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SRM UNIVERSITY RAMAPURAM CAMPUS DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT

UNIT - 1 Chapter1 - Overview of Production Management Chapter 2 - Production System

UNIT II

By Mrs.VIJAYA RANI ANANDAN, MBA., M.Phil., (Ph.D)., Assistant Professor (OG) Department of Management studies SRM University Ramapuram Campus.

Chapter 1 - Product Design Chapter 2 Process planning Chapter 3 Make or Buy Decisions Chapter 4 Modern production management ( CAD,CAM) UNIT - III Chapter 1 Production Planning & Control Chapter 2 - Demand Forecasting Chapter 3 Plant location Chapter 4 Plant Layout Chapter 5 - Capacity planning Chapter 6 - Inventory control UNIT IV Chapter 1 - Quality Control

STUDIES Study Material MBN 510 - Production and Operations Management


CONTENTS

Chapter 2 Work Study ( method study/ time Study/ Work measurement) UNIT V Chapter 1 Maintenance Management Chapter 2 Purchasing Chapter 3 Store Keeping

MEANING OF PRODUCTION Production is an intentional act of producing something in an organized manner. It is the fabrication of a physical object through the use of men, material and some function which has some utility e.g. repair of an automobile, legal advice to a client, banks, hotels, transport companies etc. The main inputs are materials, Machines, Men ( Labour), Money and Methods.

Unit - 1 Chapter - 1 Overview of Production Management Synopsis Materials Meaning of POM Scope of POM Objectives of POM Functions of POM Factors affecting POM POM relation with other functional areas Money Transformation Goods & services Machines Men OUTPUT INPUTS PROCESS

Production management deals with decision making related to production process so that the resulting goods Production and operations management (POM) is the management of an organizations production system. A production system takes inputs and converts them into outputs. The conversion process is the predominant activity of a production system. The primary concern of an operations manager is the activities of the conversion process. MEANING OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT A few definitions of production management are being reproduced here under to understand the meaning of the term clearly: Production management is the process of effectively planning and regulating the operations of that part of an enterprise which is responsible for actual transformation of materials into finished products. Elwood S. Buffa has defined the term in a broader sense as: or services are produced according to specifications, in amounts and by the schedules demanded and at a minimum cost. SCOPE OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT Specifying and accumulating the input resources, i.e., management, men, information, materials, machine and capital. Designing and installing the assembling or conversion process to transform the inputs into output, and Coordinating and operating the production process so that the desired goods and services may be produced efficiently and at a minimum cost. FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT a) Product selection and design: the product mix marks the production system either efficient or inefficient. Choosing the right products keeping the mission and overall objective of the organization in mind is the key to success. It is the design of the product, which makes the organization competitive or noncompetitive.

b) Activities relating to production system designing: decision related to the production system design is one of the most important activities of the production management. This activity is related to production engineering and includes problems regarding design of tools and jigs, the design, development and installation of equipment and the selection of the optimum size of the firm. All these areas require the technical expertise on the part of the production manager and his staff. c) Facilities location: the selection of an optimum plant location very much depends upon the decision taken regarding production engineering. A wrong decision may prove disastrous. Location should as far as possible cut down the production and distribution cost. There are diverse factors to be considered for selecting the location of a plant. d) Method study: the next decision regarding production system design concerns the use of those techniques, which are concerned with work environment and work measurement. Standard method should be devised for performing the repetitive functions efficiently.

suitable positioning of the workers for different processes should be developed. Such methods should be devised with the help of time study and motion study. The workers should be trained accordingly. e) Facilities layout and materials handling: plant layout deals with the arrangements of machines and plant facilities. The machine should be so arranged that the flow of production remains smooth. There should not be overlapping, duplication or interruption in

production flow. Product layout where machines are arranged in a sequence required for the processing of a particular product, and process layout, where machines performing the similar processes are grouped together are two popular methods of layout. The departments are layout in such a way that the cost of material handling is reduced. There should be proper choice of material handling equipment. f) Capacity planning: This deals with the procurement of productive resources. Capacity refers to a level of output of the conversion process over a period of time. Full capacity indicates maximum level of output. Capacity is planned for short-term as well as for long

Unnecessary movements should be eliminated and

term. Process industries pose challenging problems in capacity planning, requiring in the long run, expansion and contraction of major facilities in the conversion process. Tools for capacity planning are marginal costing (Break Even Analysis), learning programming, and decision trees. g) Production planning: the decision in production planning include preparation of short-term production schedules, plan for maintaining the records of raw materials, finished and semi-finished stock, specifying how the production resources of the concern are to be employed over some future time in response to the predicted demand for products and services h) Production control: after planning, the next curves, linear

setting, starting and finishing dates for each important item, assembly and the finished products; and releasing the necessary orders as well as initiating the required follow-up to effect the smooth functioning of the enterprise. i) Inventory Control: inventory control deals with the control over raw-materials, work-in-progress, finished products, stores, supplies, tools, and so is included in production management. The raw materials, supplies etc should be purchased at right time, right quality, in right quantity, from right source and at right price.

PRODUCTS VERSUS SERVICES The output is spoken as a bundle of products and services . The line between product & services is not necessarily always clear. Nevertheless, there are important differences between them. Products are tangible things that we can carry away with us, where as services are intangible and perishable and are consumed in the process of their production. Products may be produced to inventory and made available off-the-shelf whereas the availability of the services requires keeping the productive system that produces them in readiness

managerial production function is to control the production according to the production plans because production plans cannot be activated unless they are properly guided and controlled. Production control is the process of planning production in advance of operations; establishing the exact route of each individual item, part or assembly;

to produce the services, as they are needed. In addition the person being served often participates in the productive process. In product systems, there is very little if any, contact between the producers and consumer.

advantage of economies of scale

of local customers, clients and users

OBJECTIVES MANAGEMENT

OF

PRODUCTION/

OPERATIONS

PRODUCTS Tangible Can be produced to inventory for-off theshelf availability Minimal contact ultimate consumer with

SERVICES Intangible and perishable; consumed in the process of their production

Every system (or organization) has a purpose, certain objectives & goals to achieve since the objectives of an organization have hierarchical structure, sub-goals lead to

accomplishment of goals, which contribute, to the achievement Availability achieved by keeping the of objectives and eventually the purpose or mission of an productive system open for organization .It is very important that these objectives should services be unambiguously identified, properly structured and explicitly High contact with clients or stated. customers Simple processing In general terms, the objectives of an organization may be to produce the goods/or services in required quantities and of

Complex and interrelated processing Demand on productive systems variable on weekly, monthly, and seasonal basis Markets served productive system regional, national international by are and

Demand commonly variable right quality as per schedule and at a minimum cost. on hourly, daily and weekly bases . Thus quantity, quality and time schedule are the objectives that determine the extent of customer satisfaction. If an Markets served by productive organization can provide for these at a minimum cost then the system are usually local value of goods created or services rendered enhances and that Relatively small units to serve is the only way to remain competitive. Thus various objectives local markets can be grouped as- performance objectives and cost objectives. Location dependent on location

Large units that can take

I. Performance Objectives The performance objectives may include: a) Efficiency or productivity expressed unit of input. b) Effectiveness: It concerns expressed whether a right set of outputs is being produced. Where efficiency may refer to doing things right, effectiveness may mean doing the right things. c) Quality: Quality is the extent to which a product or service satisfies the customer needs. The output has to conform to quality specifications laid down before it can be accepted as output per

Attaining high degree of customer satisfaction on performance front must be coupled with lower cost of producing the goods or rendering a service. Thus cost minimization is an important systems objective. Costs can be explicit or implicit. These could be tangible in economic terms or intangible in social cost terms- such as delayed supplies, customer complaints etc. While managing production systems we must consider the visible and invisible, tangible and intangible costs some examples of these costs are: Direct and Indirect labour cost Scrap/rework cost Maintenance cost Cost of carrying inventory Cost of stock outs, storage, back-logging, lost sales of Cost of delayed deliveries Cost of material handling Cost of inspection and Opportunity cost

d) Lead times: Manufacturing lead-time or throughput time is the time elapsed in the conversion process? Minimization of idle time, delays, waiting etc. will reduce throughput time. e) Capacity utilization: Percentage utilization

manpower, machines etc. is calculated in order to enhance overall capacity utilization. f) Flexibility: If the conversion process has the flexibility of producing a combination of outputs, it is possible to satisfy a variety of customer needs. II. Cost objectives

For the purpose of managerial decision-making, we should consider the total relevant systems costs including visible and invisible. A longer term cost

implication rather than only short-term will help in arriving at better decision.

Types of Production system

POM RELATION WITH OTHER FUNCTIONAL AREAS 1.Human Resource - Recruit people ( Labour) for production Department activities. 2. Finance Allocation Funds ( Money) for production department ( for purchasing land , machinery, materials ect.,) 3.Marketing Department Making demand forecasting, customer satisfaction, marketing research etc., Batch Production Job Production Continuous Production Intermittent Production

Mass production ( Flow)

Process Production pr

Assembly line Production

Analytical Unit I Chapter 2 Production system TYPES OF PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Synthetic

According to Webster, System is a regular interacting inter-dependent group of items forming a unified whole. A system may have many components and variation in one component is likely to affect the other components of the system e. g. change in rate of production will affect inventory, overtime hours etc. Production system is the framework within which the production activities of an organization are carried out. At one end of a system are inputs and at the other output. Input and output are linked by certain process or operations or activities imparting value to the inputs. These processes, operations or activities may be called production system. The nature of production system may differ from company to company or from plant to plant in the same firm. ELEMENTS OF PRODUCTION SYSTEM (1) Inputs

TYPES OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS There are two main types of production systems (1) Continuous system (2) Intermittent system I. CONTINUOUS OR FLOW SYSTEM : According to Buffa, Continuous flow production situations are those where the facilities are standardised as to routing and flow since inputs are standardised. Therefore a standard set of processes and sequences of process can be adopted. Thus continuous or flow production refers to the manufacturing of large quantities of a single or at most a very few varieties of products with a standard of processes and sequences. The mass production is carried continuously for stock in anticipation of demand. CHARATERISTICS OF CONTINUOUS OR FLOW SYSTEM: The volume of output is generally large (mass production) and goods are produced in anticipation of demand. The product design and the operations sequence are standardised i.e. identical products are produced. Special purpose automatic machines are used to perform standardized operations.

(2) Conversion process (3) Outputs (4) Storage (5) Transportation (6) Information

Machine capacities are balanced so that materials are fed at one end of the process and finished product is received at the other end.

Continuous system, however, is very rigid and if there is a fault in one operation the entire process is disturbed.

Fixed path materials handling equipment is used due to the predetermined sequence of operations. Product layout designed according to a separate line for each product is considered.

Due to continuous flow, it becomes necessary to avoid pilling up of work or any blockage on the line. Unless the fault is cleared immediately, it will force the preceding as well as the subsequent stages to be stopped.

MERITS OF CONTINUOUS OR FLOW SYSTEM: The main advantage of continuous system is that work in progress inventory is minimum. The quality of output is kept uniform because each stage develops skill through repetition of work. Any delay at any stage is automatically detected. Handling of materials is reduced due to the set pattern of production line. Mostly the materials are handled through conveyer belts, roller conveyers, pipe lines, overhead cranes etc. Control over materials, cost and output is simplified. The work can be done by semi- skilled workers because of their specialisation. DEMERITS OF CONTINUOUS OR FLOW SYSTEM :

Moreover it is essential to maintain stand-by equipments to meet any breakdowns resulting in production stoppages. Thus investments in machines are fairly high.

TYPES OF CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION SYSTEM (A) MASS PRODUCTION : Mass production refer to the

manufacturing of standardized parts or components on a large scale. Mass production system offers economies of scale as the volume of output is large. Quality of products tend be uniform and high due to standardized and mechanization. In a properly designed and equipped process, individual expertise plays less prominent role.

(B) PROCESS PRODUCTION : Production is carried on continuously through a uniform and standardized sequence of operations highly sophisticated and automatic machines are used. Process production is employed in bulk processing of certain materials. The typical processing industries are fertilizers plants, petrochemical plants and milk diaries which have highly automated systems and sophisticated controls. They are not labourintensive and the worker is just an operator to monitor the system and take corrective steps if called for. On the basis of the nature of production process, flow production may be classified in Analytical And Synthetic Production . In Analytical Process production, a raw material is broken into different products e. g. crude oil is analysed into gas, naptha, petrol etc. Similarly, coal is processed to obtain coke, coal gas , coaltar etc.. Synthetic process of production involves the mixing of two or more materials to manufacture a product for instance, lauric acid, myristic acid, stearic acid are synthesised to manufature soap. (C) Assembly lines : Assembly lines a type of flow production which is developed in the automobiles industry in

the U.S.A. A manufacturing unit prefers to develop and employ assembly line because it helps to the efficiency of production. In an assembly line, each machine must directly receive materials from the previous machine and pass it directly to the next machine. Machine and equipment should be arranged in such a manner that every operator has a free and safe access to each machine. Space should be provided for free movement of fork lifts, trucks etc. which deliver materials and collect finished products. II.INTERMITTENT PRODUCTION SYSTEM ACCORDING TO BUFFA, Intermittent situations are those where the facilities must be flexible enough to enough to handle a variety of products and sizes or where the basic nature of the activity imposes change of important characteristics of the input (e.g. change in the product design). In instances such as these, no single sequence pattern of operation is appropriate, so the relative location of the operation must be a compromise that is best for all inputs considered together. In the industries following the intermittent production system, some components may be made for inventory but they are combined differently for different customers. The finished product is

heterogeneous but within a range of standardized options assembled by the producers. Since production is partly for stock and partly for consumer demand, there are problems to be met in scheduling, forecasting control and coordination. CHARACTERISITICS OF INTERMITTENT PRODUCTION SYSTEM : The flow of production is intermittent, not continuous. The volume of production is generally small. A wide variety of products are produced. General purpose, machines and equipments are used so as to be adaptable to a wide variety of operations. No single sequence of operations is used and periodical adjustments are made to suit different jobs or batches. Process layout is most suited.

The production centers should be located in such a manner so that they can be handle a wide range of inputs. Transportation facilities between production centers should be flexible enough to accommodate variety of route different inputs. It should be provided with necessary storage facility.

TYPES OF INTERMITTENT PRODUCTION. (A) JOB PRODUCTION : job production involves

the manufacturing of single complete unit with the use of a group of operator and process as per the customers this is a special order type of production. Each job production or product is different from the other and no repetition is involved. The product is usually costly and nonstandardized. Customers do not make demand for exactly the same product on a continuing basis and therefore production become intermittent. Each product is a class by itself and constitute a separate job for production process. Shipbuilding, electric power plant dam construction etc. are common examples of job production

Intermittent system is much more complex than continuous production because every product has to be treated differently under the constraint of limited resources. Intermittent system can be effective in situation which satisfy the following conditions:

CHARACTERISTICS : The product manufacture is custom-made or non standardized. Volume of output is generally small. Variable path materials handling equipment are used. A wide range of general purpose machines like grinders, drilling, press, shaper etc is used . MERITS : It is flexible and can be adopted easily to change in product design. A fault in one operation does not result into complete stoppages of the process. it is cost effective and time- effective since the nature of the operation in a group are similar there is reduced materials handling since machines are close in a cell. The waiting period between operation is also (B)

thousand of individual parts must be fabricated and assemble. A complex schedule of activity is required to ensure smooth flow of work with out any bottleneck. Raw materials and work-in-progress inventories are high due to uneven and irregular flow of work. Work loads are unbalanced, speed of work is slow and unit costs are high BATCH PRODUCTION : it is defined as,

The manufacture of a product in small or large bathes or lots at intervals by a series of operations, each operation being carried out on the whole batch before any subsequent operation is performed the batch production is mixture of mass production and job production and job production under it machines turn out different product at intervals, each product being produced for comparatively short tome using mass production methods.

reduced. This also results in a work- in- progress inventrory. DEMERITS: Job shop manufacturing is just most complex system of production e. g. in building a ship Both job production and batch production are similar in nature, except that in batch production the quantity of product manufacture is comparatively large.

DEMERITS : work-in-progress inventory is high and large storage space is required . The main problem in batch production is ideal time between one operation and other the work has to wait to until a particular operation is carried out on the whole batch. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT PRODUCTION SYSTEM As we have discussed various system and sub-system in detail in the above lines, we can now make a comparative study of them as follows (1) MANUFACTURING COST : Cost of

capital investment different from system. Process production calls for the higher investment while mass production requires lesser amount of capital investment . it is lower in case of job production and comparatively higher in batch production. (3) FLEXIBILITY IN PRODUCTION : in case of in

demand of the product, the production facilities may be adjust very shortly with out increasing much expenses under the system of job or batch production .But both the sub-system of continuous production system i.e, mass production or process production employ single purpose machine in their manufacturing process. They can not adjust their production facilities so quickly and easily as is possible in job or batch production where general purpose machines are used (4) REQUIRED TECHNICAL ABILITY : both job and

production per unit is lowest in process production while it is highest in job production because large scale continuous production is carried out under process production. Unit cost in mass production is higher while it is lower than the batch production or job production. (2) SIZE AND CAPITAL INVESTMENT : as stated

batch production require high skilled technical foreman and other executives . but under mass production for process production systems, managerial ability plays plays an important role because it require higher ability for planning and coordinating several functions in mass and process production than in the case of job and batch production.

earlier , the scale of operation is small in job production, medium in batch production, large in mass production and very large in process production. Hence the size of

(5)

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

mostly

shoe-making etc. mass production is found in automobiles, sugar refining, refrigerators , electricals goods etc. process production is most appropriate in chemical , petroleum , milk processing industries etc.

functional organization is adopted in case of job and batch production systems. On the other hand , divisional

organization is preferred in mass product process production system due to the greater emphasis for centralization.

Unit II (6) JOB SECURITY : job and batch system of Chapter 1 Product Design MAJOR FACTORS IN PRODUCT DESIGN (7) INDUSTRIALS APPLICATION : the application Cost Quality Time-to-market Customer satisfaction Competitive advantage production do not provide and type of job security to workers due to their intermittent character during odd times, workers particularly unskilled worker are thrown out of job. On the contrary, mass and process production systems provide greater job security to worker because production operation are carried out continuously in anticipation of stable and continuous demand of the product.

of different system is suitable in different industries depending upon the nature of work. The mechanisum of job production applies in products of construction and manufacturing industries like building , bridges special purpose machines etc. batch production is mostly used in mechanical engeering and consumer-goods industries like cotton, jute , machine tools ,

PRODUCT DESIGN ACTIVITIES

Translate customer wants and needs into product and

service requirements Refine existing products and services Develop new products and services Formulate quality goals

Formulate cost targets Construct and test prototypes Document specifications

FORMS OF PRODUCT DESIGN 1. Priliminary Design Pre design or proto type of the product design 2. Final Design Final decision making of the product design after testing etc., 3.Modular Design - is a form of standardization in which component parts are subdivided into modules that are easily replaced or interchanged. It allows:
easier diagnosis and remedy of failures easier repair and replacement simplification of manufacturing and assembly

REASONS FOR PRODUCT DESIGN

Economic Social and demographic Political, liability, or legal Competitive Technological


OBJECTIVES OF PRODUCT DESIGN Main focus

4. Reverse Engineering - Reverse engineering is the dismantling and inspecting of a competitors product to discover product improvements. PHASES IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Customer satisfaction
Secondary focus

Function of product/service Cost/profit Quality Appearance Ease of production/assembly Ease of maintenance/service

1. Idea generation 2. Feasibility analysis 3. Product specifications 4. Process specifications 5. Prototype development

6. Design review 7. Market test 8. Product introduction 9. Follow-up evaluation UNIT II Chapter 2 Make-or-Buy Decisions

environment. Issues like government regulation, competing firms, and market trends all have a strategic impact on the make-or-buy decision. FACTORS CONSIDERATIONS THAT FAVOR MAKING A PART IN-HOUSE:

Cost considerations (less expensive to make the part) Desire to integrate plant operations Productive use of excess plant capacity to help absorb fixed overhead (using existing idle capacity)

The make-or-buy decision is the act of making a strategic choice between producing an item internally (inhouse) or buying it externally (from an outside supplier). The buy side of the decision also is referred to as outsourcing. Make-or-buy decisions usually arise when a firm that has developed a product or partor significantly modified a product or partis having trouble with current suppliers, or has diminishing capacity or changing demand. Make-or-buy analysis is conducted at the strategic and operational level. Obviously, the strategic level is the more long-range of the two. Variables considered at the strategic level include analysis of the future, as well as the current

Need to exert direct control over production and/or quality

Better quality control Design secrecy is required to protect proprietary technology

Unreliable suppliers No competent suppliers Desire to maintain a stable workforce (in periods of declining sales)

Quantity too small to interest a supplier Control of lead time, transportation, and warehousing costs

Greater assurance of continual supply

Provision of a second source Political, social or environmental reasons (union pressure)

Direct labor costs Incremental factory overhead costs Delivered purchased material costs Incremental managerial costs Any follow-on costs stemming from quality and related problems

Emotion (e.g., pride)

FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE FIRMS TO BUY A PART EXTERNALLY INCLUDE:


Incremental purchasing costs Incremental capital costs

Lack of expertise Suppliers' research and specialized know-how exceeds that of the buyer

Cost considerations for the "buy" analysis include:


cost considerations (less expensive to buy the item) Small-volume requirements Limited production facilities or insufficient capacity Desire to maintain a multiple-source policy Indirect managerial control considerations Procurement and inventory considerations Brand preference Item not essential to the firm's strategy

Purchase price of the part Transportation costs Receiving and inspection costs Incremental purchasing costs Any follow-on costs related to quality or service

Cost considerations for the "Make " analysis include: Incremental inventory-carrying costs

Unit - II Chapter 3 Modern Production Management

( CIM, CAD, CAM, FMS)

As method of manufacturing, three components distinguish CIM from other manufacturing methodologies:

Computer Integrated Manufacturing


Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) in

Means for data storage, retrieval, manipulation and presentation;

Mechanisms for sensing state and modifying processes; Algorithms for uniting the data processing component with the sensor/modification component.

engineering is a method of manufacturing in which the entire production process is controlled by computer. Typically, it relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing. Overview The term "Computer Integrated Manufacturing" is both a method of manufacturing and the name of a computerautomated system in which individual engineering, production, marketing, and support functions of a manufacturing enterprise are organized. In a CIM system functional areas such as design, analysis, planning, purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked through the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and management, providing direct control and monitoring of all process operations.

CIM is basically use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)in manufacturing. History of CIM The idea of "Digital Manufacturing" is a vision for the 1980s. In the 1980s, Computer Integrated Manufacturing was developed and promoted by machine tool manufacturers and the CASA/SME (Computer and Automated Systems

Association /Society for Manufacturing Engineers). "CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise by using integrated systems and data communication coupled with new managerial

philosophies that improve organizational and personnel efficiency."

Subsystems in Computer Integrated Manufacturing Key Challenges to CIM There are three major challenges to development of a smoothly operating Computer Integrated Manufacturing system:

A Computer Integrated Manufacturing system is not the same as a "lights out" factory, which would run completely independent of human intervention, although it is a big step in that direction. Part of the system involves flexible

Integration of components from different suppliers: When different machines, such as CNC, conveyors and robots, are using different communications protocols. In the case of AGVs, even differing lengths of time for charging the batteries may cause problems.

manufacturing, where the factory can be quickly modified to produce different products, or where the volume of products can be changed quickly with the aid of computers. Some or all of the following subsystems may be found in a CIM operation:

CAD/CAM (Computer-aided design/Computer-aided manufacturing)

Data integrity: The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is the integrity of the data used to control the machines. While the CIM system saves on labor of operating the machines, it requires extra human labor in ensuring that there are proper safeguards for the data signals that are used to control the machines.

CAPP, (Computer-aided process planning) ERP (Enterprise resource planning) CNC (computer numerical control) machine tools DNC, direct numerical control machine tools FMS, flexible machining systems ASRS, automated storage and retrieval systems AGV, automated guided vehicles Robotics Automated conveyance systems Computerized scheduling and production control CAQ (Computer-aided quality assurance)

Process control: Computers may be used to assist the human operators of the manufacturing facility, but there must always be a competent engineer on hand to handle circumstances which could not be foreseen by the designers of the control software.

A business system integrated by a common database. Lean Manufacturing

surface modellers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside

Computer-aided design
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and particularly the drafting (technical drawing and engineering drawing) of a part or product, including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-based method of communication whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field. Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting is the communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies all involved technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional

looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD computer-aided design and drafting. CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories). CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.

drawings, these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right angles. Overview Current Computer-Aided Design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and

Uses Computer-Aided Design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. There are several different types of CAD. Each of these different types of CAD systems require the operator to think differently about how he or she will use them and he or she must design their virtual components in a different manner for each. There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting, since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft. 3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting. Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.

The Effects of CAD Starting in the late 1980s, the development of readily affordable Computer-Aided Design programs that could be run on personal computers began a trend of massive downsizing in drafting departments in many small to mid-size companies. As a general rule, one CAD operator could readily replace at least three to five drafters using traditional methods. Additionally, many engineers began to do their own drafting work, further eliminating the need for traditional drafting departments. This trend mirrored that of the elimination of many office jobs traditionally performed by a secretary as word processors, spreadsheets, databases, etc. became standard software packages that "everyone" was expected to learn. Another consequence had been that since the latest advances were often quite expensive, small and even mid-size firms often could not compete against large firms who could use their computational edge for competitive purposes. Today, however, hardware and software costs have come down. Even high-end packages work on less expensive platforms and some even support multiple platforms. The costs associated with CAD implementation now are more heavily weighted to the costs of training in the use of these high level tools, the cost of

integrating a CAD/CAM/CAE PLM using enterprise across multi-CAD and multi-platform environments and the costs of modifying design work flows to exploit the full advantage of CAD tools.

Computer - Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Definition: CAD vendors have effectively lowered these training costs. These methods can be split into three categories: 1. Improved and simplified user interfaces. This includes the availability of role specific tailor able user interfaces through which commands are presented to users in a form appropriate to their function and expertise. 2. Enhancements to application software. One such example is improved design-in-context, through the ability to model/edit a design component from within the context of a large, even multi-CAD, active digital mockup. 3. User oriented modeling options. This includes the ability to free the user from the need to understand the design intent history of a complex intelligent model. Computer-Aided Manufacturing takes this one step further by bridging the gap between the conceptual design and the manufacturing of the finished product. Whereas in the past it would be necessary for a design developed using CAD Applications The field of computer-aided design has steadily advanced over the past four decades to the stage at which conceptual designs for new products can be made entirely within the framework of CAD software. From the development of the basic design to the Bill of Materials necessary to manufacture the product there is no requirement at any stage of the process to build physical prototypes. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer software and hardware in the translation of computer-aided design models into manufacturing instructions for numerical controlled machine tools.

software to be manually converted into a drafted paper drawing detailing instructions for its manufacture, Computer-Aided Manufacturing software allows data from CAD software to be converted directly into a set of manufacturing instructions.

translate CAD models into manufacturing instructions through paper drafts it enables manufactures to make quick alterations to the product design, feeding updated instructions to the machine tools and seeing instant results.

CAM software converts 3D models generated in CAD into a set of basic operating instructions written in G-Code. G-code is a programming language that can be understood by numerical controlled machine tools essentially industrial robots and the G-code can instruct the machine tool to manufacture a large number of items with perfect precision and faith to the CAD design.

In addition, many CAM software packages have the ability to manage simple tasks such as the re-ordering of parts, further minimising human involvement. Though all numerical controlled machine tools have the ability to sense errors and automatically shut down, many can actually send a message to their human operators via mobile phones or e-mail, informing them of the problem and awaiting further instructions.

Modern numerical controlled machine tools can be linked into a cell, a collection of tools that each performs a specified task in the manufacture of a product. The product is passed along the cell in the manner of a production line, with each machine tool (i.e. welding and milling machines, drills, lathes etc.) performing a single step of the process.

All in all, CAM software represents a continuation of the trend to make manufacturing entirely automated. While CAD removed the need to retain a team of drafters to design new products, CAM removes the need for skilled and unskilled factory workers. All of these developments result in lower operational costs, lower end product prices and increased profits for manufacturers.

In addition to lower running costs there are several additional benefits to using CAM software. By removing the need to Problems

processor applications do), so it can often be a challenge to Unfortunately, there are several limitations of computer-aided manufacturing. Obviously, setting up the infrastructure to begin with can be extremely expensive. Computer-aided manufacturing requires not only the numerical controlled machine tools themselves but also an extensive suite of CAD/CAM software and hardware to develop the design models and convert them into manufacturing instructions as well as trained operatives to run them. FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a transfer data from CAD to CAM software and then into whatever form of G-code the manufacturer employs.

manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories. 1. The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. 2. The second category is called routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to

Additionally, the field of computer-aided management is fraught with inconsistency. While all numerical controlled machine tools operate using G-code, there is no universally used standard for the code itself. Since there is such a wide variety of machine tools that use the code it tends to be the case that manufacturers create their own bespoke codes to operate their machinery.

While this lack of standardisation may not be a problem in itself, it can become a problem when the time comes to convert 3D CAD designs into G-code. CAD systems tend to store data in their own proprietary format (in the same way that word

absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability. Most FMS systems comprise of three main systems. The work machines which are often automated CNC machines are

connected by a material handling system to optimize parts flow and the central control computer which controls material movements and machine flow. The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products like those from a mass production. Advantages

computers, sensors, and other stand alone systems such as inspection machines. The use of robots in the production segment of manufacturing industries promises a variety of benefits ranging from high utilization to high volume of productivity. Each Robotic cell or node will be located along a material handling system such as a conveyor or automatic guided vehicle. The production of each part or work-piece will require a different combination of manufacturing nodes. The movement of parts from one node to another is done through the material handling system. At the end of part processing, the finished parts will be routed to an automatic inspection node, and subsequently unloaded from the Flexible Manufacturing System.

Productivity increment due to automation Preparation time for new products is shorter due to flexibility

Saved labor cost, due to automation Improved production quality, due to automation However, it is not always necessary that on increasing flexibility productivity also increases. The FMS data traffic consists of large files and short messages, and mostly come from nodes, devices and instruments. The message size ranges between a few bytes to several hundreds of bytes. Executive software and other data,

Industrial FMS Communication An Industrial Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) consists of robots, Computer-controlled Machines, Numerical controlled machines (CNC), instrumentation devices,

for example, are files with a large size, while messages for machining data, instrument to instrument communications, status monitoring, and data reporting are transmitted in small size.

There is also some variation on response time. Large program files from a main computer usually take about 60 seconds to be down loaded into each instrument or node at the beginning of FMS operation. Messages for instrument data need to be sent in a periodic time with deterministic time delay. Other type of messages used for emergency reporting is quite short in size and must be transmitted and received with almost instantaneous response. The demands for reliable FMS protocol that support all the FMS data characteristics are now urgent. The existing IEEE standard protocols do not fully satisfy the real time communication requirements in this environment. The delay of CSMA/CD is unbounded as the number of nodes increases due to the message collisions. Token Bus has a deterministic message delay, but it does not support prioritized access scheme which is needed in FMS communications. Token Ring provides prioritized access and has a low message delay, however, its data transmission is unreliable. A single node failure which may occur quite often in FMS causes transmission errors of passing message in that node. In addition, the topology of Token Ring results in high wiring installation and cost.

A design of FMS communication protocol that supports a real time communication with bounded message delay and reacts promptly to any emergency signal is needed. Because of machine failure and malfunction due to heat, dust, and electromagnetic mechanism interference is common, a prioritized

and immediate transmission of emergency

messages are needed so that a suitable recovery procedure can be applied. A modification of standard Token Bus to implement a prioritized access scheme was proposed to allow transmission of short and periodic messages with a low delay compared to the one for long messages. Unit II Chapter 4 DEMAND FORECASTING Forecasts are needed to aid in determining what

resources are needed, scheduling existing resources, and acquiring additional resources. Accurate forecasts allow scheduler to use machine capacity efficiently, reduce production times, and cut inventories. Forecasting methods may be based on mathematical models using historical data available, qualitative methods drawing on managerial experience, or a combination of both.

Forecasting demand in such situations require uncovering the underlying patterns from available information. PATTERNS OF DEMAND The five basic patterns of the most demand time series are-: 1. Horizontal, or the fluctuation of data around a constant mean; 2. Trend, or systematic increase or decrease in the mean of the series overtime; 3. Seasonal, or a repeatable pattern of increase or decrease in demand, depending on the time of day, week, month, or season; 4. Cyclic, or less predictable gradual increases or decreases in demand over longer periods of time (years or decades); and 5. Random, or unforecastable, variation in demand

Generally such factors can be divided into main categories: Externals and Internals. I. External Factors. External factors that affect demand for a firms products or services are beyond managements control. Leading indicators. Such as the rate of business failures, are external factors with turning points that typically precede the peaks and troughs of general business cycle. Coincident indicator, such as unemployment figures, are the time series with turning points that generally match those of the general business cycle. Lagging indicators, such as retail sales, follow those turning points, typically by several weeks or months.

II. Internal Factors: internal decision about product or service design, price and advertising promotion, packaging design, sales persons quotas or incentive and expansion and

Four of the patterns of demands- Horizontal, Trend, Seasonal, and Cyclic- combine in varying degrees to define the underlying time pattern of demand for a product or service. The fifth pattern, random variations, results from chance causes and thus cannot be predicted. FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND

contraction of geographic market, target areas all contribute to changes in demand volume. The term demand management describes the process of influencing the timing and volume of demand or adapting to the undesirable effects of unchangeable demand patterns.

Forecasting methods The two general types of forecasting techniques used for demand forecasting are: Qualitative methods and Quantitative methods II.QUALITATIVE METHODS a) Sales Force Estimate Sales force estimates are forecasts compiled from estimates of future demand made periodically by members of a companys sales force. This approach has several advantages. The sales force is the group most likely to know which products or services customers will be buying in the near future, and in what quantities. Sales territories often are divided by district or region. Information broken down in this manner can be useful for inventory management, distribution, and sales force staffing purposes. The forecasts of individual sales force members can be combined easily to get regional or national sales. But it also has several disadvantages. Individual biases of the sales people may taint the forecast; moreover, some people are naturally

Sales people may not always be able to detect the difference between what a customers wants (a wish list) and what a customer needs (a necessary purchase).

If the firm uses individual sales as a performance measure, salespeople may underestimate their forecasts so that their performance will look good when they exceed their projections or may work hard only until they reach their required minimum sales.

b) Executive opinion Executive opinion is a forecasting method in which the opinions, and technical knowledge of one or more managers are summarized to arrive at a single forecast. As we will discuss later, executive opinion can be used to modify an existing sales forecast to account for unusual circumstances, such as a new sales promotion or unexpected international events. Executive opinion can also be used for technical forecasting. This method of forecasting has several

disadvantages. Executive opinion can be costly because it takes valuable executive time. Although that may be warranted under certain circumstances, it sometimes gets out of control. In addition, if executives are allowed to modify a forecast without

optimistic, other more cautious.

collectively agreeing to the changes, the resulting forecast will not be useful. c) Market research Market research is a systematic approach to determine consumer interest in a product or services by creating and testing hypotheses through data-gathering surveys. Conducting a market research study includes 1. Designing a questionnaire that request economic and demographics information from each person

and analyze whether the survey represents a random sample of the potential market. Market research may be used to forecast demand for the short, medium, and long term. Accuracy is excellent for the short term, good for the medium term, and only fair for the long term.

d) Delphi method The Delphi method is process of gaining consensus from a group of experts while maintaining their anonymity. This form of forecasting is useful when there are no historical data from which to develop statistical models and when managers inside the firm have no experience on which to base informed projections. A coordinator sends a question to each member of the group of outside experts, who may not even know who else, is participating. The Delphi method can be used to develop long-range forecasts of product demand and new product sales projections. It can also be used for technological forecasting. The Delphi methods can be used to obtain a consensus from a panel of experts who can devote their attention to following scientific advances, changes in

interviewed and asks whether the interviewee would be interested in the product or services; 2. Deciding how an administrative sample of household to survey, whether by telephone polling, mailings, or personal interviews; 3. Selecting a representative sample of households to survey, which should include a random selection within the market area of the proposed product or service; and 4. Analyzing the information using judgment and

statistical tools to interpret the responses, determine their adequacy, make allowance for economic or competitive factors not included in the questionnaire,

society,

government

regulations,

and

the

competitive

In the simple linear regression models, the dependent variable is a function of only one independent variable, and therefore the theoretical relationship is a straight line:

environment.

The Delphi method has some shortcomings, including the following major ones. The process can take a long time (sometime a year or more). During that time the panel of people considered to be experts may change, confounding the results or at least further lengthening the process. Responses may be less meaningful than if experts were accountable for their responses. There is little evidence that Delphi forecasts achieve high degrees of accuracy. However, they are known to be fair- to- good in identifying turning points in new product demand. Poorly designed questionnaires will result in ambiguous or false conclusions. II. QUANTITATIVE METHOD a) Linear Regression In linear regression, one variable, called a dependent variable, is related to one or more independent variables by a linear equation. Where

Y=a + bX Y = dependent variable X = independent variable a = Y-intercept of the line b = slope of the line. The objectives of linear regression analysis is to find values of a and b that minimize the sum of squared deviations of the actual data points from the graphed line. The sample correlation coefficient, r, measures the direction and strength of the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. The value of r can range from 1.00 to + 1.00. b) Time series methods Simple Moving Averages. The simple moving average method is used to estimate the average of demand time series and thereby remove the effects of random fluctuation. It is most useful when demand has no pronounced trend or seasonal influences.

Weighted Moving Averages. In the simple moving average method, each demand has the same weight in the average --namely, 1/n. In the weighted moving average

Ft+1 =(Demand this period) + (1-) (Forecast calculated last period)= Dt+(1-)Ft Ft+1 =Ft + (Dt-Ft) Larger values emphasize recent levels of demand and result in forecasts more responsive to changes in the underlying average. Smaller values treat past demand more uniformly and result in more stable forecasts. Exponential smoothing requires an initial forecast to get started. There are two ways to get this initial forecast: Either use last periods demand or, if some historical data are available, calculate the average of several recent periods of demand. The effect of the initial estimate of the average on successive estimate of the average diminishes over time because, with exponential smoothing, the weights given to successive historical demands used to calculate the average decay exponentially. Exponential smoothing has the advantages of simplicity and minimal data requirements. It is inexpensive to use and therefore very attractive to firms that make thousands of forecasts for each time period. However, its simplicity also is disadvantage when the underlying average is changing, as in the case of a demand series with a trend.

method; each historical demand in the average can have its own weight. The sum of the weight equal 1.0. The advantage of a weighted moving average method is that it allows you to emphasize recent demand over earlier demand. The forecast will be more responsive than the simple moving average forecast to changes in the underlying average of the demand series. Nonetheless, the weighted moving average forecast will still lag behind demand because it merely averages past demands. This lag is specially noticeable with a trend because the average of the time series is systematically increasing or decreasing. c) Exponential smoothing. The exponential smoothing method is a sophisticated weighted moving average method that calculates the average of a time series by giving recent demands more weight than earlier demands. It is the most frequently used formal forecasting methods because of its simplicity and the small amount of data needed to support it.

PRODUCTION PLANNING
Production planning is concerned with deciding in advance what is to be produced, when to be produced, where to be produced and how to be produced. It involves foreseeing Unit III Chapter 1 every step in the process of production so as to avoid all difficulties and inefficiency in the operation of the plant. Production planning has been defined as the technique of Production Planning & Control forecasting or picturing ahead every step in a long series of separate operations, each step to be taken in the right place, of Production Planning and control are basic managerial functions which are essential to every organized activity. Proper planning and control of manufacturing activities or the production system is equally essential for efficient and economical production. Economy and productivity are to a large extent directly proportional to the thoroughness with which the planning and control functions are performed. In a modern the right degree, and at the right time, and each operation to be done at maximum efficiency. In other words, production

planning involves looking ahead, anticipating bottlenecks and identifying the steps necessary to ensure smooth and

uninterrupted flow of production. It determines the requirements for materials, machinery and man-power; establishes the exact sequence of operations for each individual item and lays down the time schedule for its completion. Objectives of Production Planning The basic objectives of production planning are as under:(i) On the basis of the sales forecast and its engineering analysis, to estimate the kind of the resources like men, materials, machines, methods etc. in proper

enterprise, production is a complex system and steps must be taken to ensure that goods are produced in the right quantity and quality, at the right time and place and by the most efficient methods possible. This is the task of production planning and control.

quantities and qualities. It also estimates when and where these resources will be required so that the production of the desired goods is done most economically.

(ii)

Machine

analysis

giving

full

information

regarding speeds of all available machines and their maximum capacity to perform certain operations, and the rate of output per day, week or month, and the maximum plant capacity per

(ii)

It also aims to make all necessary arrangement so that the production targets as set in the production budget and master schedules are reached. While attaining these targets, adjustments are made for the (iv) (iii)

day for each process or operation. The various types and classes of tools and equipment required of production. Material analysis giving full information as to the type, quality and quantity of the raw material to be used in each process or operation. Also,

fluctuations in the demand.

For an effective planning of production activities, the executives concerned must have complete information regarding the following:(v) (i) Engineering data including complete analysis of the product to be manufactured ,the operations, processes and methods through which each component or class of product must pass, the nature of inspection required, and the method of assembly. (vi)

information as to raw materials in stores, how much are on order, and how much are a located or reserved for current orders. The characteristics of each job and the degree of skill and personnel qualifications required for the effective performance of each such job. Information relating to power production and consumption, internal transport and material handling service.

(vii)

Job analysis giving information as to what methods of operation would yield uniformity of output, ease in production and reduction in costs.

Levels of Production Planning Production planning can be done at three levels namely Factory Planning, Process Planning and Operation Planning which are as follows: (i) Factory Planning: At this level of planning the

(viii)

Information as to the customers orders on hand, and the delivery for customers, and what for stock purpose.

sequence of work/ tasks is planned in terms of building machines and equipment required for manufacturing the desired goods and services. The relationship of workplaces in terms of departments is also planned at this stage taking into consideration the space available for the purpose.

It is the job of the production department to arrange for the order in which the work will be done the routing and scheduling of work, and determine what machines tools, workplaces materials and operatives should do the work.

A balanced production planning would tend to increase operating efficiency by stabilizing productive activities, facilitate selling and customer service, and help reduce production cost by providing reliable basis for investment in raw materials and tools. It would promote fuller utilization of plant, equipment and labour by controlling all time and efforts essential in manufacturing.

(ii)

Process Planning: There are many operations involved in factory planning for transforming the inputs into some desired end product. In process

planning these operations are located and the sequence of these operations in the production process is determined. Plans are also made for the layout of work centers in each process. (iii) Operation Planning: It is concerned with planning the details of the methods required to perform each operation viz. selection of work centers, designing of tools required for various operations. Then the

sequences of work elements involved in each operation are planned. Specifications about each

the enterprises. According to Henry Fayol, production control is the art and science of ensuring that all which occurs is in accordance with the rules established and the instructions issued. Thus, production control regulates the orderly flow of materials in the manufacturing process from the raw material stage to the finished product.

transfer, work centers, nature of tools required and the time necessary for the completion of each operation are prescribed.

PRODUCTION CONTROL
All organizations irrespective of size, use production control to some degree. In small organizations, the production control may be performed by one person; but in large complex industries the production control department is normally wellorganised and highly specialized. Production control

Production control aims at achieving production targets, optimum use of available resources, increased profits through productivity, better and more economic goods and services etc. An effective production control system requires reliable information, sound organization structure, a high degree of standardization and trained personnel for its successful operation.

presupposes the existence of production plans, and it involves the use of various control techniques to ensure production performance as per plans. Co-ordinating men and materials and machines is the task of production control. Production control may be defined as the process of planning production in advance of operations; establishing the exact route of each individual item, part of assembly; setting and finishing dates for each important item, assembly and the finished products, and releasing the necessary orders as well as initiating the required follow-up to effectivate the smooth functioning of

A sound production control system contributes to the efficient operation of plant. In terms of manufacturing customers orders, production control assures a more positive and accurate completion and delivery date. Delivering an order on time is obviously important to the customer and to the development of customer goodwill. Production control also brings plan and

order to chaotic and haphazard manufacturing procedures. This not only increases the plant efficiency but also makes it a more

pleasant place in which to work. Most people recognize that employees prefer to work and do better work under conditions of obvious control and plan. Morale may be considerably

(v)

Proper co-ordination of the operations of various sections/departments responsible for production.

(vi)

To ensure regular and timely supply of raw material at the desired place and of prescribed quality and quantity to avoid delays in production.

improved.. Effective production control also maintains working inventories at a minimum, making possible a real saving in both labour and material investment. Thus, good production control helps a company operate and produce more efficiently and achieve lowest possible costs. Objectives of Production Control The success of an enterprise greatly depends on the performance of its production control department. The production control department generally has to perform the following functions: (i) Provision of raw material, equipment, machines and labour. (ii) To organize production schedule in conformity with the demand forecasts. (iii) The resources are used in the best possible manner in such a way that the cost of production is minimized and delivery date is maintained. (iv) Determination of economic production runs with a view to reduce setup costs. (viii) (vii)

To perform inspection of semi-finished and finished goods and use quality control techniques to ascertain that the produced items are of required specifications. It is also responsible for product design and development.

Thus the fundamental objective of production control is to regulate and control the various operations of production process such a way that orderly flow of material is ensured at different stages of the production and the items are produced of right quality, in right quantity, at the right time with minimum efforts and cost.

Levels of Production Control Production control starts with some particular goal and formulation of some general strategy for the accomplishment of desired objectives. There are three levels of production control namely programming, ordering and dispatching. Programming

plans the output of products for the factory as a whole. Ordering plans the output of components from the suppliers and processing departments. Dispatching considers each processing department in turn and plans the output from the machine, tools and other work centers so as to complete the orders by due date.

terms of their nature, sequence and duration. Due to this the control procedure requires continuous modifications and adjustments to suit the requirements of each order. c) Magnitude of operations: Centralised control secures the most effective co-ordination but as an organization grows in size, decentralization of some production control functions

Factors Determining Production Control The nature of production control operations varies from organization to organization. The following factors affect the nature and magnitude of production control methods in an organization. a) Nature of production: In job-oriented manufacturing,

becomes necessary. The degree to which the performance of an activity should be decentralized depends upon the scope of operations and convenience of their locations.

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL


Planning and control are interrelated and interdependent. Planning is meaningless unless control action is taken to ensure the success of the plan. Control also

products and operations are designed for some particular order which may or may not be repeated in future. Hence

provides information feedback which is helpful in modifying the existing plans and in making new plans. Similarly, control is dependent on planning as the standards of performance are laid down under planning. Therefore, production and control should be considered an integrated function of planning to ensure the most efficient production and regulation of operations to execute the plans successfully.

production usually requires more time, whereas in a continuous manufacturing system inventory problems are more complex but control operations are rather simple due to fixed process. In mixed stock and custom manufacturing systems the problem of control is further complicated due to simultaneous scheduling of combined process. b) Nature of operations/activities: In intermittent

Production planning and control may be defined as the direction and coordination of the firms material and physical

manufacturing system the operations are markedly varied in

facilities towards the attainment of pre-specified production goals in the most efficient available way .It is the process of planning production in advance of operations, establishing the exact route of each individual item, part or assembly, setting starting and finishing dates for each important item or assembly and finished products, and releasing the necessary orders as well as initiating the required follow up to effectuate the smooth functioning of the enterprise. Thus, production planning and control involves planning, routing, scheduling, dispatching and expediting to coordinate the movements of materials, machines and manpower as to quantity, quality, time and place. It is based upon the old adage of first plan your work and then work your plan. Objectives of Production Planning and Control The main objective of production planning and control is to ensure the coordinated flow of work so that the required number of products are manufactured in the required quantity and of required quality at the required time at optimum efficiency. In other words, production planning and control aims at the following purposes:

a)

Continuous Flow of Production: It tries to achieve as smooth and continuous production by eliminating successfully all sorts of bottlenecks in the process of production through well-planned routing and

scheduling requirements relating to production work. b) Planned Requirements of Resources: It seeks to ensure the availability of all the inputs i.e. materials, machines, tools, equipment and manpower in the required quantity, of the required quality and at the required time so that desired targets of production may be achieved. c) Co-ordinated work Schedules: activities planned and The production out in a

carried

manufacturing organization as per the master schedule. The production planning and control tries to ensure that the schedules to be issued to the various departments/units/supervisors are in coordination with the master schedule. d) Optimum investment Inventory: in It aims at minimum with

inventories

consistent

continuous flow of production.

e)

Increased Productivity: It aims at increased productivity by increasing efficiency and by being economical. This is achieved by optimizing the use of productive resources and eliminating wastage and spoilage.

any

deviation

between

planned

and

actual

operations. Importance of Production Planning and Control The system of production planning and control serves as the nervous system of a plant. It is a co- ordinating agency which co-ordinate the activities of engineering, purchasing, production, selling and stock control departments. An efficient system of production planning and control helps in providing better and more economic goods to customers at lower investment. It is essential in all plants irrespective of their nature and size. The principal advantages of production

f)

Customer Satisfaction : It also aims at satisfying customers requirements by producing the items as per the specifications or desires of the customers. It seeks to ensure delivery of products on time by coordinating the production operations with customers orders.

g)

Production

and

Employment

Stabilisation:

planning and control are summarized below: (i) Better Service to Customers: Production planning and

Production planning and control aims at ensuring production and employment levels that are

control, through proper scheduling and expediting of work, helps in providing better services to customers is terms of better quality of goods at reasonable prices as per promised

relatively stable and consistent with the quantity of sales. h) Evaluation of Performance: The process of

delivery dates. Delivery in time and proper quality, both help in winning the confidence of customers, improving relations with customers and promoting profitable repeat orders. (ii) Fewer Rush Orders :In an organization, where there is system of production planning and control,

production planning and control is expected to keep a constant check on operations by judging the performance of various individuals and workshops and taking suitable corrective measures if there is

effective

production, operations move smoothly as per original planning

and matching with the promised delivery dates. Consequently, there will be fewer rush orders in the plant and less overtime than, in the same industry, without adequate production planning and control. (iii) Better Control of Inventory: A sound system of

(v)

Reduced Idle Time: Production planning and control

helps in reducing idle time i.e. loss of time by workers waiting for materials and other facilities; because ensures that material and other facilities are available to the workers in time as per the production schedule. Consequently, less man-hours are lost, which has a positive impact on the cost of production. (vi) Improved Plant Morale: An effective system of

production planning and control helps in maintaining inventory at proper levels and, thereby, minimizing investment in inventory. It requires lower inventory of work-in-progress and less finished stock to give efficient service to customers. It also helps in exercising better control over raw-material inventory, which contributes to more effective purchasing. (iv) More Effective Use of Equipment : An efficient

production planning and control co-ordinates the activities of all the departments involved in the production activity. It

ensures even flow of work and avoids rush orders. It maintains healthy working conditions in the plant thus, there is improve plant morale as a by-product. (vii) Good public image: A proper system of production planning and control is helpful in keeping systematized operations in an organization .Such an organization is in a position to meet its orders in time to the satisfaction of its customers. Customers satisfaction leads to increased sales,

system of production planning and control makes for the most effective use of equipment. It provides information to the

management on regular basis pertaining to the present position of all orders in process, equipment and personnel requirements for next few weeks. The workers can be communicated well in advance if any retrenchment, lay-offs, transfer, etc. is likely to come about. Also, unnecessary purchases of equipment and materials can be avoided. Thus, it is possible to ensure proper utilization of equipment and other resources.

increased profits ,industrial harmony and, ultimately, good public image of the enterprise . (viii) Lower capital requirements: Under a sound system

of production planning and control , everything relating to production is planned well in advance of operations.

Where, when and what is required in the form of input is known before the actual production process starts .Inputs are made available as per schedule which ensures even flow of production without any bottlenecks .Facilities are used more effectively and inventory levels are kept as per schedule neither more nor less .Thus ,production planning and control helps, in minimizing capital investment in equipment and inventories. Basic Elements of PPC ( Refer Class notes also) 1. Routing Routing may be defined as the selection of path, which each part of the product will follow, which being transformed from raw material to finished products. Routing determines the most advantageous path to be followed for department to department and machine to machine till raw material gets its final shape. Factors Affecting Routing Procedure: Manufacturing type Availability of plant equipment and its component parts. Human factors.

each operation' as well as it determines the sequence of operations to be followed. 3. Dispatcing Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so as to start a particular work, which has been already been planned under Routing and Scheduling. Therefore, dispatching is Release of orders and instruction for the starting of production for any item in acceptance with the Route sheet and Schedule Charts 4. Follow up Follow up which regulates the progress of materials and parts through the Production process. This closely inter elated with activities of dispatcher to whom is delegated scheduling responsibility

2. Scheduling Scheduling determines the programme for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as 'the fixation of time and date for

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