes to biodiversity conservation GHGs
deforestation of
- Addresses deforestation which is an important part of the - Less efficient than many mono-crop
native tree species
climate change problem projects
- Relatively expensive
940
Green Power Partnership website, www.epa.gov/greenpower/, 3 May 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 285
Reducing Impact
ADVANTAGES CHALLENGES
- Lack of permanence
- Relatively inefficient means of reducing
- Some potential for social co-benefits
GHGs
Monoculture - Trees with high sequestration rates can be selected
- Concerns about water consumption
forestry - Often lower cost
- Reduced social and environmental co-
- Deforestation part of the climate change problem
benefits compared to projects working
with native tree species
- Promotes healthier food production
- Reduces erosion -Lack of permanence
Soil sequestration - Large number of potential social co-benefits - Accounting and baseline concerns
- Improves water quality should be carefully considered
- Relatively inexpensive
Geological - Huge potential for storage - Enables fossil fuel use, leading to more
sequestration - Enhances domestic fuel source CO2 emissions
Carbon Offsets
941
NetGreen website, www.achievenetgreen.org/, 5 October 2006.
942
The Climate Trust, www.climatetrust.org/, 5 October 2006.
943
“Local Leaders Pledge to Make Ballard First ‘Carbon Neutral’ Community in the United States.” Seattle Daily Business News. 4 October,
2006.
944
Ibid.
286 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
Carbon Offsets
945
Stoner, Edward. “The Town of Vail goes all wind power too.” Vail Daily. 7 August, 2006.
946
Vail resorts website, www.vailresorts.com/, 5 October 2006.
947
“TOV 100 Percent Powered by Wind” Press Release, 15 September 2006. ci.vail.co.us/release.asp?r_id=2856, 5 October 2006.
948
Some scientists challenge the idea that planting forests outside of the tropics helps reduce global warming, pointing out that forests trap
more heat than they get rid of by sequestering carbon. However, in cities, planting and maintaining trees does appear to be a net
reduction of global warming. For more information, environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,1972729,00.html, 15 January
2007.
949
The Urban Forest Network Newsletter, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Parks+as+Lungs-a079575245, “Parks as Lungs” by Roddy Scheer,
11 April 2007.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 287
Reducing Impact
Greg McPherson of the Western about 12%. A similar program Through new growth,
Center for Urban Forest nationwide was estimated to be sequestration and energy savings
Research found that the region's able to save $4 billion a year on Boulder estimates the city’s trees
urban forest removes more than air conditioning costs, 7 million result in another additional
200,000 metric tons of carbon metric tons of annual carbon reduction of 43,000 million tons
dioxide from the atmosphere emissions. For these reasons, an of carbon each year, which they
each year, saving taxpayers as urban tree keeps about nine times compared to offsetting the
much as $3 million annually in as much carbon out of the air as carbon “released through driving
pollution cleanup costs.950 the same tree planted in a approximately 16.1 million miles
forest.951 each year.”952 The city of
A study in Los Angeles showed Boulder’s Climate Action Plan
that urban forestry and such The city of Boulder, Colorado, notes, “According to the U.S.
measures to reduce the urban which has integrated forestry into Forest Service, trees properly
heat island as the use of light its climate strategy, estimates its placed around buildings can
colored paving and roofs could 400,000 trees on public and reduce air conditioning needs by
cool the city by about 6 degrees. private land are storing an 30% and can save 20-50% in
This would cut the city’s cooling estimated 110,000 million tons energy used for heating.”953
loads by about 20% and smog by of carbon.
954
Figure: City of Cambridge Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan
Such energy savings can equate in $3.64 in benefits due to citizens have learned about the
to considerable dollar savings. avoided costs for energy role trees play in the carbon
Boulder estimates the city’s trees consumption, air pollution cycle and hence, can identify
provide an average energy control, as well as other with the role of trees in GHG
savings 950 kWh for a one or benefits.955 mitigation. Creating and
two story single family detached maintaining green space is thus
home, saving families an average Proponents of such land use an easy way to involve all ages
of $58/year. A 2005 analysis of changes also note that green in a city’s climate action plans.
municipal tree resources found space and forestry are tangible Municipalities can greatly
that each dollar invested in and emotionally appealing. benefit from this citizen
maintaining public trees resulted Moreover, at some point most involvement. For example, the
950
The Urban Forest Network Newsletter, www.leaftoronto.org/UFNnews32.pdf, 5 October 2006.
951
Art Rosenfeld, et al, “Policies to Reduce Urban Heat Islands,” LBL 38679, Lawrence Berkeley National laboratory, 1996, and Rosenfeld,
“The Art of energy Efficiency,” Annual Review of Energy and Environment 1999.
952
City of Boulder Climate Action Plan.
161.98.15.236/files/Environmental%20Affairs/climate%20and%20energy/cap_final_14aug06.pdf#search=%22Boulder%20Climate%20Act
ion%20Plan%22, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Boulder_CAP_14aug06.pdf, 5 October 2006.
953
Ibid.
954
Cambridge Climate Protection Plan, www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/cdd/et/env/clim_plan/clim_plan_full.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Cambridge_ClimatePlan.pdf, 5 October 2006.
955
Ibid.
288 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
city of Cambridge’s Climate maintain optimal health and the Soil Conservation
Protection Plan states that the city must have, at a minimum, a
wide range of organizations replacement program that offsets According to the United States
working on issues related to land the number of removals.”957 Department of Agriculture, “Soil
use have been critical to creating Recognizing such challenges, the is the largest terrestrial global
an maintaining green spaces and city of Minneapolis created an carbon pool, estimated to be
trees in the community.956 urban forest policy designed about one-and-a-half trillion
around “best management tons.”959 However, farming
Urban forestry and green spaces practices to mitigate tree loss and practices have severely depleted
also have numerous other tree damage and to promote the soils' organic carbon levels in
benefits, including: long-term health of urban many agricultural areas.
trees.”958
Reducing storm water run-off For municipalities that
and soil erosion Other urban reforestation issues encompass agricultural areas,
relate to permanency and providing incentives for
Improving local air quality accounting. For example, while agricultural best management
Boulder has carefully considered practices to sequester carbon is
Proving habitat for wildlife the role of trees in its Climate an important step in climate
Action Plan, because the city has protection. For example, the
Adding beauty—aesthetics not been collecting forestry data practice of no-till or conservation
since 1990, the city’s urban tillage960 farming, which can
Increasing property values and forests have not been included in increase the amount of storage in
residents’ quality of life the GHG accounting inventory. the soil and reduce emissions
Some uncertainty also surrounds from farm equipment used to till
Despite the benefits associated sequestration rates for various the fields has gained
with urban forestry and green vegetation types. Due to the considerable attention recently.
spaces, cities promoting these time, cost and evolving scientific Other best management practices
activities face a range of understanding around that contribute to sequestration
challenges. A fundamental issue sequestration, municipalities include organic agriculture,
is maintaining vegetative health. must gage the benefits of changing grazing practices to
Despite the city of Boulder’s accuracy versus estimates. It is forms of “Holistic
efforts to promote urban forestry also important to remember that Management,”961 converting
their Climate Action Plan notes if these trees are destroyed, marginal agricultural land to
that due to recent droughts and whether due to human grassland, forests or wetland and
budget costs the city has had a intervention or natural causes, grass buffers.
net loss of trees, removing 230 carbon stored in vegetation is
trees per year on average (nine- released back into the The following Environmental
year average) and planting 130 atmosphere. Therefore, it is Protection Agency (EPA) chart
trees per year on the same nine- critical they be regarded as, and summarizes some of these
year average. “To maintain the accounted for as a temporary activities and their benefits.
stream of environmental benefits sink, rather than a permanent
provided by our urban forest, reduction.
urban trees must be managed to
956
Ibid.
957
City of Boulder Climate Action Plan.
161.98.15.236/files/Environmental%20Affairs/climate%20and%20energy/cap_final_14aug06.pdf#search=%22Boulder%20Climate%20Act
ion%20Plan%22, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Boulder_CAP_14aug06.pdf, 5 October 2006.
958
City of Minneapolis 2004 Environment Report, www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/environment/docs/MPLSEnvOverview071604.pdf, also archived
at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Mitigating/Minneapolis_CAP.pdf, 5 October 2006.
959
USDA Agricultural Research Service, www.ars.usda.gov/research/, 5 October 2006.
960
Also in this manual, see Chapter 5, Long Term Initiatives, Sustainable Agriculture section.
961
See Dan Dagget, Gardeners of Eden, Tarcher, 2005.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 289
Reducing Impact
Key
Agricultural Typical definition and some examples Effect on greenhouse gases
Practices
Conservation
Grasses or trees planted along streams and croplands to prevent soil Increases carbon storage through
or riparian
erosion and nutrient runoff into waterways. sequestration.
buffers
Typically defined as any tillage and planting system in which 30% or Increases carbon storage through
Conservation more of the crop residue remains on the soil after planting. This enhanced soil sequestration, may
tillage on disturbs the soil less, and therefore allows soil carbon to accumulate. reduce energy-related CO2 emissions
croplands There are different kinds of conservation tillage systems, including no from farm equipment, and could affect
till, ridge till, minimum till and mulch till. N2O positively or negatively.
Along with sequestration there can be quickly lost in a season injecting it into geological
are numerous co-benefits when a farmer changes tilling formations in the earth.
associated with such changes in practices. Municipalities Examples include enhanced oil
land management practices considering creating incentives recovery or “clean” coal
including reducing soil erosion, for increased soil sequestration production in which the carbon
reducing emissions from farm will need to ensure that the (and mercury) is stripped off in
equipment, increasing the levels benefits of carbon storage, gasification and then
of organic material in the soil reduced emissions and other co- sequestered. Oceanic
and reduced water pollution. benefits will be maintained. sequestration involves pumping
Like other forestry and green carbon dioxide deep into the
spaces activities, such co- ocean.
benefits can be the drivers in Technical Sequestration
implementing activites. For One real challenge with all of
example, the Miami Included within the context of these methods is that it is not
Conservancy District in Dayton, sequestration is technical entirely clear whether the carbon
Ohio has recently initiated a sequestration. Due to high costs will stay where it is put. The
water quality trading program and evolving technology, this permanency of the sequestration
that provides funding for changes type of sequestration is not yet is a major concern and risk for
in agricultural practices, such as applicable for most municipal both technologies. There are
no-till farming and conservation climate strategies. However, a also concerns about such
buffers, to reduce nitrogen and brief introduction is provided for environmental risks as changes
phosphorus water pollution.963 A context. in ocean acidity. Because the
major side benefit is increased understanding of the risks and
carbon sequestration. New and evolving means of benefits of this technology is still
technologically sequestering evolving, while technical
Challenges associated with include geological and oceanic sequestration may become a
utilizing agricultural land use storage. The potential benefit of significant means of mitigating
changes in municipal climate these methods is their huge climate change in the future, land
protection plans include potential for rapid sequestration, use changes represent a more
accurately accounting for carbon especially in comparison to accessible means for
storage and the fact that a terrestrial sequestration. municipalities to encourage
relatively small amount of Geological storage involves sequestration at present.
carbon is stored per acre. capturing carbon dioxide from
Moreover, carbon sequestered pollution sources and then
962
EPA Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Forestry, www.epa.gov/sequestration/ag.html, 4 October 2006.
963
Hamilton, Katherine. “Testing the Waters: The Great Miami River Watershed Water Quality Credit Trading Program.” The Katoomba
Group Ecosystem Marketplace. September 2006.
290 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Reducing Impact
Additional
Resources
Voluntary Carbon Markets:
An International Business
Guide to What they are and
How they Work, Bayon, R.,
Hawn, A., and K. Hamilton
(2006) Earthscan
EPA calculators.
yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwar
ming.nsf/content/ResourceCenter
ToolsCalculators.html
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 291
Reducing Impact
Chapter 5: Develop a
Local Action Plan
Adapting to Climate
Change
There are a number of daunting More frequent and more severe
DOCUMENT CONTENTS risks that communities eventually summer and winter storms,
Emergency Planning ................. 293 need to manage as climate including hurricanes, tornadoes
Rising Sea Levels ..................... 293 change continues and the and floods, and more frequently
Different Precipitation and broader weather-related affects occurring events characterized
Temperature Patterns ............... 294 of global warming become more by extreme heat, cold or drought
Changes in Precipitation, Water
Supply and Water Quality ......... 295
obvious. The full extent of the conditions, including wildfires,
Emergency Response to Floods297 positive and negative windstorms, hailstorms and ice
Increased Insect Reproduction implications, scope and pace of storms;
Rate .......................................... 297 these effects are not 100%
Increased Human Health understood, but it is agreed that Loss of economic output and
Impacts ..................................... 298
CASE SUDIES: increases in greenhouse gases local tax revenues due to
Philadelphia, PA ............... 299 loading in the atmosphere will extreme weather conditions,
Chicago, IL ....................... 300 cause such impacts as: missed work days, power
Additional Resources ................ 301 failures, decreased tourism,
Rising sea levels flooding low- property damage, property
lying coastal plains across the devaluation, and loss of crops
world, forcing population and livestock;
centers to evacuate and
damaging trillions of dollars Increased human health
worth of infrastructure; impacts derived from increased
emissions of SO2, NOx, CO and
Different precipitation and particulate matter resulting in
temperature patterns impacting higher levels of ground-level
livestock and crop production, ozone, lung disease, emphysema
water supplies, health of forests, and asthma; and
biological diversity, wild-life
habitat, coastal and inland Higher sickness or mortality
wetlands, vegetation and stream rates of elderly and ill people
flow; due to extreme heat and cold or
inability to leave their homes for
Increased insect reproduction medical or other purposes.
rate and expanded geographic
distribution of vector-borne Managing these effects of climate
disease; change will require planning,
292 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Adapting to Climate Change
investment of resources, outreach such shortfalls in disaster shorelines are often protected
to the community and response. Such efforts need to with hard structures such as
coordination of multiple agencies take the form of city or state- seawalls. Although some coastal
on both the local and federal based regional programs that areas are somewhat protected by
level. This chapter briefly focus on ensuring that local these structures, it is not known
describes a some of the strategies communities are prepared to how sea level rise, sporadic
for managing these potential sustain themselves and to storm activity, and shoreline
impacts. facilitate cooperation among hardening harm the ecological
federal, state and local efforts. services of shoreline habitats.
For example, in Dayton, Ohio, a These habitats provide physical
Emergency Planning Homeland Emergency Learning
and Preparedness (H.E.L.P.)
and biological buffers in
estuaries and are essential to
Center, which offers disaster sustainable fishery production
On average, the federal
preparedness training to and other ecological values. In
government needs 72 hours to
emergency responders and the low-lying urban shorelines, such
marshal national resources in
general public, has been as Los Angeles, San Francisco,
response to an incident that has
supported at the state and city Miami and Manhattan, the
surpassed a state’s response
level.965 impacts could be devastating.
capacity.964 Usually, a 72-hour
Sea level rise is not an easy
delay is not a problem. State and
In the Homeland Security Act of process to predict or manage,
local governments manage most
2002, Congress mandated that because the rate of change and
of the responders that arrive
the Department of Homeland accompanying shifts in wave
immediately at a disaster scene
Security (DHS) set up a regional activity and storm surges are not
and, in most circumstances, have
structure that coordinates and well understood. City planners
the critical assets needed to carry
collaborates with state-based and resource managers have a big
themselves through the first three
regional programs to help to job in front of them.
days. This was largely the case
close the 72-hour gap.
even during terrorist attacks, such
The effects of sea level rise
as the bombing of the Alfred P.
include tidal inundation of low
Murrah Federal Building in
Oklahoma City and both attacks Rising Sea Levels lying areas; coastal erosion of
wetlands, beaches, and other
on the World Trade Center in
types of shores; vertical accretion
New York City. On the other Rising sea levels is a potentially
of wetlands; increased coastal
hand, when catastrophic disasters major result of climate change.
flooding during storm surges and
overwhelm state and local There are many kinds of coasts,
periods of extreme rainfall; and
governments at the outset, as in each with different ecological
increased salinity of aquifers and
the aftermath of Hurricane characteristics, economic values,
estuaries, especially during
Katrina, the 72-hour buffer and natural and human uses. In
droughts.966 Estuarine shorelines
disappears, and any delays in a some areas, such as the remote
are already under the stress of
coordinated federal, state and shorelines in California or
increased water levels ranging
local response cause serious Oregon the sea is contained by
from short term waves and storm
consequences. high cliffs and rising sea levels
surge to long term inundation
will not be catastrophic.
through existing sea level rise.
Better planning at regional and Segments of vulnerable, yet
local levels are needed to prevent economically valuable,
964
“State and Regional Responses to Disasters: Solving the 72-Hour Problem”, The Heritage Foundation, by Jill D. Rhodes, J.D. and LL.M.,
and James Jay Carafano, Ph.D. Backgrounder #1962, at website: www.heritage.org/Research/HomelandDefense/bg1962.cfm, 15 August
2006.
965
Homeland Emergency Learning and Preparedness (H.E.L.P.) Center, www.emhelpcenter.org/, 15 October 2006.
966
For more information, U.S. Climate Change Science Program www.climatescience.gov, 12 August 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 293
Adapting to Climate Change
The first and most important management. The National governments develop their own
action that cities can take is to (Florida, Texas, North Carolina, models and action plans.967
gather resource data about their and California) are developing
shoreline and develop GIS elevation data for floodplain Cities should work in
(Geographic Information Oceanic and Atmospheric coordination with counties, states
Systems) models to measure and Administration (NOAA) and and federal agencies in
model possible effects of climate United States Geological Survey developing a baseline of resource
change on coastal resources and (USGS) are developing Digital data and models to help
human habitat. Many federal Elevation Models (DEMs). understand the full range of
agencies and individuals are Local governments and major possible impacts of higher sea
developing data that can provide coastal conservancies are levels on local ecological
insights regarding the developing GIS land-use data for resources, human habitat and
implications of sea level rise. managing ecosystems and economic activity. The
economic activity. The U.S. Fish following table provides names
For example, the Federal and Wildlife Service (USFWS) is and contact information for the
Emergency Management Agency developing wetlands data. These agency leaders who are working
(FEMA), the Army Corps of agencies all have information coastal issues related to climate
Engineers, and several states resources to help local and state change.
967
For more information, please visit the website hosted by The U.S. Climate Change Science Program, at:
www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap4-1/default.htm, 14 August 2006.
968
Ibid.
969
Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies for Human Health, www.who.dk/ccashh, 5 October 2006.
294 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Adapting to Climate Change
precipitation and change in mean rise, through thermal expansion snowmelt changes in high
temperatures will undoubtedly be of seawater and widespread loss altitude watersheds or areas with
different from Salt Lake City’s or of land ice.970 strong snowmelt runoff
Atlanta’s. The impacts on characteristics. In these
agricultural areas will be Among the expected impacts of watersheds, changes in
different from what will climate changes on water temperature are expected to lead
challenge an urban area. Again, resources are higher global and to important changes in water
city governments will frequently regional water temperatures, availability and quality and
be working with county, state increases in global average complicate the management of
and federal agencies to address precipitation and evaporation, reservoirs and irrigation systems.
these issues. The following changes in the regional patterns
information can provide city of rainfall, snowfall and The Intergovernmental Panel on
governments with a general snowmelt, changes in the Climate Change (IPCC) stated
understanding of potential intensity, severity and timing of “freshwater resources in many
impacts on precipitation levels major storms and a wide range of regions of the world are likely to
and water supplies that climate other geophysical effects. These be significantly affected,” and
change can impose. changes will also have many that many current freshwater
secondary impacts on freshwater problems will be made worse by
resources, altering both the the greenhouse effect. They urge
Changes in demand and supply of water and
changing its quality.971
water managers to begin “a
systematic reexamination of
Precipitation, Water engineering design criteria,
Supply and Water Evaporation of water from land operating rules, contingency
and water surfaces will increase plans, and water allocation
Quality as global and regional policies.” The report states with
temperatures rise. More “high confidence” that “water
Changes in weather patterns, evaporation will result in more demand management and
snow cover, ice and precipitation precipitation on average, though institutional adaptation are the
are likely results of a warming regional precipitation patterns primary components for
climate. Examples of these will continue to be very complex increasing system flexibility to
include a more active and variable. Reviews of state- meet uncertainties of climate
hydrological cycle with more of-the-art climate models suggest change.”973 This emphasis on
heavy precipitation events and that global average evaporation demand management rather than
shifts in precipitation in some and precipitation may increase construction of new facilities
regions while others enter by 3 to 15% from an equivalent marks a change in traditional
prolonged droughts. There is doubling of atmospheric CO2 water management approaches,
already widespread retreat of concentration. The greater the which in the past have relied on
non-polar glaciers, increases in warming, the larger these the construction of large and
ocean-heat levels and decreases increase.972 expensive supply infrastructure.
in snow cover, sea-ice extent and
thickness. For instance, it is very One of the most important Water demand-side management
likely that 20th century warming hydrologic impacts of climatic (DSM), is the water equivalent of
has contributed significantly to change will be snowfall and energy efficiency: cheaper, faster
the current observed sea-level
970
“Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers,” An Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, at website, www.ipcc.ch/pub/un/syreng/spm.pdf, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Adapting/spm.pdf, 5
October 2006.
971
“Water Planning and Management Under Climate Change,” Peter H. Gleick, Co-Founder and President of the Pacific Institute for Studies
in Development, Environment, and Security in Oakland, California, www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V112_A5.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Adapting.pdf, 14 August 2006.
972
Ibid.
973
For more technical reports on climate change and water resources, biodiversity, etc., visit the IPCC website at:
www.ipcc.ch/pub/techrep.htm, 14 August 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 295
Adapting to Climate Change
and clearly the first option to be indefinitely deferred. Total water Offering rebates for high-
pursued. It reduces demand for savings later grew to 40 percent. efficiency washing machines
water by increasing the In the drought of 1990, while (high-efficiency washers use
efficiency of water services, and some nearby communities were approximately 25 gallons per
water conservation (which forced to cut their water use by load versus 40 to 50 gallons per
conserves water by decreasing its 30–45%, Goleta had only to load)
use). These are not new ideas. reduce 15%, avoiding disruption
Cities and water districts in the or hardship.974 In the event of a longer drought
western U.S. have had water period, communities would need
conservation programs for many In 1994, Mayor Martin J. Chavez more aggressive action plans for
years, targeting both residential and the Albuquerque City water DSM and conservation.
users and Council called for a 30% Large cities and agricultural
commercial/agricultural reduction in water use over 10 areas will adopt different
customers. For example, in years. The response by city strategies for functioning under
1989, Goleta, California, faced water customers was strong, with extended drought conditions,
drought and the threat of a multi- per person usage dropping from including looking for new
million-dollar expenditure to 250 gallons per capita per day suppliers, developing new
meet EPA sewage-treatment when the program began in 1995, supplies, and deepening wells on
standards. This spurred a $1.5- to 174 by the end of 2005. Per the supply-side. As climactic
million municipal program that household analysis in 2004 regimes shift, it is likely that
provided information and shows a reduction of 34% agriculture will shift as well, and
incentives to the town’s 74,000 compared to the baseline use in crops that may have
citizens to reduce water waste. 1995. Residential customers, predominated in an area will no
More than 17,000 ultra-low-flow who represent approximately longer be grown.
toilets were installed in a few 50% of all water use, have
years. The utility gave away reduced their usage by 39% since New Mexico State University
35,000 high-performance the program began. Institutional provides a very comprehensive,
showerheads, reformed its tariff customers, whose numbers are on-line template for community–
structures, made metering much smaller, have achieved scale drought emergency
universal, raised public similar results. Commercial and planning.976
awareness and knowledge and industrial customers are being
offered free onsite surveys of urged to respond accordingly.975 This template assists water
outdoor water-efficiency officials to plan for four different
opportunities. These technical Some features of the program in phases of an action agenda:
improvements, plus some Albuquerque include:
emergency drought measures Drought alert;
(peak-season surcharges and a Offering rebates for low flow
little rationing), cut citywide toilets (the largest source of Conservation;
water consumption within a water use in most American
single year, 1989–90, by 30%, homes); Restrictions; and
from an average of 135 to 90
gallons per person per day— Offering free low flow shower Emergency.
twice the targeted savings. heads;
Sewage flow fell by over 40%, In worst-case scenarios, some
enabling the existing plant to run Offering free public courses on cities may have to limit water
within its rated capacity and EPA Xeriscape (low water/draught usage, in both residential and
secondary standards. The resistant) gardening commercial/agriculture sectors.
proposed plant expansion was techniques; and This could raise the price of food,
974
Hawken, Lovins and Lovins, Natural Capitalism, P. 231, Little Brown, NY, 1999.
975
City of Albuquerque, www.cabq.gov/waterconservation, 13 August 2006.
976
“Action Plan for Emergency Drought Management: Short-term Strategy,” New Mexico State University, website,
weather.nmsu.edu/drought/action-plan/index.htm, 13 August 2006.
296 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Adapting to Climate Change
and cause unemployment in Control and Coastal Emergency (IPM) Road Map.”980 The goal
farming and ranching Act (Public Law 84-99), the of the IPM Road Map is to
communities. National Emergency increase nationwide
Preparedness Program (NEPP) communication and efficiency
and the Federal Response Plan through information exchanges
Emergency and can provide planning
assistance to cities.
among federal and non-federal
IPM practitioners and service
Response to Floods providers including land
The Department of Homeland managers, growers, structural
In addition to conserving water Security has a new program pest managers and public and
during or in anticipation of called Citizen Corps. It hopes wildlife health officials.
drought periods, many cities to recruit volunteers to be
must also address the other trained for emergency At the Federal level, the IPM
important water-related impact of response in situations such as program is a multi-agency effort
climate change: increased floods, ice storms, power that demands coordination and
precipitation. Increased outages, and extreme heat. collaboration. The Federal IPM
evaporation will beget more Cities can leverage this Coordinating Committee
cloud cover, which will deliver federal program as well to provides oversight of the
more frequent rain and snow help residents prepare for federally funded programs. This
storms in different regions. Rain extreme conditions.978 committee is made up of
patterns could greatly differ from representatives of the major
year to year across the U.S. participating Federal agencies
977
CDC online tool, www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/floods/, 14 August 2006.
978
For more information, see Department of Homeland Security website: www.citizencorps.gov/, 14 August 2006.
979
World Health Organization 2000 Bulletin, whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/2000/Number%209/78(9)1136-1147.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Adapting/WHO_vectorborne_2000.pdf, 5 December 2006.
980
National Road Map For Integrated Pest Management, May 17, 2004, no author name. Website: www.ipmcenters.org/IPMRoadMap.pdf,
20 August 2006, also archived at, www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Adapting/IPMRoadMap.pdf, 30 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 297
Adapting to Climate Change
Increased Human Increased disease from vector- Cooling Centers, situated in
community centers, police
borne diseases.
Health Impacts stations, libraries, park facilities
Managing all of these potential and other locations.
A study, by scientists at the health impacts will challenge city
World Health Organization governments, along with county, Telephone hotlines, with up to
(WHO) and the London School state and federal agencies. These date and accurate information on
of Hygiene and Tropical impacts will likely afflict the sickheat resources and medical
Medicine, determined that and elderly more than younger or advice were used in Chicago,
160,000 people already die every healthy people, but all ages are Philadelphia and Boston.
year from the effects of climate vulnerable. Chicago even had reverse 911
change, from malaria to calls, automatically sent to
malnutrition, children in The health impacts from heat seniors and those at risk. Some
developing nations seemingly the waves have already been felt in cities (Philadelphia, Baltimore
most vulnerable. The study many parts of the U.S. and and New York) went a step
projected that these numbers Europe. For example, over 100 further and sent outreach workers
could almost double by 2020.981 people died in California alone to check on the homeless and
982
during July 2006 from heat- elderly, providing water and fans.
related deaths, a marked increase Chicago deployed air-
As described in Chapter Two, over previous years. In areas conditioned buses to points
human health impacts may extreme heat has not previously around the city while Baltimore,
increase in the U.S. from global been a problem, many people do St. Louis, Omaha and others
warming in a number of ways: not have air conditioners for their helped provide and install air
Fatigue, sickness, dehydration homes. Those that do may not be conditioners to those in need.
or inability to leave the home able to operate them when heat
during periods of extreme heat; waves coincide with power The city of West Palm Beach
outages, a confluence of events Mayor Lois J. Frankel announced
Inability to leave the home that is becoming more common. that the city would extending the
during periods of extreme cold hours of its swimming pools to
weather to buy food or get Cities, working with county, state help residents and visitors beat
medical treatment; and federal agencies, are the record-setting heat in
developing emergency protocol summer. The city waived the fee
More SO2, NOx, ground-level to address these challenging and to use the Warren Hawkins
ozone and airborne particulate varied problems. In the heat Aquatic Center at Gaines Park
matter due to increased need to wave of 2006, a number of cities and extended pool hours.983Cities
operate coal-fired power plants offered central “Cooling Centers” may have to work with clinics,
during periods of extreme heat; for people trying to survive hospitals and health-care
extreme heat. For example, providers to transport important
Damage to lungs from hundreds of Cooling Centers medicines to disabled, frail or
increased forest fires; were set-up in cities across otherwise ill people trapped in
America, including Baltimore their homes during periods of
Power outages during summer (11 centers), St. Louis (60), extreme heat or cold.
peak loads, leading to spoilage Chicago (100), and New York
of food, spoilage of medicine, (over 300). Boston and Chicago
interruption of medical has free air-conditioned shuttle
equipment in the home or bus services to transport
inability to pump water, and vulnerable populations to
981
Planet Ark, www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/22420/story.htm, 15 October 2006.
982
WHO, www.who.int/globalchange/climate/en/ccSCREEN.pdf, also archived at,
www.climatemanual.org/Cities/Chapter5/Adapting/ccSCREEN.pdf, 15 October 2006.
983
City of West Palm Beach, www.wpb.org/News/showStory.php?link=06-07-31CityTakingActiontoHelpPeopleDealwithExtremeHeat.php, 14
August 2006.
298 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Adapting to Climate Change
Adapting to Climate Change
984
From EPA website, www.epa.gov/heatisland/about/heatresponseprograms.html, 12 August 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 299
Adapting to Climate Change
Adapting to Climate Change
985
For more information about Chicago’s and other cities’ emergency action plans, please see EPA’s website at:
www.epa.gov/heatisland/about/heatresponseprograms.html, 12 August 2006.
986
The Office of Emergency Management and Communications website,
egov.cityofchicago.org/city/webportal/portalEntityHomeAction.do?BV_SessionID=@@@@0043648670.1166219364@@@@&BV_Engin
eID=ccceaddjjdgjhijcefecelldffhdfgm.0&entityName=Emergency+Communications&entityNameEnumValue=12, 5 December 2006.
300 CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Adapting to Climate Change
Additional “Climate Change 2001:
Resources Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability.” International
California Climate Change Panel on Climate Change.
Center: In 2003, the California www.ipcc.ch/
Energy Commission, through its
Public Interest Energy Research “Coping with Global Climate
program, established the Change: The Role of
California Climate Change Adaptation in the United
Center to undertake a broad States.” Prepared for the Pew
program of scientific and Center on Global Climate
economic research on climate Change, June 2004
change in California. The Center www.pewclimate.org/global-
is organized as a “virtual” warming-in
institution with sites at both the depth/all_reports/adaptation/inde
UC Berkeley campus and the x.cfm
Scripps Institute of
Oceanography (UC San Diego
campus). The Berkeley Center,
based at the Richard & Rhoda
Goldman School of Public
Policy, is focusing on economic
and policy analysis, while the
Scripps Center focuses on
physical climate modeling.
www.climatechange.ca.gov/resea
rch/index.html
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 5: Develop A Local Action Plan 301
Adapting to Climate Change
CHAPTER 6:
Monitor and Report
Performance
DOCUMENT CONTENTS Metrics Target effective services for
expansion
Metrics ...................................... 302 Metrics are ways of measuring
Metrics for Climate Action Plan . 303 the outcome of a given set of Identify staff and volunteer
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) training needs
Inventory.............................. 303 actions.
Indicators............................. 303
CASE STUDIES: The ability to demonstrate Develop and justify budgets
Minneapolis, MN............... 305 positive performance results will
Santa Monica, CA............. 307
help your city to987: Prepare long-range plans
Celebrating Successes ............. 307
Examples of Climate Awards308 Focus city staff attention on
CASE STUDIES: Garner support for innovative
Portland, OR..................... 309 programmatic issues
efforts
San Mateo County, CA..... 310
Additional Resources ................ 311 Some system of metrics is
Gain favorable public
necessary for any program that
recognition
seeks continuous improvement.
There are, in general, two sorts
Retain or increase funding
of metrics. The first, prescriptive
metrics, tell an audience what
Recruit and retain talented
they will do, and set out the
staff
precise basis for measuring
whether that aim is achieved.
Enlist and motivate able
Most building codes, and health
volunteers
and safety codes fall under this
category.
Attract new participants
A second type of metrics are
Engage collaborators
performance metrics. These set
the desired outcome, then
Win designation as a model or
measure what has been achieved.
best practice
The actor can choose any
number of ways of meeting the
Measurement results can also
goal, in contrast to prescriptive
help:
standards, which spell out only
one approach. According to the
Strengthen existing programs
Department of Energy:
987
List modified from the United Way Outcome Measurement Resource Network,
national.unitedway.org/outcomes/resources/What/OM_What.cfm, 5 October 2006.
302 CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
“A PERFORMANCE METRIC baseline inventory, what tools will also enhance overall
is a standard of measurement of a are available and how to use community sustainability.
function or operation. them to track sector emissions.
Performance metrics provide The resulting numbers can be Once cities have implemented
owners, operators, occupants and compiled into reports, which, initial best bets to reduce their
society a way of quantifying and when combined with an emissions (switch to LED lights,
tracking how well [for example] economic analysis of program, implement other energy
buildings are doing compared to will enable a city to determine efficiency programs, provide city
performance goals.988” the success of its programs, what bus passes, etc), they will have to
measures need to be adjusted, consider more systematic
The importance of benchmarking and the extent to which its programs to reduce GHG
and performance metrics for actions are cost-effective. Cities emissions. These will have to be
Climate Protection programs is should compute their GHG balanced with programs to meet
they allow cities to: emissions for each sector, assess all of a community’s priorities.
how emissions compare to last At this point, setting and
Determine the success or year’s and decide whether they monitoring indicators can enable
failure of individual programs are on track to meet their goals. a community to ensure that its
and determine how the programs meet all of its
programs should be changed, Utilizing a periodic GHG priorities.
added or eliminated; inventory stacks annual progress
and exact GHG reduction, but Indicators provide a vision of the
Track the big picture progress does not help a city determine direction a city wishes to head,
of the Climate Action Plan; how far away it is from reaching and enable it to measure how far
all of its long-term, big picture it is from reaching its desired
Compare their own progress goals. goals and vision. There are
with other cities; and many measurements that a city
Determine what still needs to can make. It is important that
be done to reach goals. Indicators989 indicators are:
988
Department of Energy Metric Terminology,
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/highperformance/performance_metrics/metrics_terminology.html, 5 October 2006.
989
Definition of indicators and effectiveness are taken from the website of Maureen Hart, a consultant in community sustainability,
www.sustainablemeasures.com. This website provides a wealth of information including definitions, training, resources and a database of
existing indicator projects.
990
International Sustainability Indicators Network, www.sustainabilityindicators.org/resources/WhoWorkingOnIndicators.html#Communities, 8
October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance 303
Recent signatories of the Data Gathering Methodology: Relevant: relevancy is a top
Mayor’s Climate Protection What method will be used to priority when developing
Agreement may wish to start gather the data? indicators. Do not spend your
with climate specific indicators. time with indicators that to not
At a later time, they can expand Apply Selection Criteria relate to the goals and targets you
indicators to reflect broader have developed.
sustainability goals. Incisive: the indicators chosen
should tell clearly and Examples of Climate
Process to Establish Indicators specifically about the problems Indicators
the city is addressing. Avoid
As you develop indicators, choosing indicators that can The following is a list of
record the following elements for fluctuate for reasons unrelated to indicators that can be used to
each one. It helps to use a efforts the community is making. assess a city’s progress around
simple table for this purpose. climate protection. Each
During the brainstorming phase Measurable: in order to be useful indicator provides a
it is not essential to complete for assessing progress, indicators measurement that demonstrates
each section, but will be a need to be quantifiably decreased GHG emissions within
helpful tool for adopted measurable. the community.
indicators.991
Results oriented: can focus on Resource Conservation:
Indicator name measurement of the effect of the Energy Use
actions taken. This will Renewable Energy Use
Definition: Define the indicator sometimes seem difficult, since Carbon/ GHG Footprint
in detail. What metric will the the pressures that lead to a GHG emissions
indicator will use to measure situation like air or water Procurement practices
progress toward your pollution often take place far Imported Energy
community’s target? outside the community. Energy Program
Solid Waste Generation
Justification: Why will data Reliable: indicators must be Water Use
gathered for this indicator clearly based on variables that can be Agricultural practices
tell you whether your strategy is measured as accurately as
being successfully implemented possible. In addition, you must Transportation:
and that your community is be able to gather the needed data Residential Use of Sustainable
making progress toward realizing at an appropriate scale and Transportation Options
the target? frequency. Vehicle Miles Traveled
Bus Ridership
Units: What are the units Replicable: if a measurement Car/Van Pool Programs
associated with this indicator. can’t be accurately repeated, you Bicycle Lanes
For example: Percent, Parts per will not be able to assess Alternative Fueled City Vehicles
million (ppm), Incidence per progress over time. Transportation Options Available
1000 people, etc. Plug in hybrid programs
Simple: choose indicators that Traffic Congestion
Data Sources: Where will the are easy to understand, while
data be obtained? Will it be being as precise as possible. Environmental and Public
gathered by the community? Can Health:
it be accessed from local or Cost-effective: relatively Wastewater Generation
regional administrative records? inexpensive to monitor without Vehicle Miles Traveled
Do local NGOs or federal diminishing the effectiveness or Local Purchasing Policies in
agencies gather data? quality of the data. Place (cont’d)
991
LASER Unit Six, Indicators of Community Performance, www.global-laser.org/resources/indicator_development.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/LASER_indicators.pdf, 5 December 2006.
304 CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Environmental and Public Monitoring Indicators community to reach the adopted
Health (cont’d): Indicators should be monitored goals. A secondary grade
Urban Runoff Reduction992 regularly to assess whether reflects the level of effort the
Air Quality993 various programs created to community has put forth.
achieve them are being Similar report cards could be
Education and Outreach: successful. Well-designed used to evaluate cities from
Community Energy/Climate indicators set targets and specify across the nation on their level of
Task Force goals that a city aims to achieve commitment to reduce the GHG
Community Energy Website within each metric. Through emissions and achieve overall
Green Builder Program assessment and measurement, sustainability.
Small Business Assistance cities can determine if they are
on track to reach targets for each The trick to establish indicators
Land Use: climate indicator. Cities may is to determine the variables that
Presence of Urban Forestry choose to track some goals will incisively and meaningfully
Program annually while other goals are demonstrate the city’s progress.
Open Space/ Green Space better measured at key If done correctly, a list is created
Sustainable Agriculture Practices milestones. of the specific type of data that
Carbon Conscious Land Use and might reveal where the city is
Development Program Santa Monica released a Report and where direction it is headed
Card994 to measure and report with respect to goals.
Buildings: their indicator progress. The
Green Building/construction report card describes how the For help in creating a list of
Production of Energy Efficient city is meeting its goals and indicators, make sure to seek out
Housing highlights challenges and examples of other cities. Below
Financial Assistance Program for successes. are a few cities that have
Energy Efficient Housing established climate related
Net Zero Energy Homes The grades given reflect the indicators.
progress on the part of the entire
992
Can serve as an indicator for lack of impermeable surfaces, which will then tend to heat a city.
993
When used as a basis for regulation.
994
Santa Monica Report Card, santa-monica.org/epd/scpr/SCRC_ReportCard_2006.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/SantaMonica_ReportCard.pdf, 22 September 2006.
995
Minneapolis Sustainability Initiatives www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/environment/Sustainability-Initiatives.asp, 22 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance 305
Sample of climate indicators and
accompanying ten year targets
for each Indicator:
Bicycle
44 additional miles of bike trail & bike lanes by 2015 (14 miles of on-street bike lanes
Lanes and
and 30 miles of off-street bike trails).
Paths
Carbon
Dioxide
Reduce municipal operations emissions by 12% by 2012 and by 20% by 2020.
Emissions
Reduce City-wide emissions by 12% by 2012 and by 20% by 2020.
Urban Tree Municipal: Plant at least 2,500 trees on public land every year thru 2015.
Canopy City Wide: No net loss of tree canopy cover (26.4%) thru 2015.
Minneapolis released a 2005 incorporated into all city Stronger alignment among
Sustainable Initiatives Annual decision-making. Elements stakeholders will help by
Report introducing the indicators from the report will become streamlining resources,
and showing progress made to part of all City departments’ spurring creativity and
date. Below is an update on their business plans. Each institutionalizing sustainability
997
Renewable Energy Use Goal. department will develop principles.
Minneapolis is working to strategies to meet the
996
integrate their indicators into sustainability goals that
the future decision making correspond to their business CONTACT
process: areas and report on annual
As directed by the City progress in their business Manager
Council, the principles, goals plans. Coordination among Gayle Prest
and indicators from the City departments is critical to Environmental Services
Sustainability Report will be achieving these goals. (612) 673-2931
996
Minneapolis Sustainability Target Highlights Matrix, www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/environment/docs/indicators-matrix.pdf, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/Minneapolis_Indicators.pdf, 22 September 2006.
997
Minneapolis Sustainability Initiative 2005 Annual Report, http://www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/sustainability/sustainability-report2005.pdf, also
archived at, www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/Minneapolis_SustReport2005.pdf, 22 September 2006.
306 CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Sustainability Indicators Include Climate
Human Dignity
Transportation
Environmental
Development
Open Space
Economic
Resource
Housing
Resource Conservation Indicators
Solid waste generation ● ●
Water use ● ● ● ●
Energy use ● ● ● ● ●
Renewable energy use ● ● ● ●
Greenhouse gas emissions ● ● ● ● ● ●
Ecological Footprint for Santa Monica ● ● ● ● ● ●
Indicator of sustainable procurement ● ● ●
“Green” construction ● ● ● ●
CONTACT
Shannon Perry
Sustainable City Plan,
Environmental Programs Division
(310) 458-2227
998
Local Government Guide to the Internet, www.rural.org/lgg/Ch15_CommIndic.html, 5 December 2006.
999
Santa Monica Sustainable City Plan, archived at:
www.natcapsolutuions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/SCP_2006_Adopted_Plan.pdf, 5 December 2006.
1000
Santa Monica Matrix santa-monica.org/epd/scp/matrix.htm, entire goal indicator archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/SantaMonica_GoalIndicator.doc, 5 December 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance 307
Celebrating Networking Opportunities—
Recognition as a leader in GHG
winners. CA-CP Executive
Director, Adam Markam stated,
Successes reductions provides an “Stamford has long been a leader
opportunity to work with other in energy efficiency. The City
Celebrating successful initiatives environmentally minded has a full-time energy manager
within a community will be organizations. and has achieved significant
critical to a city’s progress in savings of taxpayer dollars by
reaching its GHG reduction Recognition of a Broader annually reducing 60,000
goals. There are many ways to Change—Although all the emissions tons of heat-tapping
celebrate accomplishments. points above are important for gases from public
Many cities choose to give cities to recognize, organizations operations.”1004
awards. These can provide an mostly need recognition that
opportunity for both the city and their programs and achievements EPA Climate Protection
the participating organizations to are helping to protect the Partnership Awards1005
celebrate their achievements. climate.1001 EPA gives a variety of awards to
Awards should provide recognize outstanding efforts to
organizations and individuals: Examples of Climate Awards protect the climate.
1001
Climate Biz, Receiving Recognition, www.climatebiz.com/sections/backgrounder_detail.cfm?UseKeyword=Recognition, 5 October 2006.
1002
Connecticut Leadership Awards, ctclimatechange.com/CTClimateChangeLeadershipAwards.html, 5 October 2006.
1003
Clean Air – Clean Planet www.cleanair-coolplanet.org/GlobalWarmingSolutions05/documents/awards.php, 5 October 2006.
1004
Clean Air – Clean Planet, 2005 Climate Champion Award Winner, www.cleanair-
coolplanet.org/GlobalWarmingSolutions05/documents/Stamford.php, 5 October 2006.
1005
EPA Climate Protection Partnerships Awards, www.epa.gov/appdstar/awards/awards.htm, 5 October 2006.
308 CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
organizations that significantly
advance the development of
renewable electricity sources
through green power markets.
Celebrating Successes
1006
Portland BEST Awards, www.portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?c=41891, 22 September 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance 309
Celebrating Successes
1007
San Mateo County Sustainability Awards, www.sustainablesanmateo.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=awards.welcome, 22 September 2006.
310 CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES
Additional possible score would be 25
(average of 25th place across all
Resources categories.) Categories include:
Transportation, Tap Water
Sustainable Cities Report, Best Quality, Air Quality, LEED
Practices in Renewable Energy Building, Solid Waste,
& Energy Efficiency, Austin, Food/Agriculture, Zoning, Land
Chicago, Fort Collins and Use, Planning, Energy/Climate
Portland1008 Policy, City Innovation and
The purpose of Sustainable Knowledge Base
Cities is to help all cities
efficiently implement energy Sustainable Measures1010 is a
sustainability programs. It is an private consulting firm dedicated
in-depth look into the history, to promoting sustainable
status and results of the programs communities, primarily through
in four cities. The report the development, understanding
identifies 14 key elements that and use of effective indicators
all cities can use to become more and systems for measuring
sustainable and includes more progress. They help
than 80 links to web pages and governments, businesses, and
source reports allowing deeper non-profits find appropriate,
exploration of a particular city's practical ways to contribute to
programs. the overall sustainability of their
communities.
SustainLane1009 provides
detailed report cards ranking
U.S. city’s quality of life
combined with indicators of
sustainability programs, policies
and performance. The 2005
results place San Francisco as the
leader in sustainability with
Portland, Oregon a close second.
Overall rankings were
determined by averaging 12
individual category rankings into
a cumulative average.
Cumulative averages ranged
from 5 for the highest-scoring
city to18.93 for the lowest-
scoring city. The best possible
score would be 1 (average of first
place across all categories) and
the worst
1008
Downloadable from Sierra Club Rocky Mountain Chapter’s library: www.rmc.sierraclub.org/energy/library/index.shtml, also archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/SustainableCitiesReport.pdf, 22 September 2006.
1009
To compare SustainLane U.S. City Rankings and report cards, refer to www.sustainlane.com/cityindex/citypage/ranking/, 5 October
2006.
1010
Sustainable Measures, www.sustainablemeasures.com, 8 October 2006.
CLIMATE PROTECTION MANUAL FOR CITIES CHAPTER 6: Monitor and Report Performance 311
Chapter 7: Climate
Protection Manual
Resources
Copious resources are included activists to initiate, plan, that can be taken in key sectors.
in footnotes and at the end of organize, implement and assess These recommendations have
each chapter in the Additional energy efficiency activities at the been designed to be both cost-
Resources section. This chapter local and regional level. effective and comprehensive.
is intended to describe other www.caleep.com/workbook/wor www.pewclimate.org/global-
resources that have not been kbook.htm. warming-in-
presented elsewhere in the depth/all_reports/agenda_for_cli
manual. SustainLane Government Best mate_action/index.cfm
Practices Database
Energy & Environment Best Free online database of best Economic Growth and
Practices Report, National practices searchable by category. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in
Summit of the United States The database is designed for California, David Roland-Holst,
Conference of Mayors, May state and local government UC Berkeley. The report is a
2006. professionals and their preferred study on the economic impacts
Cities from around the U.S. were contractors. of policy measures in California,
asked to submit their best sustainlane.us/home.jsp as the executive summary
practices in 7 different describes:
categories, and the case studies Clean Air – Cool Planet: This research note offers
are summarized in one page with Community toolkit preliminary results on the link
relevant background information Community toolkit of case between GHG abatement
and a point of contact. studies of cities divided into 4 strategies and economic growth
mayors.org/uscm/best_practices/ different categories. from on-going research with a
EnergySummitBP06.pdf#search www.cleanair- forecasting model of the
=%22best%20practices%20ethan coolplanet.org/for_communities/t California economy. The
ol%20E85%20city%22 oolkit_home.php Berkeley Energy and Resources
(BEAR) model is a detailed
California Leep (CALeep) Agenda for Climate Action, empirical simulation tool that can
Workbook Prepared by the Pew Center for evaluate the complex linkages
The Workbook lays out a process Global Climate Change, between climate policy and
for instituting local energy February 2006 economic activity. In the analysis
efficiency programs based on Identifies both broad and specific presented here, eight targeted
information developed at policies, combining GHG emission policies are
CALeep Energy Efficiency recommendations on economy- combined with an overall cap to
Summits, in six Pilot Projects wide mandatory emissions cuts, meet the state’s targets for 2020.
and other sources. It is intended technology development, No specific implementation of
to serve as a tool to be used by scientific research, energy supply the cap is assumed; these results
local officials and community and adaptation with critical steps can be interpreted as the result of
1011
Rohnert Park 2006 Green Building Ordinance Draft archived at,
www.natcapsolutions.org/ClimateManual/Cities/Chapter7/Ordinances/RohnertPark_WorkingDraft_2006.pdf, 20 December 2006.