Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115 – 129

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Research paper

Critical evaluation of six tectonic setting discrimination diagrams

using geochemical data of Neogene sediments from
known tectonic settings
J.S. Armstrong-Altrina,T, Surendra P. Vermaa,b
a
Centro de Investigación en Energı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Priv. Xochicalco S/No., Col. Centro,
Apartado Postal 34, Temixco, Morelos 62580, Mexico
b
CIICAp, UAEM, Av. Universidad 1100, Col. Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
Received 26 August 2003; received in revised form 5 February 2005; accepted 18 February 2005

Abstract

An attempt is made to evaluate 6 tectonic setting discrimination diagrams (1 discriminant function and 5 bivariate diagrams)
frequently used by many researchers. For this purpose, an extensive database was established for major element geochemistry
derived from Miocene to Recent sand and sandstone (medium to fine-grained) samples collected from a variety of tectonic
settings including (1) passive margin (PM) setting, (2) active continental margin (ACM) setting, and (3) oceanic island arc
(OIA) setting. Our results suggest that the discrimination fields proposed to infer tectonic settings for six commonly used
discrimination diagrams do not work properly for the analyzed Miocene to Recent sediments. The % success for these diagrams
varies from 0% to about 62%. We therefore recommend that these diagrams be used with prudence.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: DSDP; ODP; Sand geochemistry; Mexico; U.S.A.; Papua New Guinea; Japan

1. Introduction and other resources as well as for paleogeography.

Knowledge of the tectonic setting of an ancient
basin is important for the exploration of petroleum
T Corresponding author. Present address: Centro de Investiga-
ciones en Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Autónoma del Estado
de Hidalgo, Ciudad Universitaria, Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo
km. 4.5, Pachuca, Hidalgo, 42184, Mexico. Tel.: +52
7717172000x6622; fax: +52 7717172133.
E-mail addresses: john _arms@yahoo.com,
altrina@uaeh.reduaeh.mx (J.S. Armstrong-Altrin).
0037-0738/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.02.004
Some authors have described the usefulness of major
element geochemistry of sedimentary rocks to infer
tectonic setting based on discrimination diagrams
(e.g., Bhatia, 1983; Roser and Korsch, 1986),
although others have pointed out the difficulties in
using geochemistry to interpret tectonic setting (e.g.,
Van de Kamp and Leake, 1985; Nesbitt and Young,
1989; Milodowski and Zalasiewicz, 1991). The geo-
chemistry of sedimentary rocks is a complex function
of the nature of the source rocks, intensity and
116 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129

duration of weathering, sedimentary recycling, dia- tonic settings do not necessarily produce rocks with
genesis, and sorting (e.g., Argast and Donnelly, 1987; unique geochemical signatures (McLennan et al.,
McLennan et al., 1993). Furthermore, specific tec- 1990; Bahlburg, 1998). In some instances, sediments

A
USA
ODP Leg 164
30oN
997
618
619 615
616
Mexico DSDP Leg 96 Florida
Gulf of Mexico Shelf
Cuba
Pacific Ocean
DSDP Leg 65

485 Central
1040
1041 America
10o 1042 ODP Leg 170
ODP Leg 205
1254
Passive margin 1255
Active continental margin

120o 90oW
5oS
B C
Hokkaido
New Britain
nch
DSDP Leg 87
i n Tre
584 ta
40oN 1151 Bri
New Solomon Sea
ODP Leg 186
Trob
rian
Honshu d Tr
Korea oug
1108 h
Papua 1109
Shikoku 1114
10o
6000 m

582 1115
Kyushu 1116
583
DSDP Leg 87 New Guinea 1118
2000 m
30o ODP Leg 180

Oceanic island arc Oceanic island arc

130o 140oE 148o 152oE

Fig. 1. Location map with sample sites. (A) passive and active continental margin settings in U.S.A., Mexico, and Central America; (B) Oceanic
island arc setting from Japan; and (C) Oceanic island arc setting from Papua New Guinea. The data sources are: DSDP (Deep Sea Drilling Project)
Leg 96 from Bouma et al. (1986) (number of samples compiled n =58); Rosales-Hoz and Carranza-Edwards (1998) (triangle containing a circle,
n =11); ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) Leg 164 from Paull et al. (2000) (n =245); DSDP Leg 65 from Lewis et al. (1983) (n =2); Rosales-Hoz and
Carranza-Edwards (1995) (star symbol, n =13); Carranza-Edwards et al. (2001) (plus symbols, n =17); McLennan et al. (1990) (square containing
a circle, n =3); ODP Leg 205 from Morris et al. (2003) (n =18); ODP Leg 170 from Kimura et al. (1997) (n =33); ODP Leg 186 from Fujine et al.
(2003) (n =44); DSDP Leg 87 from Kagami et al. (1986) (n =27); ODP Leg 180 from Robertson and Sharp (2002) (n =53).
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129
are transported from one tectonic setting into a
sedimentary basin in a different tectonic environment
(McLennan et al., 1990). In spite of these difficulties,
the geochemistry of sedimentary rocks has been used
to infer the tectonic setting of ancient sedimentary
basins (e.g., McCann, 1998; Kasper-Zubillaga et al.,
1999; Burnett and Quirk, 2001; Faúndez et al., 2002;
Gu et al., 2002).
Bhatia (1983) proposed major element geochem-
ical criteria to discriminate plate tectonic settings of
sedimentary basins from identification of well-
defined sandstone suites. Roser and Korsch (1986)
proposed tectonic setting discrimination fields cen-
tered primarily on sandstone–mudstone geochemical
data from known tectonic settings. The tie lines
between the sandstone–mudstone geochemical data
were considered to be characteristic of specific
source types.
Several studies have found that the tectonic settings
inferred from these geochemical discrimination dia-
grams are inconsistent with those inferred from plate
tectonic reconstructions of ancient terranes (Valloni
and Maynard, 1981; Maynard et al., 1982; Van de
Kamp and Leake, 1985; Haughton, 1988; Winchester
and Max, 1989; Holail and Moghazi, 1998; Toulkeridis
et al., 1999; Shao et al., 2001). Winchester and Max
(1989) suggested that these discrimination diagrams
should be evaluated by using recent sediments from
known tectonic settings. In this respect, Van de Kamp
and Leake (1985) observed discrepancies in tectonic
settings inferred from the fields proposed by Bhatia
(1983). They recommended using individual analyses
instead of the average values suggested by Bhatia
(1983) to draw conclusions concerning the tectonic
discrimination fields. To our knowledge, no attempt
has yet been made to test these discrimination diagrams
using Neogene sediments with similar grain sizes
(medium to fine-grained) from known tectonic settings.
We attempt to evaluate six commonly used discrim-
ination diagrams by using major element geochemistry
of Miocene to Recent sands and sandstones from (1) the
passive margin (PM) setting of the Gulf of Mexico, (2)
the active continental margin (ACM) setting of the
southwestern coast of Mexico, and (3) the oceanic island
arc (OIA) settings of Japan and Papua New Guinea (Fig.
1). Since it is difficult to gather a statistically significant
number of sandstone samples of Recent age, we decided
to test these discrimination diagrams by using Miocene
117
to Recent sands and sandstones from these different
tectonic settings. This is the first systematic attempt to
evaluate the functioning of these diagrams based on a
b% successQ parameter.
2. Sample description
We have established an extensive database on
major element geochemistry of sand and sandstone
samples from different tectonic settings around
Mexico, Central America, and U.S.A. (ACM and
PM; Fig. 1A); Japan (OIA; Fig. 1B); and Papua New
Guinea (OIA; Fig. 1C). The geochemical data and
lithologic descriptions for sand and sandstone (Mio-
cene to Recent; medium to fine-grained) samples are
from: (i) reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project
(DSDP) Legs 96 (Bouma et al., 1986), 65 (Lewis et
al., 1983), and 87 (Kagami et al., 1986); (ii) Ocean
Drilling Program (ODP) results from Legs 164 (Paull
et al., 2000), 205 (Morris et al., 2003), 170 (Kimura
et al., 1997), 186 (Fujine et al., 2003), and 180
(Robertson and Sharp, 2002); and (iii) other pub-
lished literature on Mexico (McLennan et al., 1990;
Rosales-Hoz and Carranza-Edwards, 1995, 1998;
Carranza-Edwards et al., 2001). The number of
samples and averages compiled for each tectonic
setting, lithology, age, and grain-size details are
given in Table 1. General description about sample
lithology, and locations are provided below.
2.1. Passive margin sediments
The geochemical data for passive margin sediments
were collected from four sites (sites 615, 616, 618, and
619; Table 1) of DSDP Leg 96, drilled in the middle and
lower Mississippi Fan in the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 1A;
Pickering and Stow, 1986). These sediments, predom-
inantly deposited during late Wisconsin glacial time,
provide an excellent opportunity to examine the geo-
chemical characteristics of deep-ocean sediments
derived from re-deposited continental sources. Fifty-
eight fine-grained sand samples (Late Pleistocene)
were selected from various sites of Leg 96 (Fig. 1A;
Table 1).
Additional samples are from Ocean Drilling
Program (ODP) Leg 164 drilled on the Blake Ridge
(Paull et al., 2000; Fig. 1A). The Blake Ridge is a
118 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129

Table 1
Data source and sample descriptions used in this study to evaluate the discrimination diagrams proposed by Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch
(1986)
Tectonic Location/Leg Site ns na Lithology Grain-size Age Ref. Figure #
setting
PM DSDP 96 615 21 1 sand fine L. Pleistocene (1) Fig. 1A
616 24 1 sand fine
618 7 1 sand fine
619 6 1 sand fine
PM* 18808VN 94830VW – 11 1 sand med Recent (2) Fig. 1A triangle
containing a circle
PM ODP 164 997A 108 4 sand med to fine Plio to Pleist (3) Fig. 1A
997B 137 2 sand med to fine L. Mio to E. Plio
ACM DSDP 65 485 2 1 sst med Quaternary (4) Fig. 1A
ACM* 17830VN 101815VW – 13 1 sand med to fine Recent (5) Fig. 1A star
symbol
ACM* 308N 1128W–108N 858W – 17 1 sand med to fine Quaternary (6) Fig. 1A plus
symbols
ACM Lamont D. Piston core – 3 1 sand med to fine Recent (7) Fig. 1A square
containing a circle
ACM ODP 205 1254A 15 1 sand fine Pleistocene (8) Fig. 1A
1255A 3 1 sand fine Pliocene
ACM ODP 170 1040B 7 1 sand fine Plio to Pleist (9) Fig. 1A
1040C 12 1 sand fine Plio to Pleist
1041A 4 1 sand fine L. Pliocene
1041B 4 1 sand fine L. Mio to E. Plio
1041C 1 1 sst med to fine L. Miocene
1042A 4 1 sand fine L. Mio to L. Plio
1042B 1 1 sand fine L. Miocene
OIA ODP 186 1151C 44 1 sand fine Pleistocene (10) Fig. 1B
OIA DSDP 87 582B 8 1 sand fine Quaternary (11) Fig. 1B
583 4 1 sand fine Quaternary
583F 3 1 sand fine Quaternary
583G 2 1 sand fine Quaternary
584 10 1 sand fine M. to L. Plio
OIA ODP 180 1108 4 1 sst fine L. Plio to Pleist (12) Fig. 1C
1109 13 1 sst fine E. Plio to Pleist
1114 5 1 sst fine L. Plio to Pleist
1115 16 1 sst fine E. Plio to Pleist
1116 6 1 sst fine L. Plio to Pleist
1118 9 1 sst fine L. Plio to Pleist
PM=Passive margin; ACM=Active Continental Margin; OIA=Oceanic Island Arc; DSDP=Deep Sea Drilling Project; ODP=Ocean Drilling
Program.
*=surface samples; ns=number of samples; na=number of averages taken according to similar tectonic setting, age, and site; L.=Late; M.=Middle;
E.=Early; Mio=Miocene; Plio=Pliocene; Pleist=Pleistocene; med=medium; c=coarse; sst=sandstone; Ref.=reference; Fm.=Formation.
(1)=Bouma et al., 1986; (2)=Rosales-Hoz and Carranza-Edwards, 1998; (3) =Paull et al., 2000; (4)=Lewis et al., 1983; (5) =Rosales-Hoz and
Carranza-Edwards, 1995; (6) =Carranza-Edwards et al., 2001; (7)=McLennan et al., 1990; (8) =Morris et al., 2003; (9) =Kimura et al., 1997;
(10)=Fujine et al., 2003; (11)=Kagami et al., 1986; (12)=Robertson and Sharp, 2002.

continental rise deposit perpendicular to the general
trend of the eastern U.S. continental margin
(Mountain and Tucholke, 1985). Most of the sedi-
ments recovered during Leg 164 accumulated
during the Pliocene and Miocene. The sediments
were deposited by the south-flowing western boun-
dary undercurrent that sweeps southward along the
Atlantic margin (Gradstein and Sheridan, 1983). The
stratigraphic sequence is composed of lithologically
rather homogeneous nannofossil-rich clays and clay-
stones and variable amounts of medium to fine-
grained sand. For this study, two hundred and forty-
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129
five medium to fine-grained sand samples (late
Miocene to Pleistocene) were selected from two
sites (Fig. 1A; Table 1).
In addition, eleven medium-grained surface sand
samples (Recent, triangle containing a circle in Fig.
1A; Rosales-Hoz and Carranza-Edwards, 1998; Table
1) were also included in our compilation.
2.2. Active continental margin sediments
Sediments derived from an active continental
margin setting include DSDP Leg 65 (site 485;
Kurnosov et al., 1983; Fig. 1A). Site 485 (Leg 65)
is located near the continental slope of mainland
Mexico, and is characterized by an extremely high
sedimentation rate of about 625 m/m.y. (Kurnosov
et al., 1983). Several layers of lower Quaternary
sediments were recovered intercalated with basalts
in the depth interval from 160 to 330 m sub-
bottom, including lithified clayey siltstones, sand-
stones, and claystones. Geochemical data for two
sandstones (Quaternary) were selected from this site
(Table 1).
In addition, thirteen medium- to fine-grained sand
samples (Recent) from the Pacific coast of Mexico
(Rosales-Hoz and Carranza-Edwards, 1995; star
symbol in Fig. 1A; Table 1) also were included.
Similarly, major element data for 17 medium- to fine-
grained sand samples (Quaternary) analyzed from the
beaches of the Pacific coast of Mexico (plus symbols
in Fig. 1A) were also included in our compilation
(Carranza-Edwards et al., 2001; Table 1).
The geochemical results of the samples (three
medium- to fine-grained sands of Recent age)
collected from three locations near DSDP Site 485
(McLennan et al., 1990; square containing a circle in
Fig. 1A; Table 1) were also included.
Additional samples are from lower trench slope
of the Costa Rica forearc (Fig. 1A; Table 1) drilled
during ODP Leg 205 (Morris et al., 2003) and ODP
Leg 170 (Kimura et al., 1997). Sites 1254 and 1255
are located (~ 1.5 km and ~ 0.4 km, respectively)
arcward from the deformation front at a water depth
of 4183 m, close to the holes drilled during Leg
170 (Kimura et al., 1997; Fig. 1A). The section
recovered at sites 1254 and 1255 largely comprises
fine sand, massive dark gray claystones, and silty
claystones. For this study, we selected eighteen fine-
119
grained sand samples (Fig. 1A; Table 1). ODP Leg
170 drilling of the Costa Rica margin retrieved
good quality cores and successfully penetrated the
décollement, providing excellent opportunities for
understanding the processes associated with plate
convergence (Ibaraki, 2000). The general lithology
retrieved includes silty sand, fine-grained sand, silty
claystone, fine-grained sandstone, and sandy silt-
stone. Our data compilation includes thirty-two fine-
grained sand samples and one medium- to fine-
grained sandstone sample from different sites of
ODP Leg 170 (Table 1).
2.3. Oceanic island arc sediments
2.3.1. Japan
The Japan area is probably the best investigated
arc–trench system on the planet. Ocean Drilling
Program (ODP) Leg 186 on the eastern edge of the
forearc basin (site 1151; Fig. 1B), was located at a
water depth of 2182 m in the deep-sea terrace ~ 100
km west of the Japan Trench (Fujine et al., 2003).
At this site, middle Miocene to Holocene sedimen-
tary sections were recovered that were over a
kilometer thick. A sedimentary record spanning the
past 1 m.y. is preserved in the upper 100 m of the
section, in which multiple holes have been cored
(Sacks et al., 2000). The sediments are homoge-
neous, consisting mostly of diatomaceous claystones
and oozes interbedded with sandy layers. The site
also receives a relatively high flux of detrital
materials from riverine input from Honshu Island.
For this study, forty-four fine-grained sand samples
were selected (Table 1).
Previous drilling in the forearc area took place
during the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Leg 87
(site 584; Fig. 1B), which transected the Japan
Trench at ~ 39.88N–40.78N (Kagami et al., 1986).
Site 584 is on the landward slope of the Japan
Trench off Sanriku, northeastern Japan. A 954-m
sediment column composed of thin layers of sand
with intercalated mudstone was recovered from this
site (Kagami et al., 1986). Two other sites (582 and
583) situated in the southern Nankai trough, about
135 km southeast of Shikoku were also drilled
during DSDP Leg 87 (Fig. 1B). The general
lithology of stratigraphic section recovered includes
sand, silty sand, silty claystone, hemipelagic mud,
120 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129

Fig. 2. Critical evaluation of discrimination diagrams of tectonic settings, for the individual samples compiled from passive margin (PM) setting
with discrimination fields after Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986). Fe2O3* represents total Fe expressed as Fe2O3. (A): Fe2O3*+MgO–
TiO2 (Bhatia, 1983); (B): Fe2O3*+MgO–K2O/Na2O (Bhatia, 1983); (C): Fe2O3*+MgO–Al2O3/SiO2 (Bhatia, 1983); (D): Fe2O3*+MgO–Al2O3/
(CaO+Na2O) (Bhatia, 1983); (E): Discriminant function diagram (Bhatia, 1983) and the discriminant functions are: Discriminant Function 1=
( 0.0447 d SiO2)+( 0.972 d TiO2)+(0.008 d Al2O3) +( 0.267 d Fe2O3)+(0.208 d FeO)+( 3.082 d MnO) +(0.140 d MgO)+(0.195
d CaO) + (0.719 d Na2O) + ( 0.032 d K2O) + (7.510 d P2O5); Discriminant Function 2 = ( 0.421 d SiO2) + (1.988 d TiO2) + ( 0.526
d Al2O3) + ( 0.551 d Fe2O3) + ( 1.610 d FeO) + (2.720 d MnO) +(0.881 d MgO) + ( 0.907 d CaO) + ( 0.177 d Na2O) + ( 1.840
d K2O) +(7.244 d P2O5); and (F): SiO2–log(K2O/Na2O) (Roser and Korsch, 1986).
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129 121

Fig. 3. Critical evaluation of discrimination diagrams of tectonic settings, for the individual samples compiled from active continental margin
(ACM) setting, with discrimination fields after Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986). Fe2O3* represents total Fe expressed as Fe2O3.
Explanation and major element parameters used for panels A–F are the same as in Fig. 2A–F.
122 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129

Fig. 4. Critical evaluation of discrimination diagrams of tectonic settings, for the individual samples compiled from oceanic island arc (OIA)
setting, with discrimination fields after Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986). Fe2O3* represents total Fe expressed as Fe2O3. Explanation
and major element parameters used for panels A–F are the same as in Fig. 2A–F.
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129 123

and mudstone. We included major element geo- 2.3.2. Papua New Guinea
chemical data for twenty-seven selected fine-grained During Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 180 (Fig.
sand samples from Leg 87 sites (Fig. 1B; Table 1). 1C) a nearly north–south transect of six holes, with good

Fig. 5. Critical evaluation of discrimination diagrams of tectonic settings using average values computed from our database, with discrimination
fields after Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986). Fe2O3* represents total Fe expressed as Fe2O3. Number of averages taken according to
similar tectonic setting, age, and site. The number of samples used to calculate one average value is the same as given in Table 1. Explanation
and major element parameters used for panels A–F are the same as in Fig. 2A–F.
124 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129

recovery, was drilled across the Woodlark Basin near the
Papua New Guinea arc–trench system (Robertson and
Sharp, 2002). The lithology of core sections includes
sandstone, siltstone, claystone, and conglomerate. The
sandstones deposited during this period are composed
dominantly of silicic volcanic detritus, probably derived
from the Amphlett Islands and surrounding areas where
island arc volcanic rocks of Pliocene–Pleistocene age
occur. During this time, terrigenous and metamorphic
detritus derived from the Papua New Guinea mainland
reached the Woodlark rift basin as fine-grained turbiditic
sediments (Sharp and Robertson, 2002). Modal analysis
of middle Miocene to Pleistocene volcaniclastic sands
and sandstones indicates a complex source history for
sand-sized detritus deposited within the basin. Fifty-
three fine-grained sandstone samples were selected from
various sites of ODP Leg 180 (Fig. 1C; Table 1).
3. Results
Bhatia (1983) considered the tectonic setting of
sandstones that he studied to have been (1) oceanic
island arc (OIA), (2) continental island arc (CIA), (3)
active continental margin (ACM), and (4) passive
margin (PM). He compiled the average chemical
compositions of medium- to fine-grained sandstones
(e.g., arkose, greywacke, lithic arenite, and quartz
arenite) and modern sands from various regions of the
world and used these average values (9 average
compositions to represent each of the OIA, CIA, and
PM tectonic settings and 7 for the ACM setting; see
Tables 5 to 8 and Fig. 6 in Bhatia, 1983) to propose
discrimination diagrams. The discriminating parameters
used are (Fe2O3* represents total iron as Fe2O3): (i)
Fe2O3*+MgO and TiO2 (Figs. 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A); (ii)

Table 2
Critical evaluation of the tectonic setting discrimination diagrams proposed by Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) using individual
values compiled from localities around U.S.A., Mexico, Central America, Japan, and Papua New Guinea
This study Inferred tectonic setting
Figure # Known tectonic # of PM ACM CIA OIA Outside Percent (%)
setting samples any field success
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Bhatia, 1983)
Fig. 2A PM 314 0 11 8 239 56 0
Fig. 2B PM 314 0 8 3 0 303 0
Fig. 2C PM 314 5 3 0 103 203 1.6
Fig. 2D PM 314 1 2 3 199 109 0.32
Fig. 2E PM 314 45 199 68 2 0 14.3
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Roser and Korsch, 1986)
Fig. 2F PM 314 162 148 – 4 0 51.6
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Bhatia (1983)
Fig. 3A ACM 86 0 4 4 48 30 4.6
Fig. 3B ACM 86 2 8 4 4 68 9.3
Fig. 3C ACM 86 0 6 4 42 34 7.0
Fig. 3D ACM 86 5 12 1 7 61 13.9
Fig. 3E ACM 86 71 13 2 0 0 15.1
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Roser and Korsch, 1986)
Fig. 3F ACM 86 13 45 – 28 0 52.3
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Bhatia, 1983)
Fig. 4A OIA 124 0 2 22 19 81 15.3
Fig. 4B OIA 124 0 3 4 3 114 2.4
Fig. 4C OIA 124 0 2 3 28 91 22.6
Fig. 4D OIA 124 0 2 1 11 110 8.9
Fig. 4E OIA 124 85 3 15 21 0 16.9
# of samples plotting in a given field (defined by Roser and Korsch, 1986)
Fig. 4F OIA 124 42 43 – 39 0 31.5
PM=passive margin; ACM=active continental margin; CIA=continental island arc; OIA=oceanic island arc.
The data sources are the same as in Table 1.
The numbers in bold are the total number of samples used for evaluation, and also signify that the samples fall in the correct (expected) field.
Percent success=100d (number of samples falling in the expected field/total number of samples evaluated for a given tectonic setting).
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129 125

Fe2O3*+MgO and K2O/Na2O (Figs. 2B, 3B, 4B, and
5B); (iii) Fe2O3*+MgO and Al2O3/SiO2 (Figs. 2C, 3C,
4C, and 5C); and (iv) Fe2O3*+MgO and Al2O3/(CaO+
Na2O) (Figs. 2D, 3D, 4D, and 5D). The geochemical
concept behind these discrimination diagrams (Fig. 6A–
D in Bhatia, 1983) was based on a general decrease in
Fe2O3*+MgO, TiO2, and Al2O3/SiO2 and an increase in
K2O/Na2O and Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O) as the tectonic
setting changes in the sequence OIA-CIA-ACM-PM.
Bhatia (1983) used these diagrams to infer the
tectonic settings of five Palaeozoic sandstone suites of
eastern Australia. He then proposed discriminant
functions (Functions 1 and 2) by using 11 major
element oxides as discriminant variables to construct a
territorial map for the tectonic classification of sand-
stones. Discriminant scores of Functions 1 and 2
(Bhatia, 1983) were calculated from the unstandar-
dized function coefficient and the actual abundance of
element oxides in the average (not on volatile free
basis; Bhatia, 1985; Figs. 2E, 3E, 4E, and 5E).
Roser and Korsch (1986) differentiated the sedi-
ments derived from oceanic island arc (ARC accord-
ing to the original authors), active continental margin
(ACM), and passive continental margin (PM) using
SiO2 and K2O/Na2O ratio (Figs. 2F, 3F, 4F, and 5F).
Roser and Korsch (1986) further stated that associated
with subduction zones, ARC-derived material is
typical of fore-arc, back-arc, and inter-arc basins
formed on oceanic crust, whereas ACM-derived
material occurs in similar settings but on continental
crust. PM sediments are derived from stable con-
tinental areas and deposited in intra-cratonic basins or
on passive continental margins.
Our study to evaluate these discrimination dia-
grams includes geochemical data for 314 samples
from a passive margin setting, 86 samples from an
active continental margin setting, and 124 samples
from an oceanic island arc setting (Tables 1–3). These
compiled samples are sand and sandstones, all of
Neogene age (see Table 1 for grain-size details). We

Table 3
Critical evaluation of the tectonic setting discrimination diagrams proposed by Bhatia (1983) and Roser and Korsch (1986) using average values
compiled from localities around U.S.A., Mexico, Central America, Japan, and Papua New Guinea
This study Inferred tectonic setting
Figure # Known tectonic # of PM ACM CIA OIA Outside any field Percent (%)
setting averages success
# of averages plotting in a given field (defined by Bhatia, 1983)
Fig. 5A PM 11 0 0 1 6 4 0
ACM 13 0 1 2 9 1 7.7
OIA 12 0 0 1 2 9 16.7
Fig. 5B PM 11 0 0 0 0 11 0
ACM 13 0 1 1 0 11 7.7
OIA 12 0 0 0 0 12 0
Fig. 5C PM 11 0 1 0 3 7 0
ACM 13 0 1 1 9 2 7.7
OIA 12 0 0 0 7 5 58.3
Fig. 5D PM 11 0 0 0 8 3 0
ACM 13 0 1 1 0 11 7.7
OIA 12 0 0 0 3 9 25
Fig. 5E PM 11 1 6 4 0 0 9.1
ACM 13 9 2 1 0 1 15.4
OIA 12 9 0 0 3 0 25
# of averages plotting in a given field (defined by Roser and Korsch, 1986)
Fig. 5F PM 11 6 5 – 0 0 54.5
ACM 13 1 8 – 4 0 61.5
OIA 12 2 4 – 6 0 50
PM=passive margin; ACM=active continental margin; CIA=continental island arc; OIA=oceanic island arc.
The data sources and the number of samples used to calculate one average are the same as in Table 1.
The numbers in bold are the total number of averages used for evaluation, and also signify that the averages fall in the correct (expected) field.
Percent success=100d (number of averages falling in the expected field/ total number of averages evaluated for a given tectonic setting).
126 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129
omitted diatomaceous ooze, silty clay, glauconite,
iron-rich, coarse- and very fine-grained samples from
all DSDP and ODP sites because we wanted to use
only similar rock types and grain sizes to those used
for proposing the discrimination diagrams under
evaluation.
3.1. Evaluation of discrimination diagrams using
individual geochemical data
The actual individual analyses from our database
were used to evaluate the discrimination diagrams as
follows. The results are given in Table 2 and in Fig.
2A–F (for passive margin setting samples), Fig. 3A–F
(for active continental margin setting samples), and
Fig. 4A–F (for oceanic island arc setting samples).
3.1.1. Fe2O3* + MgO–TiO2 plot (Figs. 2A, 3A, and 4A)
In the Fe2O3* + MgO–TiO2 plot (Fig. 2A; Table
2), none of the 314 samples selected from the
passive margin setting plot in the expected field of
PM (~ 0% success), although 11 samples plot in the
ACM field and 8 samples plot in the CIA field.
Most of the samples plot in the OIA field (n = 239)
and the remaining 56 samples plot outside of any
field.
With the exception of 4 samples (Fig. 3A; Table 2),
all other samples compiled from the active continental
margin setting (n = 86) plot outside the expected field
of ACM (only ~ 5% success).
Nineteen samples out of 124 compiled from the
oceanic island arc setting (Fig. 4A) are correctly
discriminated amounting to ~ 15% success. Others
show a wide scatter: 2 samples plot in ACM field, 22
in the CIA field, and remaining 81 samples outside the
designated fields (Table 2).
3.1.2. Fe2O3* + MgO–K2O/Na2O plot
(Figs. 2B, 3B, and 4B)
In the Fe2O3* +MgO–K2O/Na2O plot (Fig. 2B;
Table 2), none of the samples from passive margin
(n = 314) plots in the PM field (~ 0% success) nor in
the OIA; in fact, most of the samples (n = 303) fall
outside any pre-defined field of Bhatia (1983). Only 8
samples plot in ACM field and 3 in CIA.
Only 8 out of 86 samples compiled from the active
continental margin setting (Fig. 3B; Table 2) plot in
the correct ACM field, amounting to ~ 9% success.
With the exception of 3 samples, all other samples
(121) from the oceanic island arc setting (Fig. 4B) plot
in other fields (3 samples plot in ACM and 4 in CIA)
and mostly outside any field (114; Table 2), although
they were expected to plot in the OIA field (only ~ 2%
success).
3.1.3. Fe2O3*+ MgO–Al2O3/SiO2 plot
(Figs. 2C, 3C, and 4C)
In the Fe2O3*+ MgO–Al2O3/SiO2 plot (Fig. 2C;
Table 2), only 5 samples out of 314 plot in the
expected PM field (~ 2% success). Most of the
samples (n = 103) plot in the OIA field except 3
samples, which plot in ACM field. The remaining 203
samples plot outside any field.
Eighty-six samples from active continental margin
setting (Fig. 3C) show a wide scatter; six of these
samples plot in the expected ACM field (~ 7%
success; Table 2).
Concerning the oceanic island arc setting (Fig. 4C),
of the 124 samples compiled in our database, 28 plot
in the expected OIA field, 2 in ACM, 3 in CIA, and
91 outside any field, amounting to ~ 23% success
(Table 2).
3.1.4. Fe 2 O 3 * + MgO–Al 2 O 3 /(CaO + Na 2 O) plot
(Figs. 2D, 3D, and 4D)
In the Fe2O3* + MgO–Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O) plot
(Fig. 2D; Table 2), only 1 sample out of 314 compiled
from passive margin setting plot in the PM field,
amounting to ~ 0.3% success. The other samples were
wrongly discriminated, e.g. 2 samples plot in ACM
field, 3 in CIA, and 199 in OIA. The remaining 109
samples plot outside of any field.
This plot (Fig. 3D) works with about ~ 14%
success for the 86 samples compiled from the active
continental margin setting (Table 2).
Also, this plot (Fig. 4D) shows ~ 9% success for
the samples from oceanic island arc setting. Except 3
samples most of these plot outside any field (n = 110;
Table 2).
3.1.5. Discriminant function diagram
(Figs. 2E, 3E, and 4E)
On the basis of discriminant functions given by
Bhatia (1983), the discriminant functions 1 and 2 are
plotted in Figs. 2E, 3E, and 4E and are listed in Table
2. Forty-five samples out of 314 compiled from
 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129
passive margin setting plot in the correct field (~ 14%
success). This diagram fails to discriminate the
remaining samples correctly.
When considering the samples from active con-
tinental margin setting (Fig. 3E), this plot correctly
discriminates 13 samples out of 86 (~ 15% success),
and most of the samples plot in the PM field (n = 71;
Table 2).
Among the 124 samples compiled from the oceanic
island arc setting (Fig. 4E), 21 samples plot in the
expected OIA field (~ 17% success), with the
remaining samples plotting mostly in the PM
(n = 85) and other fields (Table 2).
3.1.6. SiO2–log(K2O/Na2O) plot (Figs. 2F, 3F, and
4F)
In the SiO2–log(K2O/Na2O) plot (Fig. 2F; Table 2;
Roser and Korsch, 1986), 162 samples out of 314
compiled from the passive margin setting plot in the
expected PM field, amounting to ~ 52% success. The
remaining 148 samples plot in the ACM field except 4
samples, which plot in the OIA.
Forty-five samples out of 86 compiled from active
continental margin setting (Fig. 3F) plot in the
expected ACM field (~ 52% success); others plot in
the PM and OIA fields (Table 2).
Moreover, 39 samples out of 124 compiled from
oceanic island arc setting (Fig. 4F) are correctly
discriminated (~ 32% success; Table 2).
3.2. Evaluation of discrimination diagrams using
average geochemical data
The average values for each site were also used to
evaluate the discrimination diagrams. The average
values were calculated with respect to similar ages
and Leg sites. The number of averages (na) for
different tectonic settings is listed in Table 1. Eleven
average compositions for passive margin, 13 for
active continental margin, and 12 for oceanic island
arc settings were calculated (Table 1) to evaluate the
discrimination diagrams. The results are summarized
in Table 3, as well as in Fig. 5A–F. The % success of
these discrimination diagrams are summarized as
follows.
Fig. 5A (Fe2O3* + MgO–TiO2) shows only ~ 8%
success for the average values from active continental
margin setting, with other setting PM being wrongly
127
discriminated (~ 0% success). This figure shows ~ 17%
success for the OIA settings. Fig. 5B (Fe2O3* +MgO–
K2O/Na2O), on the other hand, completely fails to infer
the tectonic setting for any of the average values
compiled from PM and OIA settings (~ 0% success)
and ~ 8% success for the ACM setting. Fig. 5C
(Fe2O3* +MgO–Al2O3/SiO2) shows ~ 58% success
for the average values of oceanic island arc, but fails
for PM setting (~ 0% success) and shows only ~ 8%
success for active continental margin setting. Fig. 5D
(Fe 2 O 3 * + MgO–Al 2 O 3 /(CaO + Na 2 O)) completely
fails (~ 0% success) for average values compiled
from PM but shows ~ 8% success for ACM setting
and ~ 25% success for OIA setting.
The discriminant functions 1 and 2 (Bhatia,
1983) calculated using average values are plotted
in Fig. 5E (Table 3). This discrimination diagram
works with ~ 15% success for the average values
compiled from active continental margin setting and
~ 9% success for the average values compiled from
passive margin. Twelve average values computed
for OIA margin show ~ 25% success (Table 3).
In SiO2–log(K2O/Na2O) diagram (Fig. 5F; Table 3;
Roser and Korsch, 1986) about 50% of the average
values compiled from oceanic island arc plots in the
correct field (~ 50% success). This plot shows ~ 62%
success for the average values compiled from active
continental margin and ~ 54% success for the average
values compiled from passive margin setting (Table 3).
4. Discussion
A close examination of these diagrams (Figs. 2–5)
shows that the geochemical parameters might be useful
for such discrimination diagrams but the proposed
fields do not seem to correctly work for sand and
sandstone samples compiled in our database. There
may be several reasons for this failure; some of them
are: (1) the discrimination based on average values
(Bhatia, 1983) is not a suitable approach because, as
pointed out by Roser and Korsch (1985) and Van de
Kamp and Leake (1985), this approach eliminates the
possibility of detection of geochemical variations
within a single suite; (2) the average analyses from
different suites used by Bhatia to propose the discrim-
ination fields are not representative of the particular
tectonic settings, for example, he included greywacke
128 J.S. Armstrong-Altrin, S.P. Verma / Sedimentary Geology 177 (2005) 115–129
(Pettijohn, 1963) in the CIA setting, but the analyses
that Pettijohn (1963) used to derive his average value
came from different tectonic settings (OIA, CIA, and
PM; e.g., Roser and Korsch, 1985); (3) the distinction
between CIA and ACM settings proposed by Bhatia
(1983, see his Table 9) is not clear, for example, why
bTyee, OregonQ and bFranciscan, CaliforniaQ samples
are classified as CIA whereas bSanta Inez, CaliforniaQ
and bSalton Basin Sand, CaliforniaQ as ACM; (4) the
method of proposing the discrimination fields in these
diagrams is also not acceptable, e.g., Bhatia (1983)
used 9 average values to draw a field for passive
margin setting but he defined the fields by using only 4
average values (only 44% of the whole data set) for
Fe 2 O 3 * + MgO–TiO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 * + MgO–Al 2 O 3 /
(CaO + Na2O) plots and 5 average values (only 56%
of the whole data set) for Fe2O3* +MgO–K2O/Na2O
and Fe2O3*+ MgO–Al2O3/SiO2 plots. Similarly, the
approximate field designated for CIA is not the
representative field for samples exclusively from CIA
setting, because in all discrimination diagrams (Figs. 6
to 7 in Bhatia, 1983) the CIA field includes one
average value of PM and ACM settings.
Roser and Korsch’s (1986) SiO2–log(K2O/Na2O)
diagram seems to work somewhat better (~ 32–62%
success; Tables 2 and 3) than Bhatia’s diagrams (0–
58% success). The relatively low % success of the
Roser and Korsch (1986) diagram may be due to the
fact that the database used by these authors may not
be fully representative of worldwide rocks, for
example, they used only California to represent active
continental margin setting of the world.
Therefore, a worldwide representative database
should be established for modern sand and sandstones
and proper statistical methods should be used in the
future to propose new discrimination diagrams that
could result in a higher % success for inferring
tectonic settings of modern and ancient basins.
5. Conclusions
This study suggests that the tectonic setting
discrimination fields proposed to differentiate the
fields in six different discrimination diagrams are not
working properly. Therefore, these diagrams must
not be used to infer tectonic setting of ancient
basins. There is still an urgent need of new and
efficient discrimination diagrams in sedimentary
geochemistry.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the reviewers Gary H. Girty and
Salvatore Critelli and Editor Keith A.W. Crook and
Associate Editor Frans Koning for numerous helpful
comments to improve our paper. The first author
(JSA) wishes to express his gratefulness to Otilio
Arturo Acevedo Sandoval and Kinardo Flores, Centro
de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Tierra, Universi-
dad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo (UAEH), and to
SEP-PROMEP (Programa de Mejoramiento del Pro-
fesorado; Grant No: UAEHGO-PTC-280)-CONA-
CYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a),
Mexico, for financial support.
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