3

,
, .

, :
,
,
,
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.

.

72

K E A A I O 3 :

3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.8

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

3.1 (Explanation)
3.1.1 ;

. ,
, , , ,
. . , ,

. .
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(.. ,
, ).

,
. , :
1. ;
2. ;
3. ; ;
4. ;
5. ;
6.
;

. .
.
. , -

73

74

K E A A I O 3 :

.
. .

, . () ; ; David Hume (
) (17111776).
,
.[1] Hume
' . , , , .
.

. , , .
,
, (. Boyd et al. 1991, . 290).
Carl Hempel ( ) Paul
Oppenheim ( ), (Studies
in the Logic of Explanation), 1948
.
, .
, . ,
..
(deductively valid),
[1] , (. 93),
.

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

75

.
.
3.1.1
:
Hume ,
.
3.1.1
; (i)
''. (ii) . (iii) . (iv) ;
3.1.2
(The DeductiveNomological Pattern of Explanation)

, (C.G. Hempel, Ernest Nagel (1961) Karl

Popper (1959))
, .
, ,
. O Popper, , ,

, , . (Popper 1959, . 59).
Hempel
Oppenheim, ,
. :
(explanandum),
, (explanans),
. :

K E A A I O 3 :

76

1. .
2. .
3.
.
4. ,
.
5. .

(. Klemke
et al., . 87).
. ,
Hempel Oppenheim, :
. .

. .

. .

() (
).
.
.

Hempel Oppenheim :
1, 2,

1, 2, ..........

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

77

1, 2, .......... .
, .
,
, ,
( 1),
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, . , .
,
(coveringlaw model).
.
.
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.

3.1.2
, .
; ; () ;

3.1.3

1948 Hempel Oppenheim

. :
, , .
:
Kepler, , Boyle (),

K E A A I O 3 :

78

B, [] &B

Kepler ,
Kepler Kepler. ... (Hempel 1965, . 273).
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,
Hempel Oppenheim,
15.
, 15
,
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:
3.1
.

, .

, . Hempel Oppenheim, .
, .
15 .

3.2
.
.

.
,
.

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

79

.
. , ,
5
m/sec. :
m1v1+m2v2 = (m1+m2) v1+2 ( )
m1=500 kg, m2=1500 kg

v1=20 m/sec, v2=0 m/sec

v1+2=5 m/sec

T .
, , .
, . , , .
,
Hempel Oppenheim, , ,
.
(. )
(. ).
, , ,
.
:
(Brody 1972, . 120).
,
, -

K E A A I O 3 :

80

. , , , Hempel
.
, , .
.
,
(Scheffler 1981, . 30).
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3.1.3
, :
.
.
.

3.1.3


. .

;

3.1.4

. ,

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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

. , , . , ,
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Hempel Oppenheim, :
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2. .
3. .
4. .

1 . 2 . ,
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3 , ,
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81

82

K E A A I O 3 :

.

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:
1. , , ,
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.
2. , Kepler,
.
Kepler ,
, (. Nagel 1987, . 58).
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, . . ,
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.
(counterfactual conditionals).
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(. Nagel 1987, . 70).

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100 kg.

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

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Hempel , N.
Cartwright (). , -

83

K E A A I O 3 :

84

. ,
(F=Gm1m2/r2)
, ,
.

.
(lawlike statements).

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,
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s .

3.1.4
; ;

3.1.5

Michael Friedman () . , Friedman,

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BoyleCharles [PV=kT].

3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

. ,
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. [ ]
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E, Friedman

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m .
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.

,
(F=Gm1m2/r2, G ).

85

86

K E A A I O 3 :

19 James Clerk Maxwell ().

, .
, ,
Philip Kitcher (). Kitcher
Hempel. , () .
.

, T=2l/g.
,
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Hempel
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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

.

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87

K E A A I O 3 :

88

, Hempel, , ...
(Hempel 1965, . 380).
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( Salmon 1989, . 9.)

()
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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

89

Hempel
:
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[]

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:

K E A A I O 3 :

90

1. .
2. .
3. () .
4. ,
.
5. .
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:
() ()
,
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3.1.7

. .
.

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. :
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i&i
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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

91

. , , 80 . *. p(/*&) p(~/*&) 1, ~ . :
p(~/*&) 1.
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! ,
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Hempel:
,

.


. (Hempel 1965, . 394395).
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92

K E A A I O 3 :

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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

. .
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( ).
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93

K E A A I O 3 :

94

. '60
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3.1.7
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3 . 1 ( E X P L A N AT I O N )

3.1.8

. . , .
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1. Hempel ;
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95

K E A A I O 3 :

96

5. 1) . 2)
. 3) .
.

3.2 (Confirmation)

,
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(underdetermination)

(holism)

(instantial)

3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

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3.2.1
3.2.2 Hempel:
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97

98

K E A A I O 3 :

(, .).
20 .
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3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

99

3.2.1
:
Hempel ,
.

3.2.2 Hempel:

Hempel
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. (. Hempel 1965, .
1). ,
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Hempel , , . [] ... ... [ ]
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K E A A I O 3 :

100

.
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(.. ) (.. ) !
Nelson Goodman (Goodman 1983, . 3).
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Goodman (), . ,
(grue), : 1) t (green). 2) t (blue). (bleen), : 1)
t (blue). 2) t (green).
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grue, grue. , Hempel, grue.

t !
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Hempel;

3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

3.2.3

T Hempel . . , ,
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et al., 1998, . 57):

101

102

K E A A I O 3 :

( )
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1966, . 3435). , ()
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3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

,
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Blaise Pascal (),
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103

K E A A I O 3 :

104

Heinrich Hertz () Maxwell

,
. , Hertz
, (Chalmers 1994, . 5052).
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.
3.2.5.
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3.2.4

' Hempel. ,
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3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

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(. . 99100).
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(. Curd & Cover 1998, . 503). ,
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consequences).

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.
. , , .
, .
.

(underdetermination) . . (-

105

K E A A I O 3 :

106

) .

.
.
.
, , .

3.2.4
;

3.2.5 :
DuhemQuine

,
. , , . , . .
Pierre
Duhem () 20 (Duhem, 1991). W.v.O. Quine (Quine, 1953).
Duhem . ,
( ) . .
[2].

[2] .

3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

,
, .
, , Duhem. 18 , , William Herschel (). .
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.

107

108

K E A A I O 3 :

,
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3.2.6

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3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

, , .
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(1913) , ,
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109

110

K E A A I O 3 :

Kepler . , . .
/ / .
, 19 .
( )
. Kelvin () ,
,

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19 . Kelvin ,
.
,
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, . ,
. , , , , , .
. Kelvin , ()
.
, , .
.
, .
. 18
, . ,
:
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3 . 2 ( C O N F I R M AT I O N )

,
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1758. .

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(1543), .
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(. Kuhn 1977).
.

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.

111

K E A A I O 3 :

112

3.2.6
, :
.
.
.

.

1. , Hempel;
2. ,
() ;
3. ,
; .
4.
, ;
.
5. ;
6. .

1. . .99
2. . .101
3. . .102
4. . .103104
5. . .102103,
6. . . 108111

3.3 (REDUCTION)

3.3 (Reduction)

,
.

, :
Ernest Nagel ,
.

(bridge laws)

, .
, .
3.3.1
3.3.2 Nagel:
3.3.3 Nagel
3.3.4

113

114

K E A A I O 3 :

3.3.1

,
.
, . . , , , ,
.
. . , .
, , . , , . .
,
. 17 Kepler
, , . 19
. 20
, ,
, .
Ernest Nagel ()
(Nagel, 1949, 1961), . .
3.3.2 Nagel:

Nagel, , '
T T'. T , , T'. ,

. , ,
. :

3.3 (REDUCTION)

1. : F = GmM/r2,
m , M r
.
2. , 2
: F = mg.
g = GM/r2,
.

(homogeneous
reduction). ( ) (
, ). , Nagel (inhomogeneous reductions). . . , ,
.
,

(. Curd & Cover 1998, . 1007).[3]
, Nagel (bridge laws) (correspondence rules). T, T',
T'. T
(extension) T'. ,

.
T T'.

[3] (.. P
P Q) .

115

K E A A I O 3 :

116

. , 18
( Lavoisier )
. 19 , ,
2. 18 19 , 2.
, 18 ,
2. 2
, 2 , ,
, (), () ().
, Nagel ,
.
(formal) T T', T ,
, T'. T T'
T T'.
.
.
. T' T . T
T', . ,
Nagel, .
Nagel , Paul Feyerabend,
.

3.3.2
:

.

3.3 (REDUCTION)

3.3.3 Nagel

, Nagel T T'
T T'. ,
T T' .
, Feyerabend, () (Feyerabend 1963).
() . (g = GM/r2)
, , . ,
.
, , .
Kepler
.
. , ,
, .

, ,
, . ,
Nagel, .
, Nagel,
. .
,
. ,
Feyerabend, (Feyerabend 1963).
.
, .
, . -

117

118

K E A A I O 3 :

, .
,
. ,
. , , ,
.
.
, , , 2 . :

F=d/dt (m/1 2/c2 ) F=md/dt

<<c

, .[4]
Nagel
Feyerabend
. , . , .
3.3.4

, Nagel
. ,
.
, Nagel,

[4] ,
Paul Feyerabend, 4.3.1.

3.3 (REDUCTION)

, . Nagel , Feyerabend.
, Nagel (.
Nagel 1974). Nagel,
,
T' , T'',
T. T'', ,
T. ,

,
(g = GM/r2), . .
Nagel .

, , .
, 1960,
, .
Nagel
Feyerabend ()
.
NagelFeyerabend (. 4, 4.3.1).

. NagelFeyerabend
. ,
.

.

119

K E A A I O 3 :

120

1. ;
2. , Nagel, ;
;
3. Nagel;
4. ;
5. ;

1. . . 114
2. . . 115
3. . . 115116
4. . . 117118
5. . .119

, ,
, .
,
.

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: , , , .
: .
: , . , , .
: .
: .
:
.
: , , , .
: , , .
: .
DuhemQuine: .
:
.
:
T, T',
T'. T T'.
: ( ) ( ).

API

:
. , , .
: .
: . ,
.
: , .

125