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Coherence..

is product of many different factors, which combine


to make every paragraph, every sentence, and
every phrase contribute to the meaning of the
whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more
difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply
because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform
them if their message is clear or not. Therefore,
writers must make their patterns of coherence
much more explicit and much more carefully
planned. Coherence itself is the product of two
factors — paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.
Paragraph Unity
To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure
two things only. First, the paragraph must have a
single generalization that serves as the focus of
attention, that is, a topic sentence. Secondly, a
writer must control the content of every other
sentence in the paragraph's body such that (a) it
contains more specific information than the topic
sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus of
attention as the topic sentence.
This generalization about paragraph structure
holds true for the essay in particular. The two
major exceptions to this formula for paragraph
unity are found in fiction (where paragraph
boundaries serve other functions, such as
indicating when a new speaker is talking in a
story) and in journalism (where paragraphs are
especially short to promote 'visual' ease by
creating white space).
Sentence Cohesion
To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to
the next, consider the following techniques:

• Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two


sentences), repeat a word from sentence A.

•Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use


a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This
strategy is call 'elegant variation.
• Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an
antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since
in language antonyms actually share more elements
of meaning than you might imagine.

• Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or


another pro-form to make explicit reference back
to a form mentioned earlier.

• Collocation. Use a commonly paired or


expected or highly probable word to connect one
sentence to another.
• Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence
to highlight the connection between ideas. This
system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas
that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it
looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a
second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in
(7) below.

• Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This


technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but
probably the most elegant method of creating
cohesion.
• Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive
adverb to link sentences with particular logical
relationships.

• Identity. Indicates sameness.


that is, that is to say, in other words, ...

• Opposition. Indicates a contrast. but, yet,


however, nevertheless, still, though, although,
whereas, in contrast, rather, ...
•Addition. Indicates continuation.
and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in
addition, besides, in the same way, again,
another, similarly, a similar, the same, ...

• Cause and effect.


therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence,
thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because,
since, for, ...

• Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of


an unspecified type.
in fact, indeed, now, ...
• Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider
the other side.
admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course,
naturally, some believe, some people
believe, it has been claimed that, once it
was believed, there are those who would
say, ...

• Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more


general or abstract idea to a more specific or
concrete idea.
for example, for instance, after all, an
illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is
true, of course, specifically, to be specific,
that is, to illustrate, truly, ...
There are four significant devices which
may help to attain coherence, namely:
a) Pronouns

b) Repetition

c) Synonyms

d) Connectives
Basic Outlining
An outline presents a picture of the main ideas and the
subsidiary ideas of any subject. Some typical uses of
outlining are: a class reading assignment, an essay, a term
paper, a book review or a speech. For any of these, an
outline will show a basic overview and important details.
Some professors will require an outline in sentence form,
or require the main points to be in chronological order, or
have other specific requirements. A student’s first
responsibility, of course, is to follow the requirements of the
particular assignment. What follows illustrates only the
basics of outlining. The library presents it as a quick
reminder because students often ask about outlining, and
the information is not easy to find quickly in various
reference books.
BASIC OUTLINE  FORM
Below is a synopsis of the outline form. The main ideas
take roman numerals. Sub-points under each main idea
take capital letters and are indented. Sub-points under the
capital letters, if any, take italic numbers and are further
indented.
I. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
B. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
1. Subsidiary idea to B
2. Subsidiary idea to B
a) Subsidiary idea to 2
b) Subsidiary idea to 2
II. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary or supporting idea to II
B. Subsidiary idea to II
C. Subsidiary idea to II
III. MAIN IDEA
… It is up to the writer to decide on how many main
ideas and supporting ideas adequately describe the
subject. However, if there is a I in the outline, there
has to be a II; if there is an A, there has to be a B; if
there is a 1, there has to be a 2, and so forth.
OUTLINING  EXAMPLE
Suppose you are outlining a speech on AIDS, and
these are some of the ideas you feel should be
included: AZT, Transmittal, AIDS babies,
Teenagers, Safe sex, Epidemic numbers,
Research. To put these ideas into outline form,
decide first on the main encompassing ideas.
These might be: I. Transmittal, II. Societal
Consequences, III. Research.Next, decide where
the rest of the important ideas fit in. Are they part
of AIDS transmittal or AIDS societal consequences
or AIDS research solutions? The complete outline
might look like this:
Major Aspects of Aids

I. Transmittal of AIDS
A. Transfusions
B. Body fluids
1. Sexual
2. Non-sexual
II. Societal Consequences of AIDS
A. Epidemic disease pattern
1. Teenagers
2. Women
3. Homosexuals
B. AIDS babies
C. Increased homophobia
D. Overburdened health care
III. Research Solutions to AIDS
A. AZT
B. HIV virus
C. Other viruses
It is only possible to make an outline if you
have familiarity with the subject. Not only in
the initial outline, but during the course of the
research, the writer may find it necessary to
add, subtract or change the position of various
ideas. This is acceptable as long as the logical
relationship among ideas is preserved.
Several aspects must be considered in writing a
topic outline.

• Recall that all headings and subheadings must be


words or phrases, not sentences.

• Also, the wording within each division must be parallel.

• Finally, as in any outline, remember that a division


or subdivision cannot be divided into one part;
therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a "B," and
if there is a "1" there must be a "2."
• Family Problems

1. Custodial: Non-custodial Conflicts

2. Extended Family

3. Adolescent's Age

• Economic Problem

1. Child Support

2. Women's Job Training

3.Lower Standard of Living

4.Possible Relocation
Poorer neighborhood
New School
•Peer Problems

1. Loss of Friends

2. Relationships with D
Several aspects must be considered in
writing a sentence outline.

• If you have chosen to write a sentence outline, all


headings and sub-headings must be in sentence
form.

• As in any outline, remember that a division or


subdivision can not be divided into one part;
therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a "B,"
and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."
Negative Effects of Divorce on Adolescents
• When family conflicts arise as a result of divorce, adolescents
suffer.
1. During the first year, these young people may be
depressed due to conflicts between the custodial and non-
custodial parents.
2. Grandparents, aunts, and uncles are often restricted by
visitation provisions.
3. Almost without exception, adolescents find divorce very
painful, but they react in differing degrees depending on
their age.

• Some of the most negative effects on adolescents may be


associated with economic problems.
1. The family will most probably experience a lower standard
of living due to the cost of maintaining two households.
2. Some female custodial parents have poor job skills and
must train before entering the job market.
3. The lower standard of living may result in
misunderstanding and conflicts within the family.
4. The decreased standard of living, particularly for
an untrained female custodial parent, often causes
relocation.
a. The family may have to move to a poorer
neighborhood in order to cut costs.
b. As a result, the adolescent may have to attend
a different school.
• Adolescents from divorced families often experience peer
problems.
1. Due to relocation and prejudice, adolescents may lose
friends.
2. The lack of a solid relationship with both parents
affects an adolescent's attitude toward the opposite sex.

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