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ANSYS Release 8.1
001972
April 2004
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Structural Analysis Guide
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001612 ANSYS 6.1 April 2002
001695* ANSYS 7.0 October 2002
001788* ANSYS 7.1 May 2003
001901* ANSYS 8.0 October 2003
001972* ANSYS 8.1 April 2004
* ANSYS Documentation on CD.
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Table of Contents
1. Overview of Structural Analyses ......................................................................................................... 1–1
1.1. Definition of Structural Analysis .................................................................................................... 1–1
1.2. Types of Structural Analysis ........................................................................................................... 1–1
1.3. Elements Used in Structural Analyses ............................................................................................ 1–2
1.4. Material Model Interface ............................................................................................................... 1–2
1.5. Types of Solution Methods ............................................................................................................ 1–2
2. Structural Static Analysis .................................................................................................................... 2–1
2.1. Definition of Static Analysis ........................................................................................................... 2–1
2.2. Linear vs. Nonlinear Static Analyses ............................................................................................... 2–1
2.3. Performing a Static Analysis .......................................................................................................... 2–1
2.3.1. Build the Model ................................................................................................................... 2–1
2.3.1.1. Points to Remember .................................................................................................... 2–1
2.3.2. Set Solution Controls ............................................................................................................ 2–2
2.3.2.1. Access the Solution Controls Dialog Box ...................................................................... 2–2
2.3.2.2. Using the Basic Tab ..................................................................................................... 2–2
2.3.2.3. The Transient Tab ........................................................................................................ 2–3
2.3.2.4. Using the Sol'n Options Tab ......................................................................................... 2–4
2.3.2.5. Using the Nonlinear Tab .............................................................................................. 2–4
2.3.2.6. Using the Advanced NL Tab ......................................................................................... 2–5
2.3.3. Set Additional Solution Options ........................................................................................... 2–5
2.3.3.1. Stress Stiffening Effects ................................................................................................ 2–5
2.3.3.2. Newton-Raphson Option ............................................................................................. 2–6
2.3.3.3. Prestress Effects Calculation ......................................................................................... 2–6
2.3.3.4. Mass Matrix Formulation ............................................................................................. 2–6
2.3.3.5. Reference Temperature ............................................................................................... 2–7
2.3.3.6. Mode Number ............................................................................................................. 2–7
2.3.3.7. Creep Criteria .............................................................................................................. 2–7
2.3.3.8. Printed Output ............................................................................................................ 2–7
2.3.3.9. Extrapolation of Results ............................................................................................... 2–7
2.3.4. Apply the Loads ................................................................................................................... 2–7
2.3.4.1. Load Types .................................................................................................................. 2–7
2.3.4.1.1. Displacements (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ) ................................................... 2–7
2.3.4.1.2. Forces (FX, FY, FZ) and Moments (MX, MY, MZ) .................................................... 2–7
2.3.4.1.3. Pressures (PRES) .................................................................................................. 2–8
2.3.4.1.4. Temperatures (TEMP) .......................................................................................... 2–8
2.3.4.1.5. Fluences (FLUE) .................................................................................................. 2–8
2.3.4.1.6. Gravity, Spinning, Etc. ......................................................................................... 2–8
2.3.4.2. Apply Loads to the Model ............................................................................................ 2–8
2.3.4.2.1. Applying Loads Using TABLE Type Array Parameters ........................................... 2–8
2.3.4.3. Calculating Inertia Relief .............................................................................................. 2–9
2.3.4.3.1. Inertia Relief Output ............................................................................................ 2–9
2.3.4.3.2. Partial Inertia Relief Calculations .......................................................................... 2–9
2.3.4.3.3. Using a Macro to Perform Inertia Relief Calculations ........................................... 2–10
2.3.5. Solve the Analysis .............................................................................................................. 2–10
2.3.6. Review the Results ............................................................................................................. 2–10
2.3.6.1. Postprocessors .......................................................................................................... 2–11
2.3.6.2. Points to Remember .................................................................................................. 2–11
2.3.6.3. Reviewing Results Data .............................................................................................. 2–11
2.3.6.4. Typical Postprocessing Operations ............................................................................. 2–11
2.4. A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method) ........................................................................................ 2–13
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List of Figures
2.1. Diagram of Allen Wrench .................................................................................................................. 2–14
3.1. Diagram of a Model Airplane Wing .................................................................................................... 3–12
3.2. Choose Master DOF .......................................................................................................................... 3–20
3.3. Choosing Master DOFs ...................................................................................................................... 3–20
3.4. Choosing Masters in an Axisymmetric Shell Model ............................................................................. 3–21
4.1. Harmonic Response Systems ............................................................................................................... 4–1
4.2. Relationship Between Real/Imaginary Components and Amplitude/Phase Angle ................................. 4–6
4.3. An Unbalanced Rotating Antenna ....................................................................................................... 4–7
4.4. Two-Mass-Spring-System .................................................................................................................. 4–14
5.1. Examples of Load-Versus-Time Curves ................................................................................................. 5–4
5.2. Examples of Gap Conditions .............................................................................................................. 5–21
5.3. Model of a Steel Beam Supporting a Concentrated Mass .................................................................... 5–27
5.4. Effect of Integration Time Step on Period Elongation ......................................................................... 5–34
5.5. Transient Input vs. Transient Response .............................................................................................. 5–35
5.6. Rayleigh Damping ............................................................................................................................ 5–38
6.1. Single-Point and Multi-Point Response Spectra ................................................................................... 6–2
6.2. Simply Supported Beam with Vertical Motion of Both Supports ......................................................... 6–11
7.1. Buckling Curves .................................................................................................................................. 7–1
7.2. Adjusting Variable Loads to Find an Eigenvalue of 1.0 .......................................................................... 7–4
7.3. Bar with Hinged Ends .......................................................................................................................... 7–9
8.1. Common Examples of Nonlinear Structural Behavior ........................................................................... 8–1
8.2. A Fishing Rod Demonstrates Geometric Nonlinearity ........................................................................... 8–2
8.3. Newton-Raphson Approach ................................................................................................................ 8–3
8.4. Traditional Newton-Raphson Method vs. Arc-Length Method .............................................................. 8–4
8.5. Load Steps, Substeps, and Time .......................................................................................................... 8–4
8.6. Nonconservative (Path-Dependent) Behavior ...................................................................................... 8–5
8.7. Load Directions Before and After Deflection ........................................................................................ 8–6
8.8. Stress-Stiffened Beams ........................................................................................................................ 8–8
8.9. Elastoplastic Stress-Strain Curve .......................................................................................................... 8–9
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List of Tables
1.1. Structural Element Types .................................................................................................................... 1–2
2.1. Basic Tab Options ............................................................................................................................... 2–3
2.2. Sol'n Options Tab Options ................................................................................................................... 2–4
2.3. Nonlinear Tab Options ........................................................................................................................ 2–4
2.4. Advanced NL Tab Options ................................................................................................................... 2–5
2.5. Loads Applicable in a Static Analysis ................................................................................................... 2–8
3.1. Analysis Types and Options ................................................................................................................. 3–2
3.2. Loads Applicable in a Modal Analysis .................................................................................................. 3–5
3.3. Load Commands for a Modal Analysis ................................................................................................. 3–5
3.4. Load Step Options .............................................................................................................................. 3–6
3.5. Expansion Pass Options ...................................................................................................................... 3–8
3.6. Symmetric System Eigensolver Choices ............................................................................................. 3–17
4.1. Analysis Types and Options ................................................................................................................. 4–4
4.2. Applicable Loads in a Harmonic Response Analysis .............................................................................. 4–7
4.3. Load Commands for a Harmonic Response Analysis ............................................................................ 4–8
4.4. Load Step Options .............................................................................................................................. 4–9
4.5. Expansion Pass Options .................................................................................................................... 4–22
5.1. Transient Tab Options ......................................................................................................................... 5–8
5.2. Options for the First Load Step-Mode Superposition Analysis ............................................................. 5–15
5.3. Options for the First Load Step-Reduced Analysis .............................................................................. 5–22
5.4. Expansion Pass Options .................................................................................................................... 5–24
5.5. Damping for Different Analysis Types ................................................................................................ 5–36
5.6. Damping Matrix Formulation with Different Damping Coefficients .................................................... 5–39
6.1. Analysis Types and Options ................................................................................................................. 6–4
6.2. Load Step Options .............................................................................................................................. 6–4
6.3. Solution Items Available in a PSD Analysis ......................................................................................... 6–21
6.4. Organization of Results Data from a PSD Analysis .............................................................................. 6–22
8.1. Suggested Mooney-Rivlin Constants ................................................................................................. 8–23
8.2. Data Locations in Stress and Strain Input Arrays ................................................................................. 8–24
9.1. Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and Blatz-Ko .................................................................. 9–2
9.2. Experimental Details for Case 3 Models ............................................................................................... 9–2
9.3. Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types ............................................................................................... 9–3
9.4. Creep Data Types and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... 9–8
9.5. Creep Model and Data/Type Attribute ................................................................................................. 9–8
9.6. Creep Models and Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... 9–10
9.7. Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations ........................................................................................ 9–15
11.1. ANSYS Contact Capabilities ............................................................................................................. 11–2
11.2. Summary of Real Constant Defaults in Different Environments ....................................................... 11–18
11.3. Summary of KEYOPT Defaults in Different Environments ................................................................ 11–21
16.1. ANSYS Cross Section Commands ..................................................................................................... 16–2
17.1. ANSYS Cross Section Commands ..................................................................................................... 17–1
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Chapter 1: Overview of Structural Analyses
1.1. Definition of Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method. The term structural
(or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aeronaut-
ical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical
components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.
Structural analyses are available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS Structural, and ANSYS
Professional programs only.
You can perform the following types of structural analyses. Each of these analysis types are discussed in detail
in this manual.
Static Analysis--Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions. Both linear and
nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hy-
perelasticity, contact surfaces, and creep.
Modal Analysis--Used to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. Different mode extrac-
tion methods are available.
Transient Dynamic Analysis--Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All
nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.
Spectrum Analysis--An extension of the modal analysis, used to calculate stresses and strains due to a response
spectrum or a PSD input (random vibrations).
Buckling Analysis--Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape. Both linear
(eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.
Explicit Dynamic Analysis--This type of structural analysis is only available in the ANSYS LS-DYNA program. ANSYS
LS-DYNA provides an interface to the LS-DYNA explicit finite element program. Explicit dynamic analysis is used
to calculate fast solutions for large deformation dynamics and complex contact problems. Explicit dynamic
analysis is described in the ANSYS LS-DYNA User's Guide.
In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available:
• Fracture mechanics
• Composites
• Fatigue
• p-Method
• Beam Analyses
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Chapter 1: Overview of Structural Analyses
Note — Explicit dynamics analysis can use only the explicit dynamic elements (LINK160, BEAM161,
PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164, COMBI165, MASS166, LINK167, and SOLID168).
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
2.1. Definition of Static Analysis
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and
damping effects, such as those caused by time-varying loads. A static analysis can, however, include steady inertia
loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity), and time-varying loads that can be approximated as static equi-
valent loads (such as the static equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building codes).
Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components
caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and response conditions
are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The
kinds of loading that can be applied in a static analysis include:
More information about the loads that you can apply in a static analysis appears in Section 2.3.4: Apply the Loads.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
– You must define stiffness in some form (for example, Young's modulus (EX), hyperelastic coefficients,
and so on).
– For inertia loads (such as gravity), you must define the data required for mass calculations, such as
density (DENS).
– For thermal loads (temperatures), you must define the coefficient of thermal expansion (ALPX).
• Regions where stresses or strains vary rapidly (usually areas of interest) require a relatively finer mesh than
regions where stresses or strains are nearly constant (within an element).
• While considering the influence of nonlinearities, remember that the mesh should be able to capture the
effects of the nonlinearities. For example, plasticity requires a reasonable integration point density (and
therefore a fine element mesh) in areas with high plastic deformation gradients.
If you prefer not to use the Solution Controls dialog box (Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Controls),
you can set solution controls for your analysis using the standard set of ANSYS solution commands and the
standard corresponding menu paths (Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> option). For a general
overview of the Solution Controls dialog box, see Section 3.11: Using Special Solution Controls for Certain Types
of Structural Analyses in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
The controls that appear on the Basic tab provide the minimum amount of data that ANSYS needs for the ana-
lysis. Once you are satisfied with the settings on the Basic tab, you do not need to progress through the remaining
tabs unless you want to adjust the default settings for the more advanced controls. As soon as you click OK on
any tab of the dialog box, the settings are applied to the ANSYS database and the dialog box closes.
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Section 2.3: Performing a Static Analysis
You can use the Basic tab to set the options listed in Table 2.1: “Basic Tab Options”. For specific information
about using the Solution Controls dialog box to set these options, access the dialog box, select the Basic tab,
and click the Help button.
Control time settings, including: time at end • Section 2.4: The Role of Time in Tracking in the ANSYS
of load step [TIME], automatic time step- Basic Analysis Guide
ping [AUTOTS], and number of substeps • Section 2.7.1: General Options in the ANSYS Basic
to be taken in a load step [NSUBST or Analysis Guide
DELTIM]
Specify solution data to write to database • Section 2.7.4: Output Controls in the ANSYS Basic
[OUTRES] Analysis Guide
• When setting ANTYPE and NLGEOM, choose Small Displacement Static if you are performing a new
analysis and you want to ignore large deformation effects such as large deflection, large rotation, and
large strain. Choose Large Displacement Static if you expect large deflections (as in the case of a long,
slender bar under bending) or large strains (as in a metal-forming problem). Choose Restart Current
Analysis if you want to restart a failed nonlinear analysis, or you have previously completed a static ana-
lysis, and you want to specify additional loads.
• When setting TIME, remember that this load step option specifies time at the end of the load step. The
default value is 1.0 for the first load step. For subsequent load steps, the default is 1.0 plus the time specified
for the previous load step. Although time has no physical meaning in a static analysis (except in the case
of creep, viscoplasticity, or other rate-dependent material behavior), it is used as a convenient way of re-
ferring to load steps and substeps (see Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide).
• When setting OUTRES, keep this caution in mind:
Caution: By default, only 1000 results sets can be written to the results file (Jobname.RST). If this
number is exceeded (based on your OUTRES specification), the program will terminate with an
error. Use the command /CONFIG,NRES to increase the limit (see Chapter 19, “Memory Management
and Configuration” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide).
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
– Program chosen solver (ANSYS selects a solver for you, based on the physics of the problem)
– Sparse direct solver (default for linear and nonlinear, static and full transient analyses)
– Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG) solver (recommended for large models/high wavefronts,
bulky structures)
– Algebraic Multigrid (AMG) solver (applicable in the same situations as the PCG solver, but provides
parallel processing; for faster turnaround times when used in a multiprocessor environment)
– Distributed Domain Solver (DDS) provides parallel processing on multiple systems across a network
– Iterative solver (auto-select; for linear static/full transient structural or steady-state thermal analyses
only; recommended)
– Frontal direct solver
Note — The AMG and DDS solvers are part of Parallel Performance for ANSYS, which is a separately-licensed
product. See Chapter 13, “Improving ANSYS Performance and Parallel Performance for ANSYS” in the
ANSYS Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide for more information about these solvers.
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Section 2.3: Performing a Static Analysis
Option For more information about this option, see the following
section(s) in the ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide:
Activate a predictor on the DOF solution • Section 8.5.2.3.4: Predictor-Corrector Option
[PRED]
Specify the maximum number of itera- • Section 8.5.2.3.3: Maximum Number of Equilibrium Iter-
tions allowed per substep [NEQIT] ations
Control activation and termination of the • Section 8.10.2.5: Using the Arc-Length Method
arc-length method [ARCLEN, ARCTRM] • Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide
Many of the options that appear in this section are nonlinear options, and are described further in Chapter 8,
“Nonlinear Structural Analysis”.
By default, stress stiffening effects are ON when NLGEOM is ON. Specific situations in which you can turn OFF
stress stiffening effects include:
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
• Stress stiffening is relevant only in nonlinear analyses. If you are performing a linear analysis [NLGEOM,OFF],
you can turn stress stiffening OFF.
• Prior to the analysis, you know that the structure is not likely to fail because of buckling (bifurcation, snap
through).
Including stress stiffness terms, in general, accelerates nonlinear convergence characteristics. Keeping in mind
the points listed above, you may choose to turn stress stiffening OFF for specific problems in which convergence
difficulties are seen; for example, local failures.
Command(s): SSTIF
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Options
• Program-chosen (default)
• Full
• Modified
• Initial stiffness
• Full with unsymmetric matrix
Command(s): NROPT
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Options
Note — The stress stiffening effects and the prestress effect calculation both control the generation of
the stress stiffness matrix, and therefore should not be used together in an analysis. If both are specified,
the last option specified will override the previous setting.
Command(s): PSTRES
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Options
Note — For a static analysis, the mass matrix formulation you use does not significantly affect the solution
accuracy (assuming that the mesh is fine enough). However, if you want to do a prestressed dynamic
analysis on the same model, the choice of mass matrix formulation may be important; see the appropriate
dynamic analysis section for recommendations.
Command(s): LUMPM
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Options
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Section 2.3: Performing a Static Analysis
Caution: Proper use of multiple OUTPR commands can sometimes be a little tricky. See Section 2.7.4:
Output Controls in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for more information on how to use this command.
2.3.4.1.2. Forces (FX, FY, FZ) and Moments (MX, MY, MZ)
These are concentrated loads usually specified on the model exterior. The directions implied by the labels are
in the nodal coordinate system.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
Table 2.5: “Loads Applicable in a Static Analysis” summarizes the loads applicable to a static analysis. In an ana-
lysis, loads can be applied, removed, operated on, or listed.
In a structural analysis, valid primary variables are TIME, TEMP, and location (X, Y, Z).
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Section 2.3: Performing a Static Analysis
When defining the table, TIME must be in ascending order in the table index (as in any table array).
You can define a table array parameter via command or interactively. For more information on defining table
array parameters, see the ANSYS APDL Programmer's Guide.
• The model should not contain axisymmetric elements, substructures, or nonlinearities. Models with a
mixture of 2-D and 3-D element types are not recommended.
• The effects of offsets and tapering are ignored for beam elements (BEAM23, BEAM24, BEAM44, and
BEAM54) as well as for layered elements (SHELL91, SHELL99, SOLID46, and SOLID191). The effects of un-
symmetrical layups for layered elements are also ignored. (Breaking up each tapered element into several
elements will give a more accurate solution.)
• Data required for mass calculations (such as density) must be specified.
• Specify only the minimum number of displacement constraints - those required to prevent rigid-body
motion. Three constraints (or fewer, depending on the element type) are necessary for 2-D models and
six (or fewer) are necessary for 3-D models. Additional constraints, such as those required to impose
symmetry conditions, are permitted, but check for zero reaction forces at all the constraints to make sure
that the model is not overconstrained for inertia relief.
• The loads for which inertia relief calculations are desired should be applied.
Command(s): IRLF,1
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other> Inertia Relief
Inertia relief output is stored in the database rather than in the results file (Jobname.RST). When you issue IRLIST,
ANSYS pulls the information from the database, which contains the inertia relief output from the most recent
solution [SOLVE or PSOLVE].
Command(s): IRLIST
GUI: No GUI equivalent.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
FINISH
/SOLU
D,... ! Specify only minimum no. of constraints
F,... ! Other loads
SF,...
OUTPR,ALL,ALL ! Activates printout of all items
IRLF,1 ! Can also be set to -1 for precise mass and
! load summary only, no inertia relief
PSOLVE,ELFORM ! Calculates element matrices
PSOLVE,ELPREP ! Modifies element matrices and calculates
! inertia relief terms
IRLIST ! Lists the mass summary and total load summary tables
FINISH
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for discussions of the OUTPR, IRLF, IRLIST, and PSOLVE commands.
1. Save a backup copy of the database to a named file. You can then retrieve your model by reentering the
ANSYS program and issuing RESUME.
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save as
2. Start solution calculations.
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
3. If you want the analysis to include additional loading conditions (that is, multiple load steps), you will
need to repeat the process of applying loads, specifying load step options, saving, and solving for each
load step. (Other methods for handling multiple load steps are described in Chapter 2, “Loading” in the
ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.)
4. Leave SOLUTION.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
• Primary data:
• Derived data:
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Section 2.3: Performing a Static Analysis
2.3.6.1. Postprocessors
You can review these results using POST1, the general postprocessor, and POST26, the time-history processor.
• POST1 is used to review results over the entire model at specific substeps (time-points). Some typical
POST1 operations are explained below.
• POST26 is used in nonlinear static analyses to track specific result items over the applied load history. See
Chapter 8, “Nonlinear Structural Analysis” for the use of POST26 in a nonlinear static analysis. For a complete
description of all postprocessing functions, see Chapter 4, “An Overview of Postprocessing” in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide.
Use the PLDISP command to display a deformed shape (Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> De-
formed Shape). The KUND field on PLDISP gives you the option of overlaying the undeformed shape on the
display.
The PRRSOL command lists reaction forces and moments at the constrained nodes (Main Menu> General
Postproc> List Results> Reaction Solu).
To display reaction forces, issue /PBC,RFOR,,1 and then request a node or element display [NPLOT or EPLOT].
(Use RMOM instead of RFOR for reaction moments.)
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
Use the PRESOL,F (or M) command to list nodal forces and moments (Main Menu> General Postproc> List
Results> Element Solution).
You can list the sum of all nodal forces and moments for a selected set of nodes. Select a set of nodes and use
this feature to find out the total force acting on those nodes:
Command(s): FSUM
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Nodal Calcs> Total Force Sum
You can also check the total force and total moment at each selected node. For a body in equilibrium, the total
load is zero at all nodes except where an applied load or reaction load exists:
Command(s): NFORCE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Nodal Calcs> Sum @ Each Node
The FORCE command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) dictates which component of the
forces is being reviewed:
• Total (default)
• Static component
• Damping component
• Inertia component
For a body in equilibrium, the total load (using all FORCE components) is zero at all nodes except where an applied
load or reaction load exists.
For line elements, such as beams, spars, and pipes, use ETABLE to gain access to derived data (stresses, strains,
and so on) (Main Menu> General Postproc> Element Table> Define Table). Results data are identified by a
combination of a label and a sequence number or component name on the ETABLE command. See the ETABLE
discussion in The General Postprocessor (POST1) in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
For linear static analyses using solid or shell elements, use the PRERR command to list the estimated solution
error due to mesh discretization (Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Percent Error). This command
calculates and lists the percent error in structural energy norm (SEPC), which represents the error relative to a
particular mesh discretization.
Use PLESOL,SERR to contour the element-by-element structural energy error (SERR) (Main Menu> General
Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Element Solu). Regions of high SERR on the contour display are good
candidates for mesh refinement. (You can activate automatic mesh refinement by means of the ADAPT command
- see the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide for more information.) See Section 5.3.6: Estimating Solution Error
in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for more details about error estimation.
Use PLNSOL and PLESOL to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ...), strains (EPELX, EPELY,
EPELZ...), and displacements (UX, UY, UZ...) (Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot>
Nodal Solu or Element Solu).
The KUND field on PLNSOL and PLESOL gives you the option of overlaying the undeformed shape on the display.
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
Use PLETAB and PLLS to contour element table data and line element data (Main Menu> General Postproc>
Element Table> Plot Element Table and Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Line
Elem Res).
Caution: Derived data, such as stresses and strains, are averaged at the nodes by the PLNSOL command.
This averaging results in "smeared" values at nodes where elements of different materials, different shell
thicknesses, or other discontinuities meet. To avoid the smearing effect, use selecting (described in
Chapter 7, “Selecting and Components” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide) to select elements of the same
material, same shell thickness, and so on before issuing PLNSOL. Alternatively, use PowerGraphics with
the AVRES command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) to not average results across
different materials and/or different shell thicknesses.
Use PLVECT to view vector displays (Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Vector Plot> Predefined)
and PRVECT to view vector listings (Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Vector Data).
Vector displays (not to be confused with vector mode) are an effective way of viewing vector quantities, such as
displacement (DISP), rotation (ROT), and principal stresses (S1, S2, S3).
Use the NSORT and ESORT commands to sort the data before listing them (Main Menu> General Postproc>
List Results> Sorted Listing> Sort Nodes or Sort Elems).
Many other postprocessing functions - mapping results onto a path, load case combinations, and so on - are
available in POST1. See Chapter 4, “An Overview of Postprocessing” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
Configuration = hexagonal
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
Length of handle = 20 cm
Bend radius = 1 cm
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
Note — You can type the labels in upper- or lowercase; ANSYS always displays the labels in up-
percase.
3. Click on Close.
4. Click on SAVE_DB on the ANSYS Toolbar.
Click on OK. This sets Young's modulus to the parameter specified above. Material Model Number 1
appears in the Material Models Defined window on the left.
4. Choose menu path Material> Exit to remove the Define Material Model Behavior dialog box.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Numbering. The Plot Numbering Controls dialog box
appears.
2. Click the Keypoint numbers radio button to Off.
3. Click on OK.
4. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Areas.
5. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Operate> Booleans> Divide> With Op-
tions> Area by Line. The Divide Area by Line picking menu appears.
6. Click once on the shaded area, and click on OK.
7. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Lines.
8. Click once on line 7. (If you have trouble reading the line numbers in the ANSYS Graphics window, use
the controls on the Pan-Zoom-Rotate dialog box (Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Pan/Zoom/Rotate) to zoom
in.)
9. Click on OK. The Divide Area by Line with Options dialog box appears. In the Subtracted lines will be
drop down menu, select Kept. Click OK.
10. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Select> Comp/Assembly> Create Component. The Create Component
dialog box appears.
11. Enter BOTAREA for component name.
12. In the Component is made of drop down menu, select "Areas."
13. Click on OK.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Elem Attributes. The
Element Attributes dialog box appears.
2. In the Element type number drop down menu, select “2 PLANE42” and click on OK.
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesher Opts. The Mesher Options dialog
box appears.
4. In the Mesher Type field, click on the Mapped radio button and then click on OK. The Set Element Shape
dialog box appears.
5. Click on OK to accept the default of Quad for 2-D shape key.
6. Click on SAVE_DB on the ANSYS Toolbar.
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Areas> Mapped> 3 or 4 sided. The
Mesh Areas picking box appears.
2. Click on Pick All.
3. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Elements.
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Clear> Areas. The Clear Areas picking menu
appears.
4. Click on Pick All.
5. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Select> Everything.
6. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Elements.
1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Select> Entities. The Select Entities dialog appears.
2. In the top drop down menu, select "Areas."
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Parameters> Scalar Parameters. The Scalar Parameters dialog box
appears.
2. Type the text PDOWN=20/(W_FLAT*(MAXYVAL-MINYVAL)) in the Selection text box and click on Accept.
3. Click on Close.
4. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Select> Entities. The Select Entities dialog appears.
5. In the top drop down menu, select "Areas."
6. In the second drop down menu, select "By Location."
7. Click on the "Z coordinates" radio button to select it.
8. Click on the "From Full" radio button to select it.
9. Enter -(L_SHANK+(W_HEX/2)) for Min, Max.
10. Click on Apply.
11. In the top drop down menu, select "Nodes."
12. In the second drop down menu, select "Attached to."
13. Click on the Areas, all radio button to select it, and click on Apply.
14. In the second drop down menu, select "By Location."
15. Click on the "Y coordinates" radio button to select it.
16. Click on the "Reselect" radio button.
17. Enter L_HANDLE+TOL,L_HANDLE-(3.0*L_ELEM)-TOL for Min, Max.
18. Click on OK.
19. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Pressure> On Nodes.
The Apply PRES on Nodes picking menu appears.
20. Click on Pick All. The Apply PRES on Nodes dialog box appears.
21. Enter PDOWN for Load PRES value and click on OK.
22. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Select> Everything.
23. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Nodes.
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Section 2.4: A Sample Static Analysis (GUI Method)
22. Choose menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Save Plot Ctrls. The Save Plot Controls dialog box appears.
23. Type "plnsol.gsa" in the Selection box, and click on OK.
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
3. Click on OK.
/PREP7
ET,1,SOLID45 ! Eight-node brick element
ET,2,PLANE42 ! Four-node quadrilateral (for area mesh)
MP,EX,1,EXX ! Young's modulus for material 1
MP,PRXY,1,0.3 ! Poisson's ratio for material 1
RPOLY,6,W_FLAT ! Hexagonal area
K,7 ! Keypoint at (0,0,0)
K,8,,,-L_SHANK ! Keypoint at shank-handle intersection
K,9,,L_HANDLE,-L_SHANK ! Keypoint at end of handle
L,4,1 ! Line through middle of hex shape
L,7,8 ! Line along middle of shank
L,8,9 ! Line along handle
LFILLT,8,9,BENDRAD ! Line along bend radius between shank and handle
/VIEW,,1,1,1 ! Isometric view in window 1
/ANGLE,,90,XM ! Rotates model 90 degrees about X
/PNUM,LINE,1 ! Line numbers turned on
LPLOT
/PNUM,LINE,0 ! Line numbers off
L,1,4 ! Hex section is cut into two quadrilaterals
ASBL,1,7,,,KEEP ! to satisfy mapped meshing requirements for bricks
CM,BOTAREA,AREA ! Component name BOTAREA for the two areas
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Section 2.5: A Sample Static Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
/SOLU
ANTYPE,STATIC ! Static analysis (default)
/TITLE,Allen wrench -- Load step 1
PDOWN=20/(W_FLAT*(MAXYVAL-MINYVAL))
/POST1
SET,1 ! Reads load step 1 results
PRRSOL ! Reaction solution listing
/PBC,DEFA ! No BC symbols
/PSF,DEFA ! No surface load symbols
/EDGE,,1 ! Edges only, no interior element outlines
/TITLE,Deformed allen wrench caused by torque
PLDISP,2 ! Deformed shape overlaid with undeformed edge plot
/GSAVE,pldisp,gsav ! Saves graphics specifications on pldisp.gsav
/PLOPTS,INFO,ON ! Turns on entire legend column
/PLOPTS,LEG1,OFF ! Turns off legend header
/ANGLE,,120,YM,1 ! Additional rotation about model Y (to see high stress areas)
/TITLE,Stress intensity contours caused by torque
PLNSOL,S,INT ! Stress intensity contours
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Chapter 2: Structural Static Analysis
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
family of products. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verific-
ation Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes the following structural static analysis test cases:
2–26 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 2.6: Where to Find Other Examples
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2–28
Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
3.1. Definition of Modal Analysis
You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and mode shapes) of a
structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It also can be a starting point for another, more
detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a transient dynamic analysis, a harmonic response analysis, or a spectrum
analysis.
You can do modal analysis on a prestressed structure, such as a spinning turbine blade. Another useful feature
is modal cyclic symmetry, which allows you to review the mode shapes of a cyclically symmetric structure by
modeling just a sector of it.
Modal analysis in the ANSYS family of products is a linear analysis. Any nonlinearities, such as plasticity and
contact (gap) elements, are ignored even if they are defined. You can choose from several mode-extraction
methods: Block Lanczos (default), subspace, PowerDynamics, reduced, unsymmetric, damped, and QR damped.
The damped and QR damped methods allow you to include damping in the structure. Details about mode-ex-
traction methods are covered later in this section.
• Only linear behavior is valid in a modal analysis. If you specify nonlinear elements, they are treated as linear.
For example, if you include contact elements, their stiffnesses are calculated based on their initial status
and never change.
• Material properties can be linear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent. You
must define both Young's modulus (EX) (or stiffness in some form) and density (DENS) (or mass in some
form) for a modal analysis. Nonlinear properties are ignored. If applying element damping, you must
define the required real constants for the specific element type (COMBIN7, COMBIN14, COMBIN37, and
so on).
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
Note — When you specify a modal analysis, a Solution menu that is appropriate for modal analyses ap-
pears. The Solution menu will be either “abridged” or “unabridged,” depending on the actions you took
prior to this step in your ANSYS session. The abridged menu contains only those solution options that
are valid and/or recommended for modal analyses. If you are on the abridged Solution menu and you
want to access other solution options (that is, solution options that are valid for you to use, but their use
may not be encouraged for this type of analysis), select the Unabridged Menu option. For details, see
Section 3.11.1: Using Abridged Solution Menus in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
Note — In the single point response spectrum (SPOPT,SPRS) and Dynamic Design analysis method (SP-
OPT,DDAM), the modal expansion can be performed after the spectrum analysis, based on the significance
factor SIGNIF on the MXPAND command. If you want to perform modal expansion after the spectrum
analysis, choose NO for mode expansion (MXPAND) on the dialog box for the modal analysis options
(MODOPT).
Note — Restarts are not valid in a modal analysis. If you need to apply different sets of boundary conditions,
do a new analysis each time (or use the "partial solution" procedure described in Chapter 3, “Solution”
in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide).
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Section 3.5: Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution
The Block Lanczos method is used for large symmetric eigenvalue problems. You can use this method for
the same types of problems for which you use the subspace method, but you achieve a faster convergence
rate. The Block Lanczos method uses the sparse matrix solver, overriding any solver specified via the
EQSLV command.
• Subspace method
The subspace method is used for large symmetric eigenvalue problems. Several solution controls are
available to control the subspace iteration process.
When doing a modal analysis with a large number of constraint equations, use the subspace method with
the frontal solver instead of the JCG solver, or use the Block Lanczos mode-extraction method.
• PowerDynamics method
The PowerDynamics method is used for very large models (100,000+ DOFs), and is especially useful to
obtain a solution for the first several modes to learn how the model will behave. You can then choose the
most appropriate extraction method (subspace or Block Lanczos) for running the final solution. This
method automatically uses the lumped mass approximation (LUMPM,ON)
To use the PowerDynamics method when running in batch or command mode, you first issue MOD-
OPT,SUBSPACE, followed by EQSLV,PCG. (The PCGOUT solver can also be used, but it is very slow.)
• Reduced (Householder) method
The reduced method is faster than the subspace method because it uses reduced (condensed) system
matrices to calculate the solution. However, it is less accurate because the reduced mass matrix is approx-
imate. (See Section 3.13: Comparing Mode-Extraction Methods.)
• Unsymmetric method
The unsymmetric method is used for problems with unsymmetric matrices, such as fluid-structure inter-
action problems.
• Damped method
The damped method is used for problems where damping cannot be ignored, such as bearing problems.
• QR Damped method
The QR damped method is faster and achieves better calculation efficiency than the damped method. It
uses the reduced modal damped matrix to calculate complex damped frequencies in modal coordinates.
For most applications, you will use the Block Lanczos, subspace, reduced, or PowerDynamics method. The un-
symmetric, damped, and QR damped methods are meant for special applications.
When you specify a mode-extraction method, ANSYS automatically chooses the appropriate equation solver.
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
Note — The damped, unsymmetric, and QR damped methods are not available in the ANSYS Professional
program.
For the unsymmetric and damped methods, requesting a larger number of modes than necessary reduces the
possibility of missed modes, but results in more solution time.
Note — You can use only axisymmetric loads for prestressing harmonic elements such as PLANE25 and
SHELL61.
Master degrees of freedom (MDOF) are significant degrees of freedom that characterize the dynamic behavior
of the structure. You should choose at least twice as many MDOF as the number of modes of interest. We recom-
mend that you define as many MDOF as you can based on your knowledge of the dynamic characteristics of the
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Section 3.5: Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution
structure [M,MGEN], and also let the program choose a few additional masters based on stiffness-to-mass ratios
[TOTAL]. You can list the defined MDOF [MLIST], and delete extraneous MDOF [MDELE]. For more details about
master degrees of freedom, see Section 3.14: Matrix Reduction.
Command(s): M
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Master DOFs> User Selected> Define
Note — Other loads - forces, pressures, temperatures, accelerations, and so on - can be specified in a
modal analysis, but they are ignored for the mode-extraction. However, the program will calculate a load
vector and write it to the mode shape file (Jobname.MODE) so that it can be used in a subsequent mode-
superposition harmonic or transient analysis.
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
For example, to apply a displacement load to a line, follow this GUI path:
GUI:
Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Displacement> On lines
GUI:
Utility Menu> List>Loads> load type
Damping is valid only for the damped and QR damped mode-extraction methods. Damping is ignored for the
other mode-extraction methods; see the Note below.
If you include damping and specify the damped mode-extraction method, the calculated eigenvalues and eigen-
vectors are complex. If you include damping and specify the QR damped mode-extraction method, the eigenvalues
are complex. However, the real eigenvectors are used for the mode superposition analysis. See Section 3.13:
Comparing Mode-Extraction Methods for details. Also see the section Section 5.10.3: Damping in Chapter 5,
“Transient Dynamic Analysis” for more information on damping.
Only the QR damped method supports the constant material damping coefficient application in a downstream
mode superposition harmonic analysis. The QR damped eigen analysis itself, however, does not include the effect
of the constant material damping coefficient. The corresponding modal damping matrix is formulated during
modal harmonic analysis.
Note — Damping can be specified in a non-damped modal analysis if a single-point response spectrum
analysis is to follow the modal analysis. Although the damping does not affect the eigenvalue solution,
it is used to calculate an effective damping ratio for each mode, which is then used to calculate the re-
sponse to the spectrum. Spectrum analyses are discussed in Chapter 6, “Spectrum Analysis”.
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Section 3.5: Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution
The reduced mass distribution is also listed. Rotational participation factors will be calculated when a real eigen-
solver mode-extraction method (such as Block Lanczos, subspace, or QRDAMP) is used.
Note — You can retrieve a participation factor or mode coefficient by issuing a *GET command. The
factor or coefficient is valid for the excitation (assumed unit displacement spectrum) directed along the
last of the applicable coordinates (rotation about the Z axis for a 3-D analysis). To retrieve a participation
factor or mode coefficient for another direction, perform a spectrum analysis with the excitation set
(SED) to the desired direction, then issue another *GET command.
3.5.7. Solve
Before you solve, you should save (SAVE) a back-up copy of the database to a named file. You can then retrieve
your model by reentering the ANSYS program and issuing RESUME.
3.5.7.1. Output
The output from the solution consists mainly of the natural frequencies, which are printed as part of the printed
output (Jobname.OUT) and also written to the mode shape file (Jobname.MODE). The printed output may include
reduced mode shapes and the participation factor table, depending on your analysis options and output controls.
No mode shapes are written to the database or to the results file, so you cannot postprocess the results yet. To
do this, you need to expand the modes (explained next).
There are two methods that you can use to investigate the missed mode: use more iteration vectors, or change
the shift point used in the eigenvalue extraction. Both methods are briefly described below. (See the ANSYS, Inc.
Theory Reference for more information.)
To use more iteration vectors, you can issue the SUBOPT,,NPAD command. If you prefer to use the GUI to adjust
the number of iteration vectors, follow these steps:
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options. The Modal Analysis
dialog box appears.
2. Choose “Subspace” as the mode-extraction method and specify the number of modes to extract; then
click OK. The Subspace Modal Analysis dialog box appears.
3. Change the value of the NPAD field and click OK.
To change the shift point that was used in the eigenvalue extraction, you can issue the MODOPT,,,FREQB com-
mand. If you prefer to use the GUI to change the shift point, follow these steps:
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options. The Modal Analysis
dialog box appears.
2. Choose “Subspace” as the mode-extraction method and specify the number of modes to extract; then
click OK. The Subspace Modal Analysis dialog box appears.
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
If you use the damped mode-extraction method, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors are complex. The imaginary
part of the eigenvalue represents the natural frequency, and the real part is a measure of the stability of the
system. If you use the QR damped mode-extraction method, the eigenvalues are complex. However, the real ei-
genvectors are used for the mode superposition analysis.
Note — You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU)
before performing the expansion pass.
2. Activate the expansion pass and its options. ANSYS offers these options for the expansion pass:
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Section 3.6: Expand the Modes
3. Specify load step options. The only options valid in a modal expansion pass are output controls:
• Printed output
Use this option to include any results data (expanded mode shapes, stresses, and forces) on the
printed output file (Jobname.OUT).
Command(s): OUTPR
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout
• Database and results file output
Use this option to control the data on the results file (Jobname.RST). The FREQ field on OUTRES can
be only ALL or NONE; that is, the data are written for all modes or no modes. For example, you cannot
write information for every other mode.
Command(s): OUTRES
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/Results File
The output consists of expanded mode shapes and, if requested, relative stress distributions for each
mode.
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
5. Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 for additional modes to be expanded (in different frequency ranges, for example).
Each expansion pass is stored as a separate load step on the results file.
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
Caution: Spectrum analyses expect all expanded modes to be in one load step. In the single
point response spectrum (SPOPT,SPRS) and Dynamic Design analysis method (SPOPT,DDAM),
the modal expansion can be performed after the spectrum analysis, based on the significance
factor SIGNIF on the MXPAND command. If you want to perform modal expansion after the
spectrum analysis, choose NO for mode expansion (MXPAND) on the dialog box for the modal
analysis options (MODOPT).
Note — The expansion pass has been presented here as a separate step. However, if you include the
MXPAND command in the modal solution step, the program not only extracts the eigenvalues and ei-
genvectors, but also expands the specified mode shapes.
• Natural frequencies
• Expanded mode shapes
• Relative stress and force distributions (if requested).
You can review these results in POST1 [/POST1], the general postprocessor. Some typical postprocessing oper-
ations for a modal analysis are described below. For a complete description of all postprocessing functions, see
Chapter 4, “An Overview of Postprocessing” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Section 3.7: Review the Results
3 78.082 1 3 3
4 188.34 1 4 4
Command(s): SET,LIST
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results
Use the KUND field on PLDISP to overlay the nondeformed shape on the display.
Note — To display the master DOFs graphically, plot the nodes (Utility Menu> Plot> Nodes or command
NLIST).
For line elements, such as beams, spars, and pipes, use the ETABLE command to access derived data (stresses,
strains, and so on). Results data are identified by a combination of a label and a sequence number or component
name on the ETABLE command. See the ETABLE discussion in The General Postprocessor (POST1) in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide for details.
Use these options to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ...), strains (EPELX, EPELY, EPELZ...),
and displacements (UX, UY, UZ...).
The KUND field on PLNSOL and PLESOL gives you the option of overlaying the nondeformed shape on the display.
You can also contour element table data and line element data:
Command(s): PLETAB, PLLS
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Element Table> Plot Element Table
Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Line Elem Res
Caution: Derived data, such as stresses and strains, are averaged at the nodes by the PLNSOL command.
This averaging results in "smeared" values at nodes where elements of different materials, different shell
thicknesses, or other discontinuities meet. To avoid the smearing effect, use selecting (described in
Chapter 7, “Selecting and Components” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide) to select elements of the same
material, same shell thickness, and so on before issuing PLNSOL.
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Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Sorted Listing> Sort Elems
Use the NSORT and ESORT commands to sort the data before listing them.
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, MODOPT, M, TOTAL, EXPASS, MXPAND,
SET, and PLDISP commands.
Poisson's ratio = .3
3–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 3.9: A Sample Modal Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
The detailed step-by-step procedure for this example, Modal Analysis of a Model Airplane Wing, is included in
the Modal Tutorial.
You may receive warning messages when you run this problem. The version of the problem that appears in the
Modal Tutorial contains an explanation of the warnings.
/FILNAM,MODAL
/TITLE,Modal Analysis of a Model Airplane Wing
/PREP7
ET,1,PLANE42 ! Define PLANE42 as element type 1
ET,2,SOLID45 ! Define SOLID45 as element type 2
MP,EX,1,38000
MP,DENS,1,8.3E-5
MP,NUXY,1,.3
K,1 ! Define keypoint 1 at 0,0,0
K,2,2 ! Define keypoint 2 at 2,0,0
K,3,2.3,.2 ! Define keypoint 3 at 2.3,.2,0
K,4,1.9,.45 ! Define keypoint 4 at 1.9,.45,0
K,5,1,.25 ! Define keypoint 5 at 1,.25,0
LSTR,1,2 ! Create a straight line between keypoints 1 and 2
LSTR,5,1 ! Create a straight line between keypoints 5 and 1
BSPLIN,2,3,4,5,,,-1,,,-1,-.25 ! Create a B-spline
AL,1,3,2
ESIZE,.25
AMESH,1
ESIZE,,10
TYPE,2
VEXT,ALL,,,,,10
/VIEW,,1,1,1
/ANG,1
/REP
EPLOT
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,MODAL ! Choose modal analysis type
MODOPT,SUBSP,5 ! Choose the subspace mode-extraction method,
! extracting 5 modes
ESEL,U,TYPE,,1 ! Unselect element type 1
NSEL,S,LOC,Z,0
D,ALL,ALL
NSEL,ALL
MXPAND,5
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
SET,LIST,2
SET,FIRST
PLDISP,0
ANMODE,10,.5E-1
SET,NEXT
PLDISP,0
ANMODE,10,.5E-1
SET,NEXT
PLDISP,0
ANMODE,10,.5E-1
SET,NEXT
PLDISP,0
ANMODE,10,.5E-1
SET,NEXT
PLDISP,0
ANMODE,10,.5E-1
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 3–13
Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
FINISH
/EXIT
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
family of products. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verific-
ation Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes variety of modal analysis test cases:
3–14 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 3.12: Prestressed Modal Analysis of a Large-Deflection Solution
1. Build the model and obtain a static solution with prestress effects turned on [PSTRES,ON]. The same
lumped mass setting [LUMPM] used here must also be used in the later prestress modal analysis.
Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis” describes the procedure to obtain a static solution.
2. Reenter SOLUTION and obtain the modal solution, also with prestress effects turned on (reissue
PSTRES,ON). Files Jobname.EMAT (if ANSYS creates it) and Jobname.ESAV from the static analysis
must be available. If the model is spinning, include spin-softening effects (via the OMEGA command's
KSPIN option) if necessary.
3. Expand the modes and review them in the postprocessor.
Step 1 above can also be a transient analysis. In such a case, save the EMAT and ESAV files at the desired time
point.
If the deformed shape from the static solution differs significantly from its nondeformed shape, you can perform
a prestressed modal analysis of a large-deflection solution instead.
Along with the PSOLVE command, you must issue the UPCOORD command to update the coordinates necessary
for obtaining the correct stresses.
This procedure uses the element matrices and element load vectors (for example, from pressures, temperature
or acceleration loads) from a previous static analysis. These loads will be passed through to a subsequent mode
superposition analysis if specified (LVSCALE command).
Prestress must be applied (PSTRES,ON) during the static portion of the analysis. However, in cases where stress-
stiffening helps convergence:
• Stress-stiffening (SSTIF,ON) must be applied instead. (This requirement applies to elements outside of
the 18x family of elements only.)
• The EMATWRITE,YES command is also necessary to write the element matrices to File.EMAT.
Issuing either a PSTRES,OFF or SSTIF,OFF command prevents all previously specified prestressing from being
applied.
If the model is spinning, include spin-softening effects (via the OMEGA command's KSPIN option) in the modal
solution if necessary.
! Initial, large deflection static analysis
!
/PREP7
...
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,STATIC ! Static analysis
NLGEOM,ON ! Large deflection analysis
PSTRES,ON ! Flag to calculate the prestress matrix
...
SOLVE
FINISH
!
! Prestressed modal analysis
!
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 3–15
Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
/SOLU
ANTYPE,MODAL ! Modal analysis
UPCOORD,1.0,ON ! Display mode shapes relative to deformed geometry
! in the postprocessor.
PSTRES,ON ! Prestress effects ON
MODOPT,... ! Select eigensolver
MXPAND,... ! Specify the number of modes to expand, if desired.
PSOLVE,EIGxxxx ! Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
! Use EIGLANB or EIGFULL to match MODOPT command.
FINISH
/SOLU !Additional solution step for expansion.
EXPASS,ON
PSOLVE,EIGEXP ! Expand the eigenvector solution. (Required if you
! want to review mode shapes in the postprocessor.)
FINISH
Note — You may also use one of the other eigensolvers (PSOLVE,EIGSYM, PSOLVE,EIGUNSY, PSOLVE,EIG-
DAMP or PSOLVE,EIGREDUC). In such a case, a PSOLVE,TRIANG command must precede the
PSOLVE,EIGxxx command.
where:
Many numerical methods are available to solve the above equation. ANSYS offers these methods:
Note — The damped, unsymmetric, and QR damped methods are not available in the ANSYS Professional
program.
The first four methods (Block Lanczos, subspace, PowerDynamics, and reduced) are the most commonly used.
Table 3.6: “Symmetric System Eigensolver Choices” compares these four mode-extraction methods. Following
the table is a brief description of each mode-extraction method.
3–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 3.13: Comparing Mode-Extraction Methods
The Block Lanczos method is especially powerful when searching for eigenfrequencies in a given part of the ei-
genvalue spectrum of a given system. The convergence rate of the eigenfrequencies will be about the same
when extracting modes in the midrange and higher end of the spectrum as when extracting the lowest modes.
Therefore, when you use a shift frequency (FREQB) to extract n modes beyond the starting value of FREQB, the
algorithm extracts the n modes beyond FREQB at about the same speed as it extracts the lowest n modes.
When doing a modal analysis with a large number of constraint equations, use the subspace method with the
frontal solver instead of the JCG solver, or use the Block Lanczos mode-extraction method. Using the JCG solver
when your analysis has many constraint equations could result in an internal element stiffness assembly that
requires large amounts of memory.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 3–17
Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
The PowerDynamics method does not perform a Sturm sequence check (that is, it does not check for missing
modes), which might affect problems with multiple repeated frequencies. This method always uses lumped
mass approximation.
Note — If you use PowerDynamics to solve a model that includes rigid body modes, be sure to issue the
RIGID command or choose one of its GUI equivalents (Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Options or
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Analysis Options).
Note — The eigenvalue results reported by ANSYS are actually divided by 2* π. This gives the frequency
in Hz (cycles/second). In other words:
Imaginary part of eigenvalue, as reported = Ω/(2* π)
Real part of eigenvalue, as reported = σ/(2* π)
3–18 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 3.14: Matrix Reduction
Matrix reduction allows you to build a detailed model, as you would for a static stress analysis, and use only a
"dynamic" portion of it for a dynamic analysis. You choose the "dynamic" portion by identifying key degrees of
freedom, called master degrees of freedom, that characterize the dynamic behavior of the model. The ANSYS
program then calculates reduced matrices and the reduced DOF solution in terms of the master DOF. You can
then expand the solution to the full DOF set by performing an expansion pass. The main advantage of this pro-
cedure is the savings in CPU time to obtain the reduced solution, especially for dynamic analyses of large problems.
You can choose masters using M and MGEN commands, or you can have the program choose masters during
solution using the TOTAL command. We recommend that you do both: choose a few masters yourself, and also
have the ANSYS program choose masters. This way, the program can pick up any modes that you may have
missed. The following list summarizes the guidelines for selecting master DOF:
• The total number of master DOF should be at least twice the number of modes of interest.
• Choose master DOF in directions in which you expect the structure or component to vibrate. For a flat
plate, for example, you should choose at least a few masters in the out-of-plane direction (see Fig-
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 3–19
Chapter 3: Modal Analysis
ure 3.2: “Choose Master DOF” (a)). In cases where motion in one direction induces a significant motion in
another direction, choose master DOF in both directions (see Figure 3.2: “Choose Master DOF” (b)).
(a) Possible out-of-plane masters for a flat plate(b) Motion in X induces motion in Y
• Choose masters at locations having relatively large mass or rotary inertia and relatively low stiffness (see
Figure 3.3: “Choosing Master DOFs”). Examples of such locations are overhangs and "loosely" connected
structures. Conversely, do not choose masters at locations with relatively small mass, or at locations with
high stiffness (such as DOF close to constraints).
Choose masters at locations with (a) large rotary inertia, (b) large mass
• If your primary interest is in bending modes, you can neglect rotational and "stretching" DOF.
• If the degree of freedom to be chosen belongs to a coupled set, choose only the first (primary) DOF of
the coupled set.
• Choose master DOF at locations where forces or nonzero displacements are to be applied.
• For axisymmetric shell models (SHELL51 or SHELL61), choose as masters the global UX degree of freedom
at all nodes on those sections of the model that are parallel to or nearly parallel to the center line, so os-
cillatory motions between master DOF can be avoided (see Figure 3.4: “Choosing Masters in an Axisym-
metric Shell Model”). This recommendation can be relaxed if the motion is primarily parallel to the
centerline. For axisymmetric harmonic elements with MODE = 2 or greater, choose as masters both UX
and UZ degrees of freedom.
3–20 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 3.14: Matrix Reduction
The best way to check the validity of the master DOF set is to rerun the analysis with twice (or half) the number
of masters and to compare the results. Another way is to review the reduced mass distribution printed during a
modal solution. The reduced mass should be, at least in the dominant direction of motion, within 10-15 percent
of the total mass of the structure.
For meshes with uniform element sizes and properties (for example, a flat plate), the distribution of masters will,
in general, not be uniform. In such cases, you should specify some master DOF of your own [M, MGEN]. The same
recommendation applies to structures with an irregular mass distribution, where the program-selected master
DOF may be concentrated in the higher-mass regions.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 3–21
3–22
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
4.1. Definition of Harmonic Response Analysis
Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response (a harmonic response) in a structural system.
Harmonic response analysis gives you the ability to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of your structures,
thus enabling you to verify whether or not your designs will successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and
other harmful effects of forced vibrations.
This analysis technique calculates only the steady-state, forced vibrations of a structure. The transient vibrations,
which occur at the beginning of the excitation, are not accounted for in a harmonic response analysis (see Fig-
ure 4.1: “Harmonic Response Systems”).
"'$
"6!$
Typical harmonic response system. Fo and Ω are known. uo and Φ are unknown (a). Transient and
steady-state dynamic response of a structural system (b).
Harmonic response analysis is a linear analysis. Some nonlinearities, such as plasticity will be ignored, even if
they are defined. You can, however, have unsymmetric system matrices such as those encountered in a fluid-
structure interaction problem (see Chapter 15, “Acoustics” in the ANSYS Coupled-Field Analysis Guide). Harmonic
analysis can also be performed on a prestressed structure, such as a violin string (assuming the harmonic stresses
are much smaller than the pretension stress). See Section 4.11.1.1: Prestressed Full Harmonic Response Analysis
for more information on prestressed harmonic analyses.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
Section 4.6: Sample Harmonic Response Analysis (GUI Method) and Section 4.7: Sample Harmonic Response
Analysis (Command or Batch Method) show a sample harmonic response analysis done via the GUI and via
commands, respectively.
For detailed, alphabetized descriptions of the ANSYS commands, see the ANSYS Commands Reference.
• It is easy to use, because you don't have to worry about choosing master degrees of freedom or mode
shapes.
• It uses full matrices, so no mass matrix approximation is involved.
• It allows unsymmetric matrices, which are typical of such applications as acoustics and bearing problems.
• It calculates all displacements and stresses in a single pass.
• It accepts all types of loads: nodal forces, imposed (nonzero) displacements, and element loads (pressures
and temperatures).
• It allows effective use of solid-model loads.
A disadvantage is that this method usually is more expensive than either of the other methods when you use
the frontal solver. However, when you use the JCG solver or the ICCG solver, the full method can be very efficient.
• It is faster and less expensive compared to the full method when you are using the frontal solver.
• Prestressing effects can be included.
4–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.5: How to Do Harmonic Response Analysis
• The initial solution calculates only the displacements at the master DOF. A second step, known as the
expansion pass, is required for a complete displacement, stress, and force solution. (However, the expansion
pass might be optional for some applications.)
• Element loads (pressures, temperatures, etc.) cannot be applied.
• All loads must be applied at user-defined master degrees of freedom. (This limits the use of solid-model
loads.)
• It is faster and less expensive than either the reduced or the full method for many problems.
• Element loads applied in the preceding modal analysis can be applied in the harmonic response analysis
via the LVSCALE command, unless the modal analysis was done using PowerDynamics.
• It allows solutions to be clustered about the structure's natural frequencies. This results in a smoother,
more accurate tracing of the response curve.
• Prestressing effects can be included.
• It accepts modal damping (damping ratio as a function of frequency).
You can overcome any of these restrictions by performing a transient dynamic analysis, with harmonic loads
expressed as time-history loading functions. Chapter 5, “Transient Dynamic Analysis” describes the procedure
for a transient dynamic analysis.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–3
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
Note — Peak harmonic response occurs at forcing frequencies that match the natural frequencies of
your structure. Before obtaining the harmonic solution, you should first determine the natural frequencies
of your structure by obtaining a modal solution (as explained in Chapter 3, “Modal Analysis”).
4–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.5: How to Do Harmonic Response Analysis
Choose New Analysis. Restarts are not valid in a harmonic response analysis; if you need to apply additional
harmonic loads, do a new analysis each time.
• Option: Analysis Type: Harmonic Response (ANTYPE)
– Full method
– Reduced method
– Mode superposition method
This option determines how the harmonic displacement solution is listed in the printed output (Job-
name.OUT). You can choose between real and imaginary parts (default), and amplitudes and phase
angles.
• Option: Mass Matrix Formulation (LUMPM)
Use this option to specify the default formulation (which is element dependent) or lumped mass approx-
imation. We recommend the default formulation for most applications. However, for some problems in-
volving "skinny" structures such as slender beams or very thin shells, the lumped mass approximation
often yields better results. Also, the lumped mass approximation can result in a shorter run time and lower
memory requirements.
After you complete the fields on the Harmonic Analysis Options dialog box, click on OK to reach a second
Harmonic Analysis dialog box, where you choose an equation solver.
• Option: Equation Solver (EQSLV)
You can choose the frontal solver (default), the sparse direct solver (SPARSE), the Jacobi Conjugate
Gradient (JCG) solver, or the Incomplete Cholesky Conjugate Gradient (ICCG) solver. The frontal direct
solver or sparse direct solver is recommended for most structural models. When using a direct solver to
solve a relatively large problem, choose the sparse solver over the frontal solver.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–5
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
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The amplitude is the maximum value of the load, which you specify using the commands shown in Table 4.2: “
Applicable Loads in a Harmonic Response Analysis”.
The phase angle is a measure of the time by which the load lags (or leads) a frame of reference. On the complex
plane (see Figure 4.2: “Relationship Between Real/Imaginary Components and Amplitude/Phase Angle”), it is the
angle measured from the real axis. The phase angle is required only if you have multiple loads that are out of
phase with each other. For example, the unbalanced rotating antenna shown in Figure 4.3: “An Unbalanced
Rotating Antenna” will produce out-of-phase vertical loads at its four support points. The phase angle cannot
be specified directly; instead, you specify the real and imaginary components of the out-of-phase loads using
the VALUE and VALUE2 fields of the appropriate displacement and force commands. Pressures and other surface
and body loads can only be specified with a phase angle of 0 (no imaginary component) with the following ex-
ceptions: nonzero imaginary components of pressures can be applied using the SURF153 and SURF154 elements
in a full harmonic response analysis, or using a mode superposition harmonic response analysis if the mode-ex-
traction method is Block Lanczos (see the SF and SFE commands). Figure 4.2: “Relationship Between Real/Ima-
ginary Components and Amplitude/Phase Angle” shows how to calculate the real and imaginary components.
The forcing frequency range is the frequency range of the harmonic load (in cycles/time). It is specified later as a
load step option with the HARFRQ command.
4–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.5: How to Do Harmonic Response Analysis
!
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An unbalanced rotating antenna will produce out-of-phase vertical loads at its four support
points.
Note — A harmonic analysis cannot calculate the response to multiple forcing functions acting simultan-
eously with different frequencies (for example, two machines with different rotating speeds running at
the same time). However, POST1 can superimpose multiple load cases to obtain the total response.
Table 4.2: “ Applicable Loads in a Harmonic Response Analysis” summarizes the loads applicable to a to a har-
monic response analysis. Except for inertia loads, you can define loads either on the solid model (keypoints, lines,
and areas) or on the finite element model (nodes and elements). For a general discussion of solid-model loads
versus finite element loads, see Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–7
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
4–8 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.5: How to Do Harmonic Response Analysis
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–9
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
You can request any number of harmonic solutions to be calculated. The solutions (or substeps) will be
evenly spaced within the specified frequency range (HARFRQ). For example, if you specify 10 solutions
in the range 30 to 40 Hz, the program will calculate the response at 31, 32, 33, ..., 39, and 40 Hz. No response
is calculated at the lower end of the frequency range.
• Stepped or Ramped Loads (KBC)
The loads may be stepped or ramped. By default, they are ramped, that is, the load amplitude is gradually
increased with each substep. By stepping the loads (KBC,1), the same load amplitude will be maintained
for all substeps in the frequency range.
Note — Surface and body loads do not ramp from their previous load step values, except for those
applied to PLANE2, SOLID45, SOLID92, and SOLID95 element types. The remaining element types
always ramp from zero or from the value specified via BFUNIF.
The forcing frequency range must be defined (in cycles/time) for a harmonic analysis. Within this range,
you then specify the number of solutions to be calculated.
• Damping
Damping in some form should be specified; otherwise, the response will be infinity at the resonant fre-
quencies. ALPHAD and BETAD result in a frequency-dependent damping ratio, whereas DMPRAT specifies
a constant damping ratio to be used at all frequencies. Damping can also be specified for individual ma-
terials using MP,DAMP and MP,DMPR. See Section 5.10.3: Damping for further details.
Note — If no damping is specified in a direct harmonic analysis (full or reduced), the program uses
zero damping by default.
Use this option to include any results data on the output file (Jobname.OUT).
• Database and Results File Output (OUTRES)
4–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.5: How to Do Harmonic Response Analysis
Use this option to review element integration point results by copying them to the nodes instead of ex-
trapolating them (default).
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save as
4.5.4.1. Postprocessors
You can review these results using either POST26 or POST1. The normal procedure is to first use POST26 to
identify critical forcing frequencies - frequencies at which the highest displacements (or stresses) occur at points
of interest in the model - and to then use POST1 to postprocess the entire model at these critical forcing frequen-
cies.
• POST1 is used to review results over the entire model at specific frequencies.
• POST26 allows you to review results at specific points in the model over the entire frequency range.
Some typical postprocessing operations for a harmonic response analysis are explained below. For a complete
description of all postprocessing functions, see Chapter 4, “An Overview of Postprocessing” in the ANSYS Basic
Analysis Guide.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–11
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
Note — The NSOL command is for primary data (nodal displacements), the ESOL command for
derived data (element solution data, such as stresses), and the RFORCE command for reaction
force data. To specify the total force, static component of the total force, damping component,
or the inertia component, use the FORCE command.
2. Graph the variables (versus frequency or any other variable). Then use PLCPLX to work with just the
amplitude, phase angle, real part, or imaginary part.
Command(s): PLVAR, PLCPLX
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings> Graph
3. Get a listing of the variable. To list just the extreme values, use the EXTREM command. Then use the
PRCPLX command to work with amplitude and phase angle or real and imaginary part.
Command(s): PRVAR, EXTREM, PRCPLX
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Variables> List Extremes
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Extremes
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings> List
Many other functions, such as performing math operations among variables (in complex arithmetic), moving
variables into array parameters, moving array parameters into variables, etc., are available in POST26; see Chapter 6,
“The Time-History Postprocessor (POST26)” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
By reviewing the time-history results at strategic points throughout the model, you can identify the critical fre-
quencies for further POST1 postprocessing.
4–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.6: Sample Harmonic Response Analysis (GUI Method)
Use these options to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ...), strains (EPELX,
EPELY, EPELZ...), and displacements (UX, UY, UZ...).
The KUND field on PLNSOL and PLESOL gives you the option of overlaying the undeformed shape
on the display.
• Option: Vector Plots
Command(s): PLVECT
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Vector Plot> Predefined
Use PLNSOL or PLESOL to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ...), strains
(EPELX, EPELY, EPELZ...), and displacements (UX, UY, UZ...).
• Option: Tabular Listings
Command(s): PRNSOL (nodal results) PRESOL (element-by-element results) PRRSOL (reac-
tion data) etc. NSORT, ESORT
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Nodal Solution
Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Element Solution
Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Reaction Solution
Use the NSORT and ESORT commands to sort the data before listing them.
Many other functions, such as mapping results on to a path, transforming results to different coordinate systems,
load case combinations, etc., are available in POST1; see Chapter 3, “Solution” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide
for details.
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, HROPT, HROUT, HARFRQ, DMPRAT,
NSUBST, KBC, NSOL, ESOL, RFORCE, PLCPLX, PLVAR, PRCPLX, PRVAR, PLDISP, PRRSOL, and PLNSOL com-
mands.
m1 = m2 = 0.5 lb-sec2/in
k1 = k2 = kc = 200 lb/in
F1 = 200 lb
The spring lengths are arbitrarily selected and are used only to define the spring direction. Two master degrees
of freedom are selected at the masses in the spring direction. A frequency range from zero to 7.5 Hz with a
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–13
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
solution at 7.5/30 = 0.25 Hz intervals is chosen to give an adequate response curve. POST26 is used to get an
amplitude versus frequency display.
4–14 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.6: Sample Harmonic Response Analysis (GUI Method)
6. Scroll up the list on the left to "Structural Mass" and select it.
7. Click once on "3D mass 21" in the list on the right.
8. Click on OK. The Library of Element Types dialog box closes.
9. Click on Close in the Element Types dialog box.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 4–15
Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
4.6.3.7. Specify the Analysis Type, MDOF, and Load Step Specifications
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis.
2. Click once on "Harmonic" and click on OK.
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options.
4. Click once on "Full" to select the solution method.
5. Click once on "Amplitud + phase" to select the DOF printout format and click on OK.
6. Click OK in the Full Harmonic Analysis dialog box.
7. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout.
8. Click on "Last substep" to set the print frequency and click on OK.
9. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Freq and Substeps.
10. Enter 0 and 7.5 for the harmonic frequency range.
11. Enter 30 for the number of substeps.
12. Click once on "Stepped" to specify stepped boundary conditions.
13. Click on OK.
4–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 4.6: Sample Harmonic Response Analysis (GUI Method)
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables. The Defined Time-History
Variables dialog box appears.
2. Click on Add. The Add Time-History Variable dialog box appears.
3. Click on OK to accept the default of Nodal DOF result. The Define Nodal Data dialog box appears.
4. Enter 2 for reference number of variable.
5. Enter 2 for node number.
6. Enter 2UX for the user-specified label.
7. In the scroll box on the right, click once on "Translation UX" to highlight it.
8. Click on OK.
9. Click on Add in the Defined Time-History Variables dialog box. The Add Time-History Variable dialog box
appears.
10. Click on OK to accept the default of Nodal DOF result. The Define Nodal Data dialog box appears.
11. Enter 3 for reference number of variable.
12. Enter 3 for node number.
13. Enter 3UX for the user-specified label.
14. In the scroll box on the right, click once on "Translation UX" to highlight it.
15. Click on OK.
16. Click on Close.
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
17. Choose menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Graphs. The Graph Controls dialog box appears.
18. In the scroll box for type of grid, scroll to "X and Y lines" to select it.
19. Click on OK.
20. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables. The Graph Time-History Variables
dialog box appears. Your graph should look like this:
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Section 4.8: Where to Find Other Examples
ET,2,MASS21,,,4
R,1,200 ! Spring constant = 200
R,2,.5 ! Mass = 0.5
N,1
N,4,1
FILL
E,1,2
E,2,3 ! Spring element
E,3,4 ! Spring element
TYPE,2
REAL,2
E,2 ! Mass element
E,3 ! Mass element
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,HARMIC ! Harmonic response analysis
HROPT,FULL ! Full harmonic response
HROUT,OFF ! Print results as amplitudes and phase angles
OUTPR,BASIC,1
NSUBST,30 ! 30 Intervals within freq. range
HARFRQ,,7.5 ! Frequency range from 0 to 7.5 HZ
KBC,1 ! Step boundary condition
D,1,UY,,,4 ! Constrain all 44 DOF
D,1,UX,,,4,3 ! Constrain nodes 1 and 4 in UX
F,2,FX,200
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST26
NSOL,2,2,U,X,2UX ! Store UX Displacements
NSOL,3,3,U,X,3UX
/GRID,1 ! Turn grid on
/AXLAB,Y,DISP ! Y-axis label disp
PLVAR,2,3 ! Display variables 2 and 3
FINISH
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
family of products. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verific-
ation Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes a variety of harmonic analysis test cases:
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
Of these, the first step is the same as for the full method. Details of the other steps are explained below.
3. Define master degrees of freedom. Master DOF are essential or dynamic degrees of freedom that char-
acterize the dynamic behavior of the structure. For a reduced harmonic response dynamic analysis,
master DOF are also required at locations where you want to apply forces or nonzero displacements.
See Section 3.14: Matrix Reduction for guidelines to choose master DOF.
4. Apply loads on the model. Harmonic loading is the same as described for the full method, except for the
following restrictions:
• Only displacements and forces are valid. Element loads such as pressures, temperatures, and accel-
erations are not allowed.
• Forces and nonzero displacements must be applied only at master DOF.
5. Specify load step options. These are the same as described for the full method except that the OUTRES
and ERESX commands are not available, and the constant material damping coefficient (MP,DMPR) is
not applicable for the reduced method. The OUTPR command controls the printout of the nodal solution
at the master DOF (OUTPR,NSOL,ALL (or NONE)).
6. Save a copy of the database.
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save as
7. Start solution calculations.
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Section 4.9: Reduced Harmonic Response Analysis
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 for any additional loads and frequency ranges (that is, for additional load steps).
If you plan to do time-history postprocessing (POST26), the frequency ranges should not overlap from
one load step to the next. Another method for multiple load steps, which allows you to store the load
steps on files and then solve them at once using a macro, is described in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
9. Leave SOLUTION.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
The procedure to use POST26 is the same as described for the full method, except for the following differences:
• Before defining the POST26 variables, use the FILE command to specify that data are to be read from
Jobname.RFRQ. For example, if HARMONIC is the jobname, the FILE command would be: FILE,HARMON-
IC,RFRQ. (By default, POST26 looks for a results file, which is not written by a reduced harmonic solution.)
• Only nodal degree of freedom data (at master DOF) are available for processing, so you can use only the
NSOL command to define variables.
An expansion pass is not always required. For instance, if you are interested mainly in displacements at specific
points on the structure, then the reduced solution could satisfy your requirements. However, if you want to de-
termine displacements at non-master DOF, or if you are interested in the stress solution, then you must perform
an expansion pass.
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
Note — You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU)
before performing the expansion pass.
2. Activate the expansion pass and its options. ANSYS offers these options for the expansion pass:
Choose ON.
• Option: Number of Solutions to Expand (NUMEXP,NUM)
Specify the number. This number of evenly spaced solutions will be expanded over a frequency range
(specified next). For example, NUMEXP,4,1000,2000 specifies four solutions in the frequency range
1000 to 2000 (that is, expanded solutions at 1250, 1500, 1750, and 2000).
• Option: Frequency Range for Expansion (NUMEXP, BEGRNG, ENDRNG)
Specify the frequency range. See the example above. If you do not need to expand multiple solutions,
you can use EXPSOL to identify a single solution for expansion (either by its load step and substep
numbers or by its frequency value).
• Option: Phase Angle for Expansion (HREXP)
If multiple solutions are to be expanded over a frequency range (NUMEXP), we suggest that you re-
quest both the real and imaginary parts to be expanded (HREXP,ALL). This way, you can easily
combine the two parts in POST26 to review the peak values of displacements, stresses, and other
results.
If, on the other hand, a single solution is to be expanded (EXPSOL), you can specify the phase angle
at which peak displacements occurred using HREXP,angle.
• Option: Stress Calculations On/Off (NUMEXP or EXPSOL)
You can turn off stress and force calculations if you are not interested in them. Default is to calculate
stresses and forces.
• Option: Nodal Solution Listing Format (HROUT)
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Section 4.9: Reduced Harmonic Response Analysis
Determines how the harmonic displacement solution is listed in the printed output (Jobname.OUT).
You can choose between real and imaginary parts (default), and amplitudes and phase angles.
3. Specify load step options. The only options valid for a harmonic expansion pass are output controls:
• Printed Output
Use this option to include any results data on the printed output file (Jobname.OUT).
Command(s): OUTPR
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout
• Database and Results File Output
Use this option to control the data on the results file (Jobname.RST).
Command(s): OUTRES
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/Results File
• Extrapolation of Results
Use this option to review element integration point results by copying them to the nodes instead of
extrapolating them (default).
Note — The FREQ field on OUTPR and OUTRES can be only ALL or NONE.
Command(s): ERESX
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Integration Pt
Caution: Subsequent spectrum analyses expect all expanded modes to be in one load step.
The procedure to use POST1 (or POST26) is the same as described for the full method, except for one difference:
if you requested expansion at a specific phase angle (HREXP,angle), there is only one solution available for each
frequency. Use the SET command to read in the results.
See Section 2.3.6: Review the Results in Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”.
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, HROPT, HROUT, M, TOTAL, HARFRQ,
DMPRAT, NSUBST, KBC, FILE, NSOL, PLCPLX, PLVAR, PRCPLX, PRVAR, EXPASS, EXPSOL, HREXP, PLDISP,
PRRSOL, and PLNSOL commands.
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Section 4.10: Mode Superposition Harmonic Response Analysis
Of these, the first step is the same as described for the full method. The remaining steps are described below.
• The mode-extraction method should be Block Lanczos (default), subspace, reduced, PowerDynamics, or
QR damped. (The other methods, unsymmetric and damped, do not apply to mode superposition.)
• Be sure to extract all modes that may contribute to the harmonic response.
• If PowerDynamics was used for the modal solution, no nonzero loads or displacements are allowed (that
is, only u = 0 is valid as the initial condition). PowerDynamics does not create a load vector; therefore, the
LVSCALE command is not valid unless the scale factor is set to zero.
• For the reduced mode-extraction method, include those master degrees of freedom at which harmonic
loads will be applied.
• If you use the QR damped mode-extraction method, you must specify any damping (ALPHAD, BETAD,
MP,DAMP, or element damping including gyroscopic) that you want to include during preprocessing or
in the modal analysis. (ANSYS ignores damping specified during the mode superposition harmonic ana-
lysis.) You can set a constant damping ratio (DMPRAT), define constant material damping coefficients
(MP,DMPR), or define the damping ratio as a function of mode (MDAMP) in a modal superposition har-
monic analysis.
• If you need to apply harmonically varying element loads (pressures, temperatures, accelerations, and so
on), specify them in the modal analysis. ANSYS ignores the loads for the modal solution, but calculates a
load vector and writes it to the mode shape file (Jobname.MODE). You can then use the load vector for
the harmonic solution. The imaginary component of the load vector calculated from element loads will
always be zero with only one exception: in a full harmonic response analysis or a mode superposition
harmonic response analysis with the Block Lanczos mode-extraction method, you can apply imaginary
pressures via SURF153 or SURF154.
• The modes need not be expanded for the mode superposition solution. (If you want to review mode
shapes, however, you must expand the mode shapes.)
• Do not change the model data (for example, nodal rotations) between the modal and harmonic analyses.
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
method using the default mass formulation (not the lumped mass approximation), the full file (Jobname.FULL)
must also be available. The following tasks are involved:
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define the analysis type and analysis options. These are the same as described for the full method, except
for the following differences:
3. Apply loads on the model. Harmonic loading is the same as described for the full method, except for the
following restrictions:
• Only forces, accelerations, and the load vector created in the modal analysis are valid. Use the LVSCALE
command to apply the load vector from the modal solution. Note that ALL loads from the modal
analysis are scaled, including forces and accelerations. To avoid load duplication, delete any loads
that were applied in the modal analysis.
• If mode shapes from a reduced modal solution are being used, forces may be applied only at master
DOF.
4. Specify load step options. These are the same as described for the reduced method except that you can
also specify modal damping (MDAMP). In addition, if the QR damped method is specified, constant
material damping coefficients (MP,DMPR) can be defined.
The NSUBST command specifies the number of solutions on each side of a natural frequency if the
clustering option (HROUT) is chosen. The default is to calculate four solutions, but you can specify any
number of solutions from 2 through 20. (Any value over this range defaults to 10 and any value below
this range defaults to 4.)
5. If you used either the Block Lanczos (default) or the subspace option for the modal analysis (MOD-
OPT,LANB or SUBSP), you may use a nodal component with the OUTRES,NSOL command to limit the
displacement data written to the reduced displacement file Jobname.RFRQ. The expansion pass will
only produce valid results for those nodes and for those elements in which all of the nodes of the elements
have been written to the .RFRQ file. To use this option, first suppress all writing by invoking
OUTRES,NSOL,NONE, then specify the item(s) of interest by invoking OUTRES,NSOL,ALL,component.
Repeat the OUTRES command for any additional nodal components that you want to write to the .RFRQ
file.
6. Save a copy of the database.
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save as
7. Start solution calculations.
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Section 4.10: Mode Superposition Harmonic Response Analysis
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
8. Repeat steps 3 to 7 for any additional loads and frequency ranges (that is, for additional load steps). If
you plan to do time-history postprocessing (POST26), the frequency ranges should not overlap from one
load step to the next.
9. Leave SOLUTION.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
The mode superposition harmonic solution is written to the reduced displacement file, Jobname.RFRQ, regardless
of whether the subspace, Block Lanczos, reduced, PowerDynamics, or QR damped method was used for the modal
solution. You will therefore need to expand the solution if you are interested in stress results.
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Chapter 4: Harmonic Response Analysis
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, MODOPT, M, TOTAL, HROPT, HROUT,
LVSCALE, F, HARFRQ, DMPRAT, MDAMP, NSUBST, KBC, FILE, NSOL, PLCPLX, PLVAR, EXPASS, EXPSOL,
HREXP, SET, and PLNSOL commands.
1. Build the model and obtain a static solution with prestress effects turned on (PSTRES,ON). The procedure
to obtain the static solution is explained in Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”.
2. Reenter SOLUTION and obtain the full harmonic solution, also with prestress effects turned on (reissue
PSTRES,ON). Files Jobname.EMAT and Jobname.ESAV from the static analysis must be available.
If thermal body forces were present during the static prestress analysis, these thermal body forces must
not be deleted during the full harmonic analysis or else the thermal prestress will vanish. Hence, any
temperature loads used to define the thermal prestress must also be used in the full harmonic response
analysis as sinusoidally time-varying temperature loads. You should be aware of this limitation and exercise
some judgement about whether or not to include temperature loads in their static prestress analysis.
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Section 4.11: Other Analysis Details
1. Build the model and obtain a static solution with prestress effects turned on (PSTRES,ON). The procedure
to obtain the static solution is explained in Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”.
2. Reenter SOLUTION and obtain the reduced harmonic solution, also with prestress effects turned on (re-
issue PSTRES,ON). Files Jobname.EMAT and Jobname.ESAV from the static analysis must be available.
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4–30
Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
5.1. Definition of Transient Dynamic Analysis
Transient dynamic analysis (sometimes called time-history analysis) is a technique used to determine the dynamic
response of a structure under the action of any general time-dependent loads. You can use this type of analysis
to determine the time-varying displacements, strains, stresses, and forces in a structure as it responds to any
combination of static, transient, and harmonic loads. The time scale of the loading is such that the inertia or
damping effects are considered to be important. If the inertia and damping effects are not important, you might
be able to use a static analysis instead (see Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”).
where:
At any given time, t, these equations can be thought of as a set of "static" equilibrium equations that also take
&& }) and damping forces ((C){ u& }). The ANSYS program uses the Newmark time
into account inertia forces ((M){ u
integration method or an improved method called HHT to solve these equations at discrete time points. The
time increment between successive time points is called the integration time step.
1. Analyze a simpler model first. A model of beams, masses, and springs can provide good insight into the
problem at minimal cost. This simpler model may be all you need to determine the dynamic response
of the structure.
2. If you are including nonlinearities, try to understand how they affect the structure's response by doing
a static analysis first. In some cases, nonlinearities need not be included in the dynamic analysis.
3. Understand the dynamics of the problem. By doing a modal analysis, which calculates the natural fre-
quencies and mode shapes, you can learn how the structure responds when those modes are excited.
The natural frequencies are also useful for calculating the correct integration time step.
4. For a nonlinear problem, consider substructuring the linear portions of the model to reduce analysis
costs. Substructuring is described in the ANSYS Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
Note — If you do not want to include any nonlinearities, you should consider using one of the other
methods because the full method is also the most expensive method of the three.
• It is easy to use, because you do not have to worry about choosing master degrees of freedom or mode
shapes.
• It allows all types of nonlinearities.
• It uses full matrices, so no mass matrix approximation is involved.
• All displacements and stresses are calculated in a single pass.
• It accepts all types of loads: nodal forces, imposed (nonzero) displacements (although not recommended),
and element loads (pressures and temperatures) and allows tabular boundary condition specification via
TABLE type array parameters.
• It allows effective use of solid-model loads.
The main disadvantage of the full method is that it is more expensive than either of the other methods.
For procedural information about using the full method, see Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic
Analysis.
• It is faster and less expensive than the reduced or the full method for many problems.
• Element loads applied in the preceding modal analysis can be applied in the transient dynamic analysis
via the LVSCALE command, unless the modal analysis was done using PowerDynamics.
• It accepts modal damping (damping ratio as a function of mode number).
• The time step must remain constant throughout the transient, so automatic time stepping is not allowed.
• The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap condition).
• It does not accept imposed (nonzero) displacements.
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Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic Analysis
For procedural information about using the mode superposition method, see Section 5.5: Performing a Mode
Superposition Transient Dynamic Analysis.
• The initial solution calculates only the displacements at the master DOF. A second step, known as the
expansion pass, is required for a complete displacement, stress, and force solution. (However, the expansion
pass might not be needed for some applications.)
• Element loads (pressures, temperatures, and so on) cannot be applied. Accelerations, however, are allowed.
• All loads must be applied at user-defined master degrees of freedom. (This limits the use of solid-model
loads.)
• The time step must remain constant throughout the transient, so automatic time stepping is not allowed.
• The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap condition).
For procedural information about using the reduced method, see Section 5.6: Performing a Reduced Transient
Dynamic Analysis.
We will first describe how to do a transient dynamic analysis using the full method. We will then list the steps
that are different for the mode superposition and reduced methods.
The procedure for a full transient dynamic analysis (available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, and
ANSYS Structural products) consists of these steps:
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
• The mesh should be fine enough to resolve the highest mode shape of interest.
• Regions where stresses or strains are of interest require a relatively finer mesh than regions where only
displacements are of interest.
• If you want to include nonlinearities, the mesh should be able to capture the effects of the nonlinearities.
For example, plasticity requires a reasonable integration point density (and therefore a fine element mesh)
in areas with high plastic deformation gradients.
• If you are interested in wave propagation effects (for example, a bar dropped exactly on its end), the mesh
should be fine enough to resolve the wave. A general guideline is to have at least 20 elements per
wavelength along the direction of the wave.
A transient analysis, by definition, involves loads that are functions of time. To specify such loads, you need to
divide the load-versus-time curve into suitable load steps. Each "corner" on the load-time curve may be one load
step, as shown in Figure 5.1: “Examples of Load-Versus-Time Curves”.
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Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic Analysis
The first load step you apply is usually to establish initial conditions. You then specify the loads and load step
options for the second and subsequent transient load steps. For each load step, you need to specify both load
values and time values, along with other load step options such as whether to step or ramp the loads, use
automatic time stepping, and so on. You then write each load step to a file and solve all load steps together. Es-
tablishing initial conditions is described below; the remaining tasks are described later in this chapter.
The first step in applying transient loads is to establish initial conditions (that is, the condition at Time = 0). A
transient dynamic analysis requires two sets of initial conditions (because the equations being solved are of
u& u&
second order): initial displacement (uo) and initial velocity ( o ). If no special action is taken, both uo and o are
&&
u
assumed to be zero. Initial accelerations ( o ) are always assumed to be zero, but you can specify nonzero initial
accelerations by applying appropriate acceleration loads over a small time interval.
The following paragraphs describe how to apply different combinations of initial conditions.
u&
Zero initial displacement and zero initial velocity - These are the default conditions, that is, if uo = o = 0, you do
not need to specify anything. You may apply the loads corresponding to the first corner of the load-versus-time
curve in the first load step.
Nonzero initial displacement and/or nonzero initial velocity - You can set these initial conditions with the IC com-
mand.
Command(s): IC
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Initial Condit'n> Define
Caution: Be careful not to define inconsistent initial conditions. For instance, if you define an initial ve-
locity at a single DOF, the initial velocity at every other DOF will be 0.0, potentially leading to conflicting
initial conditions. In most cases, you will want to define initial conditions at every unconstrained DOF in
your model. If these conditions are not the same at every DOF, it is usually much easier to define initial
conditions explicitly, as documented below (rather than by using the IC command).
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the TIMINT and IC commands.
Zero initial displacement and nonzero initial velocity - The nonzero velocity is established by applying small dis-
placements over a small time interval on the part of the structure where velocity is to be specified. For example
if
u& o = 0.25, you can apply a displacement of 0.001 over a time interval of 0.004, as shown below.
...
TIMINT,OFF ! Time integration effects off
D,ALL,UY,.001 ! Small UY displ. (assuming Y-direction velocity)
TIME,.004 ! Initial velocity = 0.001/0.004 = 0.25
LSWRITE ! Write load data to load step file (Jobname.S01)
DDEL,ALL,UY ! Remove imposed displacements
TIMINT,ON ! Time integration effects on
...
Nonzero initial displacement and nonzero initial velocity - This is similar to the above case, except that the imposed
displacements are actual values instead of "small" values. For example, if uo = 1.0 and
u& o = 2.5, you would apply
a displacement of 1.0 over a time interval of 0.4:
...
TIMINT,OFF ! Time integration effects off
D,ALL,UY,1.0 ! Initial displacement = 1.0
TIME,.4 ! Initial velocity = 1.0/0.4 = 2.5
LSWRITE ! Write load data to load step file (Jobname.S01)
DDELE,ALL,UY ! Remove imposed displacements
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Nonzero initial displacement and zero initial velocity - This requires the use of two substeps (NSUBST,2) with a step
change in imposed displacements (KBC,1). Without the step change (or with just one substep), the imposed
displacements would vary directly with time, leading to a nonzero initial velocity. The example below shows how
u&
to apply uo = 1.0 and o = 0.0:
...
TIMINT,OFF ! Time integration effects off for static solution
D,ALL,UY,1.0 ! Initial displacement = 1.0
TIME,.001 ! Small time interval
NSUBST,2 ! Two substeps
KBC,1 ! Stepped loads
LSWRITE ! Write load data to load step file (Jobname.S01)
! Transient solution
TIMINT,ON ! Time-integration effects on for transient solution
TIME,... ! Realistic time interval
DDELE,ALL,UY ! Remove displacement constraints
KBC,0 ! Ramped loads (if appropriate)
! Continue with normal transient solution procedures
...
Nonzero initial acceleration - This can be approximated by specifying the required acceleration (ACEL) over a
small interval of time. For example, the commands to apply an initial acceleration of 9.81 would look like this:
...
ACEL,,9.81 ! Initial Y-direction acceleration
TIME,.001 ! Small time interval
NSUBST,2 ! Two substeps
KBC,1 ! Stepped loads
! The structure must be unconstrained in the initial load step, or
! else the initial acceleration specification will have no effect.
DDELE, ... ! Remove displacement constraints (if appropriate)
LSWRITE ! Write load data to load step file (Jobname.S01)
! Transient solution
TIME, ... ! Realistic time interval
NSUBST, ... ! Use appropriate time step
KBC,0 ! Ramped loads (if appropriate)
D, ... ! Constrain structure as desired
! Continue with normal transient solution procedures
LSWRITE ! Write load data to load step file (Jobname.S02)
...
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for discussions of the ACEL, TIME, NSUBST, KBC, LSWRITE, DDELE, and
KBC commands.
If you need to establish initial conditions for the full transient dynamic analysis (as described in Section 5.4.2:
Establish Initial Conditions), you must do so for the first load step of the analysis. You can then cycle through the
Solution Controls dialog box additional times to set individual load step options for the second and subsequent
load steps (as described in Section 5.4.7: Repeat Steps 3-6 for Each Load Step).
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Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic Analysis
box. For details about how to set these options, select the tab that you are interested in (from within the ANSYS program),
and then click the Help button. Chapter 8, “Nonlinear Structural Analysis” also contains details about the nonlinear
options introduced in this chapter.
The controls that appear on the Basic tab provide the minimum amount of data that ANSYS needs for the ana-
lysis. Once you are satisfied with the settings on the Basic tab, you do not need to progress through the remaining
tabs unless you want to adjust the default settings for the more advanced controls. As soon as you click OK on
any tab of the dialog box, the settings are applied to the ANSYS database and the dialog box closes.
You can use the Basic tab to set the options listed in Table 2.1: “Basic Tab Options”. For specific information
about using the Solution Controls dialog box to set these options, access the dialog box, select the Basic tab,
and click the Help button.
Special considerations for setting these options in a full transient analysis include:
• When setting ANTYPE and NLGEOM, choose Small Displacement Transient if you are performing a
new analysis and you want to ignore large deformation effects such as large deflection, large rotation,
and large strain. Choose Large Displacement Transient if you expect large deflections (as in the case of
a long, slender bar under bending) or large strains (as in a metal-forming problem). Choose Restart Current
Analysis if you want to restart a failed nonlinear analysis, or you have previously completed a static
prestress or a full transient dynamic analysis, and you want to extend the time-history.
• When setting AUTOTS, remember that this load step option (which is also known as time-step optimization
in a transient analysis) increases or decreases the integration time step based on the response of the
structure. For most problems, we recommend that you turn on automatic time stepping, with upper and
lower limits for the integration time step. These limits, specified using DELTIM or NSUBST, help to limit
the range of variation of the time step; see Section 5.10.2: Automatic Time Stepping for more information.
The default is ON.
• NSUBST and DELTIM are load step options that specify the integration time step for a transient analysis.
The integration time step is the time increment used in the time integration of the equations of motion.
You can specify the time increment directly or indirectly (that is, in terms of the number of substeps). The
time step size determines the accuracy of the solution: the smaller its value, the higher the accuracy. You
should consider several factors in order to calculate a "good" integration time step; see Section 5.10.1:
Guidelines for Integration Time Step for details.
• When setting OUTRES, keep this caution in mind:
Caution: By default, only the last substep (time-point) is written to the results file (Jobname.RST)
in a full transient dynamic analysis. To write all substeps, set the Frequency so that it writes all of
the substeps. Also, by default, only 1000 results sets can be written to the results file. If this number
is exceeded (based on your OUTRES specification), the program will terminate with an error. Use
the command /CONFIG,NRES to increase the limit (see Chapter 19, “Memory Management and
Configuration” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide).
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
Specify whether to ramp the load change • Section 2.5: Stepped Versus Ramped Loads in the
over the load step or to step-apply the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide
load change (KBC) • Section 2.7.1.5: Stepping or Ramping Loads in the
ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide
Specify mass and stiffness damping (AL- • Section 5.10.3: Damping in the ANSYS Structural
PHAD, BETAD) Analysis Guide
Choose the time integration method, • Section 17.2: Transient Analysis in the ANSYS, Inc.
Newmark or HHT (TRNOPT) Theory Reference
Special considerations for setting these options in a full transient analysis include:
• TIMINT is a dynamic load step option that specifies whether time integration effects are on or off. Time
integration effects must be turned on for inertia and damping effects to be included in the analysis (oth-
erwise a static solution is performed), so the default is to include time integration effects. This option is
useful when beginning a transient analysis from an initial static solution; that is, the first load steps are
solved with the time integration effects off.
• ALPHAD (alpha, or mass, damping) and BETAD (beta, or stiffness, damping) are dynamic load step options
for specifying damping options. Damping in some form is present in most structures and should be included
in your analysis. See Section 5.4.4.2: Damping Option for other damping options.
• TRNOPT (TINTOPT) specifies the time integration method to be used. The default is Newmark method.
• TINTP is a dynamic load step option that specifies transient integration parameters. Transient integration
parameters control the nature of the Newmark and HHT time integration techniques.
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Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic Analysis
Additional solution options for a full transient analysis that differ from those for a static analysis, or have different
descriptions are presented in the following sections.
Note that constant material damping coefficient (MP,DMPR) is not applicable in transient analysis. See Sec-
tion 5.10.3: Damping for further details.
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Apply the Loads describes the types of loads that are applicable. In an analysis, loads can be applied, removed,
operated on, or deleted. For a general discussion of solid-model loads versus finite-element loads, see Chapter 2,
“Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
You can also apply time-dependent boundary conditions by defining a one-dimensional table (TABLE type array
parameter). See Section 2.3.4.2.1: Applying Loads Using TABLE Type Array Parameters.
5.4.6. Save the Load Configuration for the Current Load Step
As described in Section 5.4.2: Establish Initial Conditions, you need to apply loads and save the load configuration
to a load step file for each corner of the load-versus-time curve. You may also want to have an additional load
step that extends past the last time point on the curve to capture the response of the structure after the transient
loading.
Command(s): LSWRITE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Write LS File
For each load step, you can reset any of these load step options: TIMINT, TINTP, ALPHAD, BETAD, MP,DAMP,
TIME, KBC, NSUBST, DELTIM, AUTOTS, NEQIT, CNVTOL, PRED, LNSRCH, CRPLIM, NCNV, CUTCONTROL,
OUTPR, OUTRES, ERESX, and RESCONTROL.
For additional ways to create and solve multiple load steps (the array parameter method and the multiple SOLVE
method), see Section 3.14: Solving Multiple Load Steps in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Section 5.4: Performing a Full Transient Dynamic Analysis
5.4.11.1. Postprocessors
You can review these results using either POST26, which is the time-history postprocessor, or POST1, which is
the general postprocessor.
• POST26 is used to review results at specific points in the model as functions of time.
• POST1 is used to review results over the entire model at specific time points.
Some typical postprocessing operations for a transient dynamic analysis are explained below. For a complete
description of all postprocessing functions, see Section 4.1: What Is Postprocessing? in the ANSYS Basic Analysis
Guide.
Note — In the mode superposition or reduced methods, only static force is available with the
FORCE command.
2. Graph or list the variables. By reviewing the time-history results at strategic points throughout the
model, you can identify the critical time points for further POST1 postprocessing.
Command(s): PLVAR (graph variables) PRVAR, EXTREM (list variables)
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Variables
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Extremes
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
Note — If you specify a time for which no results are available, the results that are stored will be
a linear interpolation between the two nearest time points.
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Section 5.5: Performing a Mode Superposition Transient Dynamic Analysis
/POST1
SET,... ! Read desired set of results into database
PLDISP,... ! Deformed shape
PRRSOL,... ! Reaction loads
PLNSOL,... ! Contour plot of nodal results
PRERR ! Global percent error (a measure of mesh adequacy)
---
---! Other postprocessing as desired
---
FINISH
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for discussions of the ANTYPE, TRNOPT, ALPHAD, BETAD, KBC, TIME,
AUTOTS, DELTIM, OUTRES, LSWRITE, LSSOLVE, SOLU, NSOL, ESOL, RFORCE, PLVAR, PRVAR, PLDISP, PRRSOL,
PLNSOL, and PRERR commands.
• The mode-extraction method should be Block Lanczos (default), reduced, subspace, PowerDynamics, or
QR damped. (The other methods, unsymmetric and damped, do not apply to mode superposition.)
PowerDynamics does not create a load vector.
• Be sure to extract all modes that may contribute to the dynamic response.
• If PowerDynamics was used for the modal solution, no nonzero loads or displacements are allowed (that
is, only u = 0 is valid as the initial condition). PowerDynamics does not create a load vector; therefore, the
LVSCALE command is not valid unless the scale factor is set to zero.
• For the reduced mode-extraction method, include those master degrees of freedom at those nodes at
which forces and gap conditions are to be defined.
• If you use the QR damped mode-extraction method, you must specify any damping (ALPHAD, BETAD,
MP,DAMP, or element damping including gyroscopic) that you want to include during preprocessing or
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
in the modal analysis. (ANSYS ignores damping specified during the mode superposition harmonic ana-
lysis.) You can set a constant damping ratio (DMPRAT) or define the damping ratio as a function of mode
(MDAMP) in a modal superposition harmonic analysis. Note that constant material damping coefficient
(MP,DMPR) is not applicable in transient analysis.
• Specify displacement constraints, if any. These constraints will be ignored if they are specified in the mode
superposition transient solution instead of in the modal solution.
• If you need to apply element loads (pressures, temperatures, accelerations, and so on) in the transient
dynamic analysis, you must specify them in the modal analysis. The loads are ignored for the modal
solution, but a load vector will be calculated and written to the mode shape file (Jobname.MODE). You
can then use this load vector for the transient solution.
• The modes need not be expanded for the mode superposition solution. (If you want to review mode
shapes from a reduced modal solution, however, you must expand the mode shapes.)
• The model data (for example, nodal rotations) should not be changed between the modal and transient
analyses.
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define the analysis type and analysis options. These are the same as the analysis options that are described
for the full method (in Section 5.4.3: Set Solution Controls and Section 5.4.4: Set Additional Solution
Options), except for the following differences:
• You cannot use the Solution Controls dialog box to define analysis type and analysis options for a
mode superposition transient analysis. Instead, you must set them using the standard set of ANSYS
solution commands (which are listed in Section 5.4.3: Set Solution Controls and Section 5.4.4: Set
Additional Solution Options) and the standard corresponding menu paths.
• Restarts are not available (ANTYPE).
• Choose the mode superposition method of solution (TRNOPT).
• When you specify a mode superposition transient analysis, a Solution menu that is appropriate for
that specific type of analysis appears. The Solution menu will be either “abridged” or “unabridged,”
depending on the actions you took prior to this step in your ANSYS session. The abridged menu
contains only those solution options that are valid and/or recommended for mode superposition
transient analyses. If you are on the abridged Solution menu and you want to access other solution
options (that is, solution options that are valid for you to use, but their use may not be encouraged
for this type of analysis), select the Unabridged Menu option from the Solution menu. For details,
see Section 3.11.1: Using Abridged Solution Menus in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Section 5.5: Performing a Mode Superposition Transient Dynamic Analysis
• Specify the number of modes you want to use for the solution (TRNOPT). This determines the accuracy
of the transient solution. At a minimum, you should use all modes that you think will contribute to
the dynamic response. If you expect higher frequencies to be excited, for example, the number of
modes specified should include the higher modes. The default is to use all modes calculated in the
modal solution.
• If you do not want to use rigid body (0 frequency) modes, use MINMODE on the TRNOPT command
to skip over them.
• Nonlinear options (NLGEOM, SSTIF, NROPT) are not available.
3. Define gap conditions, if any. They can only be defined between two master degree of freedom (DOF)
nodes or between master DOF nodes and ground. When a non-reduced mode-extraction method is
used, a master DOF implies an unconstrained, active DOF. If you used the QR damped mode-extraction
method, gap conditions are not supported. More details about gap conditions are presented in Sec-
tion 5.6.1.3.1: Gap Conditions.
Command(s): GP
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Dynamic Gap Cond> Define
4. Apply loads to the model. The following loading restrictions apply in a mode superposition transient
dynamic analysis:
• Only forces, accelerations, and a load vector created in the modal analysis are valid. Imposed nonzero
displacements are ignored. Use the LVSCALE command (Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads>
Apply> Load Vector> For Mode Super) to apply the load vector from the modal solution.
• If mode shapes from a reduced modal solution are being used, forces may be applied only at master
DOF.
Multiple load steps are usually required to specify the load history in a transient analysis. The first load
step is used to establish initial conditions, and second and subsequent load steps are used for the tran-
sient loading, as explained next.
5. Establish initial conditions. In modal superposition transient analyses, a first solution is done at TIME =
0. This establishes the initial condition and time step size for the entire transient analysis. Generally, the
only load applicable for the first load step is initializing nodal forces. For this pseudo-static analysis, the
mode superposition method may yield poor results at TIME = 0 if nonzero loads are applied.
The following load step options are available for the first load step:
Table 5.2 Options for the First Load Step-Mode Superposition Analysis
Option Command GUI Path
Dynamics Options
Transient Integration Paramet- TINTP Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Fre-
ers quenc> Time Integration
Load Vector LVSCALE Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Load
Vector> For Mode Super
Damping ALPHAD, Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Fre-
BETAD, DM- quenc> Damping
PRAT, MP, Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other>
MDAMP Change Mat Props> Material Models> Structural>
Damping
General Options
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Transient integration parameters control the nature of the Newmark time integration technique.
The default is to use the constant average acceleration scheme; see your ANSYS, Inc. Theory Refer-
ence for further details.
– Load Vector (LVSCALE)
The load vector option allows you to apply a load vector created by the modal solution as one
of the loads. You can use such a load vector to apply element loads (pressures, temperatures,
and so on) on the model.
– Damping
Damping in some form is present in most structures and should be included in your analysis. You
can specify five forms of damping in a mode superposition transient dynamic analysis:
Remember that, as described earlier in Section 5.5.2: Obtain the Modal Solution, any damping
that you specify in the mode superposition transient analysis is ignored if you used the QR
damped mode-extraction method. Constant material damping coefficient (MP,DMPR) is not
applicable in transient analysis. See Section 5.10.3: Damping for further details.
• The only valid general option for the first load step is integration time step (DELTIM), which is assumed
to be constant throughout the transient. By default, the integration time step is assumed to be 1/(20f),
where f is the highest frequency chosen for the solution. The DELTIM command is valid only in the
first load step and is ignored in subsequent load steps.
Note — If you do issue the TIME command in the first load step, it will be ignored. The first
solution is always a static solution at TIME = 0.
• The output control option for the first load step is printed output (OUTPR). Use this option to control
printout of the displacement solution at the master DOF.
6. Write the first load step to a load step file (Jobname.S01) by issuing the LSWRITE command.
Command(s): LSWRITE
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Section 5.5: Performing a Mode Superposition Transient Dynamic Analysis
The load vector option allows you to apply a load vector created by the modal solution as one
of the loads.
– Stepped or Ramped Loads (KBC)
This option indicates whether to ramp the load change over the load step (KBC) or to step-apply
the load change (KBC,1). The default is ramped.
The only valid label on these commands is NSOL (nodal solution). The default for OUTRES is to write
the solution for every fourth time-point to the reduced displacement file (unless there are gap con-
ditions defined, in which case the default is to write every solution).
8. If you used either the Block Lanczos (default) or subspace option for the modal analysis (MODOPT,LANB
or MODOPT,SUBSP), you may use a nodal component with the OUTRES,NSOL command to limit the
displacement data written to the reduced displacement file Jobname.RDSP. The expansion pass will
only produce valid results for those nodes and for those elements in which all of the nodes of the elements
have been written to the .RDSP file. To use this option, first suppress all writing by invoking
OUTRES,NSOL,NONE, then specify the item(s) of interest by invoking OUTRES,NSOL,FREQ,COMP. Repeat
the OUTRES command for any additional nodal components that you want to write to the .RDSP file.
Only one output frequency is allowed - ANSYS uses the last frequency specified by OUTRES.
9. Save a backup copy of the database to a named file.
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save as
10. Start the transient solution.
Command(s): LSSOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> From LS Files
11. Leave SOLUTION.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
The mode superposition transient solution is written to the reduced displacement file, Jobname.RDSP, regardless
of whether the subspace, Block Lanczos, reduced, PowerDynamics, or QR damped method was used for the modal
solution. You will therefore need to expand the solution if you are interested in stress results.
Note — In the mode superposition or reduced methods, only static force is available with the FORCE
command.
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Section 5.6: Performing a Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for discussions of the ANTYPE, MODOPT, M, TOTAL, ACEL, TRNOPT, LVS-
CALE, MDAMP, DELTIM, TIME, KBC, OUTRES, LSSOLVE, FILE, SOLU, NSOL, PLVAR, PRVAR, EXPASS, NUMEXP,
OUTRES, PLDISP, PRRSOL, PLNSOL, and PRERR commands.
The procedure for a reduced transient dynamic analysis consists of these main steps:
Of these, the first step is the same as for the full method, except that no nonlinearities are allowed (other than
simple node-to-node contact, which is specified in the form of a gap condition instead of an element type). Details
of the other steps are explained below.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
• You cannot use the Solution Controls dialog box to define analysis type and analysis options for a reduced
transient dynamic analysis. Instead, you must set them using the standard set of ANSYS solution commands
(which are listed in Section 5.4.3: Set Solution Controls and Section 5.4.4: Set Additional Solution Options)
and the standard corresponding menu paths.
• Restarts are not available (ANTYPE).
• Choose the reduced method of solution (TRNOPT).
• When you specify a reduced transient analysis, a Solution menu that is appropriate for that specific type
of analysis appears. The Solution menu will be either “abridged” or “unabridged,” depending on the actions
you took prior to this step in your ANSYS session. The abridged menu contains only those solution options
that are valid and/or recommended for reduced transient analyses. If you are on the abridged Solution
menu and you want to access other solution options (that is, solution options that are valid for you to use,
but their use may not be encouraged for this type of analysis), select the Unabridged Menu option from
the Solution menu. For details, see Section 3.11.1: Using Abridged Solution Menus in the ANSYS Basic
Analysis Guide.
• Nonlinear options (NLGEOM, SSTIF, NROPT) are not available.
You can also list the defined gaps and delete gaps.
Command(s): GPLIST, GPDELE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Dynamic Gap Cond> List All
Main Menu> Solution> Dynamic Gap Cond> Delete
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Section 5.6: Performing a Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis
Gap conditions are similar to gap elements and are specified between surfaces that are expected to contact
(impact) each other during the transient. The ANSYS program accounts for the gap force, which develops when
the gap closes, by using an equivalent nodal load vector.
• Use enough gap conditions to obtain a smooth contact stress distribution between the contacting surfaces.
• Define a reasonable gap stiffness. If the stiffness is too low, the contacting surfaces may overlap too much.
If the stiffness is too high, a very small time step will be required during impact. A general recommendation
is to specify a gap stiffness that is one or two orders of magnitude higher than the adjacent element
stiffness. You can estimate the adjacent element stiffness using AE/L, where A is the contributing area
around the gap condition, E is the elastic modulus of the softer material at the interface, and L is the depth
of the first layer of elements at the interface.
• The nonlinear gap damping provided through the DAMP field of the GP command runs faster than a full
transient analysis using a gap element COMBIN40. Only TRNOPT = MSUP allows the nonlinear gap
damping action. Damping conditions are ignored for the reduced transient analysis method.
• Only displacements, forces, and translational accelerations (such as gravity) are valid. Acceleration loading
is not allowed if the model contains any master DOF at any nodes with rotated nodal coordinate systems.
• Forces and nonzero displacements must be applied only at master DOF.
As mentioned for the full method, multiple load steps are usually required to specify the load history in a transient
analysis. The first load step is used to establish initial conditions, and second and subsequent load steps are used
for the transient loading, as explained next.
• Establish initial conditions. The only initial condition that may be explicitly established is the initial dis-
u& &&
u
placement (uo); that is, initial velocity and acceleration must be zero ( o = 0, o = 0). Displacements
cannot be deleted in subsequent load steps, therefore they cannot be used to specify an initial velocity.
In a reduced transient analysis, a static solution is always performed as the first solution, using the loads
given, to determine uo.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
• Specify load step options for the first load step. Valid options appear in Table 5.3: “Options for the First
Load Step-Reduced Analysis”.
Transient integration parameters control the nature of the Newmark time integration technique. The
default is to use the constant average acceleration scheme; see the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for further
details.
• Damping
Damping in some form is present in most structures and should be included in your analysis. You can
specify four forms of damping in a reduced transient dynamic analysis:
Note — If you do issue the TIME command for the first load step, it will be ignored. The first solution is
always a static solution at TIME = 0.
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Section 5.6: Performing a Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis
The following load step options are valid for the transient load steps:
• General Options
– Time (specifies the time at the end of the load step) (TIME)
– Stepped (KBC,1) or ramped loads (KBC)
• Output Controls
The only valid label on these commands is NSOL (nodal solution). The default for OUTRES is to write the
solution for every fourth time-point to the reduced displacement file (unless there are gap conditions
defined, in which case the default is to write every solution).
The procedure to use POST26 is the same as described for the full method, except for the following differences:
• Before defining the POST26 variables, use the FILE command (Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings>
File) to specify that data are to be read from Jobname.RDSP. For example, if the jobname is TRANS, the
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
FILE command would be: FILE,TRANS,RDSP. (By default, POST26 looks for a results file, which is not written
by a reduced transient solution.)
• Only nodal degree of freedom data (at master DOF) are available for processing, so you can use only the
NSOL command to define variables.
Note — An expansion pass is not always required. For instance, if you are interested mainly in displace-
ments at specific points on the structure, then the reduced solution could satisfy your requirements.
However, if you want to determine displacements at non-master DOF, or if you are interested in the
stress or force solution, then you must perform an expansion pass.
Note — You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU)
before performing the expansion pass.
Choose ON.
• Option: Number of Solutions to be Expanded (NUMEXP)
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Section 5.6: Performing a Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis
Specify the number. This number of evenly spaced solutions will be expanded over the specified
time range. The solutions nearest these times will be expanded. Also specify whether to calculate
stresses and forces (default is to calculate both).
• Option: Single Solution to Expand (EXPSOL)
Use this option to identify a single solution for expansion if you do not need to expand multiple
solutions in a range. You can specify it either by load step and substep number or by time. Also specify
whether to calculate stresses and forces (default is to calculate both).
3. Specify load step options. The only options valid for a transient dynamic expansion pass are output
controls:
• Output Controls
Use this option to include any results data on the output file (Jobname.OUT).
– Database and Results File Output (OUTRES)
Use this option to review element integration point results by copying them to the nodes instead
of extrapolating them (default).
Note — The FREQ field on OUTPR and OUTRES can only be ALL or NONE. ERESX allows you
to review element integration point results by copying them to the nodes instead of extra-
polating them (default).
You can review these results using POST1. (If you expanded solutions at several time points, you can also use
POST26 to obtain graphs of stress versus time, strain versus time, and so on.) The procedure to use POST1 (or
POST26) is the same as described for the full method.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
The beam is not used in this solution and its area is arbitrarily input as unity. The final time of 0.1 sec allows the
mass to reach its largest deflection. One master degree of freedom is selected at the mass in the lateral direction.
A static solution is done at the first load step. Symmetry could have been used in this model. The time of maximum
response (0.092 sec) is selected for the expansion pass calculation.
E = 30 x 103 ksi
m = 0.0259067 kips-sec2/in
l = 800.6 in4
h = 18 in
l = 20 ft = 240 in.
F1 = 20 kips
tr = 0.075 sec
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Section 5.7: Sample Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis (GUI Method)
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
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Section 5.7: Sample Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis (GUI Method)
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Section 5.8: Sample Reduced Transient Dynamic Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
/SOLU
ANTYPE,TRANS ! Transient dynamic analysis
TRNOPT,REDUC,,NODAMP ! Reduced transient analysis, ignore damping
DELTIM,.004 ! Integration time step size
D,1,UY
D,3,UX,,,,,UY
OUTPR,BASIC,1
OUTRES,ALL,1
F,2,FY,0 ! Force = 0 at Time = 0
SOLVE
TIME,.075 ! Time at end of load step
F,2,FY,20 ! Force is ramped to 20
SOLVE
TIME,.1 ! Constant force until time = 0.1
SOLVE
FINISH
/SOLU
! The following is the expansion pass using BEAM3 and MASS21 elements
EXPASS,ON ! Expansion pass on
EXPSOL,,,0.092 ! Time of maximum response
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST26
NUMVAR,0
FILE,file,rdsp
NSOL,2,2,U,Y,NSOL ! Define the variables
PLVAR,2 ! Graph the variables
PRVAR,2 ! List the variables
FINISH
/POST1
SET,FIRST ! Read in results
PLDISP,1 ! Display deformed and undeformed shape
FINISH
1. Build your model, enter SOLUTION, and define a transient analysis type (ANTYPE,TRANS).
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Section 5.10: Other Analysis Details
If prestressing effects develop because of nonlinear behavior (as in the case of residual thermal stresses
in a casting), several load steps might be required to complete the static prestressing phase of your
analysis. In the case of geometric nonlinearities (large deformation effects), you can capture the
prestressing effect by issuing NLGEOM,ON.
2. For all subsequent load steps, turn time integration effects on (TIMINT,ON), and proceed using the full
transient dynamic analysis procedures described previously. Once all load steps are written to files
(LSWRITE), you can initiate the multiple load step solution (LSSOLVE).
Note — The static prestress solution must be done as a separate solution if initial conditions are to be
defined with the IC command.
(Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Initial Condit'n> Define)
The IC command is valid only in the first load step.
1. Build the model and obtain a static solution with prestress effects turned on (PSTRES,ON). The procedure
to obtain a static solution is explained in Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”.
2. Reenter SOLUTION (/SOLU) and obtain the reduced transient solution, also with prestress effects turned
on (PSTRES,ON). Files Jobname.DB, Jobname.EMAT, and Jobname.ESAV from the static analysis must
be available.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
1. Resolve the response frequency. The time step should be small enough to resolve the motion (response)
of the structure. Since the dynamic response of a structure can be thought of as a combination of modes,
the time step should be able to resolve the highest mode that contributes to the response. For the
Newmark time integration scheme, it has been found that using approximately twenty points per cycle
of the highest frequency of interest results in a reasonably accurate solution. That is, if f is the frequency
(in cycles/time), the integration time step (ITS) is given by
ITS = 1/20f
The following figure shows the effect of ITS on the period elongation of a single-DOF spring-mass system.
Notice that 20 or more points per cycle result in a period elongation of less than 1 percent.
For the HHT time integration method, the same guidelines for time step should be applied. Note that if
the same time step and time integration parameters are used, the HHT method will be more accurate
compared to the Newmark method.
2. Resolve the applied load-versus-time curve(s). The time step should be small enough to “follow” the
loading function. The response tends to lag the applied loads, especially for stepped loads, as shown in
Figure 5.5: “Transient Input vs. Transient Response”. Stepped loads require a small ITS at the time of the
step change so that the step change can be closely followed. ITS values as small as 1/180f may be needed
to follow stepped loads.
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Section 5.10: Other Analysis Details
3. Resolve the contact frequency. In problems involving contact (impact), the time step should be small
enough to capture the momentum transfer between the two contacting surfaces. Otherwise, an apparent
energy loss will occur and the impact will not be perfectly elastic. The integration time step can be de-
termined from the contact frequency (fc) as:
where k is the gap stiffness, m is the effective mass acting at the gap, and N is the number of points per
cycle. To minimize the energy loss, at least thirty points per cycle of (N = 30) are needed. Larger values
of N may be required if acceleration results are needed. For the reduced and mode superposition
methods, N must be at least 7 to ensure stability.
You can use fewer than thirty points per cycle during impact if the contact period and contact mass are
much less than the overall transient time and system mass, because the effect of any energy loss on the
total response would be small.
4. Resolve the wave propagation. If you are interested in wave propagation effects, the time step should
be small enough to capture the wave as it travels through the elements. See Section 5.4.1: Build the
Model for a discussion of element size.
5. Resolve the nonlinearities. For most nonlinear problems, a time step that satisfies the preceding guidelines
is sufficient to resolve the nonlinearities. There are a few exceptions, however: if the structure tends to
stiffen under the loading (for example, large deflection problems that change from bending to membrane
load-carrying behavior), the higher frequency modes that are excited will have to be resolved.
After calculating the time step using the appropriate guidelines, use the minimum value for your analysis. By
using automatic time stepping, you can let the ANSYS program decide when to increase or decrease the time
step during the solution. Automatic time stepping is discussed next.
Caution: Avoid using exceedingly small time steps, especially when establishing initial conditions. Ex-
ceedingly small numbers can cause numerical difficulties. Based on a problem time scale of unity, for
example, time steps smaller than 10-10 could cause numerical difficulties.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 5–35
Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
number of times that you might have to rerun the analysis (adjusting the time step size, nonlinearities, and so
on) is greatly reduced. If nonlinearities are present, automatic time stepping gives the added advantage of incre-
menting the loads appropriately and retreating to the previous converged solution (bisection) if convergence
is not obtained. You can activate automatic time stepping with the AUTOTS command. (For more information
on automatic time stepping in the context of nonlinearities, see Chapter 8, “Nonlinear Structural Analysis”.)
Although it seems like a good idea to activate automatic time stepping for all analyses, there are some cases
where it may not be beneficial (and may even be harmful):
• Problems that have only localized dynamic behavior (for example, turbine blade and hub assemblies),
where the low-frequency energy content of part of the system may dominate the high-frequency areas
• Problems that are constantly excited (for example, seismic loading), where the time step tends to change
continually as different frequencies are excited
• Kinematics (rigid-body motion) problems, where the rigid-body contribution to the response frequency
term may dominate
5.10.3. Damping
Damping is present in most systems and should be specified in a dynamic analysis. The following forms of
damping are available in the ANSYS program:
Only the constant damping ratio and modal damping are available in the ANSYS Professional program. You can
specify more than one form of damping in a model. The program will formulate the damping matrix (C) as the
sum of all the specified forms of damping. The constant material damping coefficient is only applicable in full
and modal harmonic analyses.
Table 5.5: “Damping for Different Analysis Types” shows the types of damping available for different structural
analyses.
5–36 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 5.10: Other Analysis Details
Alpha damping and Beta damping are used to define Rayleigh damping constants α and β. The damping matrix
(C) is calculated by using these constants to multiply the mass matrix (M) and stiffness matrix (K):
The ALPHAD and BETAD commands are used to specify α and β, respectively, as decimal numbers. The values
of α and β are not generally known directly, but are calculated from modal damping ratios, ξi. ξi is the ratio of
actual damping to critical damping for a particular mode of vibration, i. If ωi is the natural circular frequency of
mode i, α and β satisfy the relation
ξi = α/2ωi + βωi/2
In many practical structural problems, alpha damping (or mass damping) may be ignored (α = 0). In such cases,
you can evaluate β from known values of ξi and ωi, as
β = 2 ξi/ωi
Only one value of β can be input in a load step, so choose the most dominant frequency active in that load step
to calculate β.
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
To specify both α and β for a given damping ratio ξ, it is commonly assumed that the sum of the α and β terms
is nearly constant over a range of frequencies (see Figure 5.6: “Rayleigh Damping”). Therefore, given ξ and a
frequency range ωi to ωj, two simultaneous equations can be solved for α and β.
Alpha damping can lead to undesirable results if an artificially large mass has been introduced into the model.
One common example is when an artificially large mass is added to the base of a structure to facilitate acceleration
spectrum input. (You can use the large mass to convert an acceleration spectrum to a force spectrum.) The alpha
damping coefficient, which is multiplied by the mass matrix, will produce artificially large damping forces in such
a system, leading to inaccuracies in the spectrum input, as well as in the system response.
Beta damping and material damping can lead to undesirable results in a nonlinear analysis. These damping
coefficients are multiplied by the stiffness matrix, which is constantly changing in a nonlinear analysis. The res-
ulting change in damping can sometimes be opposite to the actual change in damping that can occur in phys-
ical structures. For example, whereas physical systems that experience softening due to plastic response will
usually experience a corresponding increase in damping, an ANSYS model that has beta damping will experience
a decrease in damping as plastic softening response develops.
Material-dependent damping allows you to specify beta damping (β) as a material property (MP,DAMP). Note,
however, that MP,DAMP in a spectrum analysis (ANTYPE,SPECTR) specifies a material-dependent damping ratio ξ,
not β. Also note that for multi-material elements such as SOLID46, SOLID65, SHELL91, and SHELL99, β can only
be specified for the element as a whole, not for each material in the element. In these cases, β is determined from
the material pointer for the element (set with the MAT command), rather than the material pointed to by any
real constant MAT for the element. MP,DAMP is not assumed to be temperature-dependent, and is always
evaluated at T = 0.0.
The constant material damping coefficient is available only for full and modal harmonic analyses.
The constant damping ratio is the simplest way of specifying damping in the structure. It represents the ratio of
actual damping to critical damping, and is specified as a decimal number with the DMPRAT command. DMPRAT
is available only for spectrum, harmonic response, and mode superposition transient dynamic analyses.
Modal damping gives you the ability to specify different damping ratios for different modes of vibration. It is
specified with the MDAMP command and is available only for the spectrum and mode superposition method
of solution (transient dynamic and harmonic response analyses).
Element damping involves using element types having viscous damping characteristics, such as COMBIN7,
COMBIN14, COMBIN37, COMBIN40, and so on.
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Section 5.10: Other Analysis Details
If you are running a mode superposition analysis and used the QR damping solution method for the modal
solution, alpha (ALPHAD), beta (BETAD), material-dependent, and element damping must be defined in the QR
damping modal solution for the damping to be available in a subsequent mode superposition analysis.
For more information about damping, see the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference.
The explicit mathematical expressions that form the damping matrix in different analysis options are shown in
Table 5.6: “Damping Matrix Formulation with Different Damping Coefficients”. These expressions define how
each of the damping options in Table 5.5: “Damping for Different Analysis Types” is handled in a dynamic ana-
lysis.
Harmonic No No No No
βξj
MP,DMPR Nm 2βξj [K j ] N 2βξj [K j ]
∑ Φ ∑T m
Φ
j =1 Ω j =1 Ω
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Chapter 5: Transient Dynamic Analysis
Note —
1. For modal, mode superposition, and spectrum analyses the boxes are split where applicable
with the top indicating the Lanczos method and the bottom indicating the QR damped method.
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
program. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verification
Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes a variety of transient dynamic analysis test cases:
5–40 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
6.1. Definition of Spectrum Analysis
A spectrum analysis is one in which the results of a modal analysis are used with a known spectrum to calculate
displacements and stresses in the model. It is mainly used in place of a time-history analysis to determine the
response of structures to random or time-dependent loading conditions such as earthquakes, wind loads, ocean
wave loads, jet engine thrust, rocket motor vibrations, and so on.
• Response Spectrum
The only method available in the ANSYS Professional program is the single-point response spectrum.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
A PSD is a statistical measure of the response of a structure to random dynamic loading conditions. It is a graph
of the PSD value versus frequency, where the PSD may be a displacement PSD, velocity PSD, acceleration PSD,
or force PSD. Mathematically, the area under a PSD-versus-frequency curve is equal to the variance (square of
the standard deviation of the response).
Similar to response spectrum analysis, a random vibration analysis may be single-point or multi-point. In a single-
point random vibration analysis, you specify one PSD spectrum at a set of points in the model. In a multi-point
random vibration analysis, you specify different PSD spectra at different points in the model.
6–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.3: Steps in a Single-Point Response Spectrum (SPRS) Analysis
The modal solution is required because the structure's mode shapes and frequencies must be available to calculate
the spectrum solution. Also, by performing the spectrum solution ahead of mode expansion, you can expand
only the significant modes that contribute to the final solution.
• Use the Block Lanczos (default), subspace, or reduced method to extract the modes. The other methods
- unsymmetric, damped, QR damped, and PowerDynamics - are not valid for subsequent spectrum ana-
lysis.
• The number of modes extracted should be enough to characterize the structure's response in the frequency
range of interest.
• If you are using GUI method, choose NO for mode expansion on the dialog box for the modal analysis
options [MODOPT], so that modes are not expanded at this time, but can be expanded selectively in a
separate solution pass. (See the use of the SIGNIF field on the MXPAND command.) Otherwise, choose
YES to expand all the modes at this phase.
• If material-dependent damping is to be included in the spectrum analysis, it must be specified in the
modal analysis.
• Be sure to constrain those DOF where you want to apply a base excitation spectrum.
• At the end of the solution, leave the SOLUTION processor.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define the analysis type and analysis options. ANSYS offers the following analysis options for a spectrum
analysis. Not all modal analysis options and not all eigenvalue extraction techniques work with all spectrum
analysis options.
Choose enough modes to cover the frequency range spanned by the spectrum and to characterize
the structure's response. The accuracy of the solution depends on the number of modes used: the
larger the number, the higher the accuracy. Make sure to choose YES on the SPOPT command if you
want to calculate element stresses.
3. Specify load step options. The following options are available for single-point response spectrum analysis:
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Section 6.3: Steps in a Single-Point Response Spectrum (SPRS) Analysis
• Spectrum Options
The spectrum type can be displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, or PSD. All except the force
spectrum represent seismic spectra; that is, they are assumed to be specified at the base. The
force spectrum is specified at non-base nodes with the F or FK command, and the direction is
implied by labels FX, FY, FZ. The PSD spectrum [SVTYP,4] is internally converted to a displacement
response spectrum and is limited to flat, narrowband spectra; a more robust random vibration
analysis procedure is described in Section 6.7: How to Do a Random Vibration (PSD) Analysis.
– Excitation Direction [SED]
– Spectral-Value-Versus-Frequency Curve [FREQ, SV]
SV and FREQ commands are used to define the spectral curve. You can define a family of spectral
curves, each curve for a different damping ratio. Use the STAT command to list current spectrum
curve values. Another command, ROCK, allows you to specify a rocking spectrum.
If you specify more than one form of damping, the ANSYS program calculates an effective damping
ratio at each frequency. The spectral value at this effective damping ratio is then calculated by log-
log interpolation of the spectral curves. If no damping is specified, the spectral curve with the lowest
damping is used. For further details about the different forms of damping, see Section 5.10.3:
Damping in Chapter 5, “Transient Dynamic Analysis”.
Note — Material-dependent damping ratio [MP,DAMP] is also available but only if specified
in the modal analysis. MP,DAMP also specifies a material-dependent constant damping
ratio (and not material-dependent beta damping, as used in other analyses).
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS The output from the solution includes the
participation factor table. The participation factor table, which is part of the printed output, lists
the participation factors, mode coefficients (based on lowest damping ratio), and the mass dis-
tribution for each mode. To obtain the maximum response of each mode (modal response),
multiply the mode shape by the mode coefficient. You do this by retrieving the mode coefficient
with the *GET command and using it as a scale factor in the SET command.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for additional response spectra, if any. Note that solutions are not written to the
file.rst at this time.
6. Leave the SOLUTION processor.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
• Only significant modes can be selectively expanded. (See the use of the SIGNIF field on the MXPAND
command.) If you are using the GUI method and want to selectively expand modes, choose NO for
mode expansion on the dialog box for the modal analysis options [MODOPT] in the modal analysis
phase. You then perform mode expansion as a separate solution pass after performing the spectrum
solution.
• Only expanded modes are used for the mode combination operation in the subsequent mode com-
bination pass.
• If you are interested in stresses caused by the spectrum, be sure to request stress calculations here.
By default, no stresses are calculated in the expansion pass, which means no stresses are available
for the spectrum analysis.
• If you want to expand all the modes, you can include the mode expansion steps in the modal solution
pass by issuing the MXPAND command. If you are using the GUI method and want to expand all the
modes, choose YES for mode expansion on the dialog box for the modal analysis options [MODOPT]
in the modal solution step. But if you want to expand only the significant modes, you must perform
mode expansion as a separate solution pass after performing the spectrum solution.
Note that modal analysis solutions are written to the results file (Jobname.RST) only if the mode expansion is
performed.
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
6–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.3: Steps in a Single-Point Response Spectrum (SPRS) Analysis
ANSYS offers five different mode combination methods for the single-point response spectrum analysis:
The NRLSUM method is typically used in the context of the Dynamic Design and Analysis Method (DDAM)
spectrum analysis.
The following commands are used to invoke different methods of mode combinations:
Command(s): SRSS, CQC, DSUM, GRP, NRLSUM
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> Spectrum
Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Opts> Single-pt resp
Main Menu> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> Spectrum-Single Point-Mode Combine
The DSUM method also allows the input of time duration for earthquake or shock spectrum.
Note — You must specify damping if you use the Complete Quadratic Combination method of
mode combination (CQC). In addition, if you use material-dependent damping [MP,DAMP,...],
you must request that element results be calculated in the modal expansion. (Elcalc = YES on
the MXPAND command.)
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
4. Start solution.
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
The mode combination phase writes a file of POST1 commands (Jobname.MCOM). Read in this file in
POST1 to do the mode combinations, using the results file (Jobname.RST) from the modal expansion
pass.
The file Jobname.MCOM contains POST1 commands that combine the maximum modal responses by
using the specified mode combination method to calculate the overall response of the structure.
The mode combination method determines how the structure's modal responses are to be combined:
• If you selected displacement as the response type (label = DISP), displacements and stresses are
combined for each mode on the mode combination command.
• If you selected velocity as the response type (label = VELO), velocities and stress velocities are combined
for each mode on the mode combination command.
• If you selected acceleration as the response type (label = ACEL), accelerations and stress accelerations
are combined for each mode on the mode combination command.
Note — If you want to compute velocity or acceleration in addition to displacement, repeat the
mode combination step after postprocessing the displacement solution by using the VELO or
ACEL label on the mode combination commands (SRSS, CQC, GRP, DSUM, NRLSUM). Remember
that the existing Jobname.MCOM file is overwritten by the additional mode combination step(s).
You can use POST1, the general postprocessor, to review the results.
Note — If you want a direct combination of the derived stresses (S1, S2, S3, SEQV, SI) from the results file,
issue the SUMTYPE,PRIN command before reading in the Jobname.MCOM file. With the PRIN option,
component stresses are not available.
Note that the command default (SUMTYPE,COMP) is to directly operate only on the unaveraged element com-
ponent stresses and compute the derived quantities from these. Refer to Section 5.5.3: Creating and Combining
Load Cases in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide. Also, see the ANSYS Commands Reference for a description of the
SUMTYPE command.
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Section 6.3: Steps in a Single-Point Response Spectrum (SPRS) Analysis
2. Display results.
Use PLNSOL or PLESOL to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ ...), strains
(EPELX, EPELY, EPELZ ...), and displacements (UX, UY, UZ ...). If you previously issued the SUMTYPE
command, the results of the PLNSOL or PLESOL command are affected by the particular SUMTYPE
command option (SUMTYPE,COMP or SUMTYPE,PRIN) that you selected.
Use the PLETAB command to contour element table data and PLLS to contour line element data.
Caution: Derived data, such as stresses and strains, are averaged at the nodes by the PLNSOL
command. This averaging results in "smeared" values at nodes where elements of different
materials, different shell thicknesses, or other discontinuities meet. To avoid the smearing
effect, use selecting (described in Chapter 7, “Selecting and Components” in the ANSYS Basic
Analysis Guide) to select elements of the same material, same shell thickness, etc. before issuing
PLNSOL.
You can view correct membrane results for shells (SHELL, MID) by using KEYOPT(8) = 2 (for
SHELL181 or SHELL93) or KEYOPT(11) = 2 (SHELL63). These KEYOPTS write the mid-surface
node results directly to the results file, and allow the membrane results to be directly operated
on during squaring operations. The default method of averaging the TOP and BOTsquared
values to obtain a MID value can possibly yield incorrect MID values.
Many other postprocessing functions, such as mapping results onto a path, transforming results to
different coordinate systems, and load case combinations, are available in POST1. See The General
Postprocessor (POST1) in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
• The modal solution and spectrum solution passes can be combined into a single modal analysis [AN-
TYPE,MODAL] solution pass, with spectrum loads [SV, SVTYP, SED, FREQ].
• The mode expansion and mode combination solution passes can be combined into a single modal ana-
lysis [ANTYPE,MODAL and EXPASS,ON] solution pass with a mode combination command.
E = 30 x 106 psi
m = 0.2 lb-sec2/in2
I = (1000/3) in4
A = 273.9726 in2
l = 240 in
h = 14 in
6–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.4: Sample Spectrum Analysis (GUI Method)
6.4.4. Procedure
6.4.4.1. Set the Analysis Title
1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Change Title.
2. Type the text "Seismic Response of a Beam Structure" and click on OK.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
6–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.4: Sample Spectrum Analysis (GUI Method)
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 6–13
Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> Single Point> Settings. The
Settings for Single-point Response Spectrum dialog box appears.
4. Select "Seismic displac" in the scroll box as the type of response spectrum.
5. Enter 0,1,0 for excitation direction into the excitation direction input windows and click on OK.
6–14 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.4: Sample Spectrum Analysis (GUI Method)
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 6–15
Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
/PREP7
/TITLE Seismic Response of a Beam Structure
ET,1,BEAM3
R,1,273.9726,(1000/3),14 ! A = 273.9726, I = (1000/3), H = 14
MP,EX,1,30E6
MP,DENS,1,73E-5
K,1
K,2,240
L,1,2
ESIZE,,8
LMESH,1
NSEL,S,LOC,X,0
D,ALL,UY
NSEL,S,LOC,X,240
D,ALL,UX,,,,,UY
NSEL,ALL
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,MODAL ! Mode-frequency analysis
6–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.6: Where to Find Other Examples
/SOLU
ANTYPE,SPECTR ! Spectrum analysis
SPOPT,SPRS ! Single point spectrum
SED,,1 ! Global Y-axis as spectrum direction
SVTYPE,3 ! Seismic displacement spectrum
FREQ,.1,10 ! Frequency points for SV vs. freq. table
SV,,.44,.44 ! Spectrum values associated with frequency points
SOLVE
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,MODAL ! Mode-frequency analysis
EXPASS,ON
MXPAND,10,,,YES,0.005 ! Expand 10 mode shapes, calculate element stresses
! set signif=0.005
SOLVE
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,SPECTR
SRSS,0.15,DISP ! Square Root of Sum of Squares Mode combination
! with signif=0.15 and displacement solution requested
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
SET,LIST
/INP,,mcom
PRNSOL,DOF ! Print nodal solution
PRESOL,ELEM ! Print element solution in element format
PRRSOL,F ! Print reaction solution
FINISH
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
program. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verification
Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes a variety of spectrum analysis test cases:
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, MODOPT, D, EXPASS, MXPAND, SPOPT,
SVTYP, SED, FREQ, SV, SRSS, CQC, DSUM, GRP, NRLSUM, and DMPRAT commands.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
Of these, the first two steps are the same as described for a single-point response spectrum analysis. The procedure
for the remaining four steps is explained below. Random vibration analysis is not available in the ANSYS Profes-
sional program.
In the GUI method, the dialog box for the modal analysis options [MODOPT] contains an option for mode expan-
sion [MXPAND]. Choose YES for mode expansion. You then follow the instructions in Section 6.7.1: Expand the
Modes. The procedures for obtaining the modal solution and expanding the nodes are combined into a single
step.
• Only expanded modes are used for the mode combination step.
• If you are interested in stresses caused by the spectrum, be sure to request stress calculations here. By
default, no stresses are calculated in the expansion pass, which means no stresses are available at the end
of the spectrum solution.
• The mode expansion can be performed as a separate step, or can be included in the modal analysis phase.
• At the end of the expansion pass, leave SOLUTION with the FINISH command. If you want to exit ANSYS
after running the modal analysis, you must save the database at this point.
As explained in Chapter 3, “Modal Analysis”, you can combine the modal solution and mode expansion steps by
including the MXPAND command in the modal analysis step (GUI and batch modes).
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define the analysis type and analysis options:
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Section 6.7: How to Do a Random Vibration (PSD) Analysis
3. Specify load step options. The following options are available for a random vibration analysis:
• Spectrum Data
– Type of PSD
Command(s): PSDUNIT
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Settings
The PSD type can be displacement, velocity, force, pressure, or acceleration. Whether it is a base
excitation or a nodal excitation is specified in Steps 4 and 5. If a pressure PSD is to be applied, the
pressures should be applied in the modal analysis itself.
– PSD-versus-frequency table
Define a piecewise-linear (in log-log scale) PSD versus frequency table. Since a curve-fitting
polynomial is used for the closed-form integration of the curve, you should graph the input, which
is overlaid with the fitted curve, to ensure a good fit. If the fit is not good, you should add one or
more intermediate points to the table until you obtain a good fit.
Command(s): PSDFRQ, PSDVAL, PSDGRAPH
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> PSD vs Freq
Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Graph PSD Tables
PSDFRQ and PSDVAL are used to define the PSD-versus-frequency table. Step 6 describes how
to apply additional PSD excitations (if any).
You can issue STAT to list PSD tables and issue PSDGRAPH to graph them.
The following forms of damping are available: ALPHAD, BETAD, and MDAMP result in a frequency-
dependent damping ratio, whereas DMPRAT specifies a constant damping ratio to be used at all
frequencies. If you specify more than one form of damping, ANSYS calculates an effective damping
ratio at each frequency.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
Use a value of 1.0 to indicate points where the PSD excitation applies. A value of 0.0 (or blank) can be
used to remove a specification. The excitation direction is implied by the UX, UY, UZ labels on the D
command (for base excitation), and by FX, FY, FZ on the F command (for nodal excitation). For nodal
excitation, values other than 1.0 can be used to scale the participation factors. For pressure PSD, bring
in the load vector from the modal analysis (LVSCALE). You can use the scale factor.
Note — You can apply base excitations only at nodes that were constrained in the modal analysis.
Command(s): D (or DK, DL, or DA) for base excitation F (or FK) for nodal excitation LVSCALE
for pressure PSD
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Spectrum> Base PSD Excit>
On Nodes
5. Begin participation factor calculations for the above PSD excitation.
Use the TBLNO field to indicate which PSD table to use, and Excit to specify whether the calculations
are for a base or nodal excitation.
Command(s): PFACT
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Calculate PF
6. If you need to apply multiple PSD excitations on the same model, repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 for each addi-
tional PSD table. Then define, as necessary, the degree of correlation between the excitations, using any
of the following commands:
Command(s): COVAL for cospectral values QDVAL for quadspectral values PSDSPL for a spatial
relationship PSDWAV for a wave propagation relationship PSDGRAPH to graph the data overlaid
with the fitted curve
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Correlation
Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Graph Tables
When you use the PSDSPL or PSDWAV command, you must use SPATIAL or WAVE, respectively, for
Parcor on the PFACT command. PSDSPL and PSDWAV relationships might be quite CPU intensive for
multi-point base excitations. Nodal excitation and base excitation input must be consistent when using
PSDWAV and PSDSPL (for example, FY cannot be applied to one node and FZ be applied to another).
The PSDSPL and PSDWAV commands are not available for a pressure PSD analysis.
7. Specify the output controls.
The only valid output control command for this analysis is PSDRES, which specifies the amount and
form of output written to the results file. Up to three sets of solution quantities can be calculated: dis-
placement solution, velocity solution, or acceleration solution. Each of these can be relative to the base
or absolute.
Command(s): PSDRES
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Calc Controls
Table 6.3: “Solution Items Available in a PSD Analysis” shows a summary of the possible solution sets. To
limit the amount of data written to the results file, use OUTRES at the mode expansion step. Using
OUTPR,NSOL,ALL provides a summary table of the significant modal covariance terms.
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Section 6.7: How to Do a Random Vibration (PSD) Analysis
1. Enter Solution.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define analysis type.
3. Only the PSD mode combination method is valid in a random vibration analysis. This method triggers
calculation of the one-sigma displacements, stresses, etc., in the structure. If you do not issue the PSDCOM
command, the program does not calculate the one-sigma response of the structure.
Command(s): PSDCOM
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Spectrum> PSD> Mode Combin
The SIGNIF and COMODE fields on the PSD mode combination method [PSDCOM] offer options to reduce
the number of modes to be combined (see the description of PSDCOM command). If you want to exercise
these options, it is prudent to print the modal covariance matrices in Section 6.7.2: Obtain the Spectrum
Solution to first investigate the relative contributions of the modes toward the final solution.
4. Start the solution.
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
5. Leave the SOLUTION processor.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
You can review these results in POST1, the general postprocessor, and then calculate response PSDs in POST26,
the time-history postprocessor.
Note — Load step 2 is left blank if you specify only nodal PSD excitation. Also, if you suppress the dis-
placement, velocity, or acceleration solution using the PSDRES command, the corresponding load step
is left blank. Also, the superelement displacement file (.DSUB) is not written for load steps 3, 4, or 5 in a
PSD analysis.
Command(s): SET
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> First Set
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Section 6.7: How to Do a Random Vibration (PSD) Analysis
Note — Nodal stress averaging performed by the PLNSOL command may not be appropriate in a random
vibration analysis because the "stresses" are not actual stresses but stress statistics.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
6–24 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 6.9: How to Do Multi-Point Response Spectrum (MPRS) Analysis
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, MODOPT, M, TOTAL, D, EXPASS, MXPAND,
SPOPT, PSDUNIT, PSDFRQ, PSDVAL, DMPRAT, PFACT, PSDCOM, SUMTYPE, and PSDRES commands.
• Use the British system of units [inches (not feet), pounds, etc.] for all input data - model geometry, material
properties, element real constants, etc.
• Choose DDAM instead of SPRS as the spectrum type [SPOPT command].
• Use the ADDAM and VDDAM commands instead of SVTYP, SV, and FREQ to specify the spectrum values
and types. Specify the global direction of excitation using the SED command. Based on the coefficients
specified in the ADDAM and VDDAM commands, the program computes the mode coefficients according
to the empirical equations given in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference.
• The most applicable mode combination method is the NRL sum method [NRLSUM]. Mode combinations
are done in the same manner as for a single-point response spectrum. Mode combinations require
damping.
• No damping needs to be specified for solution because it is implied by the ADDAM and VDDAM com-
mands. If damping is specified, it is used for mode combinations but ignored for solution.
Note — As in the Single-point Response Spectrum analysis, DDAM spectrum analysis requires six steps
to systematically perform the analysis.
• The modal solution and DDAM spectrum solution passes can be combined into a single modal analysis
[ANTYPE,MODAL] solution pass with DDAM spectrum loads [ADDAM, VDDAM, SED].
• The mode expansion and mode combination solution passes can be combined into a single modal ana-
lysis [ANTYPE,MODAL and EXPASS,ON] solution pass with a mode combination command.
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Chapter 6: Spectrum Analysis
• You cannot specify any degree of correlation between the spectra (i.e., they are assumed to be uncorrel-
ated).
• Only relative results (relative to the base excitation) not absolute values, are calculated.
• All mode combination methods are available except PSDCOM.
• Results from a multi-point response spectrum analysis are written to the mode combination file, Job-
name.MCOM, in the form of POST1 commands. The commands calculate the overall response of the
structure by combining the maximum modal responses in some fashion (specified by the mode combin-
ation command in SOLUTION). The overall response consists of the overall displacements and, if placed
on the results file during the modal expansion pass, the overall stresses, strains, and reaction forces. If
Label = VELO or ACEL on the mode combination command (SRSS, CQC, GRP, DSUM, or NRLSUM) during
SOLUTION, the corresponding velocity or acceleration responses are written to the mode combination
file.
Multi-point response spectrum analysis is not available in the ANSYS Professional program.
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
7.1. Definition of Buckling Analysis
Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads - critical loads at which a structure becomes
unstable - and buckled mode shapes - the characteristic shape associated with a structure's buckled response.
Using the nonlinear technique, your model can include features such as initial imperfections, plastic behavior,
gaps, and large-deflection response. In addition, using deflection-controlled loading, you can even track the
post-buckled performance of your structure (which can be useful in cases where the structure buckles into a
stable configuration, such as "snap-through" buckling of a shallow dome).
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
Section 7.6: Sample Buckling Analysis (GUI Method) and Section 7.7: Sample Buckling Analysis (Command or
Batch Method) show you how to perform an example eigenvalue buckling analysis via the GUI or via commands,
respectively. For detailed, alphabetized descriptions of the ANSYS commands, see the ANSYS Commands Reference.
7.4.3. Important
Remember that an unconverged solution does not necessarily mean that the structure has reached its maximum
load. It could also be caused by numerical instability, which might be corrected by refining your modeling tech-
nique. Track the load-deflection history of your structure's response to decide whether an unconverged load
step represents actual structural buckling, or whether it reflects some other problem. Perform a preliminary
analysis using the arc-length method [ARCLEN] to predict an approximate value of buckling load. Compare this
approximate value to the more precise value calculated using bisection to help determine if the structure has
indeed reached its maximum load. You can also use the arc-length method itself to obtain a precise buckling
load, but this method requires you to adjust the arc-length radius by trial-and-error in a series of manually directed
reanalyses.
7–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 7.5: Procedure for Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
• Prestress effects [PSTRES] must be activated. Eigenvalue buckling analysis requires the stress stiffness
matrix to be calculated.
• Unit loads are usually sufficient (that is, actual load values need not be specified). The eigenvalues calculated
by the buckling analysis represent buckling load factors. Therefore, if a unit load is specified, the load
factors represent the buckling loads. All loads are scaled. (Also, the maximum permissible eigenvalue is
1,000,000 - you must use larger applied loads if your eigenvalue exceeds this limit.)
• Note that eigenvalues represent scaling factors for all loads. If certain loads are constant (for example,
self-weight gravity loads) while other loads are variable (for example, externally applied loads), you need
to ensure that the stress stiffness matrix from the constant loads is not factored by the eigenvalue solution.
One strategy that you can use to achieve this end is to iterate on the eigensolution, adjusting the variable
loads until the eigenvalue becomes 1.0 (or nearly 1.0, within some convergence tolerance). Design optim-
ization could be useful in driving this iterative procedure to a final answer.
Consider, for example, a pole having a self-weight W0, which supports an externally-applied load, A. To
determine the limiting value of A in an eigenvalue buckling solution, you could solve repetitively, using
different values of A, until by iteration you find an eigenvalue acceptably close to 1.0.
• You can apply a nonzero constraint in the prestressing pass as the static load. The eigenvalues found in
the buckling solution will be the load factors applied to these nonzero constraint values. However, the
mode shapes will have a zero value at these degrees of freedom (and not the nonzero value specified).
• At the end of the solution, leave SOLUTION [FINISH].
7–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 7.5: Procedure for Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
Note — When you specify an eigenvalue buckling analysis, a Solution menu that is appropriate
for buckling analyses appears. The Solution menu will be either "abridged" or "unabridged",
depending on the actions you took prior to this step in your ANSYS session. The abridged menu
contains only those solution options that are valid and/or recommended for buckling analyses.
If you are on the abridged Solution menu and you want to access other solution options (that
is, solution options that are valid for you to use, but their use may not be encouraged for this
type of analysis), select the Unabridged Menu option from the Solution menu. For details, see
Section 3.11.1: Using Abridged Solution Menus in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
Regardless of whether you use the command or GUI method, you can specify values for these options:
• For Method, specify the eigenvalue extraction method. You can choose subspace iteration or Block
Lanczos. The Block Lanczos and subspace iteration methods use the full system matrices. See Sec-
tion 3.5.2.3: Option: Mode-Extraction Method [MODOPT] in this manual for more information about
these solution methods.
• For NMODE, specify the number of eigenvalues to be extracted. This argument defaults to one, which
is usually sufficient for eigenvalue buckling.
• For SHIFT, specify the point (load factor) about which eigenvalues are calculated. The shift point is
helpful when numerical problems are encountered (due to negative eigenvalues, for example). Defaults
to 0.0.
The only load step options valid for eigenvalue buckling are output controls and expansion pass options.
Command(s): OUTPR,NSOL,ALL
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout
You can make the expansion pass a part of the eigenvalue buckling solution or perform it as a separate
step. In this document, we treat the expansion pass as a separate step. See Section 7.5.4: Expand the
Solution for details.
5. Save a backup copy of the database to a named file.
Command(s): SAVE
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
The output from the solution mainly consists of the eigenvalues, which are printed as part of the printed
output (Jobname.OUT). The eigenvalues represent the buckling load factors; if unit loads were applied
in the static analysis, they are the buckling loads. No buckling mode shapes are written to the database
or the results file, so you cannot postprocess the results yet. To do this, you need to expand the solution
(explained next).
Sometimes you may see both positive and negative eigenvalues calculated. Negative eigenvalues indicate
that buckling occurs when the loads are applied in an opposite sense.
7. Exit the SOLUTION processor.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
1. Reenter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
Note — You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU)
before performing the expansion pass.
Regardless of whether you use the command or GUI method, the following options are required for the
expansion pass:
• For NMODE, specify the number of modes to expand. This argument defaults to the total number of
modes that were extracted.
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Section 7.5: Procedure for Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
• For Elcalc, indicate whether you want ANSYS to calculate stresses. "Stresses" in an eigenvalue
analysis do not represent actual stresses, but give you an idea of the relative stress or force distribution
for each mode. By default, no stresses are calculated.
The only options valid in a buckling expansion pass are the following output controls:
• Printed Output
Use this option to include any results data on the output file (Jobname.OUT).
Command(s): OUTPR
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrl> Solu Printout
• Database and Results File Output
Note — The FREQ field on OUTPR and OUTRES can only be ALL or NONE, that is, the data
can be requested for all modes or no modes - you cannot write information for every other
mode, for instance.
The output consists of expanded mode shapes and, if requested, relative stress distributions for each
mode.
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
6. Leave the SOLUTION processor. You can now review results in the postprocessor.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
Note — The expansion pass has been presented here as a separate step. You can make it part of
the eigenvalue buckling solution by including the MXPAND command (Main Menu> Solution>
Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Expand Modes) as one of the analysis options.
Note — To review results in POST1, the database must contain the same model for which the buckling
solution was calculated (issue RESUME if necessary). Also, the results file (Jobname.RST) from the ex-
pansion pass must be available.
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
2. Read in data for the desired mode to display buckling mode shapes. (Each mode is stored on the results
file as a separate substep.)
Command(s): SET,SBSTEP
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> load step
3. Display the mode shape.
Command(s): PLDISP
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Deformed Shape
4. Contour the relative stress distributions.
Command(s): PLNSOL or PLESOL
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Solution
Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Element Solution
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the ANTYPE, PSTRES, D, F, SF, BUCOPT, EXPASS, MXPAND,
OUTRES, SET, PLDISP, and PLNSOL commands.
E = 30 x 106 psi
l = 200 in
A = 0.25 in2
h = 0.5 in
F = 1 lb.
7–8 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 7.6: Sample Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Element Type> Add/Edit/Delete. The Element Types
dialog box appears.
2. Click on Add. The Library of Element Types dialog box appears.
3. In the scroll box on the left, click on "Structural Beam" to select it.
4. In the scroll box on the right, click on "2D elastic 3" to select it.
5. Click on OK, and then click on Close in the Element Types dialog box.
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
Note — The triad, by default, hides the node number for node 1. To turn the triad off, choose
menu path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Window Controls> Window Options and select the "Not
Shown" option for Location of triad. Then click OK to close the dialog box.
7. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Nodes> Fill between Nds. The
Fill between Nds picking menu appears.
8. Click on node 1, then 11, and click on OK. The Create Nodes Between 2 Nodes dialog box appears.
9. Click on OK to accept the settings (fill between nodes 1 and 11, and number of nodes to fill 9).
10. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Auto Numbered>
Thru Nodes. The Elements from Nodes picking menu appears.
11. Click on nodes 1 and 2, then click on OK.
12. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Copy> Elements> Auto Numbered. The
Copy Elems Auto-Num picking menu appears.
13. Click on Pick All. The Copy Elements (Automatically-Numbered) dialog box appears.
14. Enter 10 for total number of copies and enter 1 for node number increment.
15. Click on OK. The remaining elements appear in the ANSYS Graphics window.
7–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 7.6: Sample Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
Note — Click on Close in the Warning window if the following warning appears: Changing the
analysis type is only valid within the first load step. Pressing OK will cause you to exit and reenter
SOLUTION. This will reset the load step count to 1.
2. In the New Analysis dialog box, click the "Eigen Buckling" option on, then click on OK.
3. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options. The Eigenvalue Buckling
Options dialog box appears.
4. Click on the "Block Lanczos" option, and enter 1 for number of modes to extract.
5. Click on OK.
6. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Expand Modes.
7. Enter 1 for number of modes to expand, and click on OK.
8. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS.
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Chapter 7: Buckling Analysis
9. Carefully review the information in the status window, and click on Close.
10. Click on OK in the Solve Current Load Step dialog box to begin the solution.
11. Click on Close in the Information window when the solution is finished.
/SOLU
ANTYPE,STATIC ! Static analysis
PSTRES,ON ! Calculate prestress effects
D,1,ALL ! Fix symmetry ends
F,11,FY,-1 ! Unit load at free end
SOLVE
FINISH
/SOLU
ANTYPE,BUCKLE ! Buckling analysis
BUCOPT,LANB,1 ! Use Block Lanczos solution method, extract 1 mode
MXPAND,1 ! Expand 1 mode shape
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
SET,FIRST
PLDISP,1
FINISH
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
program. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verification
7–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 7.8: Where to Find Other Examples
Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual contains a variety of buckling analysis test cases:
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 7–13
7–14
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
8.1. What is Structural Nonlinearity?
You encounter structural nonlinearities on a routine basis. For instance, whenever you staple two pieces of paper
together, the metal staples are permanently bent into a different shape. (See Figure 8.1: “Common Examples of
Nonlinear Structural Behavior” (a).) If you heavily load a wooden shelf, it will sag more and more as time passes.
(See Figure (b).) As weight is added to a car or truck, the contact surfaces between its pneumatic tires and the
underlying pavement change in response to the added load. (See Figure (c).) If you were to plot the load-deflection
curve for each of these examples, you would discover that they all exhibit the fundamental characteristic of
nonlinear structural behavior - a changing structural stiffness.
• Changing status
• Geometric nonlinearities
• Material nonlinearities
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
Situations in which contact occurs are common to many different nonlinear applications. Contact forms a dis-
tinctive and important subset to the category of changing-status nonlinearities.
See Chapter 11, “Contact” for detailed information on performing contact analyses using ANSYS.
8–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.1: What is Structural Nonlinearity?
Before each solution, the Newton-Raphson method evaluates the out-of-balance load vector, which is the differ-
ence between the restoring forces (the loads corresponding to the element stresses) and the applied loads. The
program then performs a linear solution, using the out-of-balance loads, and checks for convergence. If conver-
gence criteria are not satisfied, the out-of-balance load vector is reevaluated, the stiffness matrix is updated, and
a new solution is obtained. This iterative procedure continues until the problem converges.
A number of convergence-enhancement and recovery features, such as line search, automatic load stepping,
and bisection, can be activated to help the problem to converge. If convergence cannot be achieved, then the
program attempts to solve with a smaller load increment.
In some nonlinear static analyses, if you use the Newton-Raphson method alone, the tangent stiffness matrix
may become singular (or non-unique), causing severe convergence difficulties. Such occurrences include non-
linear buckling analyses in which the structure either collapses completely or "snaps through" to another stable
configuration. For such situations, you can activate an alternative iteration scheme, the arc-length method, to
help avoid bifurcation points and track unloading.
The arc-length method causes the Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations to converge along an arc, thereby
often preventing divergence, even when the slope of the load vs. deflection curve becomes zero or negative.
This iteration method is represented schematically in Figure 8.4: “Traditional Newton-Raphson Method vs. Arc-
Length Method”.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
• The "top" level consists of the load steps that you define explicitly over a "time" span (see the discussion
of "time" in Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide). Loads are assumed to vary linearly
within load steps (for static analyses).
• Within each load step, you can direct the program to perform several solutions (substeps or time steps) to
apply the load gradually.
• At each substep, the program will perform a number of equilibrium iterations to obtain a converged
solution.
Figure 8.5: “Load Steps, Substeps, and Time” illustrates a typical load history for a nonlinear analysis. Also see the
discussion of load steps, substeps, and equilibrium iterations in Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis
Guide.
8–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.1: What is Structural Nonlinearity?
The ANSYS program gives you a number of choices when you designate convergence criteria: you can base
convergence checking on forces, moments, displacements, or rotations, or on any combination of these items.
Additionally, each item can have a different convergence tolerance value. For multiple-degree-of-freedom
problems, you also have a choice of convergence norms.
You should almost always employ a force-based (and, when applicable, moment-based) convergence tolerance.
Displacement-based (and, when applicable, rotation-based) convergence checking can be added, if desired, but
should usually not be used alone.
An analysis of a conservative system is path independent: loads can usually be applied in any order and in any
number of increments without affecting the end results. Conversely, an analysis of a nonconservative system is
path dependent: the actual load-response history of the system must be followed closely to obtain accurate
results. An analysis can also be path dependent if more than one solution could be valid for a given load level
(as in a snap-through analysis). Path dependent problems usually require that loads be applied slowly (that is,
using many substeps) to the final load value.
8.1.2.2. Substeps
When using multiple substeps, you need to achieve a balance between accuracy and economy: more substeps
(that is, small time step sizes) usually result in better accuracy, but at a cost of increased run times. ANSYS provides
automatic time stepping that is designed for this purpose.
Automatic time stepping adjusts the time step size as needed, gaining a better balance between accuracy and
economy. Automatic time stepping activates the ANSYS program's bisection feature.
Bisection provides a means of automatically recovering from a convergence failure. This feature will cut a time
step size in half whenever equilibrium iterations fail to converge and automatically restart from the last converged
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
substep. If the halved time step again fails to converge, bisection will again cut the time step size and restart,
continuing the process until convergence is achieved or until the minimum time step size (specified by you) is
reached.
The ANSYS program can model both situations, depending on the type of load applied. Accelerations and con-
centrated forces maintain their original orientation, regardless of the element orientation. Pressure loads always
act normal to the deflected element surface, and can be used to model "following" forces. Figure 8.7: “Load Dir-
ections Before and After Deflection” illustrates constant-direction and following forces.
Note — Nodal coordinate system orientations are not updated in a large deflection analysis. Calculated
displacements are therefore output in the original directions.
8–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.2: Using Geometric Nonlinearities
In contrast, large strain analyses account for the stiffness changes that result from changes in an element's shape
and orientation. By issuing NLGEOM,ON (GUI path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( :
Basic Tab) or Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options), you activate
large strain effects in those element types that support this feature. The large strain feature is available in most
of the solid elements (including all of the large strain and hyperelastic elements), as well as in most of the shell
and beam elements. Large strain effects are not available in the ANSYS Professional program.
The large strain procedure places no theoretical limit on the total rotation or strain experienced by an element.
(Certain ANSYS element types will be subject to practical limitations on total strain - see below.) However, the
procedure requires that strain increments must be restricted to maintain accuracy. Thus, the total load should
be broken into smaller steps.
8.2.1. Stress-Strain
In large strain solutions, all stress-strain input and results will be in terms of true stress and true (or logarithmic)
strain. (In one dimension, true strain would be expressed as ε = ln ( l / l 0). For small-strain regions of response,
true strain and engineering strain are essentially identical.) To convert strain from small (engineering) strain to
logarithmic strain, use εln = ln (1 + εeng). To convert from engineering stress to true stress, use σtrue = σeng (1 +
εeng). (This stress conversion is valid only for incompressible plasticity stress-strain data.)
Even though stress stiffening theory assumes that an element's rotations and strains are small, in some structural
systems (such as in Figure 8.8: “Stress-Stiffened Beams” (a)), the stiffening stress is only obtainable by performing
a large deflection analysis. In other systems (such as in Figure 8.8: “Stress-Stiffened Beams” (b)), the stiffening
stress is obtainable using small deflection, or linear, theory.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
To use stress stiffening in the second category of systems, you must issue PSTRES,ON (GUI path Main Menu>
Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options) in your first load step.
Large strain and large deflection procedures include initial stress effects as a subset of their theory. For most
elements, initial stiffness effects are automatically included when large deformation effects are activated
[NLGEOM,ON] (GUI path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab) or Main Menu>
Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options).
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Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
linear material behavior being defined. The different material behavior options are described briefly below. See
Data Tables - Implicit Analysis in the ANSYS Elements Reference for specific details for each material behavior type.
8.3.1.1. Plasticity
Most common engineering materials exhibit a linear stress-strain relationship up to a stress level known as the
proportional limit. Beyond this limit, the stress-strain relationship will become nonlinear, but will not necessarily
become inelastic. Plastic behavior, characterized by nonrecoverable strain, begins when stresses exceed the
material's yield point. Because there is usually little difference between the yield point and the proportional limit,
the ANSYS program assumes that these two points are coincident in plasticity analyses (see Figure 8.9: “Elastoplastic
Stress-Strain Curve”).
Plasticity is a nonconservative, path-dependent phenomenon. In other words, the sequence in which loads are
applied and in which plastic responses occur affects the final solution results. If you anticipate plastic response
in your analysis, you should apply loads as a series of small incremental load steps or time steps, so that your
model will follow the load-response path as closely as possible. The maximum plastic strain is printed with the
substep summary information in your output (Jobname.OUT).
The automatic time stepping feature [AUTOTS] (GUI path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control
( : Basic Tab) or Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc>Time and
Substps) will respond to plasticity after the fact, by reducing the load step size after a load step in which a large
number of equilibrium iterations was performed or in which a plastic strain increment greater than 15% was
encountered. If too large a step was taken, the program will bisect and resolve using a smaller step size.
Other kinds of nonlinear behavior might also occur along with plasticity. In particular, large deflection and large
strain geometric nonlinearities will often be associated with plastic material response. If you expect large deform-
ations in your structure, you must activate these effects in your analysis with the NLGEOM command (GUI path
Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab) or Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged
Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options). For large strain analyses, material stress-strain properties must be
input in terms of true stress and logarithmic strain.
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The Bilinear Kinematic Hardening (BKIN) option assumes the total stress range is equal to twice the yield stress,
so that the Bauschinger effect is included (see Figure 8.11: “Bauschinger Effect”). This option is recommended
for general small-strain use for materials that obey von Mises yield criteria (which includes most metals). It is not
recommended for large-strain applications. You can combine the BKIN option with creep and Hill anisotropy
options to simulate more complex material behaviors. See Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements
Reference for the combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter
for sample input listings of material combinations. Stress-strain-temperature data are demonstrated in the fol-
lowing example. Figure 8.10: “Kinematic Hardening”(a) illustrates a typical display [TBPLOT] of bilinear kinematic
hardening properties.
MPTEMP,1,0,500 ! Define temperatures for Young's modulus
MP,EX,1,12E6,-8E3 ! C0 and C1 terms for Young's modulus
TB,BKIN,1,2 ! Activate a data table
TBTEMP,0.0 ! Temperature = 0.0
TBDATA,1,44E3,1.2E6 ! Yield = 44,000; Tangent modulus = 1.2E6
TBTEMP,500 ! Temperature = 500
TBDATA,1,29.33E3,0.8E6 ! Yield = 29,330; Tangent modulus = 0.8E6
TBLIST,BKIN,1 ! List the data table
/XRANGE,0,0.01 ! X-axis of TBPLOT to extend from varepsilon=0 to 0.01
TBPLOT,BKIN,1 ! Display the data table
See the MPTEMP, MP, TB, TBTEMP, TBDATA, TBLIST, /XRANGE, and TBPLOT command descriptions for more
information.
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The Multilinear Kinematic Hardening (KINH and MKIN) options use the Besseling model, also called the sublayer
or overlay model, so that the Bauschinger effect is included. KINH is preferred for use over MKIN because it uses
Rice's model where the total plastic strains remain constant by scaling the sublayers. KINH allows you to define
more stress-strain curves (40 vs. 5), and more points per curve (20 vs. 5). Also, when KINH is used with LINK180,
SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189, you can use TBOPT
= 4 (or PLASTIC) to define the stress vs. plastic strain curve. For either option, if you define more than one stress-
strain curve for temperature dependent properties, then each curve should contain the same number of points.
The assumption is that the corresponding points on the different stress-strain curves represent the temperature
dependent yield behavior of a particular sublayer. These options are not recommended for large-strain analyses.
You can combine either of these options with the Hill anisotropy option to simulate more complex material be-
haviors. See Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination possibilities.
Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of material combin-
ations. Figure 8.10: “Kinematic Hardening”(b) illustrates typical stress-strain curves for the MKIN option.
A typical stress-strain temperature data input using KINH is demonstrated by this example.
TB,KINH,1,2,3 ! Activate a data table
TBTEMP,20.0 ! Temperature = 20.0
TBPT,,0.001,1.0 ! Strain = 0.001, Stress = 1.0
TBPT,,0.1012,1.2 ! Strain = 0.1012, Stress = 1.2
TBPT,,0.2013,1.3 ! Strain = 0.2013, Stress = 1.3
TBTEMP,40.0 ! Temperature = 40.0
TBPT,,0.008,0.9 ! Strain = 0.008, Stress = 0.9
TBPT,,0.09088,1.0 ! Strain = 0.09088, Stress = 1.0
TBPT,,0.12926,1.05 ! Strain = 0.12926, Stress = 1.05
In this example, the third point in the two stress-strain curves defines the temperature-dependent yield behavior
of the third sublayer.
A typical stress- plastic strain temperature data input using KINH is demonstrated by this example.
TB,KINH,1,2,3,PLASTIC ! Activate a data table
TBTEMP,20.0 ! Temperature = 20.0
TBPT,,0.000,1.0 ! Plastic Strain = 0.0000, Stress = 1.0
TBPT,,0.1012,1.2 ! Plastic Strain = 0.1000, Stress = 1.2
TBPT,,0.2013,1.3 ! Plastic Strain = 0.2000, Stress = 1.3
TBTEMP,40.0 ! Temperature = 40.0
TBPT,,0.008,0.9 ! Plastic Strain = 0.0000, Stress = 0.9
TBPT,,0.09088,1.0 ! Plastic Strain = 0.0900, Stress = 1.0
TBPT,,0.12926,1.05 ! Plastic Strain = 0.1290, Stress = 1.05
In this example, the stress - strain behavior is the same as the previous sample, except now the strain value is
the plastic strain. The plastic strain can be converted from total strain as follows:
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A typical stress-strain temperature data input using MKIN is demonstrated by this example.
MPTEMP,1,0,500 ! Define temperature-dependent EX,
MP,EX,1,12E6,-8E3 ! as in BKIN example
TB,MKIN,1,2 ! Activate a data table
TBTEMP,,STRAIN ! Next TBDATA values are strains
TBDATA,1,3.67E-3,5E-3,7E-3,10E-3,15E-3 ! Strains for all temps
TBTEMP,0.0 ! Temperature = 0.0
TBDATA,1,44E3,50E3,55E3,60E3,65E3 ! Stresses at temperature = 0.0
TBTEMP,500 ! Temperature = 500
TBDATA,1,29.33E3,37E3,40.3E3,43.7E3,47E3 ! Stresses at temperature = 500
/XRANGE,0,0.02
TBPLOT,MKIN,1
Please see the MPTEMP, MP, TB, TBPT, TBTEMP, TBDATA, /XRANGE, and TBPLOT command descriptions for
more information.
The Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening (CHABOCHE) option uses the Chaboche model, which is a multi-component
nonlinear kinematic hardening model that allows you to superpose several kinematic models. See the ANSYS,
Inc. Theory Reference for details. Like the BKIN and MKIN options, you can use the CHABOCHE option to simulate
monotonic hardening and the Bauschinger effect. This option also allows you to simulate the ratcheting and
shakedown effect of materials. By combining the CHABOCHE option with isotropic hardening model options
BISO, MISO, and NLISO, you have the further capability of simulating cyclic hardening or softening. You can also
combine this option with the Hill anisotropy option to simulate more complex material behaviors. See Material
Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2:
Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of material combinations. The model has
1 + 2 x n constants, where n is the number of kinematic models, and is defined by NPTS in the TB command. See
the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for details. You define the material constants using the TBTEMP and TBDATA
commands. This model is suitable for large strain analysis.
The following example is a typical data table with no temperature dependency and one kinematic model:
TB,CHABOCHE,1 ! Activate CHABOCHE data table
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3 ! Values for constants C1, C2, and C3
The following example illustrates a data table of temperature dependent constants with two kinematic models
at two temperature points:
TB,CHABOCHE,1,2,2 ! Activate CHABOCHE data table
TBTEMP,100 ! Define first temperature
TBDATA,1,C11,C12,C13,C14,C15 ! Values for constants C11, C12, C13,
! C14, and C15 at first temperature
TBTEMP,200 ! Define second temperature
TBDATA,1,C21,C22,C23,C24,C25 ! Values for constants C21, C22, C23,
! C24, and C25 at second temperature
Please see the TB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA command descriptions for more information.
The Bilinear Isotropic Hardening (BISO) option uses the von Mises yield criteria coupled with an isotropic work
hardening assumption. This option is often preferred for large strain analyses. You can combine BISO with
Chaboche, creep, viscoplastic, and Hill anisotropy options to simulate more complex material behaviors. See
Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination possibilities. Also, see Sec-
tion 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of material combinations.
The Multilinear Isotropic Hardening (MISO) option is like the bilinear isotropic hardening option, except that
a multilinear curve is used instead of a bilinear curve. This option is not recommended for cyclic or highly non-
proportional load histories in small-strain analyses. It is, however, recommended for large strain analyses. The
MISO option can contain up to 20 different temperature curves, with up to 100 different stress-strain points allowed
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per curve. Strain points can differ from curve to curve. You can combine this option with nonlinear kinematic
hardening (CHABOCHE) for simulating cyclic hardening or softening. You can also combine the MISO option
with creep, viscoplastic, and Hill anisotropy options to simulate more complex material behaviors. See Material
Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2:
Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of material combinations. The stress-strain-
temperature curves from the MKIN example would be input for a multilinear isotropic hardening material as
follows:
/prep7
MPTEMP,1,0,500 ! Define temperature-dependent EX,
MPDATA,EX,1,,14.665E6,12.423e6
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.3
See the MPTEMP, MP, TB, TBTEMP, TBPT, /XRANGE, and TBPLOT command descriptions for more information.
The Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening (NLISO) option is based on the Voce hardening law (see the ANSYS, Inc.
Theory Reference for details). The NLISO option is a variation of BISO where an exponential saturation hardening
term is appended to the linear term (see Figure 8.12: “NLISO Stress-Strain Curve”).
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The advantage of this model is that the material behavior is defined as a specified function which has four ma-
terial constants that you define through the TBDATA command. You can obtain the material constants by fitting
material tension stress-strain curves. Unlike MISO, there is no need to be concerned about how to appropriately
define the pairs of the material stress-strain points. However, this model is only applicable to the tensile curve
like the one shown in Figure 8.12: “NLISO Stress-Strain Curve”. This option is suitable for large strain analyses.
You can combine NLISO with Chaboche, creep, viscoplastic, and Hill anisotropy options to simulate more complex
material behaviors. See Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination pos-
sibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of mater-
ial combinations.
The following example illustrates a data table of temperature dependent constants at two temperature points:
TB,NLISO,1 ! Activate NLISO data table
TBTEMP,100 ! Define first temperature
TBDATA,1,C11,C12,C13,C14 ! Values for constants C11, C12, C13,
! C14 at first temperature
TBTEMP,200 ! Define second temperature
TBDATA,1,C21,C22,C23,C24 ! Values for constants C21, C22, C23,
! C24 at second temperature
Please see the TB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA command descriptions for more information.
The Anisotropic (ANISO) option allows for different bilinear stress-strain behavior in the material x, y, and z dir-
ections as well as different behavior in tension, compression, and shear. This option is applicable to metals that
have undergone some previous deformation (such as rolling). It is not recommended for cyclic or highly nonpro-
portional load histories since work hardening is assumed. The yield stresses and slopes are not totally independent
(see the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for details).
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To define anisotropic material plasticity, use MP commands (Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other>
Change Mat Props) to define the elastic moduli (EX, EY, EZ, NUXY, NUYZ, and NUXZ). Then, issue the TB command
[TB,ANISO] followed by TBDATA commands to define the yield points and tangent moduli. (See Nonlinear Stress-
Strain Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference for more information.)
The Hill Anisotropy (HILL) option, when combined with other material options simulates plasticity, viscoplasticity,
and creep - all using the Hill potential. See Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the
combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input
listings of material combinations. The Hill potential may only be used with the following elements: PLANE42,
SOLID45, PLANE82, SOLID92, SOLID95, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187,
BEAM188, and BEAM189.
The Drucker-Prager (DP) option is applicable to granular (frictional) material such as soils, rock, and concrete,
and uses the outer cone approximation to the Mohr-Coulomb law.
MP,EX,1,5000
MP,NUXY,1,0.27
TB,DP,1
TBDATA,1,2.9,32,0 ! Cohesion = 2.9 (use consistent units),
! Angle of internal friction = 32 degrees,
! Dilatancy angle = 0 degrees
See the MP, TB, and TBDATA command descriptions for more information.
The Cast Iron (CAST, UNIAXIAL) option assumes a modified von Mises yield surface, which consists of the von
Mises cylinder in compression and a Rankine cube in tension. It has different yield strengths, flows, and hardenings
in tension and compression. Elastic behavior is isotropic, and is the same in tension and compression. The TB,CAST
command is used to input the plastic Poisson's ration in tension, which can be temperature dependent. Use the
TB,UNIAXIAL command to enter the yield and hardening in tension and compression.
Note — Cast Iron is intended for monotonic loading only and cannot be used with any other material
model.
TB,CAST,1,,,ISOTROPIC
TBDATA,1,0.04
TB,UNIAXIAL,1,1,5,TENSION
TBTEMP,10
TBPT,,0.550E-03,0.813E+04
TBPT,,0.100E-02,0.131E+05
TBPT,,0.250E-02,0.241E+05
TBPT,,0.350E-02,0.288E+05
TBPT,,0.450E-02,0.322E+05
TB,UNIAXIAL,1,1,5,COMPRESSION
TBTEMP,10
TBPT,,0.203E-02,0.300E+05
TBPT,,0.500E-02,0.500E+05
TBPT,,0.800E-02,0.581E+05
TBPT,,0.110E-01,0.656E+05
TBPT,,0.140E-01,0.700E+05
Figure 8.13: “Cast Iron Plasticity” illustrates the idealized response of gray cast iron in tension and compression.
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Compression
σc
σt Tension
The USER option works with the USERMAT subroutine in defining any material model (except incompressible
materials), when you use any of the following elements: LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,
SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189.
The USER option works with the USERPL subroutine in defining plasticity or viscoplasticity material models, when
you use any of the following elements: LINK1, PLANE2, LINK8, PIPE20, BEAM23, BEAM24, PLANE42, SHELL43,
SOLID45, SHELL51, PIPE60, SOLID62, SOLID65, PLANE82, SHELL91, SOLID92, SHELL93, SOLID95.
To access the user material option, issue the TB,USER command to define the material number, the number of
temperatures, and the number of data points. Then define the temperatures and material constants using the
TBTEMP and TBDATA commands.
The following example illustrates defining a material with two temperatures and four data points:
TB,USER,1,2,4 ! Define material 1 as user
! material with 2
! temperatures and 4 data
! points at each
! temperature point.
TBTEMP,1.0 ! First temperature.
TBDATA,1,19e5,0.3,1e3,100, ! 4 material constants for
! first temperature.
TBTEMP,2.0 ! Second temperature.
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If you use state variables in the USERMAT subroutine, you must first define the number of state variables using
the TB,STATE command. You then use the TBDATA command to initialize the value of the state variables, as
shown in the following example:
TB,STATE,1,,4, ! Define material 1, which
! has 4 state variables.
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3,C4, ! Initialize the 4 state variables.
See the TB, and TBDATA command descriptions for more information.
8.3.1.4. Hyperelasticity
A material is said to be hyperelastic if there exists an elastic potential function (or strain energy density function),
which is a scalar function of one of the strain or deformation tensors, whose derivative with respect to a strain
component determines the corresponding stress component.
Hyperelasticity can be used to analyze rubber-like materials (elastomers) that undergo large strains and displace-
ments with small volume changes (nearly incompressible materials). Large strain theory is required [NLGEOM,ON].
A representative hyperelastic structure (a balloon seal) is shown in Figure 8.14: “Hyperelastic Structure”.
There are two types of elements suitable for simulating hyperelastic materials: the hyperelastic elements (HYPER56,
HYPER58, HYPER74, HYPER158), and all of the 18x family of elements except the link and beam elements (SHELL181,
PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, and SOLID187). For further details on the use of hyperelastic elements,
and on mixed formulation of the 18x solid elements, see Mixed u-P Formulation Elements in the ANSYS Elements
Reference.
The material response in ANSYS hyperelastic models is always assumed to be isotropic and isothermal. Because
of this assumption, the strain energy potentials are expressed in terms of strain invariants. Unless indicated
otherwise, the hyperelastic materials are also assumed to be nearly or purely incompressible. Material thermal
expansion is also assumed to be isotropic.
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ANSYS supports several options of strain energy potentials for the simulation of incompressible or nearly incom-
pressible hyperelastic materials. All options are applicable to elements SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,
SOLID186, and SOLID187. Access these options through the TBOPT argument of TB,HYPER.
One of the options, the Mooney-Rivlin option, is also applicable to elements HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, HY-
PER158, and explicit dynamics elements PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164, and SOLID168. To access the Mooney-
Rivlin option for these elements, use TB,MOONEY.
ANSYS provides tools to help you determine the coefficients for all of the hyperelastic options defined by
TB,HYPER. The TBFT command allows you to compare your experimental data with existing material data curves
and visually “fit” your curve for use in the TB command. All of the TBFT command capability is available via either
batch or interactive (GUI) mode. See Material Curve Fitting (also in this manual) for more information.
If you want to use the Mooney-Rivlin option with elements HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, HYPER158, PLANE162,
SHELL163, SOLID164, or SOLID168, see Section 8.3.1.4.11: Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Option (TB,MOONEY).
The Mooney-Rivlin option (TB,HYPER,,,,MOONEY), which is the default, allows you to define 2, 3, 5, or 9 parameters
through the NPTS argument of the TB command. For example, to define a 5 parameter model you would issue
TB,HYPER,1,,5,MOONEY.
The 2 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option has an applicable strain of about 100% in tension and 30% in compression.
Compared to the other options, higher orders of the Mooney-Rivlin option may provide better approximation
to a solution at higher strain.
The following example input listing shows a typical use of the Mooney-Rivlin option with 3 parameters:
TB,HYPER,1,,3,MOONEY !Activate 3 parameter Mooney-Rivlin data table
TBDATA,1,0.163498 !Define c10
TBDATA,2,0.125076 !Define c01
TBDATA,3,0.014719 !Define c11
TBDATA,4,6.93063E-5 !Define incompressibility parameter
!(as 2/K, K is the bulk modulus)
Refer to Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Material (TB,HYPER) in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the
material constants required for this option.
Compared to the other options, the Ogden option usually provides the best approximation to a solution at larger
strain levels. The applicable strain level can be up to 700%. A higher parameter value can provide a better fit to
the exact solution. It may however cause numerical difficulties in fitting the material constants, and it requires
enough data to cover the whole range of deformation for which you may be interested. For these reasons, a
high parameter value is not recommended.
The following example input listing shows a typical use of the Ogden option with 2 parameters:
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Refer to Ogden Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the material
constants required for this option.
An example input listing showing a typical use of the Neo-Hookean option is presented below.
TB,HYPER,1,,,NEO !Activate Neo-Hookean data table
TBDATA,1,0.577148 !Define mu shear modulus
TBDATA,2,7.0e-5 !Define incompressibility parameter
!(as 2/K, K is the bulk modulus)
Refer to Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Material in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the material
constants required for this option.
Similar to the higher order Mooney-Rivlin options, the polynomial form option may provide a better approxim-
ation to a solution at higher strain.
For NPTS = 1 and constant c01 = 0, the polynomial form option is equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option (see
Section 8.3.1.4.3: Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Option for a sample input listing). Also, for NPTS = 1, it is equivalent
to the 2 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option. For NPTS = 2, it is equivalent to the 5 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option,
and for NPTS = 3, it is equivalent to the 9 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option (see Section 8.3.1.4.1: Mooney-Rivlin
Hyperelastic Option (TB,HYPER) for a sample input listing).
Refer to Polynomial Form Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of
the material constants required for this option.
An example input listing showing a typical use of the Arruda-Boyce option is presented below.
TB,HYPER,1,,,BOYCE !Activate Arruda-Boyce data table
TBDATA,1,200.0 !Define initial shear modulus
TBDATA,2,5.0 !Define limiting network stretch
TBDATA,3,0.001 !Define incompressibility parameter
!(as 2/K, K is the bulk modulus)
Refer to Arruda-Boyce Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the
material constants required for this option.
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An example input listing showing a typical use of the Gent option is presented below.
TB,HYPER,1,,,GENT !Activate Gent data table
TBDATA,1,3.0 !Define initial shear modulus
TBDATA,2,42.0 !Define limiting I1 - 3
TBDATA,3,0.001 !Define incompressibility parameter
!(as 2/K, K is the bulk modulus)
Refer to Gent Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the material
constants required for this option.
Similar to the polynomial form option, the higher order terms may provide a better approximation to a solution
at higher strain.
For NPTS = 1, the Yeoh form option is equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option (see Section 8.3.1.4.3: Neo-Hookean
Hyperelastic Option for a sample input listing).
The following example input listing shows a typical use of the Yeoh option with 2 terms and 1 incompressibility
term:
TB,HYPER,1,,2,YEOH !Activate 2 term Yeoh data table
TBDATA,1,0.163498 !Define C1
TBDATA,2,0.125076 !Define C2
TBDATA,3,6.93063E-5 !Define first incompressibility parameter
Refer to Yeoh Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the material
constants required for this option.
An example input listing showing a typical use of the Blatz-Ko option is presented below.
TB,HYPER,1,,,BLATZ !Activate Blatz-Ko data table
TBDATA,1,5.0 !Define initial shear modulus
Refer to Blatz-Ko Foam Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a description of the
material constants required for this option.
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The following example input listing shows a typical use of the Ogden foam option with 2 parameters:
TB,HYPER,1,,2,FOAM !Activate 2 parameter Ogden foam data table
TBDATA,1,1.85 !Define µ1
TBDATA,2,4.5 !Define 1
TBDATA,3,-9.20 !Define µ2
TBDATA,4,-4.5 !Define 2
TBDATA,5,0.92 !Define first compressibility parameter
TBDATA,6,0.92 !Define second compressibility parameter
Refer to Ogden Compressible Foam Hyperelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a de-
scription of the material constants required for this option.
If you want to use the Mooney-Rivlin option with elements SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186,
and SOLID187, see Section 8.3.1.4.1: Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Option (TB,HYPER).
ANSYS element types HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, and HYPER158 use up to a nine-term Mooney-Rivlin elastic
potential function. If you already know the values for two-term, three-term, five-term, or nine-term Mooney-
Rivlin constants, you can enter them directly with the TB family of commands. (See the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference
for information on the Mooney-Rivlin function.) For these element types, you can also specify the material
function as a User Programmable Feature (see the Guide to ANSYS User Programmable Features).
An example input listing showing a typical use of the Mooney-Rivlin for these elements is presented below :
MP,NUXY,1,0.49999 ! NUXY should be almost equal to, but less than 0.5
TB,MOONEY,1,1
TBDATA,1,0.163498
TBDATA,2,0.125076
TBDATA,3,-0.0047583
TBDATA,4,0.014719
TBDATA,6,0.0003882
! (Constants 5, 7, 8, and 9 default to 0.0 in this example)
Refer to Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Material Constants (TB,MOONEY) in the ANSYS Elements Reference for a de-
scription of the constants required as input for this option.
The Mooney-Rivlin constants for any given hyperelastic material are not generally available in the open literature.
Consequently, you can use the *MOONEY command to automatically determine a set of Mooney-Rivlin constants
from a set of known experimental test data. Sometimes the manufacturer of the material will be able to supply
some or all of the needed test data, but you might find that you need to obtain more data from a testing labor-
atory.
Hyperelastic material behavior is much more complicated than typical metallic material behavior. Hyperelastic
stress-strain relationships usually differ significantly for tension, compression, and shear modes of deformation.
Therefore, using *MOONEY to generate a generally applicable hyperelastic material model will require test data
that encompasses all possible modes of deformation: tension, compression, and shear. See the ANSYS, Inc. Theory
Reference for a discussion of hyperelastic test methods and equivalent deformation modes.
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If an incomplete set of data is provided (for instance, if only uniaxial tension data are available), the program can
still determine usable hyperelastic material properties. However, in such cases the deformations experienced in
the model should be limited to be of the same nature as those experienced in the tests. In other words, the test
data should represent all modes of deformation and ranges of response (strain) that will be experienced in the
model.
This advice is simply common sense - if you do not know how the material behaves in a certain mode of deform-
ation or range of strain, you cannot accurately predict the behavior of a part that experiences such deformations
or strains. For example, if all you have is uniaxial tension data, do not model a part that experiences significant
shear deformations. If your test data extend only from 0% to 100% strain, do not model a part that experiences
150% strain. If, after reviewing your analysis, you discover that the available test data do not adequately charac-
terize the model's response, get more test data!
You can use the *MOONEY command to automatically determine a set of Mooney-Rivlin constants from exper-
imental test data. ANSYS determines the constants and stores them in the database, and in an array parameter.
Additionally, it writes an ASCII file (Jobname.TB) that records the Mooney-Rivlin constants in the form of a series
of TB and TBDATA commands. Once such a file exists, you can use it in future analyses to define that same ma-
terial's Mooney-Rivlin constants - you do not need to use the *MOONEY command every time to regenerate
these constants.
The procedure for determining and applying Mooney-Rivlin constants consists of five main steps:
1. Dimension all arrays that will be used for data input, Mooney-Rivlin constant storage, and calculated
stress-strain evaluation.
2. Fill the input-data arrays with engineering stress and strain test data.
3. Determine the Mooney-Rivlin constants automatically.
4. Evaluate the quality of the automatically determined Mooney-Rivlin constants.
5. Apply the Mooney-Rivlin constants in your analysis.
You must dimension arrays before using the *MOONEY command. In most cases, you will need to dimension
at least six different arrays. (You can give these arrays any valid parameter names, but for convenience, we will
use specific array names, such as STRAIN, STRESS, and so on, in our discussion. You can substitute any other
valid parameter names that you like.) The arrays are STRAIN, STRESS, CONST, CALC, SORTSN, and SORTSS.
STRAIN Array: An array of engineering strain data from mechanical material tests, arranged in three columns:
This array has the dimensions N x 3, where N equals the maximum number of data points in any one of the three
columns. For example, if you have 20 data points from uniaxial tension/compression tests and 10 data points
from shear tests, N = 20. This array must always be N x 3, even if fewer than three types of test data are available.
Although it might be preferable to input the data points in order of ascending strain values, it is not necessary
to do so.
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STRESS Array: An array of engineering stress data from mechanical material tests input stress-data array, also
of dimension N x 3. You must input stress data points in the same order as the corresponding strain-data input.
CONST Array: A Mooney-Rivlin constant array of dimension M x 1, where M equals the desired number of
Mooney-Rivlin constants. (M must be either 2, 5, or 9; any other value will produce an error message when
*MOONEY is invoked.) You actually tell the program in this dimensioning operation how many Mooney-Rivlin
constants you want. The *MOONEY command later reads the dimensions of this array to determine how many
Mooney-Rivlin constants to generate, and then writes the values of those constants to this array.
As a rule of thumb, you should have at least twice as many data points (N, as defined above) as the desired
number of Mooney-Rivlin constants. Using more terms will usually improve the statistical quality of your curve
fit (that is, it will probably be more tightly fitted through the data points), but the overall shape of the curve
might be worse than that obtained with fewer terms. As a practical matter, you should probably try two-term,
five-term, and nine-term functions in sequence, and examine the resulting stress-strain curves to decide which
function gives you the best combination of tight fit and satisfactory curve shape.
CALC Array: An output stress-data array of dimension N x 3 (where N is as described above), in which sorted
calculated stress values are stored. These stress values will be sorted into the same order as their corresponding
sorted strain values (which will be sorted into ascending order).
SORTSN Array: An array of dimension N x 3 in which sorted input strain data are stored.
SORTSS Array: An array of dimension N x 3 in which sorted input stress data are stored.
For example, if your test data contained up to 20 data points for any one test type, and if you wanted to generate
a five-term set of Mooney-Rivlin constants, you might issue the following commands to dimension the necessary
arrays (remember that you can substitute any valid parameter names for the ones shown here):
*DIM,STRAIN,,20,3 ! Dim. array (STRAIN) for 20 input strain-data points
*DIM,STRESS,,20,3 ! Dim. array (STRESS) for input stress data (20 pts.)
*DIM,CONST,,5,1 ! Dim. array (CONST) for 5-term M-R constants
*DIM,CALC,,20,3 ! Dim. array (CALC) for sorted calculated stresses
*DIM,SORTSN,,20,3 ! Dim. array (SORTSN) for sorted input strain data
*DIM,SORTSS,,20,3 ! Dim. array (SORTSS) for sorted input stress data
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Once you have dimensioned your arrays, you can then fill the STRAIN and STRESS arrays with test data using the
*SET command (GUI path Utility Menu> Parameters> Scalar Parameters). (Again, remember that you can
give these arrays any valid parameter names; particular array names are used here only for the convenience of
this discussion.)
Note — The *MOONEY command interprets all input stress and strain data as engineering stress and
engineering strain.
These arrays are of dimension N x 3, with each column of the arrays containing data from one type of test, in this
order:
Note that these do not have a 1:1 relationship with the modes of deformation and their equivalencies. The first
mode of deformation, uniaxial tension, has equibiaxial compression as its equivalency, but the first column of
the array contains data from uniaxial tension and/or uniaxial compression. Likewise, the second mode of deform-
ation, equibiaxial tension, has uniaxial compression as its equivalency, but the second column of the array contains
data from equibiaxial tension and/or equibiaxial compression.
If fewer than three types of tests are used, you must leave the missing columns blank. Schematically, data input
might be represented as shown in Figure 8.16: “Data Locations in Stress and Strain Input Arrays”.
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Consider a case in which data from uniaxial tension and shear tests are available. The commands to store the
strain and stress data in the input-data arrays could look something like this (of course, the arrays can have any
valid array names, and the number of data points represented by N1 and N2 in this example can be any integral
numbers):
! Uniaxial Tension Data
*SET,STRAIN(1,1), ... ! First 10 strain data points
*SET,STRAIN(11,1),... ! Strain data points 11 through N1 (if N1<21)
*SET,STRESS(1,1), ... ! First 10 stress data points
*SET,STRESS(11,1),... ! Stress data points 11 through N1
! Shear Data
*SET,STRAIN(1,3), ... ! Strain data points 1 through N2 (if N2<11)
*SET,STRESS(1,3), ... ! Stress data points 1 through N2
To generate Mooney-Rivlin constants automatically, first use the TB command, with Lab = MOONEY and TBOPT
= 1. Next, issue the *MOONEY command, inserting the appropriate names of arrays that you have already dimen-
sioned (particular names have been used in this example for convenience of discussion only; you can use any
valid parameter names):
TB,MOONEY,MAT,NTEMP,,1
*MOONEY,STRAIN(1,1),STRESS(1,1),,CONST(1),CALC(1),SORTSN(1),
SORTSS(1),Fname,Ext
The program automatically determines the Mooney-Rivlin constants, stores them in the database and in the
CONST array (which can have any valid parameter name), and writes a series of TB and TBDATA commands in
the ASCII file Fname.Ext (default file name = Jobname.TB).
Uniaxial equations will be used for the data in column 1, equibiaxial equations for the data in column 2, and
planar (pure shear) equations for the data in column 3.
Note — All the laboratory test data entered in the STRAIN and STRESS arrays will be used to determine
the Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic material constants.
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In your printout (file Jobname.OUT), examine the "ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE ERROR (PERCENTAGE)" and the
"COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION." These two values give you a statistical measure of how well your calculated
stress-strain curve fits the experimental data points. The root-mean-square error, which is expressed as a percent-
age (that is, a value of 2.5 means 2.5 %), should be "close" to zero. The coefficient of determination will be less
than 1.0, but should be "close" to 1.0 (that is, typically 0.99 or better).
In addition, you should use the *EVAL and *VPLOT commands (GUI paths Main Menu> Preprocessor> Mater-
ial Props> Mooney-Rivlin> Evaluate Const and Utility Menu> Plot> Array Parameters) to graph the input
and calculated stress-strain curves, in order to obtain a visual check on how well the calculated curve matches
the experimental data. In comparing these curves, you should compare calculated values against test data that
represent the same mode of deformation. That is, you should compare the shape of the calculated uniaxial tension
curve (EVPARM = 1 in the *EVAL command) against uniaxial tension data only (column 1 of the sorted STRAIN
and STRESS arrays). Similarly, you should compare the calculated uniaxial compression curve against the uniaxial
compression data only, and the calculated shear curve against the shear data only.
When you graph your calculated stress-strain curves, you can extend the displayed curve into regions that were
not defined by the experimental data. Graphing your curves over such an extended range can help you qualitatively
understand your model's behavior if its response ever happens to exceed the range of experimental strain.
However, realize that if you extend a displayed curve into a region that represents a different mode of deformation,
then that portion of the display will be meaningless. For instance, you should graph a uniaxial tension curve only
in regions of positive strain, and a uniaxial compression curve only in regions of compressive strain. Remember
that good practice usually requires that the test data should represent all modes of deformation and ranges of
response (strain) experienced by your model.
The *MOONEY command automatically writes the Mooney-Rivlin constants to the CONST array. Because *EVAL
reads these same constants from this CONST array, you can readily do a *EVAL following a *MOONEY operation
in the same ANSYS session. If you already have the Mooney-Rivlin constants (and thus will not be doing a
*MOONEY calculation), you must first dimension [*DIM]and fill the CONST array with the Mooney-Rivlin constants
before you can evaluate the curves [*EVAL]. You can fill this array fairly easily, given that the CONST array is
either 1 x 2, 1 x 5, or 1 x 9 at most. You could also add the *DIM and array-filling commands to your archived
Jobname.TB file to make this operation more convenient.
To check your curve's shape, you must dimension [*DIM] two more table array vectors (identified as XVAL and
ECALC in the *EVAL command description; any valid parameter names may be used). Each of these table array
vectors should have dimension P, where P is the number of points you want to use to plot your curve. (Typically,
you will want to make P fairly large in order to generate a very smooth curve.) Next, specify the mode of deform-
ation, define an extended range of strain, and fill the arrays with engineering strain and calculated engineering
stress data, using the *EVAL command. Finally, graph [*VPLOT] the calculated stress-strain curve. The following
example demonstrates how to graph a calculated curve for the uniaxial compression deformation mode:
! Dimension strain and stress arrays for the calculated curve:
! (Any valid parameter names can be used)
*DIM,XVAL,TABLE,1000
*DIM,ECALC,TABLE,1000
! Specify the mode of deformation (EVPARM), define the strain range
! (XMIN,XMAX), and use the M-R constants (CONST) to fill the strain (XVAL)
! and stress (ECALC) arrays with calculated data:
*EVAL,1,2,CONST(1),XMIN,XMAX,XVAL(1),ECALC(1)
! Label the graph axes:
/AXLAB,X,Engineering Strain
/AXLAB,Y,Engineering Stress
! Plot the calculated uniaxial compression curve:
*VPLOT,XVAL(1),ECALC(1)
See the *DIM, *EVAL, /AXLAB, and *VPLOT command descriptions for more information.
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If the curve-fit statistics and the overall curve shape are satisfactory, then you can proceed to use the generated
Mooney-Rivlin material properties in your analysis. (The *MOONEY command will have stored these constants
in the database.) In future analyses using the same material model, you can simply read in [/INPUT] the file
Jobname.TB to load the constants into your new database. However, do not forget to define a value for Poisson's
ratio [MP,NUXY,...]. Always remember to examine your analysis results carefully to determine whether or not
your model's modes of deformation and values of maximum strain were properly represented by the original
test data.
Analyses involving hyperelastic elements are sometimes very sensitive to material property specification and
load application. Some values of Mooney-Rivlin constants result in very stable stiffness matrices whereas others
do not. Therefore, choose constants with caution and experiment with slightly different values.
ANSYS provides internal stability checks for hyperelastic materials based on the Mooney-Rivlin constants that
you enter. These checks occur at two levels:
• The first stability check occurs before the analysis. The check is for six typical stress paths (uniaxial tension
and compression, equibiaxial tension and compression, and planar tension and compression), and covers
a stretch ratio ranging from 0.1 to 10. If the material is not stable over the range, a message appears that
states the critical values of the nominal strains where the material first becomes unstable, and lists the
Mooney-Rivlin constants that you entered. If the material is stable over the range, you will not see any
message or indication. The sample warning message below lists the nominal strains where Material 1
loses stability, then lists the constants that were entered for this example:
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• For the hyperelastic elements with mixed u-P formulation (HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, and HYPER158),
you can also have ANSYS perform a stability check during an analysis by setting KEYOPT(8) = 1. For each
equilibrium iteration, the program checks every Gauss point in the problem for stability violations. If the
problem fails the stability check, you will see a message in the solution history section of the ANSYS Output
window reporting the total number of Gauss points that were unstable for that iteration. You will not see
any messages if the problem passes the check. The sample message below shows that, during an analysis,
ANSYS detected 3 Gauss points that exceeded the material stability limit:
DISP CONVERGENCE VALUE = 22.81 CRITERION= 0.5000
EQUIL ITER 1 COMPLETED. NEW TRIANG MATRIX. MAX DOF INC= 10.00
FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE = 0.5018E+07 CRITERION= 0.1917E+05
>>> 3 Gauss points have exceeded the material stability limit
For elements that contain at least one unstable Gauss point, the instability indicator is set to 1 and stored
in the result file as an item in the SMISC record. You can plot the region of instability in POST1 by plotting
this SMISC record identified as STFLAG for the element. The SMISC number for STFLAG differs for some
of the elements. See the appropriate table for the SMISC item that corresponds to instability indicator
STFLAG, for the particular element of interest: HYPER56 Item and Sequence Numbers for ETABLE and ESOL
Commands, HYPER58 Item and Sequence Numbers for ETABLE and ESOL Commands, HYPER74 Item and
Sequence Numbers for ETABLE and ESOL Commands, HYPER158 Item and Sequence Numbers for ETABLE
and ESOL Commands.
You should be aware that even though a material failing a stability check is often an indication of convergence
difficulty, it does not necessarily mean that your solution is invalid once the material enters the unstable region.
The material stability check is simply a tool to help you diagnose the problem when the solution fails to converge.
For nearly incompressible materials with Poisson's ratio greater than 0.49, we recommend that you use the hy-
perelastic elements with mixed u-P formulation (HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, and HYPER158).
Note — The element types HYPER84 and HYPER86 are intended primarily for modeling compressible,
foam-like elastomers, using a Blatz-Ko function to describe the material properties. Select the Blatz-Ko
option by setting KEYOPT(2) = 1 for these elements, then use MP commands to enter appropriate values
for EX and NUXY to define the initial material shear modulus. An incompressible hyperelastic material
option is also available for HYPER84 and HYPER86, but it is limited to two-term Mooney-Rivlin only. In
general, it is recommended that you use HYPER56, HYPER58, HYPER74, or HYPER158 (not HYPER84 or
HYPER86) for all incompressible hyperelastic materials.
Problems using hyperelastic elements can be sensitive to the rate of load application. In most instances, load
application should be slow so as not to over-distort elements in the converging sequence. Each problem may
be unique and require special consideration. Bifurcation of the solution, indicating that two or more different
geometric configurations have the same minimum potential energy, may occur at various times during the
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loading history. Automatic time stepping with bisection [AUTOTS,ON] is often effective in overcoming these
difficulties.
8.3.1.5. Creep
Creep is a rate dependent material nonlinearity in which the material continues to deform under a constant load.
Conversely, if a displacement is imposed, the reaction force (and stresses) will diminish over time (stress relaxation;
see Figure 8.18: “Stress Relaxation and Creep”(a)). The three stages of creep are shown in Figure 8.18: “Stress
Relaxation and Creep”(b). The ANSYS program has the capability of modeling the first two stages (primary and
secondary). The tertiary stage is usually not analyzed since it implies impending failure.
Creep is important in high temperature stress analyses, such as for nuclear reactors. For example, suppose you
apply a preload to some part in a nuclear reactor to keep adjacent parts from moving. Over a period of time at
high temperature, the preload would decrease (stress relaxation) and potentially let the adjacent parts move.
Creep can also be significant for some materials such as prestressed concrete. Typically, the creep deformation
is permanent.
ANSYS analyzes creep using two time integration methods. Both are applicable to static or transient analyses.The
implicit creep method is robust, fast, accurate, and recommended for general use. It can handle temperature
dependent creep constants, as well as simultaneous coupling with isotropic hardening plasticity models. The
explicit creep method is useful for cases where very small time steps are required. Creep constants cannot be
dependent on temperature. Coupling with other plastic models is available by superposition only.
Note — The terms “implicit” and “explicit” as applied to creep, have no relationship to “explicit dynamics,”
or any elements referred to as “explicit elements.”
The implicit creep method supports the following elements: PLANE42, SOLID45, PLANE82, SOLID92, SOLID95,
LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189.
The explicit creep method supports the following elements: LINK1, PLANE2, LINK8, PIPE20, BEAM23, BEAM24,
PLANE42, SHELL43, SOLID45, SHELL51, PIPE60, SOLID62, SOLID65, PLANE82, SOLID92, and SOLID95.
The creep strain rate may be a function of stress, strain, temperature, and neutron flux level. Libraries of creep
strain rate equations are built into the ANSYS program for primary, secondary, and irradiation induced creep.
(See Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for discussions of, and input procedures for, these various
creep equations.) Some equations require specific units. In particular, for the explicit creep option, temperatures
used in the creep equations should be based on an absolute scale.
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You can input other creep expressions using the user programmable feature and setting TBOPT = 100. You can
define the number of state variables using the TB command with Lab = STATE. The following example shows
how five state variables are defined.
TB,STATE,1,,5
You can simultaneously model creep [TB,CREEP] and isotropic, bilinear kinematic, and Hill anisotropy options
to simulate more complex material behaviors. See Material Model Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference
for the combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material Model Combinations in this chapter for sample
input listings of material combinations.
To perform an implicit creep analysis, you must also issue the solution RATE command, with Option = ON (or
1). The following example shows a procedure for a time hardening creep analysis (See Figure 8.19: “Time
Hardening Creep Analysis”).
The user applied mechanical loading in the first load step, and turned the RATE command OFF to bypass the
creep strain effect. Since the time period in this load step will affect the total time thereafter, the time period for
this load step should be small. For this example, the user specified a value of 1.0E-8 seconds. The second load
step is a creep analysis. The RATE command must be turned ON. Here the mechanical loading was kept constant,
and the material creeps as time increases.
/SOLU !First load step, apply mechanical loading
RATE,OFF !Creep analysis turned off
TIME,1.0E-8 !Time period set to a very small value
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...
SOLV !Solve this load step
!Second load step, no further mechanical load
RATE,ON !Creep analysis turned on
TIME,100 !Time period set to desired value
...
SOLV !Solve this load step
The RATE command works only when modeling implicit creep with either von Mises or Hill potentials.
When modeling implicit creep with von Mises potential, you can use the RATE command with the following
elements: LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189.
When modeling anisotropic creep (TB,CREEP with TB,HILL), you can use the RATE command with the following
elements: PLANE42, SOLID45, PLANE82, SOLID92, SOLID95, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,
SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189.
For most materials, the creep strain rate changes significantly at an early stage. Because of this, a general recom-
mendation is to use a small initial incremental time step, then specify a large maximum incremental time step
by using solution command DELTIM or NSUBST. For implicit creep, you may need to examine the effect of the
time increment on the results carefully because ANSYS does not enforce any creep ratio control by default. You
can always enforce a creep limit ratio using the creep ratio control option in commands CRPLIM or CUTCON-
TROL,CRPLIMIT. A recommended value for a creep limit ratio ranges from 1 to 10. The ratio may vary with ma-
terials so your decision on the best value to use should be based on your own experimentation to gain the required
performance and accuracy. For larger analyses, a suggestion is to first perform a time increment convergence
analysis on a simple small size test.
ANSYS provides tools to help you determine the coefficients for all of the implicit creep options defined in
TB,CREEP. The TBFT command allows you to compare your experimental data with existing material data curves
and visually “fit” your curve for use in the TB command. All of the TBFT command capability is available via either
batch or interactive (GUI) mode. See Material Curve Fitting (also in this manual) for more information.
For the explicit creep method, you can incorporate other creep expressions into the program by using User
Programmable Features (see the Guide to ANSYS User Programmable Features).
For highly nonlinear creep strain vs. time curves, a small time step must be used with the explicit creep method.
Creep strains are not computed if the time step is less than 1.0e-6. A creep time step optimization procedure is
available [AUTOTS and CRPLIM] for automatically adjusting the time step as appropriate.
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σ
ε
σ
∫
σ
σ
σ
∫
ε
Use the MP command to input the linear elastic behavior of the austenite phase, and the TB,SMA command to
input the behavior of the transition and martensite phases. Use the TBDATA command to enter the specifics
(data sets) of the alloy material. You can enter up to six sets of data.
SMAs can be specified for the following elements: PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187.
8.3.1.7. Viscoplasticity
Viscoplasticity is a time-dependent plasticity phenomenon, where the development of the plastic strains are
dependent on the rate of loading. The primary applications are high-temperature metal forming processes such
as rolling and deep drawing, which involve large plastic strains and displacements with small elastic strains (see
Figure 8.21: “Viscoplastic Behavior in a Rolling Operation”). The plastic strains are typically very large (for example,
50% or greater), requiring large strain theory [NLGEOM,ON].
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Viscoplasticity is modeled with element types VISCO106, VISCO107, and VISCO108, using Anand's model for
material properties as described in Nonlinear Stress-Strain Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference.
Viscoplasticity is defined by unifying plasticity and creep via a set of flow and evolutionary equations. A constraint
equation is used to preserve volume in the plastic region.
The Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity) or TB,RATE option allows you to introduce the strain rate effect
in material models to simulate the time-dependent response of materials. Two material options are available,
the Perzyna model and the Peirce model (see the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for details). In contrast to other
rate-dependent material options in ANSYS such as Creep or Anand's model, the Perzyna and Peirce models also
include a yield surface. The plasticity and thus the strain rate hardening effect are active only after plastic yielding.
You must use the models in combination with the BISO, MISO, or NLISO material options to simulate viscoplasticity.
Further, you can simulate anisotropic viscoplasticity by also combining the HILL option. See Material Model
Combinations in the ANSYS Elements Reference for the combination possibilities. Also, see Section 8.3.2: Material
Model Combinations in this chapter for sample input listings of material combinations. For isotropic hardening,
the intent is for simulating the strain rate hardening of materials rather than softening. This option is also suitable
for large strain analysis, and is applicable to the following elements: PLANE42, SOLID45, PLANE82, SOLID92,
SOLID95, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189.
Some typical applications of these material options are metal forming and micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS).
8.3.1.8. Viscoelasticity
Viscoelasticity is similar to creep, but part of the deformation is removed when the loading is taken off. A common
viscoelastic material is glass. Some plastics are also considered to be viscoelastic. One type of viscoelastic response
is illustrated in Figure 8.22: “Viscoelastic Behavior (Maxwell Model)”.
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Viscoelasticity is modeled with element types VISCO88 and VISCO89 for small deformation viscoelasticity and
LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, and BEAM189 for small
and large deformation viscoelasticity. You must input material properties using the TB family of commands. For
SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, and SOLID187 the underlying elasticity is specified by
either the MP command (hypoelasticity) or by the TB,HYPER command (hyperelasticity). For LINK180, BEAM188,
and BEAM189, the underlying elasticity is specified using the MP command (hypoelasticity) only. The elasticity
constants correspond to those of the fast load limit. Use the TB,PRONY and TB,SHIFT commands to input the
relaxation property (see the TB command description for more information).
!Small Strain Viscoelasticity
mp,ex,1,20.0E5 !elastic properties
mp,nuxy,1,0.3
See Viscoelastic Material Constants in the ANSYS Elements Reference and the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for details
about how to input viscoelastic material properties using the TB family of commands.
ANSYS provides tools to help you determine the coefficients for all of the viscoelastic options defined by TB,PRONY.
The TBFT command allows you to compare your experimental data with existing material data curves and
visually “fit” your curve for use in the TB command. All of the TBFT command capability is available via either
batch or interactive (GUI) mode. See Material Curve Fitting (also in this manual) for more information.
8.3.1.9. Swelling
Certain materials respond to neutron flux by enlarging volumetrically, or swelling. In order to include swelling
effects, you must write your own swelling subroutine, USERSW. (See the Guide to ANSYS User Programmable
Features for a discussion of User-Programmable Features.) Swelling Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference
discusses how to use the TB family of commands to input constants for the swelling equations. Swelling can
also be related to other phenomena, such as moisture content. The ANSYS commands for nuclear swelling can
be used analogously to define swelling due to other causes.
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For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–35
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
TBDATA,1,880,204000,200,43800,500,10200
TBDATA,7,1000,2600,2000,500,0
TBTEMP,60,3
TBDATA,1,1080,244000,400,45800,700,12200
TBDATA,7,1400,3000,2800,900,0
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
8–36 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–37
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the BKIN option, see Bilinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
8–38 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–39
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
For information on the BKIN option, see Bilinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
MPDATA,EX,1,1,30.00E6,27.36E6,25.20E6,23.11E6,20.76E6
MPDATA,EY,1,1,30.00E6,27.36E6,25.20E6,23.11E6,20.76E6
MPDATA,EZ,1,1,30.00E6,27.36E6,25.20E6,23.11E6,20.76E6
MPDATA,PRXY,1,1,0.351,0.359,0.368,0.375,0.377
MPDATA,PRYZ,1,1,0.351,0.359,0.368,0.375,0.377
MPDATA,PRXZ,1,1,0.351,0.359,0.368,0.375,0.377
MPDATA,GXY,1,1,1.190E4,1.160E4,1.110E4,1.080E4,1.060E4
MPDATA,GYZ,1,1,1.190E4,1.160E4,1.110E4,1.080E4,1.060E4
MPDATA,GXZ,1,1,1.190E4,1.160E4,1.110E4,1.080E4,1.060E4
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the MKIN option, see Multilinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
8–40 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the KINH option, see Multilinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
8–42 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CHAB option, see Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–43
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
TBDATA,1,1.0,1.0,1.0,1.00,1.00,1.00
TBTEMP,950.0
TBDATA,1,1.0,1.0,1.0,1.00,1.00,1.00
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
8–44 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the RATE option, see Rate-Dependent Viscoplastic Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference,
and Section 8.3.1.7: Viscoplasticity in this chapter.
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–45
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the BISO option, see Bilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
8–46 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.3: Modeling Material Nonlinearities
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the MISO option, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the NLISO option, see Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and
Section 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–47
Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
For information on the HILL option, see Hill's Anisotropy in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Section 8.3.1.1.1:
Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
For information on the CREEP option, see Implicit Creep Equations in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.5.1: Implicit Creep Procedure in this chapter.
For information on the BKIN option, see Bilinear Kinematic Hardening in the ANSYS Elements Reference, and Sec-
tion 8.3.1.1.1: Plastic Material Options in this chapter.
These commands and the settings they control are discussed in later sections. You can also refer to the individual
command descriptions in the ANSYS Commands Reference.
If you do choose to override the ANSYS-specified settings, or if you wish to use an input list from a previous release
of ANSYS, issue SOLCONTROL,OFF in the /SOLU phase. See the SOLCONTROL command description for more
details.
• Single-field nonlinear or transient structural and solid mechanics analysis where the solution DOFs are
combinations of UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, and ROTZ.
• Single-field nonlinear or transient thermal analysis where the solution DOF is TEMP.
Note — The Solution Controls dialog box, which is described later in this chapter, cannot be used to
set solution controls for a thermal analysis. Instead, you must use the standard set of ANSYS solution
commands and the standard corresponding menu paths.
8–48 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.5: Performing a Nonlinear Static Analysis
After you have created a model in ANSYS, you set solution controls (analysis type, analysis options, load step
options, and so on), apply loads, and solve. A nonlinear solution will differ from a linear solution in that it often
requires multiple load increments, and always requires equilibrium iterations. The general procedure for performing
these tasks follows. See Section 8.11: Sample Nonlinear Analysis (GUI Method) for a sample problem that walks
you through a specific nonlinear analysis.
• When setting ANTYPE and NLGEOM, choose Large Displacement Static if you are performing a new
analysis. (But, keep in mind that not all nonlinear analyses will produce large deformations. See Section 8.2:
Using Geometric Nonlinearities for further discussion of large deformations.) Choose Restart Current
Analysis if you want to restart a failed nonlinear analysis. You cannot change this setting after the first
load step (that is, after you issue your first SOLVE command). You will usually choose to do a new analysis,
rather than a restart. Restarts are discussed in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
• When working with time settings, remember that these options can be changed at any load step. See
Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for more information on these options. Advanced
time/frequency options, in addition to those available on the Solution Controls dialog box, are discussed
in Section 8.5.2.3: Advanced Load Step Options You Can Set on the Solution Controls Dialog Box.
A nonlinear analysis requires multiple substeps (or time steps; the two terms are equivalent) within each
load step so that ANSYS can apply the specified loads gradually and obtain an accurate solution. The
NSUBST and DELTIM commands both achieve the same effect (establishing a load step's starting, min-
imum, and maximum step size), but by reciprocal means. NSUBST defines the number of substeps to be
taken within a load step, whereas DELTIM defines the time step size explicitly. If automatic time stepping
is off [AUTOTS], then the starting substep size is used throughout the load step.
• OUTRES controls the data on the results file (Jobname.RST). By default, only the last substep is written
to the results file in a nonlinear analysis.
Only 1000 results sets (substeps) can be written to the results file, but you can use the command /CON-
FIG,NRES to increase the limit (see the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide).
8.5.2.2. Advanced Analysis Options You Can Set on the Solution Controls Dialog
Box
The following sections provide more detail about some of the advanced analysis options that you can set on the
Solution Controls dialog box.
If you are using the PCG solver, you may be able to considerably reduce your memory usage with the MSAVE
command. The MSAVE command triggers an element-by-element approach for the parts of the model that use
SOLID92, SOLID95, SOLID186, and/or SOLID187 elements with linear material properties. To use this command,
you must be doing a static analysis or a modal analysis with the PowerDynamics method. If using SOLID186
and/or SOLID187 elements, it must be a small strain (NLGEOM,OFF) analysis. Other parts of the model that do
not meet the above criteria will be solved using global assembly for the stiffness matrix. MSAVE,ON can result
in a memory savings of up to 70% for the part of the model that meets the criteria, although the solution time
may increase depending on the manufacturer of your computer and the speed of your processor, as well as the
chosen element options (for example, 2 x 2 x 2 integration for SOLID95).
The sparse direct solver, in sharp contrast to the iterative solvers included in ANSYS, is a robust solver. Although
the PCG solver can solve indefinite matrix equations, when the PCG solver encounters an ill-conditioned matrix,
the solver will iterate to the specified number of iterations and stop if it fails to converge. When this happens, it
triggers bisection. After completing the bisection, the solver continues the solution if the resulting matrix is well-
conditioned. Eventually, the entire nonlinear load step can be solved.
Use the following guidelines for selecting either the sparse or the PCG solver for nonlinear structural analysis:
• If it is a beam/shell or beam/shell and solid structure, choose the sparse direct solver.
• If it is a 3-D solid structure and the number of DOF is relatively large (that is, 200,000 or more DOF), choose
the PCG solver.
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Section 8.5: Performing a Nonlinear Static Analysis
• If the problem is ill-conditioned (triggered by poor element shapes), or has a big difference in material
properties in different regions of the model, or has insufficient displacement boundary constraints, choose
the sparse direct solver.
8.5.2.3. Advanced Load Step Options You Can Set on the Solution Controls Dialog
Box
The following sections provide more detail about some of the advanced load step options that you can set on
the Solution Controls dialog box.
• Number of equilibrium iterations used in the last time step (more iterations cause the time step size to
be reduced)
• Predictions for nonlinear element status change (time step sizes are decreased when a status change is
imminent)
• Size of the plastic strain increment
• Size of the creep strain increment
ANSYS' automatic solution control uses L2-norm of force (and moment) tolerance (TOLER) equal to 0.5%, a setting
that is appropriate for most cases. In most cases, an L2-norm check on displacement with TOLER equal to 5% is
also used in addition to the force norm check. The check that the displacements are loosely set serves as a double-
check on convergence.
By default, the program will check for force (and, when rotational degrees of freedom are active, moment) con-
vergence by comparing the square root sum of the squares (SRSS) of the force imbalances against the product
of VALUE*TOLER. The default value of VALUE is the SRSS of the applied loads (or, for applied displacements, of
the Newton-Raphson restoring forces), or MINREF (which defaults to 0.01), whichever is greater. The default
value of TOLER is 0.005. If SOLCONTROL,OFF, TOLER defaults to 0.001 and MINREF defaults to 1.0 for force con-
vergence.
You should almost always use force convergence checking. You can also add displacement (and, when applicable,
rotation) convergence checking. For displacements, the program bases convergence checking on the change
in deflections (∆u) between the current (i) and the previous (i-1) iterations: ∆u=ui-ui-1.
Note — If you explicitly define any custom convergence criteria [CNVTOL], the entire default criteria will
be overwritten. Thus, if you define displacement convergence checking, you will have to redefine force
convergence checking. (Use multiple CNVTOL commands to define multiple convergence criteria.)
Using tighter convergence criteria will improve the accuracy of your results, but at the cost of more equilibrium
iterations. If you want to tighten (or loosen, which is not recommended) your criteria, you should change TOLER
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
by one or two orders of magnitude. In general, you should continue to use the default value of VALUE; that is,
change the convergence criteria by adjusting TOLER, not VALUE. You should make certain that the default value
of MINREF = 0.001 makes sense in the context of your analysis. If your analysis uses certain sets of units or has
very low load levels, you might want to specify a smaller value for MINREF.
Also, we do not recommend putting two or more disjointed structures into one model for a nonlinear analysis
because the convergence check tries to relate these disjointed structures, often producing some unwanted re-
sidual force.
To check convergence in a single degree of freedom (DOF) system, you compute the force (and moment) imbal-
ance for the one DOF, and compare this value against the established convergence criteria (VALUE*TOLER). (You
can also perform a similar check for displacement (and rotation) convergence for your single DOF.) However, in
a multi-DOF system, you might want to use a different method of comparison.
The ANSYS program provides three different vector norms to use for convergence checking:
• The infinite norm repeats the single-DOF check at each DOF in your model.
• The L1 norm compares the convergence criterion against the sum of the absolute values of force (and
moment) imbalance for all DOFs.
• The L2 norm performs the convergence check using the square root sum of the squares of the force (and
moment) imbalances for all DOFs. (Of course, additional L1 or L2 checking can be performed for a displace-
ment convergence check.)
Example
For the following example, the substep will be considered to be converged if the out-of-balance force (checked
at each DOF separately) is less than or equal to 5000*0.0005 (that is, 2.5), and if the change in displacements
(checked as the square root sum of the squares) is less than or equal to 10*0.001 (that is, 0.01).
CNVTOL,F,5000,0.0005,0
CNVTOL,U,10,0.001,2
This option limits the maximum number of equilibrium iterations to be performed at each substep (default = 25
if solution control is off). If the convergence criteria have not been satisfied within this number of equilibrium
iterations, and if auto time stepping is on [AUTOTS], the analysis will attempt to bisect. If bisection is not possible,
then the analysis will either terminate or move on to the next load step, according to the instructions you issue
in the NCNV command.
You can activate a predictor on the DOF solution for the first equilibrium iteration of each substep. This feature
accelerates convergence and is particularly useful if nonlinear response is relatively smooth. It is not so helpful
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Section 8.5: Performing a Nonlinear Static Analysis
in analyses that incorporate large rotations or viscoelasticity. Using the predictor for large rotations can cause
divergence and thus is not recommended for problems with large rotations.
When an imposed displacement exists, a run cannot converge until at least one of the iterations has a line search
value of 1. ANSYS scales the entire ∆U vector, including the imposed displacement value; otherwise, a "small"
displacement would occur everywhere except at the imposed DOF. Until one of the iterations has a line search
value of 1, ANSYS does not impose the full value of the displacement.
8.5.3.1. Advanced Analysis Options You Cannot Set on the Solution Controls Dialog
Box
The following sections describe some advanced analysis options that you can set for your analysis. As noted
above in Section 8.5.3: Set Additional Solution Options, you cannot use the Solution Controls dialog box to set
the options described below. Instead, you must set them using the standard set of ANSYS solution commands
and the standard corresponding menu paths.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
Use this option only in a nonlinear analysis. This option specifies how often the tangent matrix is updated during
solution. If you choose to override the default, you can specify one of these values:
• Program-chosen (NROPT,AUTO): The program chooses which of the options to use, based on the kinds
of nonlinearities present in your model. Adaptive descent will be automatically activated, when appropriate.
• Full (NROPT,FULL): The program uses the full Newton-Raphson procedure, in which the stiffness matrix
is updated at every equilibrium iteration.
If adaptive descent is on (optional), the program will use the tangent stiffness matrix only as long as the
iterations remain stable (that is, as long as the residual decreases, and no negative main diagonal pivot
occurs). If divergent trends are detected on an iteration, the program discards the divergent iteration and
restarts the solution, using a weighted combination of the secant and tangent stiffness matrices. When
the iterations return to a convergent pattern, the program will resume using the tangent stiffness matrix.
Activating adaptive descent will usually enhance the program's ability to obtain converged solutions for
complicated nonlinear problems but is supported only for elements indicated under "Special Features"
in the Input Summary table (Table 4.n.1 for an element, where n is the element number) in the ANSYS
Elements Reference.
• Modified (NROPT,MODI): The program uses the modified Newton-Raphson technique, in which the tangent
stiffness matrix is updated at each substep. The matrix is not changed during equilibrium iterations at a
substep. This option is not applicable to large deformation analyses. Adaptive descent is not available.
• Initial Stiffness (NROPT,INIT): The program uses the initial stiffness matrix in every equilibrium iteration.
This option can be less likely to diverge than the full option, but it often requires more iterations to achieve
convergence. It is not applicable to large deformation analyses. Adaptive descent is not available.
• Full with unsymmetric matrix (NROPT,UNSYM): The program uses the full Newton-Raphson procedure,
in which the stiffness matrix is updated at every equilibrium iteration. In addition, it generates and uses
unsymmetric matrices that you can use for any of the following:
– If you are running a pressure-driven collapse analysis, an unsymmetric pressure load stiffness might
be helpful in obtaining convergence. You can include pressure load stiffness using SOLCONTROL,INCP.
– If you are defining an unsymmetric material model using TB,USER, you would need NROPT,UNSYM
to fully use the property you defined.
– If you are running a contact analysis, an unsymmetric contact stiffness matrix would fully couple the
sliding and the normal stiffnesses. See Section 11.4.8.4: Determining Contact Stiffness and Allowable
Penetration in this manual for details.
You should first try NROPT,FULL; then try NROPT,UNSYM if you experience convergence difficulties. Note
that using an unsymmetric solver requires more computer time to obtain a solution, than if you use a
symmetric solver.
• If a multistatus element is in the model, however, it would be updated at the iteration in which it changes
status, irrespective of the Newton-Raphson option.
8–54 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.5: Performing a Nonlinear Static Analysis
8.5.3.2. Advanced Load Step Options You Cannot Set on the Solution Controls
Dialog Box
The following sections describe some advanced load step options that you can set for your analysis. As noted
above in Section 8.5.3: Set Additional Solution Options, you cannot use the Solution Controls dialog box to set
the options described below. Instead, you must set them using the standard set of ANSYS solution commands
and the standard corresponding menu paths.
Note — If you do not want to include the effects of creep in your analysis, use the RATE command with
Option = OFF, or set the time steps to be longer than the previous time step, but not more than 1.0e-6
longer.
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
The program “deactivates” an element by multiplying its stiffness by a very small number (which is set by the
ESTIF command), and by removing its mass from the overall mass matrix. Element loads (pressure, heat flux,
thermal strains, and so on) for inactive elements are also set to zero. You need to define all possible elements
during preprocessing; you cannot create new elements in SOLUTION.
Those elements to be “born” in later stages of your analysis should be deactivated before the first load step, and
then reactivated at the beginning of the appropriate load step. When elements are reactivated, they have a zero
strain state, and (if NLGEOM,ON) their geometric configuration (length, area, and so on) is updated to match
the current displaced positions of their nodes. See the ANSYS Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide for more in-
formation on birth and death.
Another way to affect element behavior during solution is to change the material property reference number
for selected elements:
Command(s): MPCHG
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other> Change Mat Props> Change Mat Num
Note — Use MPCHG with caution. Changing material properties in a nonlinear analysis may produce
unintended results, particularly if you change nonlinear [TB] material properties.
Printed output [OUTPR] includes any results data on the output file (Jobname.OUT).
Extrapolation of results [ERESX] copies an element's integration point stress and elastic strain results to the nodes
instead of extrapolating them, if nonlinear strains (plasticity, creep, swelling) are present in the element. The in-
tegration point nonlinear strains are always copied to the nodes.
See Chapter 2, “Loading” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for more information on these options.
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Section 8.5: Performing a Nonlinear Static Analysis
Remember that in POST1, only one substep can be read in at a time, and that the results from that substep should
have been written to Jobname.RST. (The load step option command OUTRES controls which substep results
are stored on Jobname.RST.) A typical POST1 postprocessing sequence is described below.
• If not, you probably will not want to postprocess the results, other than to determine why convergence
failed.
• If your solution converged, then continue postprocessing.
2. Enter POST1. If your model is not currently in the database, issue RESUME.
Command(s): /POST1
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc
3. Read in results for the desired load step and substep, which can be identified by load step and substep
numbers or by time. (Note, however, that arc-length results should not be identified by time.)
Command(s): SET
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> load step
You can also use the SUBSET or APPEND commands to read in or merge results data for selected portions
of the model only. The LIST argument on any of these commands lists the available solutions on the
results file. You can also limit the amount of data written from the results file to the database through
the INRES command. Additionally, you can use the ETABLE command to store result items for selected
elements. See the individual command descriptions in the ANSYS Commands Reference for more inform-
ation.
Caution: If you specify a TIME value for which no results are available, the ANSYS program will
perform a linear interpolation to calculate the results at that value of TIME. Realize that this inter-
polation will usually cause some loss of accuracy in a nonlinear analysis (see Figure 8.23: “Linear
Interpolation of Nonlinear Results Can Introduce Some Error”). Thus, for a nonlinear analysis, you
should usually postprocess at a TIME that corresponds exactly to the desired substep.
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Figure 8.23 Linear Interpolation of Nonlinear Results Can Introduce Some Error
Use these options to display contours of stresses, strains, or any other applicable item. If you have adjacent
elements with different material behavior (such as can occur with plastic or multilinear elastic material
properties, with different material types, or with adjacent deactivated and activated elements), you
should take care to avoid nodal stress averaging errors in your results. Selecting logic (described in the
ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide) provides a means of avoiding such errors.
The KUND field on PLNSOL and PLESOL gives you the option of overlaying the undeformed shape on
the display.
You can also contour element table data and line element data:
Command(s): PLETAB, PLLS
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Element Table> Plot Element Table
Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Line Elem Res
Use PLETAB to contour element table data and PLLS to contour line element data.
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Section 8.6: Performing a Nonlinear Transient Analysis
Other Capabilities
Many other postprocessing functions - mapping results onto a path, report quality listings, and so on -
are available in POST1. See The General Postprocessor (POST1) in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
Load case combinations usually are not valid for nonlinear analyses.
1. Verify from your output file (Jobname.OUT) whether or not the analysis converged at all desired load
steps. You should not base design decisions on unconverged results.
2. If your solution converged, enter POST26. If your model is not currently in the database, issue RESUME.
Command(s): /POST26
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro
3. Define the variables to be used in your postprocessing session. The SOLU command will cause various
iteration and convergence parameters to be read into the database, where you can incorporate them
into your postprocessing.
Command(s): NSOL, ESOL, RFORCE
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables
4. Graph or list the variables.
Command(s): PLVAR (graph variables) PRVAR EXTREM (list variables)
GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Variables
Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Extremes
Other Capabilities
Many other postprocessing functions are available in POST26. See Chapter 6, “The Time-History Postprocessor
(POST26)” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for details.
See the NLGEOM, SSTIF, NROPT, TIME, NSUBST, AUTOTS, KBC, CNVTOL, NEQIT, NCNV, PRED, OUTRES, and
SOLU command descriptions for more information.
You can often restart an analysis if it successfully completed one or more iterations before it terminated. Restart
procedures are covered in Section 3.16: Restarting an Analysis in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Remember that the Solution Controls dialog box, which is the method described in Section 8.5: Performing a
Nonlinear Static Analysis, cannot be used to set solution controls for a thermal analysis. Instead, you must use
the standard set of ANSYS solution commands and the standard corresponding menu paths.
2. Apply loads and specify load step options in the same manner as you would for a linear full transient
dynamic analysis. A transient load history usually requires multiple load steps, with the first load step
typically used to establish initial conditions (see the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide). The general, nonlinear,
birth and death, and output control options available for a nonlinear static analysis are also available for
a nonlinear transient analysis.
In a nonlinear transient analysis, time must be greater than zero. See Chapter 5, “Transient Dynamic
Analysis” for procedures for defining nonzero initial conditions.
For a nonlinear transient analysis, you must specify whether you want stepped or ramped loads [KBC].
See the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for further discussion about ramped vs. stepped loads.
You can also specify dynamics options: alpha and beta damping, time integration effects, and transient
integration parameters.
Command(s): ALPHAD, BETAD, TIMINT, TINTP
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Transient Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Damping
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time Integ-
ration
• Damping
Rayleigh damping constants are defined using the constant mass [ALPHAD] and stiffness [BETAD]
matrix multipliers. In a nonlinear analysis the stiffness may change drastically - do not use BETAD,
except with care. See Section 5.10.3: Damping for details about damping.
• Time Integration Effects [TIMINT]
Time integration effects are ON by default in a transient analysis. For creep, viscoelasticity, viscoplas-
ticity, or swelling, you should turn the time integration effects off (that is, use a static analysis). These
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time-dependent effects are usually not included in dynamic analyses because the transient dynamic
time step sizes are often too short for any significant amount of long-term deformation to occur.
Except in kinematic (rigid-body motion) analyses, you will rarely need to adjust the transient integration
parameters [TINTP], which provide numerical damping to the Newmark and HHT methods. (See your
ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for more information about these parameters.)
ANSYS' automatic solution control sets the defaults to a new time integration scheme for use by first
order transient equations. This is typically used for unsteady state thermal problems where θ = 1.0
(set by SOLCONTROL, ON); this is the backward Euler scheme. It is unconditionally stable and more
robust for highly nonlinear thermal problems such as phase changes. The oscillation limit tolerance
defaults to 0.0, so that the response first order eigenvalues can be used to more precisely determine
a new time step value.
Note — If you are using the Solution Controls dialog box to set solution controls, you can access
all of these options [ALPHAD, BETAD, KBC, TIMINT, TINTP, TRNOPT] on the Transient tab.
3. Write load data for each load step to a load step file.
Command(s): LSWRITE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Write LS File
4. Save a backup copy of the database to a named file.
Command(s): SAVE
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save As
5. Start solution calculations. Other methods for multiple load steps are described in Chapter 1, “Getting
Started with ANSYS” in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
Command(s): LSSOLVE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> From LS Files
6. After you have solved all load steps, leave SOLUTION.
Command(s): FINISH
GUI: Close the Solution menu.
Time-history postprocessing using POST26 is essentially the same for nonlinear as for linear transient analyses.
See the postprocessing procedures outlined in Chapter 5, “Transient Dynamic Analysis”.
More details of postprocessing procedures can be found in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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See the ANTYPE, TRNOPT, LSWRITE, NLGEOM, SSTIF, NROPT, TIME, DELTIM, AUTOTS, KBC, ALPHAD, TIMINT,
CNVTOL, NEQIT, NCNV, PRED, OUTRES, LSSOLVE, and SOLU command descriptions for more information.
8.8. Restarts
Restart procedures for a transient analysis are essentially the same as for a static analysis; see Section 3.16: Re-
starting an Analysis in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Section 8.10: Tips and Guidelines for Nonlinear Analysis
• COMBIN7
• COMBIN14
• COMBIN37
• COMBIN39
• COMBIN40
• CONTAC12 and CONTAC52
• TARGE169, TARGE170, CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, and CONTA175
• LINK10
• SHELL41
• SOLID65
• Gain preliminary insight into your structure's behavior by analyzing a preliminary simplified model first.
For nonlinear static models, a preliminary linear static analysis can reveal which regions of your model
will first experience nonlinear response, and at what load levels these nonlinearities will come into play.
For nonlinear transient dynamic analyses, a preliminary model of beams, masses, and springs can provide
insight into the structure's dynamics at minimal cost. Preliminary nonlinear static, linear transient dynamic,
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and/or modal analyses can also help you to understand various aspects of your structure's nonlinear dy-
namic response before you undertake the final nonlinear transient dynamic analysis.
• Read and understand the program's output messages and warnings. At a minimum, before you try to
postprocess your results, make sure your problem converged. For path-dependent problems, the printout's
equilibrium iteration record can be especially important in helping you to determine if your results are
valid or not.
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Section 8.10: Tips and Guidelines for Nonlinear Analysis
a robust, accurate solution. In addition, several tools are available in ANSYS that can help you identify potential
problems before, during, and after a solution.
CHECK, MCHECK, and CNCHECK commands help you verify if there are any obvious problems with the model
before you start the solution. The CHECK command does an overall verification of the model, including missing
elastic properties, unconstrained model, and element shape checks. The MCHECK command can help you
identify defects in the mesh such as holes or cracks, especially when the mesh is imported from a third party
software. The CNCHECK command provides the initial contact status of contact pairs, identifying whether the
contacts are initially open or closed. If, for example, a part in your model is constrained only through contact
with other parts and if the contact surfaces are open, the CNCHECK command can help you identify this potential
error condition.
When you analyze models with large deformations, some portions of the initial mesh can become highly distorted.
Highly distorted elements can take on unacceptable shapes, providing inaccurate results. This can cause your
nonlinear solution to stop. When this happens, use the ESCHECK command to perform shape checking of de-
formed elements in the postprocessor (based on the current set of results in database). This deformed-shape
checker will help you to identify the portions of your model that require different meshing, thereby allowing
them to retain acceptable shapes. Using ESCHECK at different time points will help you to identify the load
conditions that cause mesh deterioration.
A convergence failure can also indicate a physical instability in the structure, or it can merely be the result of
some numerical problem in the finite element model.
The following sections detail some of the techniques that you can use to attempt to improve the convergence
performance of your analysis.
Identify Regions of High Residual Forces Issue the NLDIAG,NRRE command to write the Newton-Raphson
residuals from equilibrium iterations to a file. You can then contour plot the residual forces via the PLNSOL,NRRE
command, which will help to identify regions of high residual forces.
Such a capability can be useful when you experience convergence difficulties in the middle of a load step, where
the model has a large number of contact surfaces and other nonlinearities. You can restart the analysis and issue
an NLDIAG,NRRE command to write out the residuals. By tracking the way the residuals change over several
equilibrium iterations you can identify a portion of your model where large residuals persist. You can then focus
on the nonlinearities in that area (for example, a contact pair's properties) instead of having to deal with the
entire model.
Identify Problem Elements Typically, nonlinear analyses fail to converge for the following reasons:
ANSYS has default limits which, when exceeded, determine when convergence criteria have been violated. Some
limits are user-controlled; for example, the CUTCONTROL command sets the maximum plastic/creep strain in-
crements allowed in an iteration. Other limits are fixed.
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The NLDIAG,EFLG command identifies elements that violate the above criteria and records them in a file (Job-
name.ndxxx).
Process the Tracked Results Issue the NLDPOST command to process the .ndxxx nonlinear diagnostics files.
The command creates components of elements that violate a certain criterion for a particular equilibrium iteration
(or iterations).
Monitor the Diagnostics Results in Real Time The NLHIST command allows you to monitor results of interest
in real time during solution. Before starting the solution, you can request nodal data such as displacements or
reaction forces at specific nodes. You can also request element nodal data such as stresses and strains at specific
elements to be graphed. Pair-based contact data are also available. The result data are written to a file named
Jobname.nlh.
For example, a reaction force-deflection curve could indicate when possible buckling behavior occurs. Nodal
results and contact results are monitored at every converged substep while element nodal data are written as
specified via the OUTRES setting.
You can also track results during batch runs. Either access the ANSYS Launcher and select File Tracking from
the Tools menu, or type nlhist81 at the command line. Use the supplied file browser to navigate to your Job-
name.nlh file, and click on it to invoke the tracking utilty. You can use this utilty to read the file at any time, even
after the solution is complete (the data in the file must be formatted correctly).
Figure 8.24: “Convergence Norms Displayed By the Graphical Solution Tracking (GST) Feature” shows a typical
GST display:
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Section 8.10: Tips and Guidelines for Nonlinear Analysis
Figure 8.24 Convergence Norms Displayed By the Graphical Solution Tracking (GST)
Feature
– Problems that have only localized dynamic behavior (for example, turbine blade and hub assemblies)
in which the low-frequency energy content of the system could dominate the high-frequency areas.
– Problems with short ramp times on some of their loads. If the time step size is allowed to become too
large, ramped portions of the load history may be inaccurately characterized.
– Problems that include structures that are continuously excited over a range of frequencies (for example,
seismic problems).
• Take care when modeling kinematic structures (systems with rigid-body motions). These guidelines can
usually help you obtain a good solution:
– Incorporate significant numerical damping (0.05 < γ < 0.1 on the TINTP command) into the solution
to filter out the high frequency noise, especially if a coarse time step is used. Do not use α-damping
(mass matrix multiplier, ALPHAD command) in a dynamic kinematic analysis, as it will dampen the
rigid body motion (zero frequency mode) of the system.
– Avoid imposed displacement history specifications, because imposed displacement input has (theor-
etically) infinite jumps in acceleration, which causes stability problems for the Newmark time-integration
algorithm.
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• The arc-length method is restricted to static analyses with proportional (ramped) loads only.
• The program calculates the reference arc-length radius from the load (or displacement) increment of the
first iteration of the first substep, using the following formula:
When choosing the number of substeps, consider that more substeps will result in a longer solution time. Ideally,
you want to choose the minimum number of substeps required to produce an optimally efficient solution. You
might have to take an "educated guess" of the desired number of substeps, and adjust and re-analyze as needed.
• Do not use line search [LNSRCH], the predictor [PRED], adaptive descent [NROPT,,,ON], automatic time
stepping [AUTOTS, TIME, DELTIM], or time-integration effects [TIMINT] when the arc-length method is
active.
• Do not attempt to base convergence on displacement [CNVTOL,U]. Use the force criteria [CNVTOL,F] in-
stead.
• To help minimize solution time with the arc-length method, the maximum number of equilibrium iterations
in a single substep [NEQIT] should be less than or equal to 15.
• If an arc-length solution fails to converge within the prescribed maximum number of iterations [NEQIT],
the program will automatically bisect and continue the analysis. Bisection will continue either until a
converged solution is obtained, or until the minimum arc-length radius is used (the minimum radius is
defined by NSBSTP [NSUBST] and MINARC [ARCLEN]).
• In general, you cannot use this method to obtain a solution at a specified load or displacement value be-
cause the value changes (along the spherical arc) as equilibrium is achieved. Note in Figure 8.4: “Traditional
F1a
Newton-Raphson Method vs. Arc-Length Method” how the specified load is only used as a starting
point. The actual load at convergence is somewhat less.
• Similarly, it can be difficult to determine a value of limiting load or deflection within some known tolerance
when using the arc-length method in a nonlinear buckling analysis. You generally have to adjust the ref-
erence arc-length radius (using NSUBST) by trial-and-error to obtain a solution at the limit point. It might
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Section 8.10: Tips and Guidelines for Nonlinear Analysis
be more convenient to use standard Newton-Raphson iterations with bisection [AUTOTS] to determine
values of nonlinear buckling loads.
• You should usually avoid using the JCG solver [EQSLV] in conjunction with the arc-length method, because
the arc-length procedure might result in a negative definite stiffness matrix (negative pivot), which can
cause a solution failure with this solver.
• You can freely switch from the Newton-Raphson iteration method to the arc-length method at the start
of any load step. However, to switch from arc-length to Newton-Raphson iterations, you must terminate
the analysis and restart, deactivating the arc-length method in the first load step of the restart
[ARCLEN,OFF].
See the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for a discussion of termination and restart procedures.
• Use the load-deflection curve as a guide for evaluating and adjusting your analysis to help you achieve
the desired results. It is usually good practice to graph your load-deflection curve (using POST26 commands)
with every analysis.
• Often, an unsuccessful arc-length analysis can be traced to an arc-length radius that is either too large or
too small. "Drifting back," in which the analysis retraces its steps back along the load-deflection curve, is
one typical difficulty that is caused by using too large or too small an arc-length radius. Study the load-
deflection curve to understand this problem. You can then use the NSUBST and ARCLEN commands to
adjust the arc-length radius size and range, as appropriate.
• The total arc-length load factor (item ALLF on the SOLU command) can be either positive or negative.
Similarly, TIME, which in an arc-length analysis is related to the total arc-length load factor, can also be
either positive or negative. Negative values of ALLF or TIME indicate that the arc-length feature is applying
load in the reverse direction, in order to maintain stability in the structure. Negative ALLF or TIME values
can be commonly encountered in various snap-through analyses.
• When reading arc-length results into the database for POST1 postprocessing [SET], you should always
reference the desired results data set by its load step and substep number (LSTEP and SBSTEP) or by its
data set number (NSET). Do not reference results by a TIME value, because TIME in an arc-length analysis
is not always monotonically increasing. (A single value of TIME might reference more than one solution.)
Additionally, the program cannot correctly interpret negative TIME values (which might be encountered
in a snap-through analysis).
• If TIME becomes negative, remember to define an appropriate variable range [/XRANGE or /YRANGE]
before creating any POST26 graphs.
• In some cases, you can use imposed displacements instead of applied forces. This approach can be used
to start a static analysis closer to the equilibrium position, or to control displacements through periods
of unstable response (for example, snap-through or postbuckling).
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• Another technique that can be effective in circumventing problems due to initial instability is running a
static problem as a "slow dynamic" analysis (that is, using time-integration effects in an attempt to prevent
the solution from diverging in any one load step).
• You can also apply temporary artificial stiffness to unstable DOFs, using control elements (such as COM-
BIN37), or using the birth and death option on other elements. The idea here is to artificially restrain the
system during intermediate load steps in order to prevent unrealistically large displacements from being
calculated. As the system displaces into a stable configuration, the artificial stiffness is removed.
Load step L O A D S T E P O P T I O N S
summary LOAD STEP NUMBER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
table TIME AT END OF THE LOAD STEP. . . . . . . . . . 200.00
AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
INITIAL NUMBER OF SUBSTEPS . . . . . . . . . 100
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF SUBSTEPS . . . . . . . . . 10000
MINIMUM NUMBER OF SUBSTEPS . . . . . . . . . 10
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS. . . . 15
STEP CHANGE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . NO
TERMINATE ANALYSIS IF NOT CONVERGED . . . . . .YES (EXIT)
CONVERGENCE CONTROLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . .USE DEFAULTS
PRINT OUTPUT CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . .NO PRINTOUT
DATABASE OUTPUT CONTROLS
ITEM FREQUENCY COMPONENT
BASI -10
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Section 8.11: Sample Nonlinear Analysis (GUI Method)
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
ANSYS uses an incremental solution procedure to obtain a solution to a nonlinear analysis. In this example, the
total external load within a load step is applied in increments over a certain number of substeps. As described
earlier in this chapter, ANSYS uses a Newton-Raphson iterative procedure to solve each substep. You must specify
the number of substeps for each load step, since this number controls the size of the initial load increment applied
in the first substep of the each load step. ANSYS automatically determines the size of the load increment for each
subsequent substep in a load step. You can control the size of the load increment for these subsequent substeps
by specifying the maximum and minimum number of substeps. If you define the number of substeps, the max-
imum and minimum number of substeps all to be the same, then ANSYS uses a constant load increment for all
substeps within the load step.
You will specify 10 substeps for the first load to ensure that the increment of the dead load applied over the first
substep is 1/10 of the total load of 0.125 N/m2. You will also specify a maximum of 50 and a minimum of 5 substeps
to ensure that if the plate exhibits a severe nonlinear behavior during the solution, then the load increment can
be cut back to 1/50 the total load. If the plate exhibits mild nonlinear behavior, then the load increment can be
increased up to 1/5 the size of the total load.
For the subsequent six load steps that apply the cyclic point load, you will specify 4 substeps, with a maximum
of 25 and a minimum of 2 substeps.
For this example, you will monitor the history over the entire solution of the vertical displacement of the node
at the location where the point cyclic load is applied and the reaction force at the node located at the bottom
of the clamped edge.
EX = 16911.23 Pa
PRXY = 0.3
The plate has a dead load acting as a uniform pressure of 0.125N/m2. The history of the cyclic point load is shown
here:
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" *><$ 4 +
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
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Section 8.11: Sample Nonlinear Analysis (GUI Method)
4. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Areas> Rectangle> By Dimen-
sions. The Create Rectangle by Dimensions dialog box appears.
5. Enter "0, radius" for X-coordinates.
6. Enter "0, thick" for Y-coordinates and click on OK. A rectangle appears in the ANSYS Graphics window.
7. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Lines.
1. Choose menu path Utility Menu> Parameters> Scalar Parameters. The Scalar Parameters dialog box
appears.
2. Type "ntop = node(0,thick,0.0)" in the Selection field and click Accept.
3. Type "nright = node(radius,0.0,0.0)" in the Selection field and click Accept, then Close.
4. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Monitor. The Monitor picking
menu appears.
5. Type "ntop" in the picker and press RETURN. Click OK in the picking menu. The Monitor dialog box appears.
6. In the scroll box for Quantity to be monitored, scroll to "UY" and select it. Click OK.
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7. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Monitor. The Monitor picking
menu appears.
8. Type "nright" in the picker and press RETURN. Click OK in the picking menu. The Monitor dialog box ap-
pears.
9. In the scroll box for Variable to redefine, scroll to "Variable 2" and select it. In the scroll box for Quantity
to be monitored, scroll to "FY" and select it. Click OK.
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5. Click on Close on the Information dialog box when the solution is done.
6. Choose Utility Menu> Plot> Elements.
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Section 8.12: Sample Nonlinear Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
6. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables. The Graph Time-History Variables
dialog box appears.
7. Enter 2 as the first variable to graph. Click OK.
! Define a Kinematic Hardening Plasticity curve using the KINH material model
tb,KINH,1,1,5
! Define the true stress vs. total log strain curve for this material model
! using 5 points. First point defines the elastic limit
tbpt,,0.001123514,19.00
tbpt,,0.001865643,22.80
tbpt,,0.002562402,25.08
tbpt,,0.004471788,29.07
tbpt,,0.006422389,31.73
rect,,radius,,thick
! Select the left and right bounding lines of the created rectangle and set
! the line division to 8 (8 elements through the thickness of the plate)
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,2
FITEM,5,4
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
!*
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,8,1,
CMDEL,_Y
CMDEL,_Y1
!*
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! Select the top and bottom bounding lines of the created rectangle and set
! the line division to 40 (40 elements through the radius of the plate)
FLST,5,2,4,ORDE,2
FITEM,5,1
FITEM,5,3
CM,_Y,LINE
LSEL, , , ,P51X
!*
CM,_Y1,LINE
CMSEL,,_Y
LESIZE,_Y1, , ,40,1,
CMDEL,_Y
CMDEL,_Y1
!*
CM,_Y,AREA
ASEL, , , , 1
CM,_Y1,AREA
CHKMSH,'AREA'
CMSEL,S,_Y
amesh,all
CMDEL,_Y
CMDEL,_Y1
CMDEL,_Y2
fini
/solve
! Get the node numbers for the nodes located at the top
! of the axis of symmetry and at bottom right of the model
ntop = node(0,thick,0)
nright = node(radius,0,0)
monitor,1,ntop,uy
monitor,2,nright,fy
! Select the nodes located at right end and constrain their radial (x) and
! axial (y) direction displacement to be zero.
nsel,s,loc,x,radius
d,all,all
! Select the nodes located at left end and constrain their radial (x) direction
! displacement to be zero.
nsel,s,loc,x,0.0
d,all,ux,0.0
nsel,s,loc,y,thick
sf,all,pres,0.125
nsub,10,50,5
8–80 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.12: Sample Nonlinear Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
! Over six load steps apply a cyclic point load of magnitude f = 0.01 units
! applied at the center of the plate over three cycles
! Start Cycle 1
! ----------------
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,-f ! Define load for load step 2
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps
solve ! Solve load step 2
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,f ! Define load for load step 3
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps
solve ! Solve load step 3
! Start Cycle 2
! ----------------
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,-f ! Define load for load step 4
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps
solve ! Solve load step 4
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,f ! Define load for load step 5
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps
solve ! Solve load step 5
! Start Cycle 3
! ----------------
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,-f ! Define load for load step 6
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps
solve ! Solve load step 6
nsel,s,node,,ntop
f,all,fy,f ! Define load for load step 7
nsel,all
nsubst,4,25,2 ! Set the number of substeps, max and min number
! of substeps.
solve ! Solve load step 7
save
fini
/post1
set,last ! Read in the results from the last substep of
! the last step.
! (final state)
pldi,2 ! Plot the deformed mesh with the undeformed
! edge only
ples,nl,epeq ! Plot the total accumulated equivalent
! plastic strains
fini
/post26
eplo ! Plot the mesh
nsel,s,node,,ntop ! Select the node where the point load is attached
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Chapter 8: Nonlinear Structural Analysis
ESOL,2,elem,ntop,S,Y,
ESOL,3,elem,ntop,EPEL,Y,
ESOL,4,elem,ntop,EPPL,Y,
! Add the elastic and plastic strains in variables 3 and 4 and store the total
! strain in variable 5.
ADD,5,3,4, , , , ,1,1,0,
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
program. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verification
Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
The ANSYS Verification Manual includes a variety of nonlinear analysis test cases:
8–82 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 8.13: Where to Find Other Examples
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 8–83
8–84
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
Use the ANSYS material curve fitting feature to evaluate experimental data for use as coefficients for certain
nonlinear material models built into ANSYS. With this feature, you compare experimental stress data versus
ANSYS-calculated stress data for different nonlinear models. Based on these comparisons, you decide which
material model to use during solution.
Curve fitting is based on the data table configurations outlined in the TB command. The data manipulations and
constructions are performed by the TBFT command.
For Hyperelastic material models, your stress-strain curves can be converted to any of the available ANSYS-
supported hyperelastic models, including Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden, Neo-Hookean, Polynomial, Arruda-Boyce,
Gent, and Yeoh. Compressible hyperelastic models Ogden hyper-foam and Blatz-Ko are also supported.
• Section 9.3: Creep Material Curve Fitting
For creep material models, your creep strain rate or creep strain as a function of time, stress or temperature
can be converted to any of the thirteen ANSYS supported implicit creep models.
• Section 9.4: Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
For viscoelastic material models, your shear modulus vs time and/or bulk modulus vs. time data is converted
to ANSYS supported Prony series format. Curve fitting for temperature dependency is supported using
the SHIFT option.
ANSYS hyperelastic models can define three types of behavior: Purely Incompressible, Nearly Incompressible
and Compressible. Curve fitting helps you estimate coefficients for these situations. Hyperelastic curve fitting is
based on the HYPER option of the TB command.
1 Section 9.2.1.1: Prepare Experi- The experimental data must be a plain text file delimited by
mental Data a space or a comma.
2 Section 9.2.1.2: Input the Data into The experimental data can be read into ANSYS by browsing
ANSYS to the file location in the GUI or by specifying the filename
and path (batch) on the command line.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
3 Section 9.2.1.3: Select a Material The material options for the applicable curve fitting regimen
Model Option are defined in the TB command. Nine hyperelastic models
are supported. Once you pick a model, you can still change
to another model if an ideal fit is not realized.
4 Section 9.2.1.4: Initialize the Coeffi- Hyperelastic curve fitting can be a linear regression or a
cients nonlinear regression process, depending on the model. The
hyperelastic material models, and the associated process for
each are listed in Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model
Types”.
5 Section 9.2.1.5: Specify Control You will specify the type of error norm to be used to generate
Parameters and Solve the curve fit.
6 Section 9.2.1.6: Plot Your Experi- You review and verify the results by comparing the experi-
mental Data and Analyze mental data and the regression errors. If the results you obtain
are not acceptable repeat steps 3 to 5 to perform a new curve
fitting solution.
7 Section 9.2.1.7: Write Data to TB Write curve fitting results as the TB command to ANSYS
Command database.
• Case 1 - Totally Incompressible Models (see Table 9.1: “Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and
Blatz-Ko”)
• Case 2 - Nearly Incompressible Models (see Table 9.1: “Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and
Blatz-Ko”)
• Case 3 - Compressible Models (see Table 9.2: “Experimental Details for Case 3 Models”)
The types of data required for each of these cases is defined in the tables below.
Table 9.1 Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and Blatz-Ko
Experimental Type Column 1 Column 2
Uniaxial Test Engineering Strain Engineering Stress
Biaxial Test Engineering Strain Engineering Stress
Shear Test Engineering Strain Engineering Stress
Volumetric Test Volumetric Strain(J) True Stress
9–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.2: Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting
9.2.1.2.1. Batch
TBFT,EADD,ID,Option1,Option2,Option3,Option4
9.2.1.2.2. GUI
The Material Properties GUI provides an input field where you can type the filename of your data file, and also
include the appropriate path. You can also “Browse” to a file in a specified location. Separate input is performed
for each Option1 value (UNIA, BIAX, SHEA, etc.).
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 9–3
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
1. The number of coefficients is usually the sum of the number of deviatoric coefficients and the number
of volumetric coefficients.
2. The number of coefficients for a polynomial will be dependent on the polynomial order N.
N
Number of Coefficients = ∑ (1 + i) + N
i =1
Blatz-Ko and Ogden hyper-foam are compressible models. For Ogden hyper-foam, the experimental data you
supply will require additional fields.
More information on the hyperelastic models ANSYS supplies for curve fitting can be found in Section 2.5.2:
Hyperelastic Material Constants.
9.2.1.3.1. Batch
TBFT,FADD,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3
Option2 = Model name, as specified in Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types” (above).
Option3 = Order or number of coefficients, where applicable. Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types”
(above) specifies the number and type of coefficient(s) necessary for each hyperelastic model type.
9.2.1.3.2. GUI
You can navigate to a pull-down selection menu in the material GUI to pick the applicable material model option.
The options displayed will be dependent on the format of your experimental data file.
You can also fix (hold constant) your coefficients. You specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged,
while allowing the other coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficient later if desired.
By default, all of the coefficients are free to vary.
9.2.1.4.1. Batch
TBFT,SET,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
Option2 = Model name. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types” (above) for the models available.
9–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.2: Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting
9.2.1.4.2. GUI
The GUI automatically updates your coefficient tables depending on the model you pick. You can modify these
values to initialize them at values you believe more appropriate.
1. number of iterations
2. residual tolerance
3. coefficient change tolerance
The solution stops when both residual tolerance of error norm and coefficient change tolerance is met or if the
number of iterations criteria is met. Wherever nonlinear regression is used, you need to initialize your coefficients.
9.2.1.5.1. Batch
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
Option2 = Model name. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types” (above) for the models available.
Option3 = The order or number of your coefficients. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types”
(above) for possible values.
Option4 = curve fitting procedure: 0 = unnormalized least squares, 1 = normalized least squares
Other solution parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
9.2.1.5.2. GUI
The GUI lets you specify all of your control parameters (error norm, solution control parameters, and the solver
options) interactively. Select the options and Solve to generate the coefficients. Change the parameters and repeat
the solution as necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results. The unused options are disabled whenever ne-
cessary.
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Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
9.2.1.6.1. Batch
TBFT,PLOT,ID,Option1,HYPER,Option3,Option4
Option3 = Model name. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types” (above) for the models available.
Option4 = The order or number of your coefficients. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types”
(above) for possible values.
You use the /WINDOW command to configure the graphs for each of the resultant curves for the individual
stress types.
9.2.1.6.2. GUI
Use the GRAPH button to plot the data. Your plots will show Columns 2 and above as separate curves, plotted
as a function of column 1. The data in column 1 is always the X-axis. By default all the experiments are plotted
in separated graphs in the GUI window. To view a specific data and its corresponding fitting result, you can use
the right click of mouse button on the specific dataset, and pick a desired option to view the results. Other
plotting utilities can be found by using the right click of mouse button on the listed data in the curve fitting GUI
window.
You can also turn the legend and/or axis displays on and off, and switch the scales between log scale and regular
scale. You can use the middle-mouse button to eliminate a specific curve and clarify or refine the remaining
curve.
9.2.1.6.3. Review/Verify
After plotting the curve fitting results, you can then review them and also verify the error norm/residual values
that are printed in the curve fitting GUI window. These values help you determine the quality of curve fitting
and whether to accept the results. Error norm values are not always the best indicator of a valid curve fit. Plotting
the curves and visually assessing the result is often the best indication. If the results are unacceptable, you may
want to go back to step 3 and solve again, either by picking a different model, increasing the order, or redefining
your initial values of the coefficients or other control parameters. Repeat steps 3-7 until you get an acceptable
solution.
9.2.1.7.1. Batch
TBFT,FSET,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3
Option2 = Model name. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types” (above) for the models available.
9–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.3: Creep Material Curve Fitting
Option3 = The order or number of your coefficients. See Table 9.3: “Hyperelastic Curve Fitting Model Types”
(above) for possible values.
9.2.1.7.2. GUI
Once you complete the process and update your material data properties with the representative curve data,
you are returned to the material properties dialog. The curve data can now be accessed for the full range of
material behavior.
1 Section 9.3.1.1: Prepare Experi- The experimental data must be a plain text file with headers
mental Data to describe the data types and attributes. The test data must
be delimited by a space or a comma.
2 Section 9.3.1.2: Input the Data into The experimental data can be read into ANSYS by browsing
ANSYS to the file location in the GUI or by specifying the path (batch)
on the command line.
3 Section 9.3.1.3: Select a Material The material options for the applicable curve fitting regimen
Model Option are defined in the TB command. Thirteen implicit creep
models are supported. Once you pick a model, you can still
switch to another model if an ideal fit is not realized.
4 Section 9.3.1.4: Initialize the Coeffi- Creep curve fitting is a nonlinear regression; the initial values
cients of the coefficients to be determined can be very important
for a successful solution.
5 Section 9.3.1.5: Specify Control You choose the error norm to be used for an acceptable curve
Parameters and Solve fit.
6 Section 9.3.1.6: Plot the Experi- You review and verify the results by comparing them with
mental Data and Analyze the experimental data and the regression errors. If they are
not acceptable, repeat steps 3 to 5 to obtain a new curve fit-
ting solution.
7 Section 9.3.1.7: Write Data to TB Write curve fitting results in the TB command format to the
Command ANSYS database.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 9–7
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
The header can be used to describe the data types that characterize the test data columns or attributes of the
data. There are a total of five different creep data types, see Table 9.4: “Creep Data Types and Abbreviations”.
The header format that defines the type of data column is /n, abbr, where n is the index of the data column in
the file, and abbr is the abbreviation for the type of data in the column, as described in Table 9.4: “Creep Data
Types and Abbreviations”.
When a particular column is unchanged over the loading history, you can define it as an attribute. For instance,
in the above example, the stress and temperature are constant throughout the range. You define a data attribute
in the header as follows:
The header format to define a data attribute is /attr, value, where attr is the abbreviation of data type, and value
is the value of the attribute. An example of a typical input data using attributes is shown here:
/seqv,4000 ! indicate this creep has a constant stress of 4000
/temp,100 ! indicate this creep data is at a constant temperature of 100
/1,creq ! indicate first column is creep strain
/2,dcreq ! indicate second column is creep strain rate
0.00215869 0.000203055
0.00406109 0.000181314
0.00664691 0.000165303
0.0102068 0.000152217
0.0151416 0.000140946
0.0220102 0.000130945
There are thirteen model types available from ANSYS for creep curve fitting. The model you choose will determine
the experimental data required for the curve fitting process. The following tables describe the creep data required
to perform curve fitting for each model type. Please note that for strain hardening and modified strain hardening,
you need to input both creep strain and creep strain rate in the experimental data.
9–8 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.3: Creep Material Curve Fitting
9.3.1.2.1. Batch
The EADD argument of the TBFT command is used to identify and specify the location of your data files. The
command syntax is:
TBFT,EADD,ID,Option1,Option2,Option3,Option4
Option1 = creep
Option2 = name of file containing experimental data
Option3 = file name extension
Option4 = file directory
9.3.1.2.2. GUI
In interactive mode you can input experimental data by typing the filename (with the appropriate path if the
file is not in the default directory) into the appropriate area. You can also “Browse” to a file in a particular location.
Use the Add Data Set button to add additional data sets for creep curve fitting. There is no restriction on the
number of data sets you can add.
9.3.1.3.1. Batch
TBFT,FADD,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 9–9
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
Option2 = Creep model abbreviation, see Table 9.6: “Creep Models and Abbreviations”.
Option3 = not used for creep curve fitting.
The following table describes the creep models available and their abbreviated names for Option2 (above).
Note — It is very important for the experimental data to be consistent with the creep model you choose.
See Table 9.5: “Creep Model and Data/Type Attribute” for the data types required for each creep model.
9.3.1.3.2. GUI
You can pick the appropriate model option from a menu in the data entry area. All of the options and constraints
listed for batch input apply.
You can also fix (hold constant) your coefficients. You specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged,
while allowing the other coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficients to obtain a
solution. By default, all of the coefficients are free to vary.
9.3.1.4.1. Batch
You define your coefficient values using the SET option of the TBFT command, as follows:
TBFT,SET,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
9–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.3: Creep Material Curve Fitting
9.3.1.4.2. GUI
You pick your creep model from the choices on the creep model tree. ANSYS automatically configures the
coefficients for the model. You can then make modifications, including initializing and/or fixing certain coefficients.
Other available solve criteria are number of iterations, residual tolerance and coefficient change tolerance. The
solution stops when both residual tolerance and coefficient change tolerance is met or if the number of iterations
criteria is met. The coefficients are updated after every iteration during the solve process.
9.3.1.5.1. Batch
The batch command is
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
Option2 = Creep function name (See Table 9.6: “Creep Models and Abbreviations”)
Option3 = not applicable for Creep models
Option4 = error norm: 0 = unnormalized, 1 = normalized (default)
Option5 = maximum number of iterations
Option6 = tolerance of residual changes
Option7 = tolerance of coefficient changes
Other solving parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
9.3.1.5.2. GUI
The solution phase is entered automatically after you fill in the last set of coefficient values. Each of the options
specified in the command line description is presented as a pull down menu or fill in box, and each option must
be specified before Solve will begin. The coefficients are updated in the GUI after the solution is complete.
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Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
Clicking in various areas of the display window brings up context sensitive functions that are particular to that
area. (e.g., clicking on the legend area brings up controls to define and configure your graph legend). These
functions change according to the type of graph you are creating and to the entity you click on in the graph.
You can also use a middle mouse click to hide a particular curve within a graph.
9.3.1.6.1. Batch
TBFT,PLOT,ID,Option1,Option2,Option3,Option4
Option1 = CREEP
Option3 = Creep model name
Option4 = Not Used
9.3.1.6.2. GUI
You can simultaneously display many data sets for each function plotted. Each window of your display can be
used to display each one of the data sets you are plotting against column one.
9.3.1.7.1. Batch
TBFT,FSET,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3
9.3.1.7.2. GUI
When you complete the process, click the Write to Database button to write the fitted coefficients of your creep
model as a creep data table in ANSYS material database. You are then returned to the material properties dialog.
The curve data can now be accessed for the full range of material behavior.
Name Notes
9–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.3: Creep Material Curve Fitting
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 9–13
Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
1 Section 9.4.1.1: Prepare Experi- The experimental data must be a plain text file delimited by
mental Data a space or a comma.
2 Section 9.4.1.2: Input the Data into The experimental data can be read into ANSYS from GUI or
ANSYS batch command line as a plain text file.
3 Section 9.4.1.3: Select a Material This includes Prony series expansion of shear and/or bulk
Model Option moduli as well as shift function. The supported shift functions
include WLF and TN.
4 Section 9.4.1.4: Initialize the Coeffi- Viscoelastic curve fitting is a nonlinear regression, the initial
cients values of the coefficients to be determined can be very im-
portant for a successful solution.
5 Section 9.4.1.5: Specify Control Specify the error norm to be used, the solution control para-
Parameters and Solve meters, and perform the nonlinear regression.
9–14 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.4: Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
6 Section 9.4.1.6: Plot the Experi- View graphically the curve fitting results. Review and verify
mental Data and Analyze the results by comparing with the experimental data and the
regression errors, if not acceptable, repeat steps 3 to 7 to
perform a new curve fitting solution.
7 Section 9.4.1.7: Write Data to TB Write curve fitting results as the TB command to ANSYS
Command database.
The viscoelastic test data must be a plain text file containing the headers, along with the test data as a table of
data delimited by a space or a comma. The header is used to define the test data type and the temperature for
your test data. For viscoelastic curve fitting with multiple temperatures, you don't calculate each temperature
point and write it as a temperature-dependent Prony data table. Instead, when multiple temperatures are present,
either WLF or TN shift functions are used to account for the temperature dependency. Each file must contain
only one temperature, and the temperatures of each of the files can be the same or different. The viscoelastic
test data have 4 data types, seeTable 9.7: “Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations”.
The headers are used to describe the data types that characterize the test data columns or attributes of the data.
The following listing contains the appropriate headers, followed by the delimited data:
/temp,100 ! define temperature attribute
0.01 2992.53
1 2978.514207
2 2965.45541
4 2942.293214
6 2922.530649
8 2905.612202
10 2891.073456
20 2842.506984
40 2798.142793
60 2772.383729
80 2750.631843
100 2730.398114
200 2643.125432
400 2517.475394
600 2431.262053
800 2366.580897
1000 2313.955396
2000 2117.922594
4000 1833.734397
6000 1627.199197
8000 1470.6806
10000 1347.264527
20000 964.0141125
40000 586.1405449
60000 392.186777
80000 277.2706253
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Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
100000 202.0025278
200000 46.87056342
400000 2.669209118
600000 0.156653269
800000 0.0137224
1000000 0.005591539
You can include several datasets, including tests performed at different temperatures. Although different datasets
can have the same/or different temperature, each file can have only one temperature. Multiple temperature
datasets must be input with multiple files.
Two types of data may be required for viscoelastic curve fitting, either shear modulus vs time and/or bulk mod-
ulus vs. time. The data can also be a function of temperature, which can then be accounted for by either WLF or
TN shift function. You can use the GUI window or batch command to input your experimental data.
9.4.1.2.1. Batch
TBFT,EADD,ID,Option1,Option2,Option3,Option4
Note — “sdec” refers to the shear modulus as a function of time and “bdec” refers to the bulk modulus
as a function of time.
9.4.1.2.2. GUI
Click on the Add Dataset button and type the filename into the area provided. You can also “Browse” to a file
in a specified location. Separate input is performed for each data type (Option1 = sdec, or bdec)
First you define a case “casename” to associate the set of coefficients for the Prony expansions with the shift
functions that characterize the material behavior. You can use the “casename” to define several different options
that characterize the same test data, and then to compare the curve fitting results. To define the material model,
you must first define a “casename”, and then specify the order of shear and bulk moduli and the type of the shift
function(s), if required. You need to create an additional case to define different shear order, bulk order or shift
options. Once you create a case, the number of shear terms, bulk terms, or shift options cannot be changed.
9–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.4: Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
9.4.1.3.1. Batch
You define a viscoelastic material with the Prony series expansion by creating a case and setting the order of
shear modulus, bulk modulus and shift options. You create the case with the TBFT, FCASE command. The first
line will include FCASE, ID, NEW. Then you specify the number of shear terms, bulk terms, and the shift function.
The case is actually created only after the option is issued. The follow syntax examples and argument descriptions
illustrate the relationship of these activities.
TBFT,FCASE,ID,NEW,Option2,Option3
CATEGORY = VISCO
Option2 = pshear or pbulk or shift
Option3 = Dependent on Option2 as follows:
TBFT,FCASE,ID,FINI
9.4.1.3.2. GUI
You can use the GUI to interactively navigate the tree structure of the curve fitting window. Each of the shear,
bulk and shift options can be selected, and you can fill in the appropriate “casename” in a text box field. As you
choose the options, the coefficient table is automatically created.
A good guess for the WLF or TN parameter is the reference temperature you used during your partial solve for
shear and bulk. The index of the reference/base temperatures is the sum of NumShear + NumBulk + 1.
You can also fix (hold constant) your coefficients. You specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged,
while allowing the other coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficient later if desired.
By default, all of the coefficients are free to vary.
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Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
9.4.1.4.1. Batch
TBFT,SET,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
Option2 = casename
Option3 = Not Applicable
Option4 = index of coefficient
Option5 = value of coefficient
For example:
TBFT,SET,1, myvisco1,,1,1.2 ! Initialize the first coefficient to 1.2
TBFT,SET,1, myvisco1,,2,1.5 ! Initialize the second coefficient to 1.5
Use the TBFT,FIX command to fix a coefficient to a value set by the TBFT, SET command or to release a previously
fixed coefficient. By default, coefficients are not fixed.
TBFT,FIX,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
Option2 = casename
Option3 = Not Applicable
Option4 = Index of coefficient
Option5 = 1 to fix, 0 to vary
For example:
TBFT,FIX,1, myvisco1,,1,1. ! Fix the first coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET
TBFT,FIX,1, myvisco1,,2,1 ! Fix the second coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET
9.4.1.4.2. GUI
The coefficients table is automatically updated in the viscoelastic curve fitting GUI window when the order of
shear modulus and/or bulk modulus and/or shift function are defined. Specify values for your coefficients in the
coefficients table in the curve fitting GUI window, and check the appropriate boxes to fix them or allow them to
vary.
The solution control parameter of a nonlinear regression includes number of iterations, residual tolerance and
coefficient change tolerance. The solution stops when both residual tolerance of error norm and coefficient
change tolerance is met or if the number of iterations criteria is met. The coefficients are updated when the
solution is completed. In general it is very difficult to directly solve a complete case including coefficients of the
shear modulus, the bulk modulus and the shift function. Three solver options including shear modulus only, bulk
modulus, and shift function (or all) are provided to allow user to solve only Prony coefficients of the shear mod-
ulus, Prony coefficients of the bulk modulus and coefficients of the shift function. However the coefficients of
shift function can't be solved before the shear or bulk modulus are solved. It is normal for a solution to not converge
at first, but to stop as the maximum iterations criteria is reached. You can then examine the curve fitting results
and the solution history before proceeding any further. You can then adjust parameters and resolve the problem
whenever it is necessary.
For viscoelastic curve fitting, you should follow these three steps to perform the regression:
9–18 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.4: Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
Set the reference temperature at which your partial solution will be performed using TBFT, SET,,,,,TREF,
TX. Only data at temperature TX will be used to estimate shear coefficients
Solve
2. Solve the bulk coefficients (if there are any).
Set the reference temperature at which your partial solution will be performed using TBFT, SET,,,,,TREF,
TX. The reference temperature should be the same for both shear and bulk. Only data at temperature
TX will be used to estimate shear coefficients
Solve
3. Solve the shift function (or all) coefficients.
TREF is not used when you solve for all parameters. All temperature data is used to estimate the coeffi-
cients.
Solve
Note — When only the shear and bulk buttons are checked, only your shear coefficients are solved. To
solve for both shear and bulk, you must check all three buttons.
9.4.1.5.1. Batch
Solution option command is:
TBFT,SET,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
Option2 = casename
Option3 = Not Applicable
Option4 = comp
Option5 = pshea (for Shear only) or pbulk (for bulk only).
The SOLVE command allows you to specify procedure types, tolerances and number of iterations.
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
Option2 = Creep Function Name (See Table 9.6: “Creep Models and Abbreviations”)
Option3 = Not Applicable
Option4 = Curve Fitting Procedure: 0 = unnormalized least squares, 1 = normalized least squares (default)
Option5 = maximum number of iterations
Option6 = tolerance of residual changes
Option7 = tolerance of coefficient changes
Other solving parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
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Chapter 9: Material Curve Fitting
9.4.1.5.2. GUI
The GUI provides access for you to choose your error norm, solution control parameters, and solver options.
Once you complete these specifications and solve, you can go back and modify your parameters as necessary
to obtain a good curve fit.
9.4.1.6.1. Batch
You enter the plotting parameters from the command line as follows:
TBFT,PLOT,ID,ExpIndex,CASE,Option3
Option3 = casename
9.4.1.6.2. GUI
Graph button provides direct means to plot the data.
Reviewing your curve fitting result graphically is the only way to ensure a good fit. After plotting the curve fitting
results, you can then review it and also verify the error norm/residual value that is printed in the curve fitting
GUI window. This information helps you determine the quality of a curve fitting and decide whether to accept
the results. If not, you may want to go back to step 3, solve again by changing the order of the Prony series, re-
defining certain initial values of the coefficients, and possibly other control parameters. Repeat steps 3-7 until
you are satisfied with the solution.
9.4.1.7.1. Batch
TBFT,FSET,ID,Option2,Option3
Option2 = CASE
Option3 = casename
9–20 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 9.4: Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
9.4.1.7.2. GUI
Click the “Write to Database” button and the fitted coefficients are automatically written to the ANSYS material
database according Prony data table. Please note that the coefficients you see in the curve fitting module are
different from those in the TB tables. The τ values remain the same, but the α values are different. The α values
shown in ANSYS are the square of the α values derived during curve fitting. They are also normalized to make
α at time 0 = 1.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 9–21
9–22
Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
10.1. Overview of Gasket Joints
Gasket joints are essential components in most structural assemblies. Gaskets as sealing components between
structural components are usually very thin and made of many materials, such as steel, rubber and composites.
From a mechanics point of view, gaskets act to transfer force between components. The primary deformation
of a gasket is usually confined to one direction, namely, through thickness. The stiffness contributions from
membrane (in plane) and transverse shear are much smaller in general compared to the through thickness. The
stiffness contribution therefore is assumed to be negligible, although the TB command provides options to account
for transverse shear.
A typical example of a gasket joint is in engine assemblies. A thorough understanding of the gasket joint is crit-
ical in engine design and operation. This includes an understanding of the behavior of gasket joint components
themselves in an engine operation, and the interaction of the gasket joint with other components.
Elements within the ANSYS family of interface element are used to model gaskets. By default, these elements
are designed to account for gasket through-thickness behavior. However, you can account for transverse shear
behavior by using an element Keyopt setting and transverse shear option of the gasket material data table. See
the TB command documentation and the specific element documentation for more information.
1. Build or import the model. There are no special considerations for building or importing the model for
a gasket joint analysis. You perform this step as you would in any typical ANSYS analysis. See Section 1.2:
Building a Model in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide. For further details on building the model, see the
ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide.
2. Define element type. To properly simulate gasket joints, you must define structural element types and
corresponding interface element types. See Section 10.4: ANSYS Family of Interface Elements in this
chapter for more details on this topic, and in particular, see Section 10.4.1: Element Selection for a table
of corresponding structural and interface elements.
3. Define material. Use TB,GASKET to define the gasket joint material. You can use TB,GASKET to define
four types of data input: general parameters, transverse shear stiffness, compression (loading), and tension
(unloading). You specify the type using TBOPT. You then input the sets of data using the TBDATA and
TBPT commands, as applicable. You can also plot most of the gasket data types using the TBPLOT
command. See Section 10.5: Material Definition in this chapter for more details on this topic.
4. Mesh the model. Use the AMESH or VMESH commands to mesh the structural element types, and use
the IMESH command to mesh the gasket layer. Special restrictions apply to the IMESH command in
terms of matching the source and target. Also, the order in which you execute these commands is critical.
You can also mesh interface layers using the VDRAG command, and can generate interface elements
directly using the EGEN command. Each of these commands involve special considerations for interface
elements. See Section 10.6: Meshing Interface Elements in this chapter for more details on this topic.
5. Solve. There are special solving considerations when you perform a gasket joint analysis. These are
primarily concerned with the gasket element stiffness loss, and the gasket element's use with contact
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
elements. See Section 10.7: Solution Procedure and Result Output in this chapter for more details on this
topic.
6. Review Results. You can print or plot any of four gasket output items: stresses (also pressure), total
closure, total inelastic closure, and thermal closure, using the PRESOL, PRNSOL, PLESOL, PLNSOL, or
ESOL commands. You can also use these items with the *GET command in POST1. See Section 10.8:
Reviewing the Results in this chapter for more details on this topic.
The element formulation is based on a corotational procedure. Refer to Gasket Material in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory
Reference for further details.
10–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.4: ANSYS Family of Interface Elements
The 2-D elements, INTER192 and INTER193, use a KEYOPT to define various stress state options.
For elements with these character- ... use this interface ele- ... with one of these structural elements:
istics: ment:
2-D, linear INTER192 PLANE42, HYPER56, VISCO106, PLANE182
2-D, quadratic INTER193 PLANE2, PLANE82, HYPER84, VISCO88, PLANE183
3-D, quadratic INTER194 VISCO89, SOLID92, SOLID95, SOLID96, SOLID186, SOL-
ID187
3-D, linear INTER195 SOLID45, SOLID46, HYPER58, SOLID62, SOLID64, SOL-
ID65, HYPER86, SOLID185
Proper element type is chosen based on the stress states of interest and structural element types used.
Element selection is done by the element type command, ET, for example,
ET,1,195
10.4.2. Applications
In general, linear and quadratic elements are chosen for the following reasons:
• Fewer nodes produce a smaller model that runs faster with less computer resources.
• Quadratic elements are necessary if stress gradients are present in surrounding bodies.
• If elements are to follow a curved boundary closely, quadratic elements are ideal because their edges are
arcs.
• With a free mesh (tetrahedral elements) the mid-node (quadratic) is required for an accurate solution.
When a surrounding structure can be considered as a 2-D structure, for example, plane stress / strain / axisym-
metric, 2-D elements are the ideal choice. A good example of the use of 2-D element INTER192 or INTER193 is
the gasket between the "flanged" ends of pipe line. In this case the gasket properties do not vary significantly
with geometric location.
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
For a 3-D structure such as an internal combustion engine, 3-D element INTER194 or INTER195 is a good choice
for simulating the gasket between the cylinder head and block. In this case there is no "nice" geometry because
the gasket must fill in between two complicated surfaces, in between cylinders, and around other holes and
passages. Also the gasket properties can vary in different zones. For example in a cylinder head, there is usually
a much stiffer zone immediately around the cylinder to contain combustion pressure (called the "fire ring"). The
remainder of the gasket is much softer.
As it is a joint component, there often exists an initial gap or void. On the other hand, from a modeling point of
view, it is a lot easier to fill the spaces or volumes between the adjacent components with the interface meshes,
and then set an initial gap for the gasket material to account for it. As long as the closure is less than the initial
gap, no pressure is acted on the gaskets. Also, when it is under tension loading, there will be an open gap.
Therefore, gasket joints generally do not have tension pressure. A stress cap is used to restrict tension pressure
in the gasket joint elements.
The GASKET material option must be used with interface elements INTER192, INTER193, INTER194, and INTER195.
Figure 10.2: “Pressure vs. Closure Behavior of a Gasket Material” shows the experimental pressure vs. closure
(relative displacement of top and bottom gasket surfaces) data for a graphite composite gasket material. The
sample was unloaded and reloaded 5 times along the loading path and then unloaded at the end of the test to
determine the materials unloading stiffness.
10–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.5: Material Definition
TB,GASKET,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,TBOPT
You input the general parameters using the TBDATA command, then input the compression and unloading
data using the TBPT command.
Presented in the following sections are examples of inputs for the various types of gasket data.
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
The gasket material general parameters include the initial gap, stable stiffness and the maximum tension stress
cap. These parameters are defined as C1, C2, and C3 in the following example:
TB,GASKET,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,PARA
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3
Refer to Gasket Materials in the ANSYS Elements Reference for further details on these parameters.
The compression pressure closure curve gasket material definition option is defined as follows:
TB,GASKET,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,COMP
TBPT,,x1,y1
TBPT,,x2,y2
TBPT,,xi,yi
The following input listing is an example defining a compressive pressure vs. closure behavior of a gasket joint
material with 10 data points.
TB,GASKET,1, ,10,COMP ! define compression data
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.54000E+08
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.15150E+09
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.24900E+09
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.30000E+09
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.37200E+09
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.47400E+09
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.58500E+09
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.67350E+09
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.78000E+09
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.89550E+09
The linear unloading gasket material definition option is a simple way to define the gasket unloading behavior.
Several unloading slopes can be defined to accommodate the comprehensive unloading behavior as follows:
TB,GASKET,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,LUNL
TBPT,,x1,y1
TBPT,,x2,y2
TBPT,,xi,yi
where: NPTS is the number of unloading points; xi is the closure where unloading started, and yi is unloading
slope.
The following input listing is an example showing the linear unloading behavior of a gasket joint material with
3 unloading points
TB,GASKET,1, ,3,LUNL ! define linear unloading data
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.25100E+12
10–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.5: Material Definition
A sample plot representing linear unloading curves is shown in Figure 10.3: “Gasket Material Input: Linear Un-
loading Curves”.
The nonlinear unloading gasket material definition option provides a more comprehensive way of defining
gasket material unloading behavior. The input listing format is:
TB,GASKET,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,NUNL
TBPT,,x1,y1
TBPT,,x2,y2
TBPT,,xi,yi
where: xi, yi are pairs of closure and pressure values. Several unloading curves can be defined.
An example showing the nonlinear unloading behavior of a gasket joint material with 3 unloading points is as
follows:
TB,GASKET,1, ,5,NUNL ! define first nonlinear unloading data
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.30000E+09
TBPT,, 0.66900E-04, 0.24750E+08
TBPT,, 0.63100E-04, 0.82500E+07
TBPT,, 0.54100E-04, 0.15000E+07
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 10–7
Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
A sample plot representing nonlinear unloading curves is shown in Figure 10.4: “Gasket Material Input: Nonlinear
Unloading Curves”.
TBTEMP,T2
TBPT,,x1,y1
TBPT,,x2,y2
ANSYS will automatically interpolate the temperature data to the material points using linear interpolation.
When the temperature is out of the specified range, the closest temperature point is used.
10–8 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.5: Material Definition
The following is an example input listing defining a compressive pressure vs. closure behavior of a gasket joint
material with 5 temperature points and up to 10 data points for each temperature point, and 3 nonlinear unloading
curves with each curve having 5 temperatures and 5 data points.
TB,GASKET,1, 5,10,COMP ! define compression data with 5 temperatures
TBTEMP, 100.000
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.54000E+08
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.15150E+09
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.24900E+09
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.30000E+09
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.37200E+09
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.47400E+09
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.58500E+09
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.67350E+09
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.78000E+09
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.89550E+09
TBTEMP, 200.000
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.18000E+08
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.50500E+08
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.83000E+08
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.10000E+09
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.12400E+09
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.15800E+09
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.19500E+09
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.22450E+09
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.26000E+09
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.29850E+09
TBTEMP, 300.000
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.90000E+07
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.25250E+08
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.41500E+08
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.50000E+08
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.62000E+08
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.79000E+08
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.97500E+08
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.11225E+09
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.13000E+09
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.14925E+09
TBTEMP, 400.000
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.36000E+07
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.10100E+08
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.16600E+08
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.20000E+08
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.24800E+08
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.31600E+08
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.39000E+08
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.44900E+08
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.52000E+08
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.59700E+08
TBTEMP, 500.000
TBPT,, 0.20000E-04, 0.18000E+07
TBPT,, 0.40000E-04, 0.50500E+07
TBPT,, 0.60000E-04, 0.83000E+07
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.10000E+08
TBPT,, 0.12000E-03, 0.12400E+08
TBPT,, 0.19000E-03, 0.15800E+08
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.19500E+08
TBPT,, 0.35800E-03, 0.22450E+08
TBPT,, 0.43200E-03, 0.26000E+08
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.29850E+08
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
TBTEMP, 200.000
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.10000E+09
TBPT,, 0.66900E-04, 0.82500E+07
TBPT,, 0.63100E-04, 0.27500E+07
TBPT,, 0.54100E-04, 0.50000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 300.000
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.50000E+08
TBPT,, 0.66900E-04, 0.41250E+07
TBPT,, 0.63100E-04, 0.13750E+07
TBPT,, 0.54100E-04, 0.25000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 400.000
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.20000E+08
TBPT,, 0.66900E-04, 0.16500E+07
TBPT,, 0.63100E-04, 0.55000E+06
TBPT,, 0.54100E-04, 0.10000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 500.000
TBPT,, 0.78000E-04, 0.10000E+08
TBPT,, 0.66900E-04, 0.82500E+06
TBPT,, 0.63100E-04, 0.27500E+06
TBPT,, 0.54100E-04, 0.50000E+05
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 200.000
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.19500E+09
TBPT,, 0.26400E-03, 0.74500E+07
TBPT,, 0.26100E-03, 0.30000E+07
TBPT,, 0.25600E-03, 0.50000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 300.000
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.97500E+08
TBPT,, 0.26400E-03, 0.37250E+07
TBPT,, 0.26100E-03, 0.15000E+07
TBPT,, 0.25600E-03, 0.25000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 400.000
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.39000E+08
TBPT,, 0.26400E-03, 0.14900E+07
TBPT,, 0.26100E-03, 0.60000E+06
TBPT,, 0.25600E-03, 0.10000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 500.000
TBPT,, 0.28600E-03, 0.19500E+08
TBPT,, 0.26400E-03, 0.74500E+06
TBPT,, 0.26100E-03, 0.30000E+06
TBPT,, 0.25600E-03, 0.50000E+05
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
10–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.5: Material Definition
TBTEMP, 200.000
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.29850E+09
TBPT,, 0.47800E-03, 0.11300E+08
TBPT,, 0.47500E-03, 0.45000E+07
TBPT,, 0.46800E-03, 0.50000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 300.000
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.14925E+09
TBPT,, 0.47800E-03, 0.56500E+07
TBPT,, 0.47500E-03, 0.22500E+07
TBPT,, 0.46800E-03, 0.25000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 400.000
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.59700E+08
TBPT,, 0.47800E-03, 0.22600E+07
TBPT,, 0.47500E-03, 0.90000E+06
TBPT,, 0.46800E-03, 0.10000E+06
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
TBTEMP, 500.000
TBPT,, 0.50500E-03, 0.29850E+08
TBPT,, 0.47800E-03, 0.11300E+07
TBPT,, 0.47500E-03, 0.45000E+06
TBPT,, 0.46800E-03, 0.50000E+05
TBPT,, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
Sample plots of compression and unloading curves for gasket data to two temperatures is shown in Fig-
ure 10.5: “Gasket Compression and Unloading Curves at Two Temperatures”.
"
#
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
TBPLOT,GASKET,MAT,TBOPT,TEMP,SEGN
where TBOPT specifies the gasket material option to be plotted, TEMP specifies plotting either all of the temper-
ature dependent data curves, or a curve at a specified temperature, and SEGN specifies whether or not to add
the segment numbers to the curves.
• For meshing gasket layers as an area or volume, use the IMESH command.
• For meshing gasket layers by dragging an area mesh along a path, use the VDRAG command.
• For generating interface elements directly from a pattern, use the EGEN command.
There are special requirements for meshing interface elements. See Section 7.5.6: Generating an Interface Mesh
for Gasket Simulations in the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide for further details on this type of meshing.
The following example input listing shows the use of the IMESH command.
/batch,list
/title, Test to demonstrate the use of IMESH command
/com, ************************************************************
/com, * *
/com, * This is a simple test to demonstrate the use of IMESH *
/com, * command to generate gasket elements. The model consists *
/com, * of two blocks with gasket elements (INTER194) defined *
/com, * between them. *
/com, * *
/com, ************************************************************
/prep7
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Element Types
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
et,1,187 ! Solid tetrahedral element
et,2,194 ! Interface layer element
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Parameters
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
EH=1.0
IH=0.1
DX=0
DY=0
DZ=IH
Z1=EH
Z2=Z1+IH
Z3=Z2+EH
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Keypoints
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
k,1,0,0
k,2,1,0
k,3,1,1
k,4,0,1
k,5,0,0,z1
k,6,1,0,z1
k,7,1,1,z1
k,8,0,1,z1
k,9,0,0,z2
k,10,1,0,z2
k,11,1,1,z2
k,12,0,1,z2
10–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.6: Meshing Interface Elements
k,13,0,0,z3
k,14,1,0,z3
k,15,1,1,z3
k,16,0,1,z3
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate First Volume
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
v,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Second Volume
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
v,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Middle Volume
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
v,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Element Size
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
esize,,4 !
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Mesh First Volume with Element Type 1
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
type,1
mat,1
vmesh,1
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Interface Layer with IMESH command
!* using Element Type 2 (INTER194)
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
type,2
mat,2
imesh,area,6,7,0,DX,DY,DZ,TOL
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Mesh Second Volume with Element Type 1
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
type,1
mat,1
vmesh,2
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Plot Elements
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
/view,1 ,1,1,1
eplot
finish
Figure 10.6: “Gasket Finite Element Model Geometry” shows the geometry of the finite element model, a thin
interface layer between two block volumes. Figure 10.7: “Whole Model Mesh with Brick Element” shows the mesh
with solid brick element, SOLID185, in top and bottom of block volumes, and Figure 10.8: “Interface Layer Mesh”
shows the mesh of interface element, INTER195, in the interface layer between the two blocks. Figure 10.9: “Whole
Model Tetrahedral Mesh” shows the mesh with solid tetrahedral element, SOLID187, in top and bottom of block
volumes, and Figure 10.10: “Interface Layer Mesh with Degenerated Wedge Elements” shows the mesh of interface
element (degenerated wedge), INTER194, in the interface layer between the two blocks.
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
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Section 10.6: Meshing Interface Elements
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
• By default a zero stress cap has been enforced on the gasket. When the element goes into tension, it will
lose its stiffness and may cause numerical instability.
• It is always a good practice to place the lower and upper limit on the time step size using the DELTIM or
NSUBST commands, and to start with a small time step, then subsequently ramp it up . This ensures that
all of the modes and behaviors of interest will be accurately included and that the problem is solved ef-
fectively.
• Gasket elements must be configured to support transverse shear. Even if you do so, errors can result, es-
pecially for contact and other nonlinear applications. You should not use gasket elements with contact
elements unless you configure the elements accordingly, and ascertain the mesh compatibility of the
gasket layer and its mating components.
Like any other type of nonlinear analysis, the ANSYS program performs a series of linear approximations with
corrections. A convergence failure can indicate a physical instability in the structure, or it can merely be the result
of some numerical problem in the finite element model. The program printout gives you continuous feedback
on the progress of these approximations and corrections. (The printout either appears directly on your screen,
is captured on Jobname.OUT, or is written to some other file [/OUTPUT].) You can examine some of this same
information in POST1, using the PRITER command, or in POST26, using the SOLU and PRVAR commands. You
should make sure that you understand the iteration history of your analysis before you accept the results. In
10–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.7: Solution Procedure and Result Output
particular, do not dismiss any program error or warning statements without fully understanding their meaning.
A typical output listing with gasket nonlinearity only is shown in Section 10.7.1: Typical Gasket Solution Output
Listing. When other types of nonlinearity such as contact or materials are included, additional information will
be printed out.
The conditions for direct assembly have been met. No .emat or .erot
files will be produced.
L O A D S T E P O P T I O N S
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
10–18 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 10.8: Reviewing the Results
Note that in POST1, only one substep can be read in at a time, and that the results from that substep should have
been written to Jobname.RST. (The load step option command OUTRES controls which substep results are
stored on Jobname.RST.) A typical POST1 postprocessing sequence is described below.
• If not, you probably won't want to postprocess the results, other than to determine why convergence
failed.
• If your solution converged, then continue postprocessing.
2. Enter POST1. If your model is not currently in the database, issue RESUME.
Command(s): /POST1
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc
3. Read in results for the desired load step and substep, which can be identified by load step and substep
numbers or by time.
Command(s): SET
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> load step
4. Display the results using any of the following options. Note that gasket results, such as pressure and
closure, are always displayed and listed in the local coordinate system.
Use these options to display contours of stresses, strains, or any other applicable item. When displaying
the gasket pressure distribution, if other structural mating components are not included, ANSYS will plot
the geometry of those components in gray. To have a better visualization of a gasket pressure plot, it is
better for you to select gasket elements only.
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
Command(s): PRNSOL (nodal results) PRESOL (element-by-element results) PRRSOL (reaction data)
PRITER (substep summary data), etc.
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Nodal Solution
Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Element Solution
Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Reaction Solution
Option: Animation
Other Capabilities
Many other postprocessing functions are available in POST1. See The General Postprocessor (POST1) in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide for details. Load case combinations usually are not valid for nonlinear analyses.
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Section 10.9: Sample Gasket Element Verification Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
/com, **************************************************************
/prep7
!*+++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Element Types
!*+++++++++++++++++++++
et,1,185
et,2,195
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Linear Elastic Material Type 1
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
mp,ex,1,2.1E12
mp,nuxy,1,0.0
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Initial Gap, Stable Stiffness, Stress Cap
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
delta0 = 0.00e-3
stiff0 = 0.0e7
scap = 1.0e-5
tb,gasket,2,,,para
tbdata, 1,delta0,stiff0,scap
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Gasket Compression Curve
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
tb,gask,2,1,13,comp
tbpt,,0.460800E-03, 0.161226E+07
tbpt,,0.511600E-03, 0.520884E+07
tbpt,,0.562400E-03, 0.113134E+08
tbpt,,0.613200E-03, 0.200499E+08
tbpt,,0.664000E-03, 0.259960E+08
tbpt,,0.714800E-03, 0.290345E+08
tbpt,,0.765600E-03, 0.357453E+08
tbpt,,0.816400E-03, 0.440064E+08
tbpt,,0.867200E-03, 0.563189E+08
tbpt,,0.918000E-03, 0.748254E+08
tbpt,,0.968800E-03, 0.967287E+08
tbpt,,0.101960E-02, 0.129001E+09
tbpt,,0.109326E-02, 0.157147E+09
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Gasket Linear Unloading Curve
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
tb,gask,2,1,5,lunl
tbpt,,0.460800E-03, 2.430000E+11
tbpt,,0.714800E-03, 3.565000E+11
tbpt,,0.816400E-03, 5.92300E+11
tbpt,,0.968800E-03, 1.088000e+12
tbpt,,0.109326E-02, 1.490000E+12
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* List Gasket Material Model
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++
tblist,gask,all
!*++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Parameters
!*++++++++++++++++++
n1 = 20
n2 = n1*100
n3 = n1
dis1 = -0.0008
dis2 = -0.000001
pres = 1.0e7
pres2 = 10
pres3 = 1.4E8
dp = -2.0e7
elb = 1.0
elg = 0.1
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Chapter 10: Gasket Joints Simulation
!*+++++++++++++++
!* Generate Nodes
!*+++++++++++++++
n,1,
n,2,1.0
n,3,1.0,1.0
n,4,0.0,1.0
ngen,2,4,1,4,,0.0,0.0,elb
ngen,2,8,1,4,,0.0,0.0,elb+elg
ngen,2,12,1,4,,0.0,0.0,2*elb+elg
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Front and Back SOLID185 Element
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
et,1,185,,1
mat,1
e,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
e,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Generate Middle INTER195 Element
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
et,2,195,,
type,2
mat,2
e,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Define Boundary Condition
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++
nsel,s,loc,z
d,all,uz
nsel,all
nsel,s,loc,x
d,all,ux
nsel,all
nsel,s,loc,y
d,all,uy
nsel,all
finish
/solu
!*+++++++++++++++++++
!* Apply Displacement
!*+++++++++++++++++++
nsel,s,loc,z,elb*2+elg
d,all,uz,dis1
nsel,all
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Solve First Load Step, Compress the Elements
!*+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
nsubst,n1,n2,n3
outres,all,all
outres,svar,all
solve
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Solve Second Load Step, Open the Elements
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
nsubst,n1,n2,n3
outres,all,all
outres,svar,all
nsel,s,loc,z,elb*2+elg
d,all,uz,dis2
nall
solve
finish
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Postprocess the Results
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++
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Section 10.9: Sample Gasket Element Verification Analysis (Command or Batch Method)
/post1
set,last
pres,s
pres,epto
pres,epel
prns,epel
finish
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!* Post26, Print and Plot Gasket Element Results
!*++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
/post26
esol,2,3, ,s,x,press
esol,3,3, ,epel,x,delta
add,4,2, , ,press,,,-1, ! change sign for plotting
add,5,3,,,delta,,,-1, ! change sign for plotting
prvar,2,3,4,5
xvar,5
plvar,4
finish
/exit,nosave
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10–24
Chapter 11: Contact
This chapter covers the following topics:
11.1. Contact Overview
11.2. General Contact Classification
11.3. ANSYS Contact Capabilities
11.4. Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
11.5. GUI Aids for Contact Analyses
11.6. Performing a Node-to-Surface Contact Analysis
11.7. Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
11.8. Performing a Node-to-Node Contact Analysis
Contact problems present two significant difficulties. First, you generally do not know the regions of contact
until you've run the problem. Depending on the loads, material, boundary conditions, and other factors, surfaces
can come into and go out of contact with each other in a largely unpredictable and abrupt manner. Second,
most contact problems need to account for friction. There are several friction laws and models to choose from,
and all are nonlinear. Frictional response can be chaotic, making solution convergence difficult.
In addition to these two difficulties, many contact problems must also address multi-field effects, such as the
conductance of heat, electrical currents, and magnetic flux in the areas of contact.
If you do not need to account for friction in your model, and the interaction between the bodies is always bonded,
you may be able to use the internal multipoint constraint (MPC) feature (available for certain contact elements)
to model various types of contact assemblies and surface-based constraints (see Section 11.7: Using the Internal
MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints for more information). Another alternative is to use
constraint equations or coupled degrees of freedom instead of contact to model these situations (see Chapter 12,
“Coupling and Constraint Equations” in the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide for more information). Constraint
equations are only available for small strain applications (NLGEOM,off).
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Chapter 11: Contact
To model a contact problem, you first must identify the parts to be analyzed for their possible interaction. If one
of the interactions is at a point, the corresponding component of your model is a node. If one of the interactions
is at a surface, the corresponding component of your model is an element: either a beam, shell, or solid element.
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Section 11.3: ANSYS Contact Capabilities
The finite element model recognizes possible contact pairs by the presence of specific contact elements. These
contact elements are overlaid on the parts of the model that are being analyzed for interaction. The different
contact elements that ANSYS uses, and procedures for using them, are described in the remainder of this chapter.
An overview of the ANSYS contact elements and their capabilities follows. For detailed information on any of
these elements, refer to the ANSYS Elements Reference and the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference.
• The target surface is modeled with either TARGE169 or TARGE170 (for 2-D and 3-D, respectively).
• The contact surface is modeled with elements CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, and CONTA174.
To create a contact pair, assign the same real constant number to both the target and contact elements. You
can find more details on defining these elements and their shared real constant sets in Section 11.4: Performing
a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis.
These surface-to-surface elements are well-suited for applications such as interference fit assembly contact or
entry contact, forging, and deep-drawing problems. The surface-to-surface contact elements have several ad-
vantages over the node-to-node element CONTA175. These elements:
• Support lower and higher order elements on the contact and target surfaces (in other words, corner-
noded or midside-noded elements).
• Provide better contact results needed for typical engineering purposes, such as normal pressure and
friction stress contour plots.
• Have no restrictions on the shape of the target surface. Surface discontinuities can be physical or due to
mesh discretization.
Using these elements for a rigid target surface, you can model straight and curved surfaces in 2-D and 3-D, often
using simple geometric shapes such as circles, parabolas, spheres, cones, and cylinders. More complex rigid
forms or general deformable forms can be modeled using special preprocessing techniques (see Step 3 of Sec-
tion 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis for more information).
Surface-to-surface contact elements are not well-suited for point-to-point, point-to-surface, or edge-to-surface
contact applications, such as pipe whip or snap-fit assemblies. You should use the node-to-surface or node-to-
node elements in these cases. You also can use surface-to-surface contact elements for most contact regions
and use a few node-to-surface contact elements near contact corners.
The surface-to-surface contact elements only support general static and transient analyses, buckling, harmonic,
modal or spectrum analyses, or substructure analyses.
CONTA175 is typically used to model point-to-surface contact applications, such as two beams contacting each
other (at a beam tip or sharp corner node), and the corners of snap-fit parts.
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Chapter 11: Contact
You can also use CONTA175 to model surface-to-surface contact, if the contacting surface is defined by a group
of nodes and multiple elements are generated. The surfaces can be either rigid or deformable. An example of
this type of contact problem is a wire inserted into a slot.
Unlike the node-to-node contact elements, you do not need to know the exact location of the contacting area
beforehand, nor do the contacting components need to have a compatible mesh. Large deformation and large
relative sliding are allowed, although this capability can also model small sliding.
CONTA175 does not support 3-D higher-order elements on the contact surface side. The element can fail if the
target surface is severely discontinous. No contour plots are available for contact results.
Node-to-node contact elements can also be used to solve a surface-to-surface problem if the nodes of the two
surfaces line up, the relative sliding deformation is negligible, and deflections (rotations) of the two surfaces remain
small. These are typically problems with faceted and simple geometry. An interference fit problem is an example
of a surface-to-surface problem where the use of node-to-node contact may be sufficient.
Another use of node-to-node contact elements is in extremely precise analysis of surface stresses, such as in
turbine blade analysis.
ANSYS element CONTA178 is the best choice for most node-to-node problems. It offers a wider range of options
and solver types than the other elements. CONTAC12 and CONTAC52 are available largely for reasons of backward
compatibility with existing models.
contact definitions. You can access the manager via the Contact Manager icon in the ANSYS Standard
Toolbar, or via the menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Contact Pair. See Section 11.5:
GUI Aids for Contact Analyses for more information on using the Contact Manager.
The following sections explain how to set up a contact analysis using the both command and GUI approaches.
Note — The following sections also apply to node-to-surface contact analyses using CONTA175, unless
otherwise noted.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
pairs, use TARGE170 with CONTA173, CONTA174, or CONTA175. Each contact pair is identified via the same real
constant number.
Note — If you prefer a graphical approach to setting up your contact analysis, you can use the Contact
Toolbar, as discussed in Section 11.5.1: The Contact Manager.
Each contact-specific step also has a corresponding GUI approach where you use functions and features on the
Contact Toolbar.
Note — You should avoid midside-noded elemets for 3-D contact surfaces when using node-to-surface
element CONTA175.
The contact zone can be arbitrary; however, for the most efficient solution (primarily in CPU time), you may want
to define smaller, localized contacting zones, but be sure your zones are adequate to capture all necessary contact.
Different contact pairs must be defined by a different real constant set, even if the element real constant values
do not change. There is no limit on the number of surfaces allowed.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Depending on the geometry of the model (and the potential deformation), multiple target surfaces could interact
with the same zone of the contact surface. In such cases, you must define multiple contact pairs (using multiple
overlapping contact elements), each with its own real constant number. See Figure 11.1: “Localized Contact
Zones”.
• If a convex surface is expected to come into contact with a flat or concave surface, the flat/concave surface
should be the target surface.
• If one surface has a fine surface mesh and, in comparison, the other has a coarse mesh, the fine mesh
should be the contact surface and the coarse mesh should be the target surface.
• If one surface is stiffer then the other, the softer surface should be the contact surface and the stiffer surface
should be the target surface.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
• If higher-order elements underly one of the external surfaces and lower-order elements underly the other
surface, the surface with the underlying higher-order elements should be the contact surface and the
other surface should be the target. However, for 3-D node-to-surface contact, the lower-order elements
should be the contact surface. The higher-order elements should be the target surface.
• If one surface is markedly larger than the other surface, such as in the instance where one surface surrounds
the other surface, the larger surface should be the target surface.
These guidelines are true for asymmetric contact; however, asymmetric contact may not perform satisfactorily
for your model. The following section details the difference between asymmetric and symmetric contact and
outlines some of the situations that require symmetric contact.
• The distinction between the contact and target surfaces is not clear.
• Both surfaces have very coarse meshes. The symmetric contact algorithm enforces the contact constraint
conditions at more surface locations than the asymmetric contact algorithm.
If the meshes on both surfaces are identical and sufficiently refined, the symmetric contact algorithm may not
significantly improve performance and may, in fact, be more "expensive" in CPU time. In such circumstances,
pick one surface to be the target and the other the contact surface.
For a symmetric contact definition, ANSYS may find one side of a contact surface as closed and the other side of
the surface as closed. In this case, it can be difficult to interpret the results. The total contact pressure acting on
both sides is the average of the contact pressures on each side of the surface.
Note — In any contact model, you can mix different types of contact pairs: rigid-to-flexible or flexible-to-
flexible contact; symmetric contact or asymmetric contact. However, only one type can exist with a
contact pair.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Deformable Contact Surface for details). You should not use the following rigid target segments for a deformable
target surface: ARC, CARC, CIRC, CYL1, CONE, SPHE, or PILO. For rigid target surfaces, the following provides
general guidelines.
In 2-D cases, the shape of the target surface is described by a sequence of straight lines, circular arcs, and parabolas,
all of which can be represented with the target segment element TARGE169. You can use any combination to
define the complex target surface geometry. In 3-D cases, the shape of the target surfaces is described by a se-
quence of triangles, quadrilaterals, cylinders, cones, and spheres, which can be represented with TARGE170. You
can use any combination of low/high-order triangles and quadrilaterals to model a target surface with a complex,
arbitrary geometry.
11.4.6.2. Primitives
You can use circle, cylinder, cone, and sphere primitives to model the target (which require real constants to
define the radius). You can combine primitive segments with general segments (such as lines, parabolas, triangles,
and quadrilaterals) to define a target surface. Primitives cannot be defined directly in the Contact Wizard.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
For TARGE169 and TARGE170, you need only set real constants R1 and R2 (if required). For a complete description
of the target elements, element shapes, and real constants, see the description of TARGE169 and TARGE170 in
the ANSYS Elements Reference.
Note — Specifying real constants (R1, R2) manually is necessary only if you use direct generation to create
your target elements. You can also use the ANSYS meshing tools to create the elements, or use the
Contact Toolbar.
Once you specify a target element shape, all subsequent elements will have that shape until you specify another
shape.
Note — You cannot mix 2-D and 3-D target elements on the same target surface.
You cannot mix rigid target elements with deformable target elements on the same target surface.
During solution, ANSYS assigns a deformable status to target elements with underlying elements and
assigns a rigid status to target elements without underlying elements. If a portion of the underlying
elements of a deformable surface are deleted, an error will occur in solution.
You can generate the nodes and elements using standard ANSYS direct generation techniques. For more inform-
ation on direct generation modeling techniques, see Chapter 9, “Direct Generation” in the ANSYS Modeling and
Meshing Guide.
Command(s): N, E
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Nodes
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements
You can then verify your element shapes by listing the elements.
Command(s): ELIST
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Chapter 11: Contact
To generate 2-D rigid target elements, use the following command or GUI path. ANSYS creates a single line over
each line, parabolic segments over B-splines, and arc segments over each arc and line fillet (see Figure 11.2: “ANSYS
Geometric Entities and Their Corresponding Rigid Target Elements”). If all the arcs form a closed circle, ANSYS
creates a single circular segment (see Figure 11.3: “A Single Circular Target Segment Created From Arc Line
Segments”). However, if the arcs that form a closed circle are created from imported or archived geometry (such
as IGES), ANSYS might not create a single circular segment.
Command(s): LMESH
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Lines
Figure 11.2 ANSYS Geometric Entities and Their Corresponding Rigid Target Elements
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
Figure 11.3 A Single Circular Target Segment Created From Arc Line Segments
To generate 3-D rigid target elements, use the following command or GUI path.
Command(s): AMESH
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Areas
If the surface segments on the solid model form a complete sphere, cylinder, or cone, then ANSYS automatically
generates a single primitive 3-D target element through the AMESH command. By creating fewer elements, the
analysis becomes more computationally efficient. For arbitrary surfaces, you should use AMESH to generate
target elements. In these cases, the quality of the meshed target shape is not important. It is more important
that the target elements represent the rigid surface geometry well.
We recommend using mapped meshing on all possible areas. If there is no curvature on the edges of the surface,
assign one division on that edge. TARGE169 with a rigid specification will always mesh with one element division,
per line, ignoring any LESIZE setting. The default target element shape is quadrilateral. If you want a triangular
target element shape, use MSHAPE,1. Figure 11.4: “Meshing Patterns for Arbitrary Target Surfaces” shows the
meshing patterns for arbitrary target surfaces. The following command or GUI path will generate a mapped mesh
wherever possible (otherwise, if not possible, it will generate a free mesh).
Command(s): MSHKEY,2
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Areas> Target Surf
If the target surface is flat (or nearly flat), you may select low-order target elements (3-node triangular or 4-node
quadrilateral elements). If the target surface is curved you should select high-order target elements (6-node tri-
angular or 8-node quadrilateral). By doing so, set KEYOPT(1) = 1 in the target element definition.
Note — Low-order target elements result in "cheaper" CPU usage in getting penetration and gap; however,
the meshed surface may not be smooth. Higher-order target elements are more "expensive" to use in
getting the penetration and gap, but they need many fewer elements to discretize the whole curved
target surface.
Note — If target elements are created via program meshing (through the KMESH, LMESH, or ESURF
commands) the TSHAP command is ignored and ANSYS chooses the correct shape codes automatically.
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Chapter 11: Contact
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
For 3-D contact, the target triangular element numbering should be such that the rigid surface's outward normal
points toward the contact surface. The outward normal is determined by the right-hand rule.
To check the direction of the normals, turn on the element coordinate systems.
Command(s): /PSYMB,ESYS,1
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Chapter 11: Contact
If the element normals do not point toward the contact surface, select this element and reverse the direction of
the surface normals.
Command(s): ESURF,,REVE
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Surf/Contact> Surf to Surf
Note — Contact on target primitives (such as a complete circle, cylinder, cone, or sphere), can occur only
on the outside surfaces of such target bodies.
The contact surface is defined by the set of contact elements that comprise the surface of the deformable body.
These contact elements have the same geometric characteristics as the underlying elements of the deformable
body. The contact surface elements are of the same order as the underlying elements (lower- or higher-order),
with compatible nodes along the edges. The higher-order contact elements can match lower-order underlying
elements by dropping the midside nodes. The underlying elements can be solid, shell, or 2-D beam elements.
The contact surface can be on either side of the shell or beam elements. The underlying elements may also be
a superelement. However, axisymmetric harmonic elements may not be used as underlying elements.
As with the target surface elements, you must define the contact surface element type, then select the correct
real constant number (the real constant number must be the same as the one used for the target surface for
each contact pair), and finally generate the elements.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
• CONTA171: This element is a 2-D, 2-node, lower-order line element that can be located on the surfaces
of 2-D solid, shell, or beam elements (such as BEAM3, PLANE42, or SHELL51).
• CONTA172: This element is a 2-D, 3-node, higher-order parabolic element that can be located on the
surfaces of 2-D solid or beam elements with midside nodes (such as PLANE82 or VISCO88).
• CONTA173: This element is a 3-D, 4-node, lower-order quadrilateral element that can be located on the
surfaces of 3-D solid or shell elements (such as SOLID45 or SHELL181). It can be degenerated to a 3-node
triangular element.
• CONTA174: This element is a 3-D, 8-node, higher-order quadrilateral element that can be located on the
surfaces of 3-D solid or shell elements with midside nodes (such as SOLID92, SOLID95, or SHELL93). It can
be degenerated to 3 - 7 node quadrilateral/triangular shapes.
• CONTA175: This element is a 2- or 3-D 1-node element that can be located on the surface of 2-D low order
and higher order solid or beam elements or 3-D low order solid or shell elements.
Command(s): ET
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Element Type> Add/Edit/Delete
ANSYS uses the material properties of the underlying elements to calculate an appropriate contact (or penalty)
stiffness. In cases where the underlying element has TB plasticity material properties defined (whether active or
not), the contact normal stiffness will be reduced by a factor of 100. ANSYS automatically defines a default value
for tangent (sliding) contact stiffness that is proportional to MU and the normal stiffness. If the underlying element
is a superelement, the material property set for the contact elements must be the same as that of the original
structural elements used during the formation of the superelement.
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Chapter 11: Contact
1. Select the nodes on the meshed deformable body. For each surface, view the node list. If you are certain
that particular nodes will never come into contact, you can omit those nodes and reduce CPU time.
However, you should always include more nodes than you think you'll need so that you don't miss unex-
pected areas of contact.
Command(s): NSEL
GUI: Utility Menu> Select> Entities
2. Generate the contact elements.
Command(s): ESURF
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Surf/Contact> Surf to Surf
If the contact surface is attached to areas or volumes that are meshed with solid elements, ANSYS auto-
matically determines the outward normal needed for contact calculations. If the underlying elements
are beam or shell elements, you must indicate which surface (top or bottom) is the target surface.
Command(s): ESURF,,TOP or BOTTOM
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Surf/Contact> Surf to Surf
Use the TOP setting (default) to generate contact elements with their outward normals the same as the
beam or shell elements' normals. Use the BOTTOM setting to generate contact elements with their outward
normals opposite the beam or shell elements' normals. You must make sure that all elements in the
beam or shell element selection have their normals consistently oriented. If the underlying elements are
solid elements, then the TOP or BOTTOM setting has no effect.
3. Check the direction of the outward normals for the contact elements. The direction of the contact surface's
outward normal is critical for proper contact detection. For 3-D elements, the node numbering follows
the right hand rule to define its outward normal. The contact surface's outward normal should point
toward the target surface. Otherwise, ANSYS may detect over-penetration of the surfaces at the beginning
of the analysis and have difficulty finding an initial solution. In most of these cases, the analysis will fail
immediately. Figure 11.8: “Specification of the Contact Surface's Outward Normal” illustrates both
proper and improper specification of the contact surface's outward normal.
Command(s): /PSYMB,ESYS
GUI: Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Symbols
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
If the surface normals are specified incorrectly, you must either change them by reversing the node
number order of the selected elements.
Command(s): ESURF,,REVE
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Surf/Contact> Surf to Surf
Note — ESURF,,TOP or BOTTOM and checking the direction of outward normals will not apply to node-
to-surface contact (CONTA175) because it is a single-node element with no surface normal associated
with it.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Real constant defaults can vary depending on the environment you are working in. The following table compares
the default values between ANSYS and the ANSYS Workbench. See your ANSYS sales representative for more
information about ANSYS Workbench.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
1. FKN = 10 for bonded. For all other, FKN = 1.0, but if bonded and other contact behavior exists, FKN = 1
for all.
2. Depends on contact behavior (rigid vs. flex target), NLGEOM,ON or OFF, KEYOPT(9) setting, KEYOPT(12)
setting, and the value of CNOF (see Section 11.4.8.9.2: Using PINB).
3. Calculated as a function of highest conductivity and overall model size.
4. 10% of target length for NLGEOM,OFF.
Command(s): R
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Real Constants
Figure 11.9: “Depth of the Underlying Element” shows the depth of the underlying element for a solid element.
If the underlying elements are shell or beam elements, the depth will usually be 4 times the element thickness.
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Chapter 11: Contact
When KEYOPT(10) = 0, 1, or 2, each contact pair has a pair-based depth which is obtained by averaging the depth
of each contact element across all the contact elements in a contact pair. This can avoid the problem of very
different element-based depths when there are meshes with large variations in element sizes.
Note — When the contact pair depth is too small (for example, 10-5), the machine precision may not
guarantee the accuracy of penetration to be calculated. You should scale the length unit in the model.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
KEYOPT defaults can vary depending on the environment you are working in. The following table compares the
default values between ANSYS, the ANSYS Contact Wizard, and the ANSYS Workbench. See your ANSYS sales
representative for more information about ANSYS Workbench.
The penalty method uses a contact “spring” to establish a relationship between the two contact surfaces. The
spring stiffness is called the contact stiffness. This method uses the following real constants: FKN and FKS for all
values of KEYOPT(10), plus FTOLN and SLTO if KEYOPT(10) = 1 or 2.
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Chapter 11: Contact
The augmented Lagrangian method (which is the default) is an iterative series of penalty methods. The contact
tractions (pressure and frictional stresses) are augmented during equilibrium iterations so that the final penetration
is smaller than the allowable tolerance (FTOLN). Compared to the penalty method, the augmented Lagrangian
method usually leads to better conditioning and is less sensitive to the magnitude of the contact stiffness.
However, in some analyses, the augmented Lagrangian method may require additional iterations, especially if
the deformed mesh becomes too distorted.
The pure Lagrange multiplier method enforces zero penetration when contact is closed and “zero slip” when
sticking contact occurs. The pure Lagrange multiplier method does not require contact stiffness, FKN and FKS.
Instead it requires chattering control parameters, FTOLN and TNOP. This method adds contact traction to the
model as additional degrees of freedom and requires additional iterations to stabilize contact conditions. It often
increases the computational cost compared to the augmented Lagrangian method.
An alternative algorithm is the Lagrange multiplier method applied on the contact normal and the penalty
method (tangential contact stiffness) on the frictional plane. This methods enforces zero penetration and allows
a small amount of slip for the sticking contact condition. It requires chattering control parameters, FTOLN and
TNOP, as well as the maximum allowable elastic slip parameter SLTO.
Another method, the internal multipoint constraint (MPC) algorithm, is used in conjunction with bonded contact
(KEYOPT(2) = 5 or 6) to model several types of contact assemblies and kinematic constraints. See Section 11.7:
Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints for more information on how to use
this feature.
Note — The Lagrange multiplier methods (KEYOPT(2) = 3, 4) and MPC approach (KEYOPT(2) = 2) do not
support the Gauss point detection option (KEYOPT(4) = 0) for surface-to-surface contact. They support
the nodal detection options for surface-to-surface contact and node-to-surface contact. When using
these options, be careful not to overconstrain the model. The model is overconstrained when a contact
node has prescribed boundary conditions, CE and CP equations. ANSYS usually detects and eliminates
the overconstraints. However, there is no guarantee that the program will eliminate all the cases of
overconstraint. You should always verify your model carefully to address this issue. The Lagrange multi-
plier also introduces more degrees of freedom which may result in spurious modes for modal and linear
eigenvalue buckling analyses. The augmented Lagrangian method would be a better choice for these
analysis types.
Note — The Lagrange multiplier methods (KEYOPT(2) = 3, 4) introduce zero diagonal terms in the stiffness
matrix. Any iterative solver (PCG or AMG) will encounter a preconditioning matrix singularity with these
methods. Therefore, you should switch to sparse solver.
ANSYS provides default values for contact stiffnesses (FKN, FKT), allowable penetration (FTOLN), and allowable
slip (SLTO). In most cases, you do not need to define the contact stiffness. In addition, we recommend that you
use KEYOPT(10) = 1 to allow the program to update the contact stiffness automatically.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
Use real constant FTOLN in conjunction with the augmented Lagrangian method. FTOLN is a tolerance factor to
be applied in the direction of the surface normal. The range for this factor is less than 1.0 (usually less than 0.2),
with a default of 0.1, and is based on the depth of the underlying solid, shell, or beam element (see Fig-
ure 11.9: “Depth of the Underlying Element”). This factor is used to determine if penetration compatibility is
satisfied. Contact compatibility is satisfied if penetration is within an allowable tolerance (FTOLN times the depth
of underlying elements). The depth is defined by the average depth of each individual contact element in the
pair. If ANSYS detects any penetration larger than this tolerance, the global solution is still considered unconverged,
even though the residual forces and displacement increments have met convergence criteria. You can also define
an absolute allowable penetration by specifying a negative value for FTOLN.
Note — When the contact stiffness is too large (for example, 1016), the machine precision may not guar-
antee good conditioning of the global stiffness matrix. In this case, you should scale the force unit in the
model if possible.
Note — FTOLN is also used in the Lagrange multiplier methods (KEYOPT(2) = 3, 4) as a chattering control
parameter.
For KEYOPT(10) = 1 or 2, or when the Lagrange multiplier on normal and penalty on tangent option is used
(KEYOPT(2) = 3), ANSYS updates tangential contact stiffness based on current contact normal pressure, PRES,
and maximum allowable elastic slip, SLTO (FKT = MU* PRES/SLTO). The real constant SLTO is used to control
maximum sliding distance when FKT is updated at each iteration. ANSYS provides default tolerance values which
work well in most cases. You can override the default values for SLTO (1% of average contact length in pair) by
defining a scaling factor (positive value when using command input) or an absolute value (negative value when
using command input). A larger value will enhance convergence but compromise accuracy. Based on the tolerance,
current normal pressure, and friction coefficient, the tangential contact stiffness FKT can be obtained automat-
ically. In certain cases users can override FKT by defining a scaling factor (positive input value) or absolute value
(negative input value) (see Positive and Negative Real Constants for more information).
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Chapter 11: Contact
Note — FKN, FTOLN, FKT, and SLTO can be modified from one load step to another. They can also be
adjusted in a restart run. Determining a good stiffness value may require some experimentation on your
part. To arrive at a good stiffness value, you can try the following procedure as a “trial run”:
1. Use a low value for the contact stiffness to start. In general, it is better to underestimate this value
rather than overestimate it. Penetration problems resulting from a low stiffness are easier to fix
than convergence difficulties that arise from a high stiffness.
2. Run the analysis up to a fraction of the final load (just enough to get the contact fully established).
3. Check the penetration and the number of equilibrium iterations used in each substep. If the
global convergence difficulty is caused by too much penetration (rather than by residual forces
and displacement increments), FKN may be underestimated or FTOLN may be too small. If the
global convergence requires many equilibrium iterations for achieving convergence tolerances
of residual forces and displacements rather than the resulting penetration, FKN or FKT may be
overestimated.
4. Adjust FKN, FKT, FTOLN, or SLTO as necessary and run the full analysis. If the penetration control
becomes dominant in the global equilibrium iterations (that is, if more iterations were used to
converge the problem to within the penetration tolerance than to converge the residual forces),
you may increase FTOLN to permit more allowable penetration or increase FKN.
Note — Generally, the contact stiffness FKN, FKT has units FORCE/LENGTH3. However, for contact force-
based models (KEYOPT(3) = 0) in CONTA175, the contact stiffness has units FORCE/LENGTH.
• KEYOPT(10) = 0, the contact stiffness will be updated at each load step if FKN or FKT is redefined by the
user. Stiffness and other settings (ICONT, FTOLN, SLTO, PINB, PMAX, and PMIN) are averaged across contact
elements in a contact pair. The default contact stiffness is determined by underlying element depth and
material properties.
• KEYOPT(10) = 1 (covers KEYOPT(10) = 0), the normal contact stiffness will be updated at every substep
based on the mean stress of the underlying elements from the previous substep and the allowable pen-
etration, FTOLN, except in the first substep of the first load step. The default normal contact stiffness for
the first substep of the first load step is the same as described for KEYOPT(10) = 0. If bisections occur in
the beginning of the analysis, the normal contact stiffness will be reduced by a factor of 0.2 for each bisec-
tion. The tangential contact stiffness will be updated at each iteration based on the current contact
pressure, MU, and allowable slip (SLTO).
• KEYOPT(10) = 2 (covers KEYOPT(10) = 1), the normal contact stiffness will be updated at each iteration
based on the current mean stress of the underlying elements and the allowable penetration, FTOLN, except
in the very first iteration. The default normal contact stiffness for the first iteration is the same as described
for KEYOPT(10) = 0. If bisections occur in the beginning of the analysis, the normal contact stiffness will
be reduced by a factor of 0.2 for each bisection. The tangential contact stiffness will be updated at each
iteration based on the current contact pressure, MU, and allowable slip (SLTO).
• KEYOPT(10) = 3, same as KEYOPT(10) = 0, except stiffness and settings are not averaged across the contact
elements in a contact pair. If bisections occur in the beginning of the analysis, the normal contact stiffness
will be reduced by a factor of 0.2 for each bisection.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
• KEYOPT(10) = 4, same as KEYOPT(10) = 1, except stiffness and settings are not averaged across the contact
elements in a contact pair.
• KEYOPT(10) = 5, same as KEYOPT(10) = 2, except stiffness and settings are not averaged across the contact
elements in a contact pair.
Note — When a Lagrange multiplier method (KEYOPT(2) = 3, 4) or MPC algorithm (KEYOPT(2) = 2) is used,
KEYOPT(10) is ignored.
Note — A negative contact pressure occurs when the contact status is closed. A tensile contact pressure
(positive) refers to a separation between the contact surfaces, but not necessarily an open contact status.
• If the contact status from the previous iteration is open and the current calculated penetration is smaller
than FTOLN, then contact remains open. Otherwise the contact status switches to closed and another it-
eration is processed.
• If the contact status from the previous iteration is closed and the current calculated contact pressure is
positive but smaller than TNOP, then contact remains closed. If the tensile contact pressure is larger than
TNOP, then the contact status changes from closed to open and ANSYS continues to the next iteration.
ANSYS will provide reasonable defaults for FTOLN and TNOP. FTOLN defaults to the displacement convergence
tolerance. TNOP defaults to the force convergence tolerance divided by contact area at contact nodes.
Keep in mind the following when providing values for FTOLN and TNOP:
The objective of FTOLN and TNOP is to provide stability to models which exhibit contact chattering due to
changing contact status. If the values you use for these tolerances are too small, the solution will require more
iterations. However, if the values are too large, the accuracy of the solution will be affected since a certain amount
of penetration or tensile contact force is allowed.
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Chapter 11: Contact
For frictionless, rough, and bonded contact, the contact element stiffness matrices are symmetric. Contact
problems involving friction produce unsymmetric stiffnesses. Using an unsymmetric solver is more computationally
expensive than a symmetric solver for each iteration. For this reason, ANSYS uses a symmetrization algorithm
by which most frictional contact problems can be solved using solvers for symmetric systems. If frictional stresses
have a substantial influence on the overall displacement field and the magnitude of the frictional stresses is
highly solution dependent, the symmetric approximation to the stiffness matrix may provide a low rate of con-
vergence. In such cases, choose the unsymmetric solution option (NROPT,UNSYM) to improve convergence.
ANSYS provides one extension of classical Coulomb friction: TAUMAX is maximum contact friction with units of
stress. This maximum contact friction stress can be introduced so that, regardless of the magnitude of normal
contact pressure, sliding will occur if the friction stress reaches this value. You typically use TAUMAX when the
contact pressure becomes very large (such as in bulk metal forming processes). TAUMAX defaults to 1.0e20.
σy
3
Empirical data is often the best source for TAUMAX. Its value may be close to , where σy is the yield stress of
the material being deformed.
Another real constant used for the friction law is the cohesion, COHE (default COHE = 0), which has units of stress.
It provides sliding resistance, even with zero normal pressure (see Figure 11.10: “Sliding Contact Resistance”).
Two other real constants, FACT and DC are involved in specifying static and dynamic friction coefficients, as de-
scribed in the next section.
where:
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
µ = coefficient of friction.
MU = dynamic coefficient of friction input using the MP command.
FACT = ratio of static to dynamic coefficients of friction. It defaults to the minimum value of 1.0
DC = decay coefficient. It defaults to 0.0 and it has units of time/length. Therefore, time has some meaning
in a static analysis.
Vrel = slip rate calculated by ANSYS.
Figure 11.11: “Friction Decay” shows the exponential decay curve where the static coefficient of friction is given
by:
µs = FACT × MU
You can determine the decay coefficient if you know the static and dynamic coefficients of friction and at least
one data point (µ1 ; Vrel1). The equation for friction decay can be rearranged to give:
1 µ1 − MU
DC = − × ln
Vrel1 (FACT − 1) × MU
If you do not specify a decay coefficient and FACT is greater than 1.0, the coefficient of friction will change suddenly
from the static to the dynamic value as soon as contact reaches the sliding state. This behavior is not recommended
because the discontinuity may lead to convergence difficulties.
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Chapter 11: Contact
ANSYS surface-to-surface contact elements use Gauss integration points as a default, which generally provide
more accurate results than the nodal detection scheme, which uses the nodes themselves as the integration
points. The node-to-surface contact element CONTA175 always uses the nodal detection scheme.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
Be aware, however, that using nodes as the contact detection points can lead to other convergence difficulties,
such as "node slippage," where the node slips off the edge of the target surface, see Figure 11.14: “Node Slippage
Using Nodal Integration KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2”. In order to prevent node slippage, you can use real constant TOLS
to extend the target surface when the default setting still cannot avoid the problem. For most point-to-surface
contact problems, we recommend using CONTA175; see Section 11.6: Performing a Node-to-Surface Contact
Analysis later in this chapter.
Smoothing is required for nodal detection algroithms, and it is performed by averaging surface normals connected
to the node. As a result, the variation of the surface normal is continuous over the surface, which leads to a better
calculation of friction behavior and a better convergence.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Real constant TOLS is used to add a small tolerance that will internally extend the edge of the target surface
when you define the contact detection at the nodal point (KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2). TOLS is useful for problems where
contact nodes are likely to lie on the edge of targets (as at symmetry planes or for models generated in a node-
to-node contact pattern). In these situations, the contact node may repeatedly "slip" off the target surface and
go completely out of contact, resulting in convergence difficulties from oscillations. Units for TOLS are percent
(1.0 implies a 1.0% increase in the target edge length). A small value of TOLS will usually prevent this situation
from occurring. The default value is 10 for small deflection and 2 for large deflection (NLGEOM, ON).
Note — The definition of KEYOPT(4) in node-to-surface contact element CONTA175 is different. KEYOPT(4)
= 1 for surface-to-surface contact is equivalent to KEYOPT(4) = 1 for node-to-surface contact. However,
KEYOPT(4) = 2 for surface-to-surface contact is equivalent to KEYOPT(4) = 0 for node-to surface contact.
See Section 11.6.1.1.2: KEYOPT(4).
In simulations where rigid body motions are constrained only by the presence of contact, you must ensure that
the contact pairs are in contact in the initial geometry. In other words, you want to build your model so that the
contact pairs are "just touching." However, you can encounter various problems in doing so:
• Rigid body profiles are often complicated, making it difficult to determine where the first point of contact
might occur.
• Small gaps between element meshes on both sides of the element pair can be introduced by numerical
round-off, even if the solid model is built in an initially-contacting state.
• Small gaps can exist between the integration points of the contact elements and target surface elements.
For the same reasons, too much initial penetration between target and contact surfaces can occur. In such cases,
the contact elements may overestimate the contact forces, resulting in nonconvergence or in breaking-away of
the components in contact.
The definition of initial contact is perhaps the most important aspect of building a contact analysis model.
Therefore, you should always issue the CNCHECK command before starting the solution to verify the initial
contact status. You may find that you need to adjust the initial contact conditions. ANSYS offers several ways to
adjust the initial contact conditions of a contact pair.
Specify a positive value to offset the entire contact surface towards the target surface. Use a negative
value to offset the contact surface away from the target surface.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
Note — If user-defined values are input for both CNOF and PINB, you must ensure that PINB is
greater than CNOF. Otherwise, CNOF will be ignored. However, if a user-defined CNOF is input
and the PINB value is left at its default value, the PINB value will be adjusted so that it is larger
than the CNOF value, as described in Using PINB.
ANSYS can automatically provide the CNOF value to either just close the gap or reduce initial penetration.
Set KEYOPT(5) as follows:
1: Closes the gap
2: Reduces initial penetration
3: Either closes the gap or reduces initial penetration
2. Use the real constant ICONT to specify a small initial contact closure. This is the depth of an "adjustment
band" around the target surface. A positive value for ICONT indicates a scaling factor relative to the depth
of the underlying elements. A negative value indicates an absolute contact closure value. The value of
ICONT defaults to zero if KEYOPT(5) = 0, 1, 2, or 3. (The ICONT default is different when KEYOPT(12) = 6
for bonded-initial contact; see Section 11.4.8.11: Selecting Surface Interaction Models for more informa-
tion). If KEYOPT(5) = 4, ANSYS provides a small (but meaningful) value for ICONT according to the geo-
metric dimensions, and prints a warning message stating what value was assigned. Any contact detection
points that fall within this adjustment band are internally shifted to be on the target surface (see Fig-
ure 11.15: “Contact Surface Adjustment With ICONT”(a)). Only a very small correction is suggested; oth-
erwise, severe discontinuity may occur (see Figure (b)).
The difference between CNOF and ICONT is that the former shifts the entire contact surface with the
distance value CNOF, the latter moves all initially open contact points which are inside of adjustment
band ICONT onto the target surface.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 11–31
Chapter 11: Contact
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3. Use real constants PMIN and PMAX to specify an initial allowable penetration range. When either PMAX
or PMIN is specified, ANSYS brings the target surface into a state of initial contact at the beginning of
the analysis (see Figure 11.16: “Contact Surface Adjustment (PMIN, PMAX)”). If the initial penetration is
larger than PMAX, ANSYS adjusts the target surface to reduce penetration. If the initial penetration is
smaller than PMIN (and within the pinball region), ANSYS adjusts the target surface to ensure initial
contact. Initial adjustment for contact status is performed only in translational modes.
Such adjustment of initial contact status will be performed for a rigid target surface that has either pre-
scribed loads or displacements. Similarly, a target surface that has no boundary conditions specified may
also be adjusted for initial contact.
When all the target surface nodes have a prescribed value of zero, the initial adjustment using PMAX
and PMIN will not be performed.
Note that ANSYS treats applicable degrees of freedom for target surface nodes independently. For ex-
ample, if you specify the UX degree of freedom to be "zero," then no initial adjustment is possible along
the X direction. However, the PMAX and PMIN options will still be activated in the Y and Z directions.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
The initial status adjustment is an iterative process. ANSYS uses a maximum of 20 iterations. If the target
surface cannot be brought into an acceptable penetration range (i.e., in the range of PMIN to PMAX),
the analysis proceeds with the original geometry. ANSYS issues a warning message in such circumstances,
and you may need to manually adjust your initial geometry.
Figure 11.17: “A Scenario in Which Initial Adjustment Will Fail” illustrates a problem in which initial contact
adjustment iteration will fail. The UY degree of freedom for the target has been restrained. Therefore,
the only possible adjustment for initial contact is in the X direction. However, in this problem, any
movement of the rigid target surface in the X direction will not establish initial contact.
For flexible-to-flexible contact, this technique not only moves the entire target surface but also moves
the whole deformable body which attaches to the target surface. Make sure there is no other contact
surface or target surface connecting with the deformable body.
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Chapter 11: Contact
4. Set KEYOPT(9) to adjust initial penetration or gap; see Figure 11.18: “Ignoring Initial Penetration, KEYOPT(9)
= 1”.
• To include initial penetration from both geometry and contact surface offset, set KEYOPT(9) = 0. This
is the default.
• To ignore initial penetration from both effects, set KEYOPT(9) = 1. When KEYOPT(12) = 4 or 5, this
setting for KEYOPT(9) will also ignore the initial force in open-gap springs, thus creating an initially
"perfect" contacting surface having no initial forces acting across the contact interface.
• To include the defined contact surface offset (CNOF) but ignore the initial penetration due to geometry,
set KEYOPT(9) = 3. When KEYOPT(12) = 4 or 5, this setting for KEYOPT(9) will also ignore the initial
force in open-gap springs, thus creating an initially "perfect" contacting surface having no initial
forces acting across the contact interface.
For problems such as an interference fit, over-penetration is expected. These problems often have con-
vergence difficulties if the initial penetration is step-applied in the first load step. You may overcome
convergence difficulties by ramping the initial penetration over the first load step, see Figure 11.20: “Ramp-
ing Initial Interference”. The following KEYOPT(9) settings provide ramped capabilities:
• To ramp the total initial penetration (CNOF + the offset due to geometry), set KEYOPT(9) = 2.
• To ramp the defined contact surface penetration, but ignore the penetration due to geometry, set
KEYOPT(9) = 4.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
For both of the above KEYOPT(9) settings, you should also set KBC,0 and not specify any external loads
in the first load step. Also, be sure that the pinball region is big enough to capture the initial interference.
You can use the above techniques in conjunction with each other. For example, you may wish to set a very precise
initial penetration or gap but the initial coordinates of the finite element nodes may not be able to provide suf-
ficient precision. To accomplish this, you could:
1. Use ICONT to move the initial open contact points just onto the target surface.
2. Use CNOF to specify a penetration (positive value) or gap (negative value).
3. Use KEYOPT(9) = 3 to resolve the initial penetration in the first substep (or KEYOPT(9) = 4 to gradually
resolve the initial penetration).
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Chapter 11: Contact
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
ANSYS provides a printout (in the output window or file or via the CNCHECK) of the model's initial contact state
for each target surface at the beginning of the analysis. This information is helpful for determining the maximum
penetration or minimum gap for each target surface.
If no contact is detected for a specific target surface, ANSYS issues a warning. This occurs when the target surface
is far from contact (i.e., outside of the pinball region), or when the contact/target elements have been killed.
See Positive and Negative Real Constants for more information on these real constants.
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Chapter 11: Contact
• Only when using the nodal detection option (KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2), or when using CONTA175.
• Initially open contact nodes inside the ICONT zone.
• Initially penetrated nodes with KEYOPT(9) = 1.
After issuing the CNCHECK,ADJUST command, the coordinates of the nodes that have been moved are modified
as shown in Figure 11.21: “Effect of Moving Contact Nodes”. You can change other contact related settings in
PREP7 (for example, set KEYOPT(4) = 0 to use the Gauss detection option) and save the db file. Issuing the SAVE
command before issuing the CNCHECK,ADJUST command is recommended in order to resume the .DB file with
the original contact configuration.
For those contact pairs whose contact nodes you do not wish to physically move towards target surface, do not
define KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2.
A contact element is considered to be in near-field contact when its integration points (Gauss points or nodal
points) are within a code-calculated (or user-defined) distance to the corresponding target surface. This distance
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
is referred to as the pinball region. The pinball region is a circle (in 2-D) or a sphere (in 3-D) centered about the
Gauss point.
Note — If you input a value for real constant CNOF (contact surface offset) and the default PINB value
(as described above) is less than the absolute value of CNOF, the default for PINB will be set to the absolute
value of (1.1*CNOF).
The computational cost of searching for contact depends on the size of the pinball region. Far-field contact element
calculations are simple and add little computational demands. The near-field calculations (for contact elements
that are nearly or actually in contact) are slower and more complex. The most complex calculations occur once
the elements are in actual contact.
Setting a proper pinball region is useful to overcome spurious contact definitions if the target surface has several
convex regions. However, the default setting should be appropriate for most contact problems.
See Positive and Negative Real Constants for more information on this real constant.
( #*)+ '
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Chapter 11: Contact
ANSYS will alert you when it first detects spurious contact in each load step. If ANSYS encounters such contact
on the first load step, you'll see the following error message:
Contact element x has too much penetration related to target element y. We
assume it (may be more elements) is spurious contact.
If ANSYS encounters an abrupt change in contact that it classifies as spurious contact, you'll see the following
message:
Contact element x status changed abruptly with target element y. We assume
it (may be more elements) is spurious contact.
ANSYS issues such messages only once per load step. It does not notify you of additional cases of spurious contact
that were ignored during the load step.
• KEYOPT(12) = 0 models standard unilateral contact; that is, normal pressure equals zero if separation occurs.
• KEYOPT(12) = 1 models perfectly rough frictional contact where there is no sliding. This case corresponds
to an infinite friction coefficient and ignores the material property MU.
• KEYOPT(12) = 2 models no separation contact, in which the target and contact surfaces are tied (although
sliding is permitted) for the remainder of the analysis once contact is established.
• KEYOPT(12) = 3 models "bonded" contact, in which the target and contact surfaces are bonded in all dir-
ections (once contact is established) for the remainder of the analysis.
• KEYOPT(12) = 4 models no separation contact, in which contact detection points that are either initially
inside the pinball region or that once involve contact always attach to the target surface along the normal
direction to the contact surface (sliding is permitted).
• KEYOPT(12) = 5 models bonded contact, in which contact detection points that are either initially inside
the pinball region or that once involve contact always attach to the target surface along the normal and
tangent directions to the contact surface (fully bonded).
• KEYOPT(12) = 6 models bonded contact, in which the contact detection points that are initially in a closed
state will remain attached to the target surface and the contact detection points that are initially in an
open state will remain open throughout the analysis.
For modeling either no-separation or bonded contact, you may need to set a value for the FKOP real constant.
This provides a stiffness factor applied when contact opens. If FKOP is a scaling factor (positive value for command
input), the true contact opening stiffness equals FKOP times the contact stiffness applied when contact closes.
If FKOP is an absolute value (negative value for command input), the value is applied as an absolute contact
opening stiffness. The default FKOP value is 1.
No separation and bonded contact generate a "pull-back" force when contact opening occurs, and that force
may not completely prevent separation. To reduce separation, define a larger value for FKOP. Also, in some cases
separation is expected while connection between the contacting surfaces is required to prevent rigid body
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
motion. In such instances, you can specify a small value for FKOP to maintain the connection between the contact
surfaces (this is a "weak spring" effect).
For the no-separation option (KEYOPT(12) = 4) and the bonded-always option (KEYOPT(12) = 5), a relatively small
PINB value (pinball region) may be used to prevent any false contact. For these KEYOPT(12) settings, the default
for PINB is 0.25 (25% of the contact depth) for small deformation analysis (NLGEOM,OFF) and 0.5 (50% of the
contact depth) for large deformation analysis (NLGEOM,ON). (The default PINB value may differ from what is
described here if CNOF is input. See Section 11.4.8.9.2: Using PINB for more information.)
For the bonded-initial option (KEYOPT(12) = 6), a relatively large ICONT value (initial contact closure) may be
used to capture the contact. For this KEYOPT(12) setting, the default for ICONT is 0.05 (5% of the contact depth)
when KEYOPT(5) = 0 or 4.
See Positive and Negative Real Constants for more information on these real constants.
Because the superelement consists only of a group of retained nodal degrees of freedom, it has no surface geo-
metry on which ANSYS can define a contact and target surface. Therefore, the contact and target surface must
be defined on the surface of the original elements before they are assembled into a superelement. Information
taken from the superelement includes nodal connection and assembly stiffness, but no material property or
stress states (whether axisymmetric, plane stress, or plane strain). One restriction is that the material property
set used for the contact elements must be the same as the one used for the original elements before they were
assembled into superelements.
In 3-D contact analysis, KEYOPT(3) in elements CONTA173 and CONTA174 is ignored. ANSYS will automatically
detect whether the underlying element is a superelement.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Note — KEYOPT(3) in node-to surface contact element CONTA175 has a different meaning. In CONTA175,
KEYOPT(3) = 1 defines the contact traction-based model. In this case, all of the real constant inputs and
contact result quantities have the same units as the surface-to-surface contact elements. KEYOPT(3) = 0
(default) defines the contact force model. In this model, certain real constants and contact result quant-
ities can have different units (a factor of AREA (Length2) difference). See Section 11.6.1.1.1: KEYOPT(3).
Note — Only use KEYOPT(11) = 1 to account for thickness when you have shell or beam elements with
nodes located at the middle surface (for example, KEYOPT(11) = 0 for SHELL91).
When building your model geometry, if you are going to account for thickness, remember the offsets which may
come from either the contact surface or target surface or from both. When you specify a contact offset (CNOF)
along with setting KEYOPT(11) = 1, it is defined from the top or bottom of the shell/beam, not the mid-surface.
When used with SHELL181, changes in thickness during deformation are also taken into account.
• KEYOPT(7) = 0: No control. The time step size is unaffected by the prediction. This setting is appropriate
for most analyses when automatic time stepping is activated and a small time step size is allowed.
• KEYOPT(7) = 1: Time step size is bisected if too much penetration occurs during an iteration, or if the
contact status changes dramatically.
• KEYOPT(7) = 2: Predict a reasonable increment for the next substep.
• KEYOPT(7) = 3: Predict a minimal time increment for the next substep.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
for a later stage. This feature is useful for modeling complex metal forming processes where multiple rigid target
surfaces need to interact with the contact surface at different stages of the analysis. Springback modeling often
requires removing the rigid tools at the end of the forming processes. This option cannot be used with "no sep-
aration" or bonded contact.
You must use a pilot node in any of the following situations to control the boundary conditions (and motion) of
the entire target surface:
The degrees of freedom of the pilot node represent the motion of the entire rigid surface, including two transla-
tional and one rotational degree of freedom in 2-D, and three translational and three rotational degrees of freedom
in 3-D. You can apply boundary conditions (displacement, initial velocity), concentrated loads, rotations, etc. to
the pilot node. To account for a rigid body's mass, define a mass element (MASS21) on the pilot node.
Keep in mind the following restrictions on the target surface when using a pilot node:
Note — The pilot node can be one of the nodes on the target elements or a node at any arbitrary location.
However, it should not be the node on the contact element. The location of the pilot node becomes
important only when rotations or moments are to be applied. For each pilot node, ANSYS will automat-
ically define an internal node and an internal constraint equation. The rotational DOF of the pilot node
is connected to the translational DOF of the internal node by the internal constraint equation.
By default, KEYOPT(2) = 0 for the target element, ANSYS checks the boundary conditions for each target surface.
If all of the following conditions are met, then ANSYS treats the target nodes along the respective degree of
freedom as fixed:
• There are no explicit boundary conditions or prescribed forces for target surface nodes.
• Target surface nodes are not connected to other elements.
• Neither constraint equations nor node coupling have been used to constrain such nodes.
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Chapter 11: Contact
At the end of each load step, ANSYS releases the constraint conditions that were set internally.
The constraint conditions stored in the results file (Jobname.RST) and the database file (Jobname.DB) may be
updated due to this change. You should carefully verify whether the current constraint conditions are expected
before restarting an analysis or resolving the problem in interactive mode.
If you wish, you can control the constraint conditions of target nodes by setting KEYOPT(2) = 1 in the target
element definition.
Note — When KEYOPT(1) is set to 2, ANSYS ignores heat generation due to friction.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
!#"%$ & '
where:
q: is the heat flux per area.
TCC: is the thermal contact conductance coefficient, having units of HEAT/(TIME * TEMPERATURE * AREA)
for force-based node-to-surface contact, or units of HEAT/(TIME * TEMPERATURE) for the traction-based
model.
Tt and Tc: are the temperatures of the contact points on the target and contact surfaces.
The TCC value is input through a real constant, which can be made a function of temperature [(Tc + Tt)/2], pressure,
time, and location by using the %TABLE% option. TCC has units of heat/(time x area x temp). If contact occurs,
a small value of TCC yields a measure amount of imperfect contact and a temperature discontinuity across the
interface. For large values of TCC, the resulting temperature discontinuity tends to vanish and perfect thermal
contact is approached. When not in contact, however, it is assumed that no heat is transferred across the interface.
To model contact conduction between two surfaces where a small gap exists, use KEYOPT(12) = 4 or 5 to define
either the “bonded contact” or “no-separation contact” options (see Selecting Surface Interaction Models).
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Chapter 11: Contact
ANTYPE,TRANS
THOPT,QUASI
EQSLV,JCG/ICCG
• Thermal conductivity at contact. The only real constant used is TCC, which can be a function of time and
temperature.
• Perfect thermal contact which supports dissimilar meshes on both sides of the contacting interface (TCC
= infinity). This case requires the internal MPC approach (KEYOPT(2) = 2) and contact nodal detections
(KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2) or CONTA175.
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Convection> On Elements> Uniform
Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Convection> On Elements> Uniform
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
Where
TOFFST: The temperature offset from absolute zero to zero (defined through the TOFFST command.)
EMIS: The surface emissivity (input as material property).
SBCT: The Stefan-Boltzmann constant (input as a real constant). There is no default for SBCT, and if this
is not defined the radiation effect is excluded.
RDVF: The radiation view factor input as a real constant (defaults to 1). RDVF can be defined as a function
of temperature, gap distance, time, and location by using the %TABLE% option. It is only used for near
field radiation. For far field radiation, RDVF is set to 1.0 and a user-assigned value is ignored. Other free-
surface conditions recognize user-specified RDVF.
For “near field” radiation, when an intersection from a contact detection point to the target surface (in the direction
of normal to the contact point) is detected, and the gap distance is smaller than the pinball radius, Te is the target
temperature at the intersection. The radiation modeling here assumes that the radiative heat transfer occurs in
the direction of the normal between two surfaces with a small gap. By defining RDVF as a function of gap, you
can account for geometry effects. Use the Radiosity Solver method for more generalized radiation problems (see
the ANSYS Thermal Analysis Guide for more information).
For “free surface” radiation, Te becomes the “ambient” temperature defined by “bulk temperature” input from
the SFE command (using KVAL = 2 and CONV as the table).
q = FHTG x τ x V
Where
τ: The equivalent frictional stress.
V: The sliding rate.
FHTG: The fraction of frictional dissipated energy converted into heat. This value defaults to 1 and can
be input as a real constant. For an input of true 0, you must enter a very small value (for example, 1E-8).
If you enter 0, ANSYS interprets this as an input of the default value.
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Chapter 11: Contact
qc = FWGT x FHTG x τ x V
and
qT = (1 - FWGT) x FHTG x τ x V
Where qc is the contact side and qT is the target side, and FWGT is the weight factor for the distribution of heat
between the contact and target surfaces (input as a real constant). By default, FWGT = 0.5. For an input of true
0, you must enter a very small value (for example, 1E-8). If you enter 0, ANSYS interprets this as an input of the
default value.
For a free thermal surface, if KEYOPT(3) of the target element is set to 1, the external flux is only applied on the
contact side. On a given contact element either CONV or HFLUX (but not both) may be specified. However, you
can define two different contact pairs: one models convection and the other models heat flux.
KEYOPT(1) provides degree of freedom options for modeling electric contact. For combined structural/thermal/elec-
tric contact, set KEYOPT(1) = 3 to activate the structural, thermal, and electric current DOFs. For pure
thermal/electric contact, set KEYOPT(1) = 4 to activate the thermal and electric current DOFs. For piezoelectric
contact, set KEYOPT(1) = 5 to activate the structural and piezoelectric DOFs. For electrostatic contact, set KEYOPT(1)
= 6 to activate the electrostatic DOF.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
where:
J = current density for the electric potential (VOLT) degree of freedom (KEYOPT(1) = 3 or 4), or the electric
charge density (KEYOPT(1) = 5, or 6).
ECC = electric contact conductance for the electric potential (VOLT) degree of freedom (KEYOPT(1) = 3 or 4),
or the electric contact capacitance per unit area for (KEYOPT(1) = 5, or 6).
Vt and Vc = voltages at the contact points on the target and contact surfaces.
The ECC value is input through a real constant, which can be a function of temperature [(Tt + Tc)/2], pressure,
and time, by using the %TABLE% option. For the current conduction option, the electric contact conductance
ECC has units of electric conductivity/length. For the piezoelectric and electrostatic options, the electric contact
capacitance ECC has units of capacitance per unit area. To model surface interaction between two surfaces where
a small gap exists, use KEYOPT(12) = 4 or 5 to define either the “bonded contact” or “no-separation contact”
options (see Selecting Surface Interaction Models).
Note — For force-based node-to-surface contact, ECC has units of (electric conductivity)(LENGTH) or the
capacitance.
Where
FHEG: The fraction of electric dissipated energy converted into heat (Joule heating). This value defaults
to 1 and can be input as a real constant. For an input of true 0, you must enter a very small value (for
example, 1E-8). If you enter 0, ANSYS interprets this as an input of the default value.
J: The current density.
Vt and Vc: The voltages at the contact points on the target and contact surfaces.
The amount of electric heat dissipation on contact and target surfaces is defined by
qc = FWGT x q
and
qT = (1 - FWGT) x q
Where qc is the contact side and qT is the target side, and FWGT is the weight factor for the contact heat dissipation
between the contact and target surfaces (input as a real constant). FWGT is the same real constant used for fric-
tional heat generation. By default, FWGT = 0.5. For an input of true 0, you must enter a very small value (for ex-
ample, 1E-8). If you enter 0, ANSYS interprets this as an input of the default value.
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Chapter 11: Contact
• Non-perfect contact to account for the effects of a small air gap between mating components. This typically
occurs at the interface between adjoining bodies. In this situation, there is a gap permeance effect where
an MMF drop occurs. You can model this effect by inputting the gap permeance real constant, MCC. This
option works best if the magnetic flux is normal to the gap interface.
• Perfect contact across dissimilar meshes. This is typically used to model the air gap in a machine, for ex-
ample, where the rotor and stator meshes meet.
For both types of magnetic contact, you must set KEYOPT(1) = 7 to select the degree-of-freedom option. For the
2-D case, the magnetic potential degree of fredom, AZ, is active. For the 3-D case, only the scalar potential degree
of freedom, MAG, is active, and scalar potential formulations (reduced (RSP), difference (DSP), or general (GSP))
are available (see MAGOPT).
Note — 3-D magnetic contact is not supported for the MVP formulation (AX, AY, AZ), and the edge-based
formulation (AZ).
Note — Non-perfect magnetic contact is only available for the 3–D contact elements, CONTA173 and
CONTA174.
For more information on which element types should be used for a particular analysis, see the element discussions
in the appropriate chapter of the ANSYS Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Analysis Guide. For information on the
use of the AZ degree of freedom, see Section 2.3.1.3: Specifying Element Types and Options. For more information
on the use of the MAG DOF, see Section 5.3.5: Building the Model.
For details on how to set up a contact analysis, see Steps in a Contact Analysis.
For an example input listing showing a 2-D static magnetic contact analysis, see Section 2.6: Doing an Example
2-D Static Magnetic Contact Analysis (Command Method).
where:
The MCC value is input through a real constant, which can be a function of temperature [(Tt + Tc)/2], pressure,
and time, by using the %TABLE% option. MCC values can be approximated as µ/t, where µ is the gap permeab-
ility and t is the gap width.
If the “no-separation contact” or “bonded contact” option is set (KEYOPT(12) = 4 or 5), contact interaction can
occur between two surfaces separated by a narrow gap.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
The time step size must be small enough to capture the proper contact zone. The smooth transfer of contact
forces is disrupted if the time step size is too large. The time step size is specified by a number of substeps or the
time step size itself. The following commands adjust these parameters.
Command(s):
NSUBST
GUI:
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Freq and Substps
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time and Substps
Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Freq and Substps
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time and Substps
Command(s):
DELTIM
GUI:
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step
Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc>Time-Time Step
Note — A reliable way to set an accurate time step size is to turn automatic time stepping on.
The following options are automatically invoked, but may override them if needed.
Command(s): AUTOTS,ON
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step or
Time and Substps
If the contact status changes during the iteration process, discontinuity can occur. To avoid a slow convergence
rate and use an updated stiffness matrix, set the Newton-Raphson option to FULL.
Command(s): NROPT,FULL,,OFF
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options
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Also, do not use adaptive descent. Adaptive descent usually does not provide any help for surface-to-surface
contact applications, and we recommend turning it off.
In cases where frictional sliding dominates, set the unsymmetric solver option (NROPT, UNSYM,,OFF) to avoid
slow convergence or divergence.
Set the number of equilibrium equations to a number that is appropriate for a reasonable time step size. This
command defaults to between 15 and 26 iterations, depending upon the physics of the problem.
Command(s): NEQIT
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Nonlinear Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Equilibrium Iter
Because the iterations tend to become unstable for large increments, use the line search option to stabilize the
calculations.
Command(s): LNSRCH
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Nonlinear Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Line Search
Turn the predictor-corrector option on, except for large rotations or dynamic analyses.
Command(s): PRED
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Nonlinear Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Predictor
Many convergence failures in contact analyses are the result of using too large a value for contact stiffness (real
constant FKN). Be sure to follow the recommendations given earlier in this chapter for estimating contact stiffness.
If such estimated values lead to a convergence failure, reduce the contact stiffness and restart.
Conversely, if overpenetration occurs in your contact analysis, you probably need a larger value of FKN. In this
case, gradually increase the contact stiffness value to an appropriate level by redefining it using RMODIF com-
mands over several load steps in a restart.
Note — For most small strains, small displacements, and small sliding problems, set NLGEOM, OFF. This
setting will speed up the searching time; however, if the contact problem involves large sliding, set
NLGEOM, ON.
• Always check the real constant sets which are related to contact pairs and check the constraint conditions
on the target surfaces. Any previous "trial runs" could have changed the settings.
• Always check the target surface contact status in the beginning of the analysis. If you detect any unexpected
gap (or no contact) or overestimated penetration, abort the analysis and then check your geometric
model. You can issue the CNCHECK command to verify the initial contact status.
• If your model is experiencing convergence difficulties due to contact, use the NLHIST command as a de-
bugging tool to monitor contact information during the solution. Before starting the solution, issue NLHIST
to specify the pair-based contact items (such as contact penetration or gap, contact normal stiffness, etc.)
to be tracked. The resulting data are written to a file named Jobname.nlh.
• Always check your results carefully using standard engineering guidelines.
See Section 2.3.5: Solve the Analysis in Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis”.
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Section 11.4: Performing a Surface-to-Surface Contact Analysis
If you are restarting a contact analysis, follow the normal restart procedures as discussed in Section 3.16: Restarting
an Analysis in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide. However, be aware that the constraint conditions of target surfaces
may have been set internally. Verify the constraints carefully before restarting an analysis. Only the real constants
FKN, FTOLN, PINB, and FKOP can be changed, and they can only be changed at the point of restart or at the be-
ginning of a new load step.
Remember that in POST1, only one substep can be read in at a time, and that the results from that substep should
have been written to Jobname.RST (or Jobname.RCN for the initial contact configuration calculated by
CNCHECK,POST). (The load step option command OUTRES controls which substep results are stored on Job-
name.RST.) A typical POST1 postprocessing sequence is described below.
For step 4, the following shows the various CONT options for the PLNSOL and PLESOL commands.
CONT STAT Contact status. 3-closed and sticking, 2-closed and sliding, 1-open
but near contact, 0-open and not near contact.
“ PENE Contact penetration
“ PRES Contact pressure
“ SFRIC Contact friction stress
“ STOT Contact total stress (pressure plus friction)
“ SLIDE Contact sliding distance
“ GAP Contact gap distance
“ FLUX Heat flux at contact surface
“ CNOS Total number of contact status changes during substep
Note — You can set these options through the Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour
Plot> Nodal Solu or Element Solu menu item. Choose Contact for Item, Comp and you'll see a list of
the options detailed above.
For rigid-to-flexible contact or asymmetric flexible-to-flexible contact, the contact element provides the true
pressure and friction stress. However, for symmetric flexible-to-flexible contact, the true pressure and friction
stress is the average of the pressures and friction stresses from both sides of the contact elements.
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Note — For the contact force-based model (KEYOPT(3) = 0) in CONTA175, PRES, SFRIC, and STOT are the
contact normal force, contact friction force, and total contact force, respectively.
Note that the contact-specific information (CONT) plots as follows. For 2-D contact analyses, the model will plot
in gray and the requested item will be contoured as an area (trapezoid) along the edge of the model where the
contact elements are located. Use the FACT item to scale 2-D contour size. For 3-D contact analyses, the model
will plot in gray and the requested item will be contoured as a 2-D surface where the contact elements overlay
the model.
For tabular listings, you may also list contact-specific information by using the CONT label and its arguments
with the PRNSOL or PRESOL commands or their related menu items
You can also animate contact results over time. See the ANTIME command for details.
Command(s): ANTIME
GUI: Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Animate> Over Time
If you used CNCHECK,POST to evaluate the initial contact state, you can view the contact results items for the
initial contact configuration as you would for any other load step. To do so, you must explicitly read the results
of the first load step from the results file Jobname.RCN by issuing the FILE and SET,FIRST commands before
postprocessing. Otherwise, the result file may be read improperly.
To use the GUI method, access the Contact Manager via the Contact Manager icon in the ANSYS Standard
Toolbar, or via the menu path Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Contact Pair. You can access the Contact
Manager at the Begin level and in the following processors: preprocessor (PREP7), solution (SOLU), and general
postprocessor (POST1).
The Contact Manager Toolbar provides an intuitive interface for the creation and management of contact pairs.
The manager supports surface-to-surface contact analysis, node-to-surface contact analysis (using CONTA175),
and the internal multipoint constraint (MPC) method of contact .
• Contact Wizard - Accesses the Contact Wizard GUI described in Section 11.5.2: The Contact Wizard. Allows
you to manually define target and contact surfaces. Supports both 2-D and 3-D geometries as well as rigid-
flexible (with optional pilot node) or flexible-flexible contact. (Primitives are not supported by contact
wizard.) The wizard also supports surface-based constraint contact pairs.
• Contact Properties - Allows you to specify the properties of the contact pair(s) via real constants and
KEYOPTs for the contact elements used.
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Section 11.5: GUI Aids for Contact Analyses
• Delete Contact Pairs - Deletes the contact pairs selected in the contact pair list.
• Contact Selection Options - Specifies display of contact elements, target elements, or both.
• Plot Elements/Results - Displays the elements of selected contact pairs; or displays the contact results,
if available (POST1 only), specified in the Contact Results field for selected contact pairs. Results are dis-
played if Model Context is specified as “Result-”; otherwise, elements are displayed. The display can be
limited to contact, or target, or both as specified in the Contact Selection Options field. (Note that
CONTA175 results will not display graphically, but can be listed with the List Elements/Results icon.)
• Show Normals - Specifies whether or not to display the normals on the elements when plotting contact
pairs
• Flip Normals - Flips the element normals of the selected contact pair. This action is limited to the elements
specified in the Contact Selection Options field.
• Switch Contact and Target - Inverts the target surface and the contact surface with each other. This is
applicable only to flexible-to-flexible surface-to-surface contact pairs.
• List Elements/Results - Lists the elements of the selected contact pairs; or lists the contact results, if
available (POST1 only), specified in the Contact Results field for selected contact pairs. Results are listed
if Model Context is specified as “Result-”; otherwise, elements are listed. The listing is restricted to the
elements specified in the Contact Selection Options field.
• Model Context - Displays the contact pairs in the context of the entire model using a translucent plot, or
shows only the contact pairs. If set to “Result-” (POST1 only), controls display/listing of contact pair results.
• Check Contact Status - Provides contact status information for selected contact pairs. Several options
are available (click and hold down the Check Contact Status button to access these options):
• Contact Results - Shows the contact result items for subsequent viewing using the Plot Elements/Results
and List Elements/Results icons.
The bar below the toolbar icons minimizes or maximizes the Contact Pair list box below it. The Contact Pair list
box displays the defined contact pairs. You can select contact pairs from this list for displaying or editing purposes.
To use the Contact Wizard, access the Contact Manager Toolbar and click on the Contact Wizard icon. The wizard
steps you through setting up the contact analysis. Below is an example of the screens you will see.
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Chapter 11: Contact
The Contact Wizard remains unavailable (dimmed) if you haven't meshed any portion of your model. If you wish
to create a rigid-flexible model, mesh only those parts of the model which will be used as flexible contact surfaces
(do not mesh the rigid target surfaces) before launching the wizard. If you wish to create a flexible-flexible
model, mesh all parts of the model which will be used as contact surfaces (including target surfaces) before
launching the wizard.
You can specify target and contact surfaces using lines, areas, volumes, selected set of nodes, or node components.
Note that the wizard allows you to choose more than one area for the target and contact surfaces, thus allowing
multiple areas to form a single contact surface. If you specify a rigid target surface, you will then have the option
to define a pilot node for that contact pair. (The pilot node step is mandatory if you define a surface-based con-
straint contact pair by picking the Pilot Node Only option.)
After you specify the target and contact surfaces, you can specify properties of the contact pair (real constants
and KEYOPTs) before creating the contact pair. When you finish specifying all the required data, click the Create
button to create the contact and target element types, a unique real constant set with the real constant values,
and the elements that make up the contact and target surfaces.
1. Verify that the normals of the contact and target surfaces are in the correct direction
2. Reverse normals of elements that are not oriented correctly
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Section 11.6: Performing a Node-to-Surface Contact Analysis
You can choose to display one or more contact pairs on which to perform the above listed operations. Then you
have an additional option of only displaying the contact surface or the target surface when verifying or reversing
the element normals. In addition these elements can be displayed independently or in the context of your entire
model. In the later case the contact elements are highlighted in a translucent plot of your model.
Another important function is to edit the properties of the contact pair(s) as needed. The properties include real
constant values and key option values as discussed earlier. The Contact Properties button in the contact manager
provides a simple to use interface that allows the properties of the selected contact pair(s) to be reviewed and
modified if needed.
Note that when you have multiple contact pairs, it is possible to have conflicts in the real constant values or in
the KEYOPT settings. When you have such conflicts, the properties dialog for those real constants or KEYOPT
settings is left blank.
Finally, you can display or list specific contact result items (contact status, penetration, pressure, etc.) for the se-
lected contact pairs. This option is only available in POST1, and only if a result set is available. The contact results
can be displayed independently or in the context of your entire model. (For CONTA175, results can be listed but
not displayed graphically.)
Note — Prior to displaying or listing result items associated with the initial contact configuration resulting
from the CNCHECK,POST command, you need to issue the appropriate FILE and SET,FIRST commands
to read the results from the proper results file (see CNCHECK for details).
Node-to-surface contact is a phenomenon that occurs in most engineering applications: fasteners (nuts, bolts,
rivets, pins), metal forming, rolling operations, dynamic pipe whip, etc. Engineers are interested in the stresses,
deflections, forces, and temperature changes that occur due to contact between structural parts.
CONTA175, in two or three dimensions, is depicted in Figure 11.26: “Node-to-Surface Contact Elements”.
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Chapter 11: Contact
465-7 '8.29
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• Has one node and its target surface is defined by TARGE169 or TARGE170. CONTA175 uses the same real
constant set as the surface-to-surface contact elements. See Real Constants for more information.
• Supports 2-D/3-D rigid-flexible and flexible-flexible contact.
• Does not support 3-D contact surfaces with midside nodes, but can support 2-D/3-D target surfaces with
midside nodes or 2-D contact surfaces with midside nodes.
• Generates elements using the ESURF command, as do the surface-to-surface contact elements.
• Supports structural, thermal, electric, and magnetic analyses.
CONTA175 follows the contact pair concept used by surface-to-surface elements CONTA171 through CONTA174.
CONTA175 is paired off with target elements TARGE169 and TARGE170. See Identifying Contact Pairs for more
information. CONTA175 uses most of the same element KEYOPTS and real constants as the surface-to-surface
contact elements. These are described below.
You should avoid midside-noded underlying elements of the contact surface, especially in 3-D. The “effective
stiffness” at the contact surface nodes is very nonuniform. For instance, for the 20-node bricks SOLID95 or HYPER86,
the corner nodes have a negative stiffness associated with them. However, the node-to-surface contact algorithm
assumes that the stiffness is uniformly distributed across all the surface nodes when contact is made. This condition
can lead to convergence difficulties when using midside-noded elements in contact. The midside-noded elements
can only be used when bonded or no-separation contact is defined. You can still use midside nodes on 2-D
contact surfaces or on 2-D/3-D target surfaces.
The basic steps for performing a node-to-surface contact analysis using CONTA175 are the same as those used
for a typical surface-to-surface analysis using CONTA171 through CONTA174. See Steps in a Contact Analysis for
details.
The Contact Manager provides an easy-to-use interface to help you construct and manage contact definitions.
You can access the manager via the Contact Manager icon in the ANSYS Standard Toolbar, or via the menu
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Section 11.6: Performing a Node-to-Surface Contact Analysis
path Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Contact Pair. See Section 11.5: GUI Aids for Contact
Analyses for more information on using the Contact Manager.
As mentioned, CONTA175 uses the ESURF command to generate elements between corresponding contact
pairs, similar to the surface-to-surface contact elements. The GUI path is:
Since CONTA175 is a one node element, you are not able to plot the contact results. However, you can list the
results using the PLESOL,CONT or PRETAB commands.
11.6.1.1.1. KEYOPT(3)
KEYOPT(3) in CONTA175 allows you to choose between a contact force-based model (KEYOPT(3) = 0, default),
and a contact traction-based model (KEYOPT(3) = 1). For the contact traction-based model, ANSYS can determine
the area associated with the contact node. For the single point contact case, a unit area will be used which is
equivalent to the contact force-based model.
When the traction-based model is defined, the real constants FKN, FKT, TCC, ECC, and MCC have the same units
used in surface-to-surface contact elements (CONTA171 through CONTA174), as do postprocessing items PRES,
TAUR, and TAUS.
When the force-based model is defined, the units of these quantities have a factor of AREA with respect to those
used in the traction-based model. For instance, contact stiffness FKN has units FORCE/LENGTH for the force-
based model, but FORCE/LENGTH3 for the traction-based model. PRES is the contact normal force in the force-
based model, but contact pressure in the traction-based model.
11.6.1.1.2. KEYOPT(4)
KEYOPT(4) in CONTA175 allows you to choose the contact normal direction. The contact normal can be either
perpendicular to the target surface (KEYOPT(4) = 0, default or KEYOPT(4) = 3), or perpendicular to the contact
surface (KEYOPT(4) = 1, 2). When contact occurs on the bottom surface of a shell or beam, and shell thickness
effect is included (KEYOPT(11) = 1), or CNOF is defined, KEYOPT(4) = 2 or 3 should be used in order to capture
the contact.
Real constant TOLS is used to add a small tolerance that will internally extend the edge of the target surface.
TOLS is useful for problems where contact nodes are likely to lie on the edge of the target (as at symmetry planes
or for models generated in a node-to-node contact pattern). In these situations, the contact node may repeatedly
“slip” off the target surface and so completely out of contact, resulting in convergence difficulties from oscillations.
Units for TOLS are percent (1.0 implies a 1.0% increase in the target edge length). A small value of TOLS will
usually prevent this situation from occurring. The default value is 10 for small deflection and 2 for large deflection
(NLGEOM,ON).
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Chapter 11: Contact
If you use the contact force-based model (KEYOPT(3) = 0), you should adjust the values of TCC, ECC, and MCC
up or down as you make the element mesh coarser or finer.
11.7. Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic
Constraints
You can use the internal multipoint constraint (MPC) approach (KEYOPT(2) = 2), in conjunction with the bonded
contact definition (KEYOPT(12) = 5 or 6), to define various contact assemblies and kinematic constraints. This
capability is available for contact elements CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, and CONTA175. By
this method, the program builds MPC equations internally based on the contact kinematics. You can use this
method to model the following contact assemblies and surface-based constraints:
• Solid-solid assembly - both contact and target surfaces paste onto solid element faces
• Shell-shell assembly - both contact and target surfaces paste onto shell element faces
• Shell-solid assembly - the contact surface pastes onto shell element faces and the target surfaces paste
onto solid element faces
• Rigid constraint surface - the contact nodes are constrained to the rigid body motion defined by the pilot
node (similar to the CERIG command)
• Force-distributed surface - the forces or displacements applied to the pilot node are distributed to contact
nodes, in an average sense, through shape functions (similar to the RBE3 command)
• Beam-solid assembly - one beam end-node is the pilot node which connects to the solid or shell surface
(use the rigid constraint surface or force-distributed surface type of MPC)
The internal MPC approach can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional contact algorithms and other multipoint
constraint tools available in ANSYS. For example:
• Degrees of freedom of the contact surface nodes are eliminated. This reduces the wave front size of the
system equation solver.
• No contact stiffness is required as input. For a small deformation problem, this represents true linear
contact behavior; no iteration is needed in solving the system of equations. For large deformation problems,
the MPC equations are updated during each iteration. This overcomes the small strain restriction in con-
ventional constraint equations.
• Both translational and rotational degrees of freedom can be constrained.
• The generation of internal MPC is simple because it utilizes contact pair definitions.
• Shape functions are taken into account automatically; no weight factor is needed for a force-distributed
multipoint constraint (which is similar to the RBE3 command) if high order elements or axisymmetric
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Section 11.7: Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
elements are used. In addition to forces, displacements can be applied on the pilot node for this type of
MPC.
The following sections describe how to use the internal MPC approach to define assemblies and surface-based
constraints. Before using the internal MPC feature, be sure to review Section 11.7.4: Restrictions and Recommend-
ations for Internal MPC.
The following key options are ignored: KEYOPT(8) (it is always set to 2 internally), KEYOPT(10).
The following real constants are used: R1, R2, ICONT, PINB, CNOF, PMAX, PMIN, TOLS. All other real constants are
ignored.
This function works similarly to the CEINTF command for small deformation analysis (NLGEOM,OFF). Comparing
it to the CEINTF command, the contact surface acts as “region A nodes,” and the target surface acts as “region
B elements.”
As usual, the contact surface must be defined on the deformable bodies, and the target surface must be defined
on either deformable or rigid bodies in the contact pair. In order to prevent over-constraint, only asymmetric
contact is supported. If symmetric pairs are defined, ANSYS will automatically pick one pair and ignore the other
pair (acting as KEYOPT(8) = 2). The self-contact pair definition is not supported.
If the temperature degree of freedom is active in the model (KEYOPT(1) = 1 or 2), ANSYS will build MPC equations
not only for structural degrees of freedom, but also for the temperature DOF. In this case, the real constant TCC
is ignored. If only the temperature DOF is set (KEYOPT(1) = 2) and other solution options are defined (AN-
TYPE,,TRANS; THOPT,QUASI; EQSLV,JCG/ICCG), the internal MPC approach can support fast thermal transient
analysis (see Section 3.5.4: Nonlinear Options in the ANSYS Thermal Analysis Guide). Internal MPC equations for
temperature DOF are built to support heat transfer between the two bonded surfaces.
For the “bonded always” option (KEYOPT(12) = 5), any contact node that lies inside the pinball region (PINB) can
be the constrained node in the MPC definition if an intersection with the target surface is detected in the contact
normal direction. This holds true at the beginning of deformation, as well as during the deformation process. A
relatively small PINB may be used to prevent any false contact. When the “bonded always” option is set, the default
for PINB is 0.25 (25% of the contact depth) for small deformation analysis (NLGEOM,OFF), and 0.5 (50% of the
contact depth) for large deformation analysis (NLGEOM,ON). (The default PINB value may differ from what is
described here if CNOF is input. See Section 11.4.8.9.2: Using PINB for more information.)
For the “bonded initial” option (KEYOPT(12) = 6), only those contact nodes that are initially in contact or have a
very small gap but lie inside the adjustment zone (ICONT) are always constrained via internal MPC. Those contact
nodes that are initially open will never be constrained, even though they may later penetrate into the target
surface during the deformation process. In order to capture contact, you should specify proper ICONT or CNOF
values. Use CNCHECK in conjunction with ICONT to move all the contact nodes that are inside the ICONT zone
onto the target surface in the initial configuration, without causing any strain. When the “bonded initial” option
is set and KEYOPT(5) = 0 or 4, ICONT defaults to 0.05. See Section 11.4.8.7: Adjusting Initial Contact Conditions
for more information on using KEYOPT(5), CNOF, and ICONT.
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Chapter 11: Contact
In most cases, ANSYS will automatically constrain the translational degrees of freedom for a solid-solid assembly
and constrain both translational and rotational degrees of freedom for a shell-shell assembly. However, you can
use KEYOPT(5) of the target element (TARGE170) to explicitly define the type of constraint:
To define a shell-solid assembly using the internal MPC approach, you must set the following key options on the
contact elements:
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Section 11.7: Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
The following real constants are also used: ICONT, FTOL, PINB, CNOF, PMAX, PMIN, TOLS.
In most cases, ANSYS will automatically constrain both translational and rotational degrees of freedom for a
shell-solid assembly (see Figure 11.28: “Shell-solid Assembly (Original Mesh)”). However, you can use KEYOPT(5)
of the target element (TARGE170) to explicitly define the type of constraint:
The solid-solid and shell-shell constraint types (KEYOPT(5) = 1 or 2) may require additional shell elements at the
interface. These shell elements can be defined by typical modeling methods, or you can use the SHSD command
to generate these elements automatically.
SHSD is a meshing tool used to build solid-solid and shell-shell constraint types. This command can be used
only when the contact pair consists of CONTA175 and TARGE170 elements. Additional shell elements (SHELL181)
and/or contact elements (CONTA175) are created through this command (see the SHSD command description
for more information). For the shell-solid constraint type, no special mesh tool is required.
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Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 11–63
Chapter 11: Contact
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11–64 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 11.7: Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
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For the shell-solid constraint option (KEYOPT(5) = 3 on TARGE170), ANSYS automatically creates an internal set
of force-distributed constraints (similar to the RBE3 command) between nodes on the shell edges and nodes
on the solid surface. The program uses the pinball region (PINB), initial adjustment zone (ICONT), and influence
distance (FTOLN) to determine which nodes on the shell edge will be constrained with which nodes on the solid
surface. Each shell node acts as the master node, and associated solid nodes act as slave nodes.
For the “bonded always” option (KEYOPT(12) = 5), any shell node that lies inside the pinball region (PINB) will be
included in the constraint if an intersection with the target surface is detected in the contact normal direction.
This holds true at the beginning of deformation, as well as during the deformation process. A relatively small
PINB value may be used to prevent any false contact. The default for PINB is 0.25 (25% of the contact depth) for
small deformation analysis (NLGEOM,OFF), and 0.5 (50% of the contact depth) for large deformation analysis
(NLGEOM,ON). (The default PINB value may differ from what is described here if CNOF is input. See Sec-
tion 11.4.8.9.2: Using PINB for more information.)
For the “bonded initial” option (KEYOPT(12) = 6), only the shell nodes that initially lie inside the adjustment zone
(ICONT) are included in the constraint sets. Shell nodes that lie outside ICONT are not constrained with the solid
nodes. The default for ICONT is 0.05 (5% of the contact depth).
The influence distance (FTOLN) is used for the shell-solid constraint option (KEYOPT(5) =3 on TARGE170). Each
solid node is included in the constraint set if the perpendicular distance from the solid node to any shell edge
is smaller than the influence distance. FTOLN defaults to half the thickness of the shell. A positive FTOLN value
represents a scaling factor on the shell half-thickness, and a negative value represents an absolute distance value.
A shell-solid assembly can be used in a substructure analysis. However, if a superelement is defined to represent
the shell elements, shell thickness is unknown in the use pass. In this case, you must overwrite the default setting
of FTOLN (originally a factor of the shell thickness) to account for the zero thickness of the superelement. Input
an absolute value for FTOLN (that is, input a negative value) to capture all constrained nodes when the constraint
equations are built.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Among the four constraint types, the shell-shell constraint approach (KEYOPT(5) = 2 on TARGE170) often provides
a better solution. The solid-solid constraint (KEYOPT(5) = 1) can result in higher local stresses near the interface
between the virtual shell surface and solid surface. The shell-solid constraint (KEYOPT(5) = 3 or 4 ) is not always
capable of transmitting all components of the moment at the shell nodes due to transverse shear locking of shell
elements. A typical example is the moment component that parallels to the normal of the solid surface. The
KEYOPT(5) = 4 option (shell-solid constraint , all directions) is recommended for detecting contact in bodies that
do not overlap or intersect.
For the solid-solid and shell-shell constraint types (KEYOPT(5) = 1 or 2 on TARGE170), any initial penetration or
gap is closed if KEYOPT(9) = 0; the initial penetration or gap remains if KEYOPT(9) = 1. However, for the shell-
solid constraint type (KEYOPT(5) = 3 or 4), KEYOPT(9) is ignored, and initial penetration or gap always remains
constant. In order to close the initial penetration or gap, issue the command CNCHECK,ADJUST in the beginning
of the analysis.
• Rigid constraint surface - In this type of constraint, the contact nodes are constrained to the rigid body
motion defined by the pilot node (see Figure 11.32: “Rigid Constraint Surface”). This is similar to a constraint
defined by the CERIG command.
• Force-distributed constraint surface - In this type of constraint, forces or displacements applied on the
pilot node are distributed to contact nodes (in an average sense) through shape functions (see Fig-
ure 11.33: “Force-distributed Surface”). This is similar to a constraint defined by the RBE3 command.
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Section 11.7: Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
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• To apply loads and boundary conditions to the pilot node (such as torque load or drill rotation). Example:
a bolt head submitted to a torque force using a force-distributed surface constraint.
• To model rigid end conditions. Example: using a rigid constraint surface to model a rigid end plate or rigid
plane section of 3-D solid elements.
• To define transitions between solid and structure elements. Example: a beam element connected to a
solid element face.
For a force-distributed surface constraint, use the following contact element key options:
For a rigid constraint surface, use the following contact element key options:
The following key options are ignored for surface-based constraints: KEYOPT(8), KEYOPT(5), KEYOPT(7), KEYOPT(10).
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 11–67
Chapter 11: Contact
None of the standard contact real constants are used for surface-based constraints using internal MPC.
KEYOPT(1) > 0 is ignored for a force-distributed surface constraint since only structural degree-of-freedom con-
straints are included. However, for a rigid constraint surface, you can use KEYOPT(1) to include other field degrees
of freedom (in addition to the structural DOFs) in the constraint sets.
You can specify the surface-based constraint in a local coordinate system. For the rigid constraint surface, rotate
the contact nodes into a local coordinate system. For the force-distributed constraint, rotate the pilot node into
a local coordinate system.
You can apply the surface based constraint to a user-defined DOF set with respect to the global or the local co-
ordinate system by using KEYOPT(4) of the target element (TARGE169 or TARGE170). For example, for the 3-D
case (TARGE170), you might specify that only UX, UY, and ROTZ be used in the constraint. You can do this by
entering a six digit value for KEYOPT(4). The first to sixth digits represent ROTZ, ROTY, ROTX, UZ, UY, UX, respect-
ively. The number 1 (one) indicates the DOF is active, and the number 0 (zero) indicates the DOF is not active.
Therefore, to specify that UX, UY, and ROTZ be used in the constraint, you would enter 100011 as the KEYOPT(4)
value.
• The pilot node is a dependent node (meaning the degrees of freedom for this node are removed). The
contact nodes are independent nodes (the degrees of freedom are retained). If the pilot node has con-
straints applied to it, internally-generated MPCs are rewritten so that the degrees of freedom of the pilot
node are no longer dependent DOF.
• The pilot node has up to 3 degrees of freedom (2-D) or up to 6 degrees of freedom (3-D).
• KEYOPT(4) of TARGE169 and TARGE170 controls the number of degrees of freedom of the pilot node.
• The number of internally-generated MPCs is equal to the number of degrees of freedom defined by KEY-
OPT(4) of TARGE169 and TARGE170.
• The pilot node is an independent (retained) node in the constraint equation. The contact nodes are the
dependent (removed) nodes. You should not apply any displacement constraints, coupling (CP command),
or constraint equations (CE command) on the contact nodes.
• The pilot node has 6 degrees of freedom (3-D) or 3 degrees of freedom (2-D).
• KEYOPT(4) of TARGE169 and TARGE170 controls the DOF set (the number of DOF) of the contact (depend-
ent) nodes used in the internally-generated MPCs.
• The number of internally-generated MPCs is equal to (number of contact nodes) x (number of DOF).
11–68 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 11.7: Using the Internal MPC Approach for Assemblies and Kinematic Constraints
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Chapter 11: Contact
Generally speaking, displacement boundary conditions and other constraint equations or coupling equations
should not be applied on the contact nodes for solid-solid, shell-shell, and shell-solid assemblies, and also for
the rigid constraint surface MPC. Otherwise, over-constraint can occur since the degrees of freedom of contact
nodes are eliminated through internal MPC equations.
Sparse, PCG, and AMG solvers are recommended to solve models with constraint equations. In certain cases, the
frontal solver may not solve problems containing constraint equations.
The MPC based algorithm must work with nodal detection (KEYOPT(4) = 1 or 2) for CONTA171, CONTA172,
CONTA173, and CONTA174. If nodal detection is not set, ANSYS will issue a warning message and automatically
set KEYOPT(4) = 2.
The internal MPC option does not support rigid-flexible contact when rigid surfaces are modeled by any primitive
segments (such as circle, cylinder, cone, or sphere).
The shell-solid assembly is usually used for the case where the solid mesh is fine with respect to the shell thickness.
The shell-solid interface should be located in a region of the structure where shell theory is valid for an approx-
imation. The accuracy of local stresses near the shell-solid interface (at least within the shell thickness range) is
not guaranteed. We recommend you include at least two solid elements along the layer of the shell-solid interface.
Using the force-distributed constraint type of MPC with a large number of contact nodes can result in a large
wavefront for the global stiffness matrix. This may significantly increase the peak memory required during of
element stiffness assembly. Consider reducing the number of contact nodes if real memory or virtual memory
is limited.
The contact related postprocessing items (ETABLE items, PRESOL,CONT, etc.) are not supported for the internal
MPC option.
The most commonly used node-to-node elements are shown in the following figure.
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Section 11.8: Performing a Node-to-Node Contact Analysis
In terms of solution CPU time, the elements shown are the simplest and least expensive of all contact element
types. When modeling conditions warrant their use, they can be an effective tool for modeling a variety of contact
situations. CONTA178 offers more features and flexibility than CONTAC12 and CONTAC52. The following lists
the features available with CONTA178:
Note — CONTA178 supports only elastic Coulomb friction behavior. For rigid Coulomb friction models,
use CONTAC12 and CONTAC52
The procedure for performing a node-to-node contact analysis is similar to that described for the node-to-surface
contact elements in Section 11.6: Performing a Node-to-Surface Contact Analysis. The following describes the
typical steps in a node-to-node contact analysis. Each of these steps is explained in detail.
You must identify where contact might occur during the deformation of your model. The nodes on the two
surfaces of potential contact must line up. Once you've identified potential contact surfaces and created an ad-
equate mesh you can create the contact elements.
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Chapter 11: Contact
2. Use the EINTF command to generate the contact elements automatically at coincident nodes or offset
nodes. This is discussed in detail in the following subsections.
If KOPT is set to 1, the nodes belonging to the contact elements created are rotated into the coordinate system
KCN.
For example, the following figure shows contact between two concentric pipes separated by a gap. In this example,
KCN would be a cylindrical coordinate system centered in O, and DX would be set in ∆ (∆± TOLER).
ESEL,,ENAME,,178
NSLE,,POS,1
ESLN
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Section 11.8: Performing a Node-to-Node Contact Analysis
NSLE
EPLOT
In the above cases, the ordering of nodes I and J is critical. The correct contact normal usually points from node
I toward node J unless contact is initially overlapped.
You can specify the contact normal by means of real constants NX, NY, NZ (direction cosines related to the
global Cartesian system) or element KEYOPT(5). The following lists the various options for KEYOPT(5):
KEYOPT(5) = 0
The contact normal is either based on the real constant values of NX, NY, NZ or on node locations when NX,
NY, NZ are not defined. For two dimensional contact, NZ = 0.
KEYOPT(5) = 1 (2,3)
The contact normal points in a direction which averages the direction cosines of the X (Y, Z) axis of the nodal
coordinates on both nodes I and J. The direction cosines on nodes I and J should be very close. This option
may be supported by the NORA and NORL commands, which rotate the X axis of the nodal coordinate system
to point to the surface normal of solid models. The GUI paths for these commands are, respectively:
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Move/Modify> Rotate Node CS> To Surf Normal> On Areas
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Move/Modify> Rotate Node CS> To Surf Normal> On Lines
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Move/Modify> Rotate Node CS> To Surf Normal> With
Area
KEYOPT(5) = 4 (5,6)
The contact normal points to X (Y, Z) of the element coordinate system issued by the ESYS command. If you
use this option, make sure that the element coordinate system specified by ESYS is the Cartesian system.
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Chapter 11: Contact
Note — For CONTAC12 you can define the orientation of the contact surface with real constant
THETA. For CONTAC52, you can use real constants NX, NY, NZ.
If KEYOPT(4) = 1, the initial gap size is only based on the real constant GAP (it ignores the node location). A neg-
ative value for the gap size can be used to model initial interference.
You can ramp initial interference using KEYOPT(9) = 1. This option isn't supported by CONTAC12 and CONTAC52.
Note that CONTAC52's real constant GAP is the opposite of CONTAC12's real constant INTF, which defines an
interference. KEYOPT(4) for CONTAC12 and CONTAC52 is also different from CONTA178.
CONTAC12 and CONTAC52 offer only the pure penalty method, in which you must specify the contact stiffness.
The normal stiffness KN should be based upon the stiffness of the surface in contact. However, if you choose to
use CONTA178 with the pure penalty method or the augmented Lagrange method, a “semiautomatic” setting
is provided for the contact normal and tangential stiffnesses.
ANSYS provides a default normal contact stiffness FKN, which is based on Young's modulus E and the size of the
underlying elements. FKN and FKS are factors. If you want to import absolute values for FKN and FKS, use negative
values.
When using the Lagrange multiplier method, be careful not to overconstrain the model. The model is overcon-
strained when a contact constraint at a node conflicts with a prescribed boundary condition on that degree of
freedom at the same node. The following figure illustrates this issue:
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Section 11.8: Performing a Node-to-Node Contact Analysis
Both nodes I and J are fixed in the X direction. The model is overconstrained only when the two bodies are in
contact and bonded contact or rough friction has been defined. It can also occur if the contact status is “sticking,”
In these cases, the constraint in the X-direction is duplicated which causes an overconstrained model.
“Zero Pivot” and “Numerical Singularity” warning messages indicate overcontraints in a model. Overconstraints
can lead to convergence difficulties and/or inaccurate results. They can be easily avoided by changing the contact
definition or the boundary conditions.
• Set the appropriate auto time step behavior using KEYOPT(7). The SOLCONTROL command turns this off
by default.
• The time step size must be small enough to capture the proper contact zone. The smooth transfer of
contact forces is disrupted if the time step size is too large. A reliable way to set an accurate time step size
is to turn automatic time stepping on. The SOLCONTROL command turns this on by default.
Command(s): AUTOTS,ON
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Basic Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time
Step
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time and
Substps
• Set the number of equilibrium equations to a number that is appropriate for a reasonable time step size.
With SOLCONTROL,ON, this command defaults to between 15 and 26 iterations, depending upon the
physics of the problem.
Command(s): NEQIT
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Nonlinear Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Equilibrium Iter
• Turn the predictor-corrector option on, unless you expect large rotations.
Command(s): PRED
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Nonlinear Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Predictor
• Set the Newton-Raphson option to FULL, with adaptive descent on.
Command(s): NROPT,FULL,,ON
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GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options
• For analysis involving friction, using NROPT, UNSYM is useful (and sometimes required if the coefficient
of friction µ is > 0.2) for problems where the normal and tangential (sliding) motions are strongly coupled.
• NLGEOM, ON is supported but the contact normal is not updated during the analysis. Make sure that only
small rotations occur along the contact surfaces (except for the cylindrical gap option).
• Many convergence failures in contact analysis are the result of using too large a value for contact stiffness
(real constant KN). Be sure to follow the recommendations given previously in this section for an initial
estimate for contact stiffness. If such estimated values lead to a convergence failure, reduce the contact
stiffness and restart. (You must also explicitly define the tangent stiffness - see the Note below.)
• Conversely, if overpenetration occurred in your contact analysis, you probably used a value of KN that
was too small. In this case, gradually increase the contact stiffness value to an appropriate level by rede-
fining it using new R commands over several load steps in a restart. (You must also explicitly define the
tangent stiffness - see the Note statement below.)
Note — Although you can change the contact stiffness value (real constant KN), you cannot change any
other real constants between load steps. Therefore, if you plan to change KN in a restart (or from one
load step to the next), you cannot allow the value of the tangent (or "sticking") contact stiffness (real
constant KT) to be defined by default, because the program would then attempt to redefine the tangent
stiffness as the contact stiffness changed. You must explicitly define the tangent stiffness whenever you
change the contact stiffness to maintain a consistent value for the tangent stiffness throughout all load
steps.
The steps for reviewing results in POST26 are the same as those for a typical nonlinear analysis See Section 8.5.6.3:
Reviewing Results in POST26 in Chapter 8, “Nonlinear Structural Analysis”.
For general information on post processing, refer to the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
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Chapter 12: Fracture Mechanics
12.1. Definition of Fracture Mechanics
Cracks and flaws occur in many structures and components, sometimes leading to disastrous results. The engin-
eering field of fracture mechanics was established to develop a basic understanding of such crack propagation
problems.
Fracture mechanics deals with the study of how a crack or flaw in a structure propagates under applied loads. It
involves correlating analytical predictions of crack propagation and failure with experimental results. The analyt-
ical predictions are made by calculating fracture parameters such as stress intensity factors in the crack region,
which you can use to estimate crack growth rate. Typically, the crack length increases with each application of
some cyclic load, such as cabin pressurization-depressurization in an airplane. Further, environmental conditions
such as temperature or extensive exposure to irradiation can affect the fracture propensity of a given material.
• Stress intensity factors (KI, KII, KIII) associated with the three basic modes of fracture (see Figure 19.13: “The
Three Basic Modes of Fracture” in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference).
• J-integral, which may be defined as a path-independent line integral that measures the strength of the
singular stresses and strains near a crack tip
• Energy release rate (G), which represents the amount of work associated with a crack opening or closure
See Chapter 2, “Structural Static Analysis” for details about the general static analysis procedure. Also see Chapter 8,
“Nonlinear Structural Analysis” for a discussion of structural nonlinearities.
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Chapter 12: Fracture Mechanics
In linear elastic problems, it has been shown that the displacements near the crack tip (or crack front) vary as
r , where r is the distance from the crack tip. The stresses and strains are singular at the crack tip, varying as
r
1/ . To pick up the singularity in the strain, the crack faces should be coincident, and the elements around
the crack tip (or crack front) should be quadratic, with the midside nodes placed at the quarter points. Such
elements are called singular elements. Figure 12.2: “Examples of Singular Elements” shows examples of singular
elements for 2-D and 3-D models.
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Chapter 12: Fracture Mechanics
the radius of the first row of elements, number of elements in the circumferential direction, etc. Figure 12.3: “A
Fracture Specimen and 2-D FE Model” shows a fracture model generated with the help of KSCON.
• Take advantage of symmetry where possible. In many cases, you need to model only one half of the crack
region, with symmetry or antisymmetry boundary conditions, as shown below.
• For reasonable results, the first row of elements around the crack tip should have a radius of approximately
a/8 or smaller, where a is the crack length. In the circumferential direction, roughly one element every
30° or 40° is recommended.
• The crack tip elements should not be distorted, and should take the shape of isosceles triangles.
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Section 12.2: Solving Fracture Mechanics Problems
Generating a 3-D fracture model is considerably more involved than a 2-D model. The KSCON command is not
available, and you need to make sure that the crack front is along edge KO of the elements.
• Element size recommendations are the same as for 2-D models. In addition, aspect ratios should not exceed
approximately 4 to 1 in all directions.
• For curved crack fronts, the element size along the crack front will depend on the amount of local curvature.
As a rough guide, you should have at least one element every 15° to 30° along a circular crack front.
• All element edges should be straight, including the edge on the crack front.
1. Define a local crack-tip or crack-front coordinate system, with X parallel to the crack face (perpendicular
to the crack front in 3-D models) and Y perpendicular to the crack face, as shown in the following figure.
Note — This coordinate system must be the active model coordinate system [CSYS] and results
coordinate system [RSYS] when KCALC is issued.
2. Define a path along the crack face. The first node on the path should be the crack-tip node. For a half-
crack model, two additional nodes are required, both along the crack face. For a full-crack model, where
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Chapter 12: Fracture Mechanics
both crack faces are included, four additional nodes are required: two along one crack face and two
along the other. The following figure illustrates the two cases for a 2-D model.
Command(s): PATH, PPATH
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> Define Path
3. Calculate KI, KII, and KIII. The KPLAN field on the KCALC command specifies whether the model is plane-
strain or plane stress. Except for the analysis of thin plates, the asymptotic or near-crack-tip behavior of
stress is usually thought to be that of plane strain. The KCSYM field specifies whether the model is a half-
crack model with symmetry boundary conditions, a half-crack model with antisymmetry boundary
conditions, or a full-crack model.
Command(s): KCALC
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Nodal Calcs> Stress Int Factr
12.2.2.2. J-Integral
In its simplest form, the J-integral can be defined as a path-independent line integral that measures the strength
of the singular stresses and strains near a crack tip. The following equation shows an expression for J in its 2-D
form is shown below. It assumes that the crack lies in the global Cartesian X-Y plane, with X parallel to the crack
(see Figure 12.7: “J-Integral Contour Path Surrounding a Crack-Tip”).
∂u ∂uy
J = ∫r Wdy − ∫r t x x + t y ds
∂x ∂ y
where:
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Section 12.2: Solving Fracture Mechanics Problems
5. Map the strain energy density, which was stored in the element table in step 1, onto the path.
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Command(s): PDEF
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> Map Onto Path
6. Integrate it with respect to global Y.
Command(s): PCALC
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> Integrate
7. Assign the final value of the integral to a parameter. This gives us the first term of equation 10.1.
Command(s): *GET,Name,PATH,,LAST
GUI: Utility Menu> Parameters> Get Scalar Data
8. Map the component stresses SX, SY, and SXY onto the path.
Command(s): PDEF
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> Map Onto Path
9. Define the path unit normal vector.
Command(s): PVECT
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> Unit Vector
10. Calculate TX and TY using the expressions shown with equation 10.1.
Command(s): PCALC
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Path Operations> operation
11. Shift the path a small distance in the positive and negative X directions to calculate the derivatives of
the displacement vector (δux/δx and δuy/δy). The following steps are involved (see Figure 19.13: “The
Three Basic Modes of Fracture” in the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference):
• Calculate the distance by which the path is to be shifted, say DX. A rule of thumb is to use one percent
of the total length of the path. You can obtain the total path length as a parameter using
*GET,Name,PATH,,LAST,S.
• Shift the path a distance of DX/2 in the negative X direction [PCALC,ADD,XG,XG,,,,-DX/2] and map
the displacements UX and UY onto the path [PDEF], giving them labels UX1 and UY1, for example.
• Shift the path a distance of DX in the positive X direction (that is, +DX/2 from its original position)
and map UX and UY onto the path, giving them labels UX2 and UY2, for example.
• Shift the path back to its original location (a distance of -DX/2) and calculate the quantities (UX2-
UX1)/DX and (UY2-UY1)/DX using PCALC. These quantities represent δux/δx and δuy/δy, respectively.
See the ANSYS Coupled-Field Analysis Guide for a discussion of the *GET, PCALC and PDEF commands.
12. Using the quantities calculated in steps 10 and 11, calculate the integrand in the second term of J [PCALC]
and integrate it with respect to the path distance S [PCALC]. This gives the second term of equation 10.1.
13. Calculate J according to equation 10.1, using the quantities calculated in steps 5-7 and 12.
You can simplify the J-integral calculations by writing a macro that performs the above operations. (Macros are
described in the ANSYS APDL Programmer's Guide.)
In the virtual crack extension method, you perform two analyses, one with crack length a and the other with crack
length a +∆a. If the potential energy U (strain energy) for both cases is stored, the energy release rate can be
calculated from
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Section 12.2: Solving Fracture Mechanics Problems
U − Ua
G = − a +∆a
B∆a
Extend the crack length by ∆a for the second analysis by selecting all nodes in the vicinity of the crack and
scaling them in the X direction [NSCALE] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Operate> Scale) by the
factor ∆a.
Note — If you used solid modeling, you will first need to detach the solid model from the finite element
model [MODMSH,DETACH] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Checking Ctrls) before scaling the nodes.
The "vicinity of the crack" is usually taken to mean all nodes within a radius of a/2 from the crack tip. Also,
the factor ∆a for node scaling is usually in the range of 1/2 to 2 percent of the crack length.
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Chapter 13: Composites
13.1. Definition of Composites
Composite materials have been used in structures for a long time. In recent times composite parts have been
used extensively in aircraft structures, automobiles, sporting goods, and many consumer products.
Composite materials are those containing more than one bonded material, each with different structural prop-
erties. The main advantage of composite materials is the potential for a high ratio of stiffness to weight. Composites
used for typical engineering applications are advanced fiber or laminated composites, such as fiberglass, glass
epoxy, graphite epoxy, and boron epoxy.
ANSYS allows you to model composite materials with specialized elements called layered elements. Once you
build your model using these elements, you can do any structural analysis (including nonlinearities such as large
deflection and stress stiffening).
SHELL99 is an 8-node, 3-D shell element with six degrees of freedom at each node. It is designed to model thin
to moderately thick plate and shell structures with a side-to-thickness ratio of roughly 10 or greater. For structures
with smaller ratios, you may consider using SOLID46. The SHELL99 element allows a total of 250 uniform-thickness
layers. Alternately, the element allows 125 layers with thicknesses that may vary bilinearly over the area of the
layer. If more than 250 layers are required, you can input your own material matrix. It also has an option to offset
the nodes to the top or bottom surface.
SHELL91 is similar to SHELL99 except that it allows only up to 100 layers and does not allow you to input a ma-
terial property matrix. However, SHELL91 supports plasticity, large-strain behavior and a special sandwich option,
whereas SHELL99 does not. SHELL91 is also more robust for large deflection behavior.
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Chapter 13: Composites
SHELL181 is a 4-node 3-D shell element with 6 degrees of freedom at each node. The element has full nonlinear
capabilities including large strain and allows 255 layers. The layer information is input using the section commands
rather than real constants. Failure criteria is available using the FC commands.
SOLID46 is a layered version of the 8-node, 3-D solid element, SOLID45, with three degrees of freedom per node
(UX, UY, UZ). It is designed to model thick layered shells or layered solids and allows up to 250 uniform-thickness
layers per element. Alternately, the element allows 125 layers with thicknesses that may vary bilinearly over the
area of the layer. An advantage with this element type is that you can stack several elements to model more than
250 layers to allow through-the-thickness deformation slope discontinuities. The user-input constitutive matrix
option is also available. SOLID46 adjusts the material properties in the transverse direction permitting constant
stresses in the transverse direction. In comparison to the 8-node shells, SOLID46 is a lower order element and
finer meshes may be required for shell applications to provide the same accuracy as SHELL91 or SHELL99 .
SOLID191 is a layered version of the 20-node 3-D solid element SOLID95, with three degrees of freedom per
node (UX, UY, UZ). It is designed to model thick layered shells or layered solids and allows up to 100 layers per
element. As with SOLID46, SOLID191 can be stacked to model through-the-thickness discontinuities. SOLID191
has an option to adjust the material properties in the transverse direction permitting constant stresses in the
transverse direction. In spite of its name, the element does not support nonlinear materials or large deflections.
In addition to the layered elements mentioned above, other composite element capabilities exist in ANSYS, but
will not be considered further in the chapter:
• SOLID95, the 20-node structural solid element, with KEYOPT(1) = 1 functions similarly to a single layered
SOLID191 including the use of an orientation angle and failure criterion. It allows nonlinear materials and
large deflections.
• SHELL63, the 4-node shell element, can be used for rough, approximate studies of sandwich shell models.
A typical application would be a polymer between two metal plates, where the bending stiffness of the
polymer would be small relative to the bending stiffness of the metal plates. The bending stiffness can
be adjusted by the real constant RMI to represent the bending stiffness due to the metal plates, and dis-
tances from the middle surface to extreme fibers (real constants CTOP, CBOT) can be used to obtain output
stress estimates on the outer surfaces of the sandwich shell. It is not used as frequently as SHELL91,
SHELL99, or SHELL181, and will not be considered for anything other than sandwich structures in this
section.
• SOLID65, the 3–D Reinforced Concrete Solid Element, models an isotropic medium with optional reinforcing
in 3 different user-defined orientations.
• BEAM188 and BEAM189, the 3–D finite strain beam elements, can have their sections built up with multiple
materials.
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Section 13.2: Modeling Composites
• By defining constitutive matrices that relate generalized forces and moments to generalized strains and
curvatures (available only for SOLID46 and SHELL99 )
At times, a physical layer will extend over only part of the model. In order to model continuous layers, these
dropped layers may be modeled with zero thickness. Figure 13.1: “Layered Model Showing Dropped Layer”
shows a model with four layers, the second of which is dropped over part of the model.
For each layer, the following properties are specified in the element real constant table [R, RMORE, RMODIF]
(Main Menu> Preprocessor> Real Constants) (accessed with REAL attributes).
Layered sections may also be defined through the Section Tool (Prep>Sections>Shell — Add/edit). For each
layer, the following are specified in the section definition through the section commands; or through the Section
Tool (SECTYPE, SECDATA) (accessed with the SECNUM attributes).
Material Properties - As with any other element, the MP command (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material Props>
Material Models> Structural> Linear> Elastic> Isotropic or Orthotropic) is used to define the linear material
properties, and the TB command is used to define the nonlinear material data tables (plasticity is only available
for elements SOLID191 and SHELL91). The only difference is that the material attribute number for each layer of
an element is specified in the element's real constant table. For the layered elements, the MAT command (Main
Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh Attributes> Default Attribs) attribute is only used for the DAMP and
REFT arguments of the MP command. The linear material properties for each layer may be either isotropic or
orthotropic (see Linear Material Properties in the ANSYS Elements Reference). Typical fiber-reinforced composites
contain orthotropic materials and these properties are most often supplied in the major Poisson's ratio form (see
the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference). Material property directions are parallel to the layer coordinate system, which
is defined by the element coordinate system and the layer orientation angle (described below).
Layer Orientation Angle- This defines the orientation of the layer coordinate system with respect to the element
coordinate system. It is the angle (in degrees) between X-axes of the two systems. By default, the layer coordinate
system is parallel to the element coordinate system. All elements have a default coordinate system which you
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Chapter 13: Composites
can change using the ESYS element attribute [ESYS] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh Attributes>
Default Attribs). You may also write your own subroutines to define the element and layer coordinate systems
(USERAN and USANLY); see the Guide to ANSYS User Programmable Features for details.
Layer Thickness- If the layer thickness is constant, you only need to specify TK(I), the thickness at node I. Otherwise,
the thicknesses at the four corner nodes must be input. Dropped layers may be represented with zero thickness.
Number of integration points per layer- This allows you to determine in how much detail the program should
compute the results. For very thin layers, when used with many other layers, one point would be appropriate.
But for laminates with few layers, more would be needed. The default is 3 points. This feature applies only to
sections defined through the section commands.
Note — Currently, the GUI only allows layer real constant input of up to 100 layers. If more layers are
needed for SHELL99 or SOLID46, the R and RMORE commands must be used.
The terms of the matrices are defined as real constants. Mass effects are incorporated by specifying an average
density (real constants AVDENS) for the element. If the matrix approach is used, detailed results in each layer
cannot be obtained since individual layer information is not input.
You can model sandwich structures with SHELL63, SHELL91, or SHELL181. SHELL63 has one layer but permits
sandwich modeling through the use of real constants. You can modify the effective bending moment of inertia
and the distance from the middle surface to the extreme fibers to account for the weak core. KEYOPT(9) = 1 of
SHELL91 specifies the sandwich option. The core is assumed to carry all of the transverse shear; the faceplates
carry none. Conversely, the faceplates are assumed to carry all (or almost all) of the bending load. Only SHELL91
has this sandwich option.
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Section 13.2: Modeling Composites
SHELL181 models the transverse shear deflection using as energy equivalence method that makes the need for
a sandwich option unnecessary
The failure strains, stresses, and coupling coefficients may be temperature-dependent. See the ANSYS Elements
Reference for details about the data required for each criterion. To specify a failure criterion, use either the family
of TB commands or the family of FC commands.
The TB commands areTB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA. (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material Props> Failure Cri-
teria). A typical sequence of commands to specify a failure criterion using these commands is shown below.
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The FC commands are FC, FCDELE, and FCLIST commands (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Material Props>
Material Models> Structural> Nonlinear> Inelastic> Non-Metal Plasticity> Failure Criteria) and (Main
Menu> General Postproc> Failure Criteria). A typical sequence of commands to specify a failure criterion using
these commands is shown below.
FC,1,TEMP,, 100, 200 ! Temperatures
FC,1,S,XTEN, 1500, 1200 ! Maximum stress components
FC,1,S,YTEN, 400, 500
FC,1,S,ZTEN,10000, 8000
FC,1,S,XY , 200, 200
FC,1,S,YZ ,10000, 8000
FC,1,S,XZ ,10000, 8000
FCLIST, ,100 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 100.0 degrees
FCLIST, ,150 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 150.0 degrees
FCLIST, ,200 ! List status of Failure Criteria at 200.0 degrees
PRNSOL,S,FAIL ! Use Failure Criteria
Note — The TB commands (TB, TBTEMP, and TBDATA) can be used only for SHELL91, SHELL99, SOLID46,
or SOLID191, but the FC and FCLIST commands can be used for any 2-D or 3-D structural solid element
or any 3-D structural shell element.
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the TB, TBTEMP, TBDATA, TBLIST, FC, FCDELE, and
FCLIST commands.
• The criteria are orthotropic, so you must input the failure stress or failure strain values for all directions.
(The exception is that compressive values default to tensile values.)
• If you don't want the failure stress or strain to be checked in a particular direction, specify a large number
in that direction (as shown in the previous example).
User-written failure criteria may be specified via user subroutines USRFC1 through USRFC6. These subroutines
should be linked with the ANSYS program beforehand; see the ANSYS Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide for a
brief description of user-programmable features.
1. Composites exhibit several types of coupling effects, such as coupling between bending and twisting,
coupling between extension and bending, etc. This is due to stacking of layers of differing material
properties. As a result, if the layer stacking sequence is not symmetric, you may not be able to use
model symmetry even if the geometry and loading are symmetric, because the displacements and
stresses may not be symmetric.
2. Interlaminar shear stresses are usually important at the free edges of a model. For relatively accurate in-
terlaminar shear stresses at these locations, the element size at the boundaries of the model should be
approximately equal to the total laminate thickness. For shells, increasing the number of layers per actual
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material layer does not necessarily improve the accuracy of interlaminar shear stresses. With elements
SOLID46, SOLID95, and SOLID191, however, stacking elements in the thickness direction should result
in more accurate interlaminar stresses through the thickness. Interlaminar transverse shear stresses in
shell elements are based on the assumption that no shear is carried at the top and bottom surfaces of
the element. These interlaminar shear stresses are only computed in the interior and are not valid along
the shell element boundaries. Use of shell-to-solid submodeling is recommended to accurately compute
all of the free edge interlaminar stresses.
3. Because a large amount of input data is required for composites, you should verify the data before pro-
ceeding with the solution. Several commands are available for this purpose:
• ELIST (Utility Menu> List> Elements) lists the nodes and attributes of all selected elements.
• EPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Elements) displays all selected elements. Using the /ESHAPE,1 command
(Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Size and Shape) before EPLOT causes shell elements to be dis-
played as solids with the layer thicknesses obtained from real constants or section definition (see
Figure 13.5: “Example of an Element Display”. This example uses element SHELL99 with /ESHAPE
turned on). It also causes SOLID46 elements to be displayed with layers.
• /PSYMB,LAYR,n (Utility Menu> PlotCrls> Symbols) followed by EPLOT displays layer number n for
all selected layered elements. This can be used to display and verify each individual layer across the
entire model.
• /PSYMB,ESYS,1 followed by EPLOT displays the element coordinate system triad for those elements
whose default coordinate system has been changed.
• LAYLIST (Utility Menu> List> Elements> Layered Elements) lists the layer stacking sequence from
real constants and any two material properties for SHELL99, SHELL91, SOLID46, and SOLID191 ele-
ments. You can specify a range of layer numbers for the listing.
LIST LAYERS 1 TO 4 IN REAL SET 1 FOR ELEMENT TYPE 1
TOTAL LAYERS = 4 LSYM = 1 LP1 = 0 LP2 = 0 EFS = .000E+00
• LAYPLOT (Utility Menu> Plot> Layered Elements) displays the layer stacking sequence from real
constants in the form of a sheared deck of cards (see Figure 13.6: “Sample LAYPLOT Display for [45/-
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Chapter 13: Composites
45/ - 45/45] Sequence”). The layers are crosshatched and color coded for clarity. The hatch lines in-
dicate the layer angle (real constant THETA) and the color indicates layer material number (MAT).
You can specify a range of layer numbers for the display.
• SECPLOT (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Shell> Plot Section) displays the section stacking
sequence from sections in the form of a sheared deck of cards (see Figure 13.6: “Sample LAYPLOT
Display for [45/-45/ - 45/45] Sequence”). The sections are crosshatched and color coded for clarity.
The hatch lines indicate the layer angle (THETA) and the color indicates layer material number (MAT)
defined by the SECDATA command. You can specify a range of layer numbers for the display.
4. By default, only data for the bottom of the first (bottom) layer, top of the last (top) layer, and the layer
with the maximum failure criterion value are written to the results file. If you are interested in data for
all layers, set KEYOPT(8) = 1. Be aware, though, that this may result in a large results file.
5. Use the ESEL,S,LAYER command to select elements that have a certain layer number. If an element has
a zero thickness for the requested layer, the element is not selected.
Note — For energy output, the results are applicable only to the entire element; you cannot get
output results for individual layers.
6. Use the LAYER command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) in POST1 (or LAYERP26
(Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables) in POST26) to specify the layer number for which
results are to be processed. The SHELL command (Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp
or Main Menu> TimeHist Prostpro> Define Variables) specifies a TOP, MID, or BOT location within the
layer. The default in POST1 is to store results for the bottom of the bottom layer, and the top of the top
layer, and the layer with the maximum failure criterion value. In POST26, the default is layer 1. If KEYOPT(8)
= 1 (that is, data stored for all layers), the LAYER and LAYERP26 commands store the TOP and BOT results
for the specified layer number. MID values are then calculated by average TOP and BOT values. If KEYOPT
(8) = 2 is set for SHELL181 during SOLUTION, then LAYER and LAYERP26 commands store the TOP,
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BOTTOM, and MID results for the specified layer number. In this case, MID values are directly retrieved
from the results file. For transverse shear stresses with KEYOPT(8) = 0, therefore, POST1 can only show a
linear variation, whereas the element solution printout or KEYOPT(8) = 2 can show a parabolic variation.
7. By default, POST1 displays all results in the global Cartesian coordinate system. Use the RSYS command
(Main Menu> General Postproc> Options for Outp) to transform the results to a different coordinate
system. In particular, RSYS,SOLU allows you to display results in the layer coordinate system if LAYER is
issued with a nonzero layer number.
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Chapter 14: Fatigue
14.1. Definition of Fatigue
Fatigue is the phenomenon in which a repetitively loaded structure fractures at a load level less than its ultimate
static strength. For instance, a steel bar might successfully resist a single static application of a 300 kN tensile
load, but might fail after 1,000,000 repetitions of a 200 kN load.
A formal fatigue evaluation accounts for each of these factors as it calculates how "used up" a certain component
will become during its anticipated life cycle.
For fatigue evaluations based on criteria other than those of the ASME Code, you can either write your own
macro, or else interface your ANSYS results with an appropriate third-party program (see the ANSYS APDL Pro-
grammer's Guide for more information on these two features).
• You can postprocess existing stress results to determine the fatigue usage factors for any solid-element
or shell-element model. (You can also manually input stresses for fatigue evaluation of line-element
models.)
• You can store stresses at a preselected number of locations for a preselected number of events and
loadings within the event.
• You can define stress concentration factors for each location and scale factors for each event.
An event is a set of stress conditions that occur at different times during a unique stress cycle. See Section 14.2.3.4:
Guidelines for Obtaining Accurate Usage Factors later in this chapter for more information.
The alternating stress intensity is a measure of the difference in stress state between any two loadings. The program
does not adjust the alternating stress intensity for mean-stress effects.
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1. Enter POST1.
Command(s): /POST1
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc
2. Read your database file (Jobname.DB) into active memory. (If your intended fatigue evaluation is a
continuation of an ongoing ANSYS session, then Jobname.DB will already be in memory.) A results file
(Jobname.RST) with nodal stress results should also be available; you will read results data into memory
later.
Command(s): RESUME
GUI: Utility Menu> File> Resume from
By default, your fatigue evaluation can consider up to five nodal locations, ten events, and three loadings
within an event. You can use the following option to establish larger dimensions (that is, allow more
locations, events, or loadings), if necessary.
Command(s): FTSIZE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Size Settings
2. Define material fatigue properties.
In order to calculate usage factors, and to include the effect of simplified elastic-plastic computations,
you must define material fatigue properties. The material properties of interest in a fatigue evaluation
are:
• The S-N curve, a curve of alternating stress intensity ((Smax - Smin)/2) versus allowable number of cycles.
The ASME S-N curves already account for maximum mean stress effects. You should adjust your S-N
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curve to account for mean-stress effects, if necessary. If you do not input an S-N curve, alternating
stress intensities will be listed in decreasing order for all possible combinations of stress conditions,
but no usage factors will be calculated.
Command(s): FP
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Property Table> S-N Table
• The Sm-T curve, a curve of design stress-intensity value versus temperature. This curve is needed if
you want the program to detect whether or not the nominal stress range has gone plastic.
Command(s): FP
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Property Table> Sm_T Table
• Elastic-plastic material parameters M and N (strain hardening exponents). These parameters are re-
quired only if you desire simplified elastic-plastic code calculations. These parameters' values can be
obtained from the ASME Code.
Command(s): FP
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Property Table> Elas-plas Par
The following example illustrates the use of the FP command to input material fatigue properties:
! Define the S-N table:
FP,1,10,30,100,300,1000,10000 ! Allowable Cycles, N
FP,7,100000,1000000 ! "
FP,21,650,390,240,161,109,59 ! Alternating Stress-
FP,27,37,26 ! Intensity Range, S, ksi
! Define the Sm-T table:
FP,41,100,200,300,400,500,600 ! Temperature,°F
FP,47,650,700,750,800 ! "
FP,51,20,20,20,18.7,17.4,16.4 ! "Design Stress-Intensity
FP,57,16.1,15.9.15.5,15.1 ! Value", Sm (=2/3*Sy or
! 1/3 *Su), ksi
! Define the elastic-plastic material parameters:
FP,61,1.7,.3 ! M and N
The following option allows you to explicitly define a nodal location of interest to your fatigue evaluation,
define stress concentration factors (SCFs) for that location, and assign a short (20 character) title to that
location.
Command(s): FL
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Stress Locations
Note — Not all fatigue analyses will require the FL command. Locations are automatically defined for
nodes when FS, FSNODE, or FSSECT are issued (see below). If your model contains sufficient grid detail,
your stresses could be accurate enough that you would not need to apply calculated SCFs. (Supplemental
SCFs for surface, size, or corrosion effects might still be required, however.) Where only one location is
being examined, you could omit a title. If explicit definition of locations, SCFs, or titles are not required,
you could forgo the FL command entirely.
Here is an example of some FL commands for a cylinder with a global Y axis, having two wall thicknesses of interest,
where SCFs are to be applied (to the axial linearized stresses) at the outside wall.
FL,1,281,,,,Line 1 at inside
FL,2,285,,1.85,,Line 1 at outside
FL,3,311,,,,Line 2 at inside
FL,4,315,,2.11,,Line 2 at outside
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Chapter 14: Fatigue
14.2.3. Store Stresses and Assign Event Repetitions and Scale Factors
14.2.3.1. Storing Stresses
In order to perform a fatigue evaluation, the program must know the stresses at different events and loadings
for each location, as well as the number of repetitions of each event. You can store stresses for each combination
of location, event, and loading, using the following options:
Caution: The program never assumes that a "zero" stress condition exists. If zero stress is one of the conditions
to be considered, it must be explicitly input for each event in which it may occur.
The following command sequences schematically illustrate how to store stresses. In some situations, you might
prefer to use LCASE instead of SET.
You can use more than one method of storing stresses in an event. Each of these methods is explained in detail
below.
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In this example, only the total stresses (items 1-6) and the temperature (item 7) are input. If the linearized stresses
were also to be input, they would follow the temperatures as items 8 through 13.
Note — In the special case of a beam element having only axial stress, you would input only one stress
component (SX), leaving the rest of the stress fields blank.
Note — You must issue a SET command, and possibly a SHELL command, before executing FSNODE.
SET will read results for a particular load substep from the results file (Jobname.RST) into the database.
SHELL allows you to select results from the top, middle, or bottom surfaces for shell elements (default
is the top surface).
Command(s): FSNODE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Store Stresses> From rst File
Input by means of FSNODE is demonstrated by the following example for an event at one nodal location:
SET,1 ! Define data set for load step 1
FSNODE,123,1,1 ! Stress vector at node 123 assigned to event 1,
! loading 1.
SET,2 ! Define data set for load step 2
FSNODE,123,1,2 ! ...event 1, loading 2
SET,3 ! ...load step 3
FSNODE,123,1,3 ! ...event 1, loading 3
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FSSECT must also be preceded by a SET command. Stress components stored with an FSSECT command can
be modified with a subsequent FS command.
Command(s): FSSECT
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Store Stresses> At Cross Sect
Input by means of FSSECT is demonstrated in the following example. If node locations are not assigned with an
FL command, the FSSECT commands in this example will automatically assign location numbers to the two path
nodes, 391 and 395. (See Figure 14.3: “Surface Nodes are Identified by PPATH Prior to Executing FSSECT”.)
PATH,Name,2 ! Define the path using the two surface nodes
PPATH,1,391
PPATH,2,395
SET,1
FSSECT,,1,1 ! Store stresses at nodes 391 and 395
Figure 14.3 Surface Nodes are Identified by PPATH Prior to Executing FSSECT
• List the stored stresses per location, per event, per loading, or per stress condition:
Command(s): FSLIST
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Store Stresses> List Stresses
• Display a stress item as a function of loading number for a particular location and event:
Command(s): FSPLOT
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Store Stresses> Plot Stresses
• Delete a stress condition stored for a particular location, event, and loading:
Command(s): FSDELE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Store Stresses> Dele Stresses
• Delete all stresses at a particular location:
Command(s): FL
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Stress Locations
• Delete all stresses for all loadings in a particular event:
Command(s): FE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Erase Event Data
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Section 14.2: Doing a Fatigue Evaluation
The ANSYS program automatically calculates all possible stress ranges and keeps track of their number of occur-
rences, using a technique commonly known as the "rain flow" range-counting method. At a selected nodal loc-
ation, a search is made throughout all of the events for the pair of loadings (stress vectors) that produces the
most severe stress-intensity range. The number of repetitions possible for this range is recorded, and the remaining
number of repetitions for the events containing these loadings is decreased accordingly. At least one of the
source events will be "used up" at this point; remaining occurrences of stress conditions belonging to that event
will subsequently be ignored. This process continues until all ranges and numbers of occurrences have been
considered.
Caution: It can be surprisingly easy to misuse the range-counting feature of the fatigue module. You must
take pains to assemble events carefully if you want your fatigue evaluation to yield accurate usage factors.
• Understand the internal logic of the ANSYS range-counting algorithm. See the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference
for more details on how the ANSYS program performs range counting.
• Because it can be difficult to predict the exact load step at which a maximum (or minimum) 3-D stress
state occurs, good practice often requires that you include several clustered loadings in each event, in
order to successfully capture the extreme stress state. (See Figure 14.2: “Three Loadings in One Event”.)
• You will obtain consistently conservative results if you include only one extreme stress condition (either
a local maximum or a local minimum) in any given event. If you group more than one extreme condition
in a single event, you will sometimes generate unconservative results, as illustrated by the following example:
These load cycles will obviously sum to 1500 repetitions having an alternating stress intensity of about 50 ksi.
However, carelessly grouping these loadings into only two events will result in an inaccurate range count. Let's
see how this would happen:
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Thus, only 1000 repetitions of about 50 ksi range would be counted, instead of the known 1500 cycles. This error
results solely from improper assembly of events.
If the loadings had each been described as separate events (such that E1,L1 ≥ E1; E1,L2 ≥ E2; E2,L1 ≥ E3; and
E2,L2 ≥ E4), then the following range counts would be obtained:
Cumulative fatigue damage in this case would properly be calculated for 1500 repetitions of about 50 ksi range.
• Conversely, using separate events for each maximum and each minimum stress condition could sometimes
become too conservative. In such cases, carefully choose those loadings that should be counted together,
and group them into the same events. The following example illustrates how some events can appropriately
contain multiple extreme stress conditions:
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Section 14.2: Doing a Fatigue Evaluation
It is readily apparent that the worst possible combination of these cycles would yield 500 repetitions having al-
ternating stress intensity of about 25 ksi range.
Proceeding as in the above example, grouping these loadings into two events would produce an accurate count
of 500 repetitions of about 25 ksi range. Treating each loading as a separate event would yield an over-conser-
vative count of 1000 repetitions of about 25 ksi range.
If you have input an S-N curve, output is in the form of a table of alternating stress intensities (listed in decreasing
order) with corresponding pairs of event/loadings, as well as cycles used, cycles allowed, temperature, and partial
usage factor. Following that, the cumulative usage factor is shown for that particular location. This information
is repeated for all locations.
As has been just mentioned, FTCALC output shows the contributing pairs of events and loadings for any given
alternating stress-intensity range. This information can help you isolate the transients (events/loadings) causing
the most fatigue damage.
A convenient way to modify your events would be to write all stored fatigue data on Jobname.FATG. (This option
could be executed either before or after FTCALC.) Data are written to Jobname.FATG in terms of equivalent
fatigue module commands. You can modify your events by editing Jobname.FATG; then use the /INPUT com-
mand to reread the modified fatigue commands.
Command(s): FTWRITE
GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Fatigue> Write Fatig Data
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FP,21,... ! S values
FP,41,... ! T values
FP,51,... ! Sm values
FP,61,... ! Elastic-plastic material parameters
! Locations, Stress Concentration Factors, and Location Titles
FL,...
! Store Stresses (3 Different Methods)
! Store Stresses Manually:
FS,...
! Retrieve Stresses from the Results File:
SET,...
FSNODE,...
! Store Stresses at a Cross-Section:
PPATH,...
SET,...
FSSECT,...
! Event Repetitions and Scale Factors
FE,...
! Activate the Fatigue Calculations
FTCALC,...
! Review the Results (List the output file)
FINISH
See the ANSYS Commands Reference for a discussion of the FTSIZE, FP, FL, FS, FSNODE, PPATH, FSSECT, FE, and
FTCALC commands.
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Chapter 15: p-Method Structural Static Analysis
15.1. Definition of p-Method Analysis
The p-method obtains results such as displacements, stresses, or strains to a user-specified degree of accuracy.
To calculate these results, the p-method manipulates the polynomial level (p-level) of the finite element shape
functions which are used to approximate the real solution.
This feature works by taking a finite element mesh, solving it at a given p-level, increasing the p-level selectively,
and then solving the mesh again. After each iteration the results are compared for convergence against a set of
convergence criteria. You can specify the convergence criteria to include displacement, rotation, stress or strain
at a point (or points) in the model, and global strain energy. The higher the p-level, the better the finite element
approximation to the real solution.
In order to capitalize on the p-method functionality, you don't have to work only within the confines of p-generated
meshes. The p-method is most efficient when meshes are generated considering that p-elements will be used,
but this is not a requirement. Of course, you might want to create and mesh your model using p-elements, but
you can also perform a p-method solution using meshes that have been generated with h-elements (generated
by ANSYS or your CAD package), if the elements are at least mid-noded. This provides you with the flexibility of
taking advantage of the p-method solution option independently of how the mesh was created. The p-method
can improve the results for any mesh automatically.
In addition, the p-method adaptive refinement procedure offers error estimates that are more precise than those
of the h-method, and can be calculated locally as well as globally (for example, stress at a point rather than strain
energy). For example, if you need to obtain highly accurate solutions at a point, such as for fracture or fatigue
assessments, the p-method offers an excellent means of obtaining these results to the required accuracy.
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The above steps are common to most analyses. The ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide explains those steps in
detail. In this section we will explain the techniques that are unique to a p-analysis.
Note — H-elements and p-elements cannot be active at the same time in your model.
The range within which the p-level may vary can be controlled locally through the p-element KEYOPT settings
(KEYOPT(1) and KEYOPT(2)), or globally across the entire model with PPRANGE. By default, the p-level range is
2 to 8.
When both KEYOPT values and PPRANGE have been used to specify p-level ranges, the local p-level range [ET]
will take precedence over the global p-level range [PPRANGE].
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For example, if you set a global p-level range between 3 and 8 with PPRANGE, then define a local p-level range
of 4 to 6 for PLANE145 elements (ET,1,145,4,6), the p-level for the PLANE145 elements may only vary between
4 and 6, while the rest of the model may vary between 3 and 8.
At the (default) starting p-level of 2, convergence checking is performed to determine those elements which are
converged and may have their p-level fixed at 2. That is, these elements will remain at a p-level of 2, and will be
eliminated from any further convergence checking. Additional checking is performed at each iteration to fix the
p-levels of the elements which are converged.
Use local p-range control to eliminate regions of little importance from high p-escalation. Use global p-range
control for overall control of the p-level. These range controls are not necessary, but p-escalations to high p-
levels increase CPU time. Therefore, it is advantageous to have such controls available.
See the ANSYS Elements Reference for complete descriptions of each of the above element types.
Caution: Element coordinate systems [ESYS] used for orthotropic material directions are not supported
by p-elements. All element coordinate systems are parallel to the global Cartesian coordinate system.
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Note — Using direct generation is not recommended when you plan to create a p-mesh since all p-ele-
ments require that midside nodes be included in their geometric definition. In cases where surface
curvature is important, it would not only be tedious, but possibly imprecise to manually define each
midside node. In addition, the EMID command does not place nodes on a curved line. It is much more
convenient to let the program generate the midside nodes using solid modeling.
If you use direct generation or import your mesh from an outside source, keep the following guidelines in mind:
• A curved element edge should not cover more than a 30° arc.
• The angles between adjacent edges should be between 10° and 170°. Element shape checking will warn
that adjacent edges should be between 30° and 150°, but it is usually acceptable to have angles in the
range of 10° to 170° for p-elements.
• A good rule of thumb is to keep the aspect ratio (ratio of element length to width) less than 20:1.
or
Command(s): DESIZE
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls> Manual Size> Global> Other
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Section 15.3: Using the p-Method
Note — Since p-method prefers a coarser mesh, the default element size values for a p-method analysis
are different than those used for h-elements. See the SMRTSIZE and DESIZE commands for details.
For fracture or fatigue assessments, you may still need to specify meshing controls because the mesh must be
fine enough to obtain the desired accuracy near the areas of interest. In certain cases, such as when there are
severe geometric transition regions, you may also need to specify mesh controls to avoid a meshing failure.
You may also want to specify meshing controls for curved geometries, where successful meshes are more difficult
to achieve with the default size settings. Under default conditions, badly shaped elements may be produced
because of the difficulty of filling a curved domain with as few elements as possible. User-defined meshing
controls can make the task less difficult.
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for p-element plots. PowerGraphics is the default graphics display method used for p-method plots. This method
will display the plot at a much faster speed than the Full Model method. See Chapter 10, “PowerGraphics” in the
ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide for more information on PowerGraphics. For more information on /EFACET, see the
discussion on the p-Element Subgrid later in this section.
Command(s): /EFACET
GUI: Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Size and Shape
15.3.3.2. Coupling
You may couple degrees of freedom (DOFs) between nodes on p-elements to control nodal solution behavior.
All coupled nodes are forced to assume the same displacement values in the specified nodal coordinate direction.
The amount of this displacement is unknown until the analysis has been completed.
Command(s): CP
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Coupling/Ceqn> Couple DOFs
The first degree of freedom defined on the coupled set is the "prime" degree of freedom. All other degrees of
freedom in the coupled set are eliminated from the solution matrices as a result of their relationship to the prime
degree of freedom.
Note — For p-elements, only the corner nodes may be defined as prime degrees of freedom if midside
nodes are also part of the same coupled set.
For a p-method analysis, only the nodal combinations described below are permitted when coupling, and any
deviation from these combinations will most likely result in singularities.
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2. All nodes in the coupled set are midside nodes. In this case, a midside node must be defined as the prime
degree of freedom, but this is only valid as long as there are no corner nodes defined as part of the same
coupled set.
Note — If you have coupled faces or edges on a p-element (that is, all edges of the element's face or all
nodes of the element's edge are coupled), the p-level of that edge or face will be held to 2. In addition,
constraint equations (used to represent relatively rigid parts) are not available in a p-method analysis.
1. Enter SOLUTION.
Command(s): /SOLU
GUI: Main Menu> Solution
2. Define the analysis options. Choose any of three options to solve the simultaneous equations generated
by a p-method analysis. These solvers are discussed at length in Chapter 3, “Solution” in the ANSYS Basic
Analysis Guide.
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GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Control ( : Sol'n Options Tab)
Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options
We generally recommend that you use the PCG solver for a p-element analysis. For most 3-D solid
models and for very large 2-D models (usually greater than 40,000 DOF), the PCG solver is usually faster
than the JCG and frontal solvers:
• The PCG solver is about 5 to 10 times faster than the frontal solver for p-elements.
• The PCG solver is significantly faster than JCG for p-elements.
• Computer-time savings will be greater with the PCG solver when p-levels of 4 and higher are active.
In certain cases, such as when your model contains elements with high aspect ratios or material type
discontinuities, a greater number of iterations may be required to achieve convergence for the PCG
solver. You may increase the maximum number of iterations by using the MULT option on the EQSLV
command. This option is only valid when solving with the PCG solver. See the EQSLV command description
in the ANSYS Commands Reference for more information on this capability.
For more information on the general use of the PCG solver, refer to Chapter 3, “Solution” in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide.
3. Apply the loads to the solid model (keypoints, lines, areas, etc.) or to the finite element model (nodes
and elements), except for inertia loads (gravity, rotational velocity, etc.), which are independent of the
model. For a general discussion of solid model loads versus finite element loads, see Chapter 2, “Loading”
in the ANSYS Basic Analysis Guide.
In order to correctly apply boundary conditions, you need to understand nodal coordinate systems, and
how degrees of freedom (DOFs) which are not attached to a node are handled. DOFs are the allowed
motions or deformations of the elements. Those DOFs which are not attached to a node are referred to
as internal degrees of freedom.
• Internal DOFs allow the elements to form a better approximation to the real solution. As the p-level
is increased for each loop, more DOFs are added to the elements. Some of these DOFs act on the
element boundary (edges and interior faces) resulting in deformations that vary from a polynomial
order of 2 to 8. In many cases, the higher the p-level, the more complex the deformation, and the
better the approximation to the real solution.
• Nodal coordinate systems orient the degree of freedom directions at each node. Each node has its
own nodal coordinate system, which, by default, is parallel to the global Cartesian system (regardless
of the coordinate system in which the node was defined). Nodes may be rotated into a nodal coordin-
ate system [NROTAT] (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Modeling> Move/Modify> Rotate Node CS>
To Active CS). The constraints and forces are then applied to the nodes in the nodal coordinate sys-
tems. See the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide for more details about nodal coordinate systems.
The program aligns the internal DOFs with the nodal coordinate systems as defined by the nodes on the
element face or edge.
Displacement constraints applied to nodes with rotated nodal coordinate systems are applied to the
internal DOFs on an element edge or face only if ALL the nodes defining that edge or face are also rotated
into that same coordinate system (see Figure 15.6: “Constraints on Rotated Nodes”). Therefore any
symmetry/antisymmetry displacement boundary conditions applied to the nodes on adjoining surfaces
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Section 15.3: Using the p-Method
should reference the same coordinate system. If you apply the symmetry/antisymmetry displacement
boundary conditions to areas or lines, you should verify that the constraints all "point" in the same direction
on each surface. If they do not, apply the boundary conditions to the individual nodes.
Caution: If all of the DOFs of the nodes on an edge (or face) are not fully constrained (are only
partially constrained, e.g. only UX is constrained) and the nodal rotations of these nodes are not
the same, the stress results at these nodes may be inaccurate if the p-level of the attached ele-
ments exceeds 3.
Nodal coordinate systems which are not necessarily parallel to the global Cartesian system are formed
when you invoke symmetry or antisymmetry displacement constraints on model surfaces.
Table 2.5: “Loads Applicable in a Static Analysis” of this manual describes the loads applicable to a static
analysis. The following is a brief discussion of each type of loading.
Displacements (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ) are DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries
to define rigid support points. They are also used to indicate symmetry boundary conditions and points
of known motion. The directions implied by the labels are in the nodal coordinate system.
Displacement boundary conditions that are applied to all nodes on an element edge or face will also
constrain the higher-order deformations along that edge or face.
Conversely, if all of the nodes are not constrained in that direction, then those lower-order deformations
will be constrained but not the higher-order ones. Never apply a displacement only at a midside node
on an edge. (You may, however, apply a single constraint at a corner node.)
Imposed motions may only vary linearly over an element edge or face. The program will ignore an imposed
quadratic variation.
Forces (FX, FY, FZ) are concentrated loads usually specified on the model exterior. The directions implied
by the labels are in the nodal coordinate system.
Moments (MX, MY, MZ) are concentrated loads usually specified on the model exterior. The directions
implied by the labels are in the nodal coordinate system.
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• You should avoid applying single-point loads or constraints, since they cause stress singular-
ities. If these loads or constraints are applied, exclude the elements attached to these nodes
from the convergence computations. See the "Accounting for Stress Singularities" section
later in this chapter.
• Do not apply forces and moments to the midside nodes. You may only apply these loads at
the corner nodes. In addition, out-of-plane (element ROTZ) moments may not be applied to
SHELL150.
Pressures (PRES) are surface loads, also usually applied on the model exterior. Positive values of pressure
act towards the element face (resulting in a compressive effect).
Temperatures (TEMP) are applied to study the effects of thermal expansion or contraction (that is, thermal
stresses). The coefficient of thermal expansion must be defined if thermal strains are to be calculated.
You can read in temperatures from a thermal analysis, or you can specify temperatures directly on the
nodes or the solid model keypoints.
Gravity, spinning, etc. are inertia loads that affect the entire structure. Density must be defined if inertia
effects are to be included.
4. Specify load step options. The following solution options are available to aid in solving a p-Method
analysis:
As mentioned earlier in this section, a p-method analysis works with a series of iterations, or loops,
checking for convergence each time. The PPRANGE command is used to specify the overall range where
the p-level may vary (somewhere between 2 and 8). For analyses beginning at p=2, each element will
have its solution checked for convergence against established criteria [PCONV]. If the solution is within
the requested tolerance [PMOPTS], that element will have its p-level held to 2. Those elements that did
not converge within the specified criteria (that is, not fixed at p=2 for the first iteration), will have their
p-level increased, and another solution (iteration) will then be performed. At each iteration the conver-
gence criteria (strain energy, displacement, stress, etc.) is checked, and if converged, the solution stops.
Also, those elements whose individual solutions are considered to be converged will have their p-level
held at the current p-level. This process is continued until all specified convergence criteria are met, or
the maximum p-range has been reached.
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Section 15.3: Using the p-Method
Convergence criteria may be global (for strain energy) or local. If you are specifically interested in the
results at certain points in the model, then you should use local convergence criteria. Use this option to
specify which areas of your model you would like to monitor for analysis convergence, as well as the
type of criteria you would like to use to control convergence. Typically, you should select a few points
of interest (nodes), at which to specify the convergence criteria (deflection, stress, strain, etc.). In most
cases, the default convergence tolerance (5%) is sufficient for generally good results. You may want to
lower this tolerance if you require a more accurate solution, such as for a fatigue evaluation. For a design
study or optimization analysis, a higher tolerance will cut down on run times.
Command(s): PCONV
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> p-Method> Convergence Crit
For SHELL150, you also have the option to choose a layer (TOP, MID, or BOT) for stress or strain conver-
gence criteria. If you are working with intersecting shells, it is recommended that you choose MID as the
layer for convergence checking.
Caution: Do not specify stress or strain criteria at nodes where there are singularities or at nodes
along material interfaces. These locations will not converge due to the singularity.
When choosing locations for specifying convergence criteria, you should concentrate your monitoring
in the areas of high stress or at the point of maximum displacement rather than where stresses, strains,
or displacements are relatively insignificant.
You may specify the starting (defaults to 2) and maximum (defaults to 8) p-levels that you wish to allow
for your analysis [PPRANGE]. You may wish to start at a higher p-level if you have already completed an
analysis and you want to perform a re-analysis (for a design change, for instance) and you know the final
p-level where convergence will occur for most elements. You may also want to restrict the maximum p-
level to less than 8 if conserving disk space or run time.
Adjust the starting and maximum p-level in portions of your model using element KEYOPT selections.
If the model contains any re-entrant (internal or concave) corners that are not modeled with a fillet radius,
or contains point loads or any other areas of stress singularities, you should consider excluding these
areas from the convergence computations. All elements that have a node at the singularity should be
excluded. One exception applies to fracture mechanics. In that situation, you should not exclude elements
at or near the crack tip.
Command(s): PEXCLUDE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> p-Method> Strain Energy> Exclude Elems
You can reassign, or re-include, elements for convergence checking. You may determine which elements
have been included or excluded by listing [PINCLUDE,STAT; PEXCLUDE,STAT; or *GET] or plotting ele-
ments [EPLOT]. Excluded elements will appear `whited-out' in the plot. You may also select included or
excluded elements by issuing the ESEL command directly [ESEL,,PEXC or ESEL,,PINC] (no GUI equivalent).
This facilitates using these elements as a component [CM].
Command(s): PINCLUDE
GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> p-Method> Strain Energy> Include Elems
5. Save a backup copy of the database.
Command(s): SAVE
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Chapter 15: p-Method Structural Static Analysis
Possible Cause: Insufficient constraints to prevent rigid-body motion (the component can slide or rotate in one
direction because there are no constraints to prevent it from doing so).
Possible Causes: There are several possible causes. You may use the general postprocessor [/POST1] to look at
this solution in order to determine the difficulty.
The results from a p-method analysis are written to the results file, Jobname.RST. They consist of the following
data:
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Section 15.3: Using the p-Method
Primary data
Derived data
Nodal and element stresses, nodal and element strains, element forces
Note — You must read the results data from the results file (Jobname.RST) into the database [SET] before
displacements may be reviewed during postprocessing. Thermal strains are not available on the results
file.
The tools used for time-history postprocessing [/POST26] are also applicable to p-method analyses, but have
limited functionality, since p-element technology is restricted to linear static analyses. In this section we will explain
those procedures that deviate from standard postprocessing, such as some plotting and printing operations,
etc. Before reading this section, it would be a good idea to review the chapters on postprocessing in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide for more details on postprocessing, in general.
The key command involved in the subgrid approach is /EFACET,NUM where NUM represents the number of facets
per element edge (GUI path Utility Menu> PlotCtrls> Style> Size and Shape). The example below illustrates
how /EFACET subdivides a quadrilateral element. If NUM = 2, the element has 2 facets per edge and is divided
into 4 subgrid facets by adding a pseudo node at the "center". If NUM = 4, the element has 4 facets per edge which
means two pseudo nodes per edge and 9 interior pseudo nodes are added for each p-element, dividing the
quadrilateral into 16 subgrid facets.
As a general rule, for a model with a very coarse mesh or any model in which the p-levels are high (p>3) you
should consider using NUM = 4 to view your field quantities. Since results are available at each subgrid location,
more information will be available at NUM = 4.
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Chapter 15: p-Method Structural Static Analysis
You may query stresses, strains, and displacements at all subgrid locations that have previously been activated
by the /EFACET command.
Note — Results values for SHELL150 are displayed for the top and bottom layer simultaneously.
When viewing nodal field values across p-element boundaries ([PRNSOL, PLNSOL], or when using the Query
function), results may be displayed in various ways. The results data may be averaged along element boundaries
with the AVRES command. You can average results at all boundaries (the default), or at all boundaries except
where real constant, and/or material type discontinuities exist. If a geometric discontinuity exists, results will not
be averaged at those locations.
Note — AVRES has no effect on the nodal degree of freedom solution values (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY,
ROTZ, etc.).
For all of the p-elements, displacement plots are available with both undisplaced structure and undisplaced
edge options [PLDISP]. When using PowerGraphics [/GRAPHICS,POWER], displaced shape plots reflect each
calculated element subgrid [/EFACET] displacement.
For PLANE145, PLANE146, SOLID147, and SOLID148, stresses and strains can be listed [PRESOL] at all node loc-
ations for each element. Results for SHELL150 are listed for the top, middle, and bottom layers with results for
the bottom layer listed first.
Printout is similar to that for h-elements, with nodal results being unaveraged and sorted by element number.
Unlike higher order h-element printout, results are for all nodal locations (corner and midside nodes). Results
may be printed or plotted for the entire model [/GRAPHICS,FULL] or for the model surface only [/GRAPH-
ICS,POWER].
Note — Issuing the /PMETH,ON command or defining a p-element [ET] will activate PowerGraphics unless
a prior /GRAPHICS,FULL command has been issued. Similarly, /PMETH,OFF will deactivate PowerGraphics
unless /GRAPHICS,POWER has been issued previously.
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Section 15.4: Sample p-Method Analysis (GUI Method)
This problem uses element type PLANE145. The material is 1/4" thick steel.
Loading for this problem is: P = (100) (10) (.25) = 250 lbs (total force applied on the right side).
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Chapter 15: p-Method Structural Static Analysis
5. In the scroll box for Analysis type, scroll down to "Plane Stress+TK" to select it.
6. Click on OK.
7. Click on Close in the Element Types dialog box.
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Section 15.4: Sample p-Method Analysis (GUI Method)
3. In the Mesh section of the MeshTool, choose Areas and Free. Then click the MESH button. The Mesh
Areas picking menu appears.
4. Click on Pick All. A mesh for the plate is created.
5. Click Close to close the MeshTool.
6. Click on SAVE_DB on the ANSYS Toolbar.
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Chapter 15: p-Method Structural Static Analysis
2. Carefully review the information in the status window, and then close it.
3. Click on OK in the Solve Current Load Step dialog box to begin the solution.
4. Click on Close when the Solution is done window appears.
1. Choose menu path Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> First Set.
2. Choose menu path Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Deformed Shape. The Plot Deformed
Shape dialog box appears.
3. Click the "Def + undeformed" option on. Click on OK. The deformed and undeformed shapes appear in
the ANSYS Graphics window.
4. Choose menu path Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Solu. The
Contour Nodal Solution Data dialog box appears.
5. In the scroll box on the left, click once on "Stress" to select it. In the scroll box on the right, click once on
"X-direction SX" to select it.
6. Click on OK. Review the graphic using the legend in the graphics window. Expected results are: Max
displacement = .97x10-4 in, and Max stress in X direction = 437 psi.
7. Click on QUIT on the ANSYS Toolbar.
8. Choose a save option and click on OK.
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
16.1. An Overview of Beams
Beam elements are used to create a mathematical one-dimensional idealization of a 3-D structure. They offer
computationally efficient solutions when compared to solid and shell elements.
The discussion in this chapter applies only to BEAM44, which is a 3-D tapered unsymmetric beam; and BEAM188
and BEAM189, which are 3-D finite strain beams. These beams provide more robust nonlinear analysis capabilities,
and significant improvements in cross section data definition, analysis, and visualization, as compared to other
ANSYS beams. See the descriptions of the BEAM44, BEAM188, and BEAM189 elements in the ANSYS Elements
Reference for more information.
Note — If you are using the cross section capabilities described in this chapter with BEAM44 elements,
be aware that you cannot use these capabilities to define tapered sections. In addition, the postprocessing
visualization capabilities described in this chapter are not applicable to BEAM44 elements.
Note — Custom cross sections may not be used with the CDWRITE command.
Figure 16.1: “Plot of a Z Cross Section” shows the centroid and shear center of the cross section and the calculated
section properties:
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
Cross sections and user section meshes may be saved and stored in cross section library files. You may assign
beam cross sections as attributes of a line using the LATT command. These section definitions will be incorporated
into the generated beam elements when the line is meshed with BEAM44, BEAM188, or BEAM189.
1. Define the section and associate a section ID number with the section subtype.
2. Define the geometry data for the section.
ANSYS supplies the following commands for creating, viewing, and listing cross sections, and for managing cross
section libraries:
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Section 16.3: How to Create Cross Sections
For complete documentation of the cross section commands, see the ANSYS Commands Reference.
To define your own cross sections, use the subtype MESH. To define a cross section with integrated properties
such as Iyy and Izz, use the subtype ASEC.
16.3.2. Defining Cross Section Geometry and Setting the Section Attribute
Pointer
Use the SECDATA command to define the geometry of a cross section. Continuing with the example SECTYPE
command shown above, note that the CSOLID subtype has two dimensions: the radius and the number of cells
along its circumference. Thus, the SECDATA command shown below specifies 5 as the radius of the circular
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
solid beam, and 8 as the number of cells along its circumference. The SECNUM command sets the element section
attribute pointer to 2.
Command(s): SECDATA, 5, 8 and SECNUM, 2
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Common Sectns
Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Attributes> Default Attribs
Since the torsion constant is derived from the mesh, the accuracy of the torsion constant is directly proportional
to the mesh size of the cross section. The default mesh used by ANSYS yields acceptable engineering accuracy.
There are two ways to specify the mesh size for common sections:
• invoking SECTYPE,,,,,REFINEKEY to set the level of mesh refinement for thin-walled sections (CTUBE,
CHAN, I, Z, L, T, HATS, and HREC)
• specifying the number of divisions using SECDATA for solid sections (RECT, QUAD, and CSOLID)
The thin wall sections have a minimum of two integration points through thickness, so results produced using
thin wall sections should be acceptable for materially nonlinear analysis.
However, when doing a plasticity analysis, the cell defaults may need to be changed for the solid sections. Here
are examples of ANSYS-generated solid section cell meshes and the type of analysis you may wish to use them
with.
• The material set attribute pointer to be associated with the generated beam elements.
• The beam element type to be used in meshing the line.
• The orientation of the cross section with respect to the beam element axis. For detailed information about
orientation nodes and beams, see Section 7.5.2: Generating a Beam Mesh With Orientation Nodes in the
ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide.
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Section 16.4: Creating Cross Sections
Issue the LATT command to associate these attributes with the selected, unmeshed line:
Command(s):
LATT, MAT, , TYPE, , KB, KE, SECNUM
GUI:
See the LATT command description for the meaning of MAT and TYPE.
The following arguments are described here in terms of their applicability to beams.
KB
Corresponds to any keypoint number in the model. All beam elements generated will have their beam section
oriented such that the beam z-axis will lie in the plane defined by two line end keypoints and this keypoint
number.
KE
Corresponds to any keypoint number in the model (optional). This keypoint determines the beam orientation
at the end of the line as described above. If KE is given, KB determines the beam orientation at the beginning
of the line. This is useful for creating twisted beams.
SECNUM
Corresponds to the beam section defined by the SECTYPE command with the section ID number as given
by the SECNUM.
• common sections
• custom sections
Common sections are described by a standard geometry and a single material. Custom sections are defined by
an arbitrary geometry and may consist of several isotropic materials.
In addition, you can use defined sections to create tapered beams (for BEAM188 and BEAM189 only). See Sec-
tion 16.4.5: Defining a Tapered Beam for more information.
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
The top part of the BeamTool relates a section ID number to a subtype (and, optionally, a section name) [SECTYPE].
The middle of the BeamTool defines the section offset information, if needed [SECOFFSET]. The bottom contains
the fields for section geometry information [SECDATA]. The dimensions defined by the SECDATA command
are determined by the subtype selected. For documentation about a particular variant of the BeamTool, select
the subtype that you want information about, and then click on the Help button on the BeamTool. The subtype
dimensions are also documented in the SECDATA command description.
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Section 16.4: Creating Cross Sections
4. Set the number of line divisions for all lines (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls>
ManualSize> Lines> Picked Lines or use the MeshTool).
5. Select Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Write From Areas. A picker
appears. Pick the area(s) of the cells.
6. ANSYS creates cells on the areas. ANSYS may display bad shape messages during the mesh - these
messages can be ignored. However, you may see an "Unable to mesh area ...." message. If you do, clear
the elements from all areas (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Meshing> Clear> Areas) and repeat steps 4
and 5.
7. Write the .SECT file out to a unique name in the Write Section Library File dialog box and click on OK.
8. Read in the user mesh file (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Read Sect
Mesh) to calculate the section properties. Material properties must be defined to calculate the cross
section shear correction factors, material-weighted centroids and the shear centers.
Note — Even if you have already set LESIZE, you will see the following message:
Line element sizes may need to be specified for desired cross-section mesh. Please refer to the
LESIZE command.
If you have already set the line element size, click on the Close button to continue. If you have not already
set it, issue LESIZE with the appropriate information.
When creating cells on the area using the GUI, you do not need to define a plane element type. On the
other hand, a plane element type must be defined if the user issues the SECWRITE command explicitly.
MESH200 with KEYOPT(1) = 7 and PLANE82 are the only valid plane element types.
16.4.3. Creating Custom Cross Sections with Mesh Refinement and Multiple
Materials
When doing a plasticity analysis, you may need to refine the cross section mesh. A cross section consisting of
more than one material may be defined to represent layers, reinforcements or sensors. When defining a multiple-
material cross section, you will need to specify the material that each cross section cell is made of. You may take
a previously-created cross section and modify it.
To create a custom cross section with a refined mesh and/or multiple materials, perform the following tasks:
1. Either read a common section (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns>
Edit/Built-up> Edit Common) from the ANSYS database or read a custom section from a .SECT file.
(Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Edit/Built-up> Edit Custom)
2. ANSYS displays a MESH200 plot in the Graphics Window.
3. Refine the section mesh. (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Edit/Built-
up> Refine Mesh)
4. Modify the cell materials. (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Edit/Built-
up> Modify Material) If you want to create a multiple-material section, define the materials. This is ne-
cessary to calculate the shear correction factors and material-weighted centroids.
5. Save the section to a .SECT file using SECWRITE (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom
Sectns> Edit/Built-up> Save).
6. To calculate the section properties and use a custom section in the analysis, read in the user mesh file
(Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Read Sect Mesh).
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
Note — If you redefine a material after creating the section, you must reissue the SECTYPE and SECREAD
commands to recompute the cross section.
When a cross section has multiple materials, and /ESHAPE is used to produce contour plots of stresses
(and other quantities), the element averages the stresses across material boundaries. To limit this beha-
vior, use small cross section cells around the material boundaries.
When a cross section has multiple materials, the multiple materials will not be displayed in an element
plot with /ESHAPE,1. The multiple materials can be verified by viewing the cross section in the Main
Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Beam> Custom Sectns> Edit/Built-up> Edit Custom submenu.
When using the SECWRITE command explicitly, a section with multiple materials can be created by as-
signing material attributes to the areas. During meshing, the elements inherit the material attribute from
the area and this attribute is written to the .SECT file.
Note — If you redefine a material after creating the section, you must reissue the SECREAD command
to recompute the cross section.
You can save composite cross sections as custom cross sections. For information on custom cross sections, see
Section 16.4.1: Using the Beam Tool to Create Common Cross Sections
SECTYPE,SECID,TAPER
SECDATA,station-1,x1,y1,z1
SECDATA,station-2,x2,y2,z2
The following is a typical command input stream used to create a tapered cross section:
sectype,1,beam,rect ! define cross section at first end point
secdata,.0001,0.5
sectype,2,beam,rect ! define cross section at far end
secdata,3,0.5
sectype,3,taper ! new Section ID for tapered beam analysis
secdata,1,0.0,0.0 ! section 1 at location (0,0,0)
secdata,2,0.0,20.0 ! section 2 at location (0,20,0)
Continuing with this example, you can then use 3 as the taper section ID when assigning mesh attributes with
the SECNUM or LATT command. The resulting beam cross section is (0.0001*0.5) at end 1, and linearly tapers
to (3*0.5) at end 2.
The following assumptions apply to tapered beams defined with this method:
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Section 16.6: Sample Lateral Torsional Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
The program performs a number of checks (although not completely comprehensive) to ensure topological
equality. The following items are compared:
If both end stations refer to custom cross sections with multiple materials, you must ensure that material IDs for
the cells are the same for both ends.
At a Gauss point of integration, the BEAM188 and BEAM189 elements will find the closest point on the line
defined by station-1 and station-2. Using this information, a linear interpolation is performed for the cross section
mesh. Therefore, it is very important that the Gauss point be located within the end points. ANSYS will produce
error messages when this is not the case.
The tapered section treatment is significantly more expensive than a constant cross section (since recomputation
is necessary). If this is a concern, use KEYOPT(12) of the beam element to specify the tapered section treatment.
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Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
Chapter 7, “Buckling Analysis” in the ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide documents buckling analysis in detail. This
sample problem shows what happens when a cantilever beam is subjected to a concentrated end load, which
causes lateral-torsional buckling.
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Section 16.6: Sample Lateral Torsional Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
L = 100 in
H = 5 in
B = .2 in
P = 1 lb.
You can also perform a nonlinear load versus deflection study, which employs an arc length solution strategy
to identify critical loads. While the approach is more general, a collapse analysis may be computationally intensive.
The nonlinear collapse analysis must be performed on a structure with imperfections built in to the model, since
a perfect model will not show signs of buckling. You can add imperfections by using eigenvectors that result
from an eigenvalue buckling analysis. The eigenvector determined is the closest estimate of the actual mode of
buckling. The imperfections added should be small when compared to a typical thickness of the beam being
analyzed. The imperfections remove the sharp discontinuity in the load-deflection response. It is customary to
use one to ten percent of the beam/shell thickness as the maximum imperfection introduced. The UPGEOM
command adds displacements from a previous analysis and updates the geometry to the deformed configuration.
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4. Create a straight line through keypoints 1 and 2. Choose menu path Main Menu> Preprocessor>
Modeling> Create> Lines> Lines> Straight Line. The Create Straight Line picker appears. Select key-
points 1 and 2 in the Graphics window and click on OK in the Create Straight Line picker.
5. Save the model. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Save As. Enter buckle.db in the Save Database
to box and click on OK.
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Section 16.6: Sample Lateral Torsional Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
2. In the Material Models Available window on the right, double-click on the following: Structural, Linear,
Elastic, Isotropic. A dialog box appears.
3. Enter 1E4 for EX (Young's modulus).
4. Enter 0.0 for PRXY (Poisson's ratio), and click on OK. Material Model Number 1 appears in the Material
Models Defined window on the left.
5. Choose menu path Material> Exit to close the Define Material Model Behavior dialog box.
6. Replot the line by choosing menu path Utility Menu> Plot> Lines.
7. Select the line and define the orientation node of the line as an attribute. Choose menu path Main Menu>
Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh Attributes> Picked Lines. The Line Attributes picker appears. Select
the line in the Graphics window and click on Apply in the Line Attributes picker.
8. The Line Attributes dialog box appears. ANSYS includes the material attribute pointer to the material
set 1, the element type attribute pointer to the local element type 1, and the section attribute pointer
to the section ID 1 by default. Click on the radio button beside the Pick Orientation Keypoint(s) label to
change it to Yes and click on OK.
9. The Line Attributes picker reappears. Type 3 in the picker, press the Enter key, and click on OK.
10. Save the model. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Save As. If the buckle.db file is not already
selected, select it. Select OK, and when ANSYS prompts you if you want to overwrite the existing file,
click on OK.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 16–13
Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
7. Enter 1 for the Force/moment value in the Apply F/M on KPs dialog box, and click on OK. The force
symbol appears in the ANSYS Graphics window at keypoint 2.
8. Save the model. Choose menu path Utility Menu> File> Save As. If the buckle.db file is not already
selected, select it. Click on OK and when ANSYS prompts you if you want to overwrite the existing file,
click on OK again.
16–14 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 16.6: Sample Lateral Torsional Buckling Analysis (GUI Method)
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 16–15
Chapter 16: Beam Analysis and Cross Sections
8. The Define Reaction Force picker appears. Pick the end node on the left side of the beam and click on
OK.
9. The Define Reaction Force Variable dialog box appears. Be sure the Ref number of variable is set to 3 and
Node number is set to 1. Select Struct Force FY from the menu and click on OK. Click on Close to close
the Defined Time-History Variables dialog box.
10. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Math Operations> Multiply. In the Multiply Time-
History Variables dialog box, enter 4 in the Reference number for result box, -1.0 in the 1st Factor box,
and 3 in the 1st Variable box. Click on OK.
11. Display the X variable. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings> Graph. Choose
the single variable button, enter 2 in the Single variable no. box, and click on OK.
12. Plot the load versus deflection curve to confirm the critical load calculated by the eigenvalue method.
Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist PostPro> Graph Variables. Enter 4 in the 1st variable to
graph box. Click on OK.
13. List the variables versus time. Choose menu path Main Menu> TimeHist PostPro> List Variables. Enter
2 in the 1st variable to list box and 4 in the 2nd variable box and click on OK.
14. Check the values in the PRVAR Command window to see how they compare against the values generated
by the eigenvalue buckling analysis. Expected results are: Critical buckling load, Pcr = 0.01892. Close the
PRVAR Command window.
15. Choose menu path Main Menu> Finish.
16. In the ANSYS Toolbar, click on Quit.
17. Choose a save option and click on OK.
16–16 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 16.8: Where to Find Other Examples
ANTYPE,BUCKLE
BUCOPT,LANB,4
MXPAND,4,,,YES
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST1
/ESHAPE,1
/VIEW, 1 ,1,1,1
/ANG, 1
SET,LIST
SET,1,1
PLDISP,2
FINISH
/PREP7
UPGEOM,0.002,1,1,file,rst
/SOLU
ANTYPE,STATIC
OUTRES,ALL,ALL
NLGEOM,ON
ARCLEN,ON,25,0.0001
ARCTRM,U,1.0,2,UZ
NSUBST,10000
SOLVE
FINISH
/POST26
NSOL,2,2,U,Z,TIPLATDI
RFORCE,3,1,F,Y
PROD,4,3, , , , , ,-1.0,1,1
XVAR,2
PLVAR,4
PRVAR,2,4
FINISH
The ANSYS Verification Manual consists of test case analyses demonstrating the analysis capabilities of the ANSYS
program. While these test cases demonstrate solutions to realistic analysis problems, the ANSYS Verification
Manual does not present them as step-by-step examples with lengthy data input instructions and printouts.
However, most ANSYS users who have at least limited finite element experience should be able to fill in the
missing details by reviewing each test case's finite element model and input data with accompanying comments.
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 16–17
16–18
Chapter 17: Shell Analysis and Cross Sections
17.1. An Overview of Shells
Shell elements are used to create a mathematical 2-D idealization of a 3-D structure. They offer computationally
efficient solutions for modelling shell structures when compared to solid elements.
The discussion in this chapter applies to SHELL181, which is a 3-D finite strain shell element. This shell element
provides more robust nonlinear analysis capabilities, and significant improvements in cross section data definition,
analysis, and visualization, as compared to other ANSYS shells.
The method for defining shell sections described here can also be used to define the cross-sectional properties
of the layered thermal shell elements, SHELL131 and SHELL132. Discussions in this chapter relating to integration
points (NUMPT on the SECDATA command) and section properties (SECCONTROLS command) do not apply to
SHELL131 and SHELL132.
1. Define the section and associate a section ID number with the section.
2. Define the geometry data for the section.
ANSYS supplies the following commands for creating, viewing, and listing cross sections, and for managing cross
section libraries:
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Chapter 17: Shell Analysis and Cross Sections
For complete documentation of the cross section commands, see the ANSYS Commands Reference.
Figure 17.1: “Plot of a Shell Section” shows the layer stacking of a shell section. The layer order, along with mater-
ial and orientation of each layer, is represented here:
17–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 17.3: How to Create Cross Sections
You may designate the number of integration points (1, 3, 5, 7, or 9) located thru the thickness of each layer.
When only 1, the point is always located midway between the top and bottom surfaces. If 3 or more points, 2
points are located on the top and bottom surfaces respectively and the remaining points are distributed equal
distance between the 2 points. An exception occurs when designating 5 points, where the quarter point locations
are moved 5 percent toward their nearest layer surface to agree with the locations selected with real constant
input. The default for each layer is 3.
If a shell section has only one layer, and the number of section integration points is equal to one, then the shell
does not have any bending stiffness. This may result in solver difficulties, and may affect convergence adversely.
Command(s): SECDATA, 0.5, 1, 45, 3 SECDATA, 0.5, 2, -45, 3 SECDATA, 0.5, 1, 45, 3
GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Sections> Shell> Add/Edit
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 17–3
Chapter 17: Shell Analysis and Cross Sections
The top part of the Layup page of the ShellTool relates a section ID number to a Shell section type (and, optionally,
a section name) [SECTYPE]. The middle part of the page of the ShellTool defines each layer in the positive Z
direction of the element [SECDATA]. Note that the order of the rows in the spreadsheet ascends up the page,
resembling that stacking of the layers. (Integration point data for each layer is ignored by thermal shell elements.)
The bottom contains the fields for section offset information, if needed [SECOFFSET]. You can define tapered
shells by specifying a section function relating thickness to global coordinates [SECFUNCTION].
The transverse shear stiffness, hourglass coefficients and drill stiffness of the sections are calculated from the
section geometry and material properties. The default added mass per unit area of the section is always zero.
On the Section Controls page, you can override the program calculated quantities [SECCONTROLS]. (The Section
Controls page does not apply to thermal shell elements.)
17–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Section 17.3: How to Create Cross Sections
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. 17–5
17–6
creep, 8–31
Index hyperelasticity, 8–21
large strain, 8–6
Symbols plasticity, 8–9
2-D fracture models, 12–3
3-D fracture models, 12–4 B
Bauschinger effect, 8–10
A beam tool, 16–5
adaptive descent, 8–53 beams
adequate mesh density, 8–64 cross sections, 16–1
alpha (mass) damping, 4–10, 5–36, 6–18 Besseling model, 8–10
alternating stress intensity, 14–1 beta (stiffness) damping, 4–10, 5–36, 6–3, 6–18
amplitude bilinear isotropic hardening, 8–10
of harmonic loads, 4–5 bilinear kinematic hardening, 8–10
analysis birth and death, 8–69, 8–70
modal analysis options, 3–4 element, 8–63
reduced transient dynamic, 5–19 bisection, 8–5
analysis options Block Lanczos extraction method, 4–25
harmonic response analysis, 4–25 Block Lanczos method, 3–3, 3–17
mode superposition method, 4–25 bonlinear structural analysis
modal analysis, 3–2, 4–4, 4–20 restarts, 8–59
nonlinear static structural analysis, 8–49 buckling analysis, 7–1, 7–1
single-point spectrum analysis, 6–3 eigenvalue, 7–3
transient dynamic analysis, 5–14, 5–20 procedure, 7–3
mode superposition method, 5–14 expand the solution, 7–6
reduced method, 5–20 expansion pass, 7–6
analysis type methods of solution, 7–1
buckling, 7–1 nonlinear, 7–2
full transient, 5–7 procedure, 7–2
harmonic response, 4–1 obtain the eigenvalue buckling solution, 7–5
modal, 3–1 obtain the static solution, 7–4
nonlinear structural, 8–1
p-method, 15–1 C
spectrum, 6–1 calculating
static structural, 2–1, 2–2 covariance in POST26, 6–23
structural, 1–1 fracture parameters, 12–5
definition of, 1–1 cast iron plasticity, 8–10
transient dynamic, 5–1 causes of nonlinear behavior, 8–1
animation changing status, 8–2
gasket results, 10–19 geometric nonlinearities, 8–2
anisotropic, 8–10 material nonlinearities, 8–2
applying loads, 3–2, 4–4, 4–20, 8–56, 8–60 cells
harmonic response analysis, 4–5 defining for a section, 16–4
increments for buckling analysis, 7–2 Chaboche model, 8–10
modal analysis, 3–5 changing
nonlinear analysis, 8–56 status, 8–2
p-method, 15–7 combinations
structural static analysis, 2–8, 2–8 material model, 8–35
transient dynamic analysis, 5–9 composite cross section, 16–8
using TABLE array parameters, 2–8 composites, 13–1
arc-length method, 2–5, 7–2, 7–3, 8–2, 8–68 element types for, 13–1
automatic time stepping, 5–35, 7–2, 8–67 guidelines, 13–6
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
Index–2 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. Index–3
Index
Index–4 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. Index–5
Index
Index–6 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. Index–7
Index
printed, 2–7, 3–8, 4–10, 4–21, 5–14, 5–14, 5–23, plastics, 8–33
5–24, 7–6, 8–56 PLNSOL command
output control, 4–10, 5–14, 5–23, 7–6 with p-elements, 15–14
output controls, 3–6, 3–8, 5–24, 7–5 plotting
sections, 16–2, 17–1
P POST1, 2–11, 4–11, 4–23, 4–27, 5–11, 5–25, 6–8, 6–22,
p-elements 7–7, 8–57, 12–5, 14–2
meshing, 15–4 using, 4–12, 5–12
real constants, 15–3 POST26, 2–11, 4–11, 4–21, 4–23, 4–27, 5–11, 5–23, 5–25,
p-level 6–23, 8–57
error-estimation range, 15–2 using, 4–12, 5–11
error-estimation techniques, 15–2 postprocessing
p-method, 15–1 fatigue, 14–1
benefits of, 15–1 for different analysis (see reviewing results)
guidelines for meshing, 15–5 power dynamics method, 3–3, 3–17
internal DOFs, 15–7 power spectral density (PSD), 6–2
load step options, 15–7 predictor, 8–52
loads, 15–7 predictor-corrector option, 2–4, 8–52
meshing the model, 15–4 PRESOL command
p-element subgrid, 15–12 with p-elements, 15–14
printing and plotting results, 15–14 pressure loads
querying subgrid results, 15–12, 15–13 in a large-deflection analysis, 8–6
reviewing results, 15–12 prestress effects calculation, 2–6, 3–4, 7–4
solving common problems, 15–12 prestressed analysis
specialized displays and listings, 15–14 harmonic response, 4–28
status of elements, 15–7 mode superposition harmonic response, 4–29
use of solvers, 15–7 transient, 5–32
using, 15–1 prestressed full transient dynamic analysis
viewing the element model, 15–5 procedure, 5–32
participation factor calculations, 3–6, 6–18 prestressed harmonic response analysis
Peirce model, 8–32 procedure, 4–28
penalty stiffness prestressed modal analysis, 3–14
in contact analysis, 11–15 prestressed modal analysis of a large deflection, 3–15
Perzyna model, 8–32 prestressed mode superposition harmonic response
phase angle for expansion, 4–21 analysis
phase angle of harmonic loads, 4–5 procedure, 4–29
pilot node prestressed mode superposition transient dynamic
in contact analysis, 11–8, 11–43 analysis
plastic, 8–8 procedure, 5–33
plasticity, 8–9, 8–68 prestressed reduced transient dynamic analysis
anisotropic, 8–10 procedure, 5–33
automatic time stepping, 8–9 printed output, 2–7, 4–10, 4–21, 5–14, 5–14, 5–23,
bilinear isotropic hardening, 8–10 5–24, 7–6, 8–56
bilinear kinematic hardening, 8–10 printing and plotting node and element results
cast iron, 8–10 p-method, 15–14
Drucker-Prager, 8–10 PRNSOL command
Hill anisotropic, 8–10 with p-elements, 15–14
multilinear isotropic hardening, 8–10 probabilistic analysis, 6–2
multilinear kinematic hardening, 8–10 program-selected masters, 3–21
nonlinear isotropic hardening, 8–10 proportional limit, 8–9
nonlinear kinematic hardening, 8–10 PSD analysis, 6–18
rate-dependent, 8–32 PSD type, 6–18
Index–8 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
PSD-versus-frequency table, 6–18 results file output, 2–2, 3–8, 4–10, 4–21, 5–7, 5–14,
5–24, 7–6, 8–49
Q reviewing results
QR Damped extraction method eigenvalue buckling, 7–7
harmonic analysis, 4–25 fatigue, 14–9
QR Damped method harmonic response analysis, 4–11, 4–21, 4–27
gap conditions, 5–14 full method, 4–11
harmonic analysis, 4–25 mode superposition method, 4–27
modal analysis, 3–3, 3–19 reduced method, 4–21
spectrum analysis, 6–3 modal analysis, 3–10
transient analysis, 5–13, 5–14 nonlinear static structural, 8–57
nonlinear transient structural, 8–61
R reduced harmonic analysis, 4–23
ramped loads, 4–9, 5–7, 5–14, 5–23, 8–60 spectrum analysis, 6–8, 6–22
random vibrations, 6–18 PSD, 6–22
and power spectral density, 6–2 single-point, 6–8
range counting, 14–9 static structural analysis, 2–10
ratcheting effect, 8–10 transient dynamic analysis, 5–11, 5–18, 5–23
rate-dependent plasticity , 8–32 full method, 5–11
ratio mode superposition method, 5–18
creep, 8–55 reduced method, 5–23
Rayleigh damping constants, 5–36 Rice's model, 8–10
reaction forces and moments, 2–11 rock, 8–10
reading rolling, 8–32
user-defined mesh, 16–2 rubber, 8–17
real constants
for layered elements, 13–3 S
reduced (Householder) method, 3–3 sample buckling analysis
reduced analysis (see matrix reduction) command method, 7–12
reduced harmonic response analysis GUI method, 7–8
expand the solution, 4–21 sample harmonic response analysis
reduced method, 3–18, 4–2, 5–3 command method, 4–18
reduced transient dynamic analysis GUI method, 4–13
expansion pass, 5–24 sample input
load step options, 5–21 fatigue, 14–9
obtain the reduced solution, 5–19 full transient dynamic analysis, 5–12
review results of expanded solution, 5–25 harmonic response analysis, 4–24, 4–27
reference temperature, 2–7 mode superposition method, 4–27
relative stress distributions reduced method, 4–24
buckling analysis, 7–7 mode superposition transient analysis, 5–18
response PSD nonlinear structural, 8–61
calculating, 6–23 transient, 8–61
response spectrum spectrum analysis, 6–24
multi-point, 6–1 PSD, 6–24
single-point, 6–1 transient dynamic analysis, 5–18
type, 6–3 mode superposition method, 5–18
restart control, 2–4 sample modal analysis
restarts, 8–62 command method, 3–13
results GUI method, 3–12
data from a PSD analysis, 6–22 sample nonlinear analysis
extrapolation of, 2–7, 4–10, 4–21, 5–24, 8–56 command method, 8–79
GUI method, 8–71
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. Index–9
Index
Index–10 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.
Index
Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc. Index–11
Index
Y
yield point, 8–9
Index–12 Structural Analysis Guide . ANSYS Release 8.1 . 001972 . © SAS IP, Inc.