JAN CS2008 Fundamentals of Research Ch1-14 Complete

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research
CS2008
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
jeremiah wong Module Chapters

01 & 02 Getting Started: Possibilities and Decisions 03 & 04 Literature Review: Ethics 05 Sampling 06 Quantitative Research 07 Qualitative Research 08 Surveys 09 Observations 10 Experiments 11 Content Analysis: Understanding Text & Image 12 Writing Research & Review
Module Objectives:
You will be introduced to basic principles and methods of social research. Skills acquired upon completion of this course include being able to decipher and evaluate scholarly/social scientific research, to conduct basic empirical research and to improve analytical thinking. These skills are important for communication students. Even if you do not intend to be a researcher, you will still need to know enough to use other peoples research for decisionmaking and for your own work. In other words, research is essential to someone who wants to be a responsible professional. Like it or not, we are exposed to research findings all the time (e.g. poll results in the news). Without some background in research, we may not be able to judge the veracity of the reports. The course material also serves as essential basic foundation for those who pursue graduate study or careers in research.
Course Assessment:
10% Lecture Panel, attendance and participation 10% Assignments 10% Quizzes 20% Term Paper o The paper will consist of identification of research problem, literature review, generation of research questions and a research design. A detailed guide will be distributed. 50%: Final Exam o The final exam will consist of multiple choice questions and a variety of other question formats requiring brief answers, in addition to an essay that will require advance preparation and background research.
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2012 JIROS AWESOME NOTES
01 & 02 Getting Started: Possibilities and Decisions

What is research? What are the major fields of research in communication? What are the major research decisions? What are the major research approaches? What are the starting points for doing research? What kind of researcher are you?
1.1 What is Research?

Research is a systematic process of posing (asking) questions answering questions demonstrating that your answers are valid
1.2 Communication Research: Its Fields

Human communication is complex. Difficult for researchers to examine a communication event by itself. So, researchers specialize on a part of it: mass media organizational or group interpersonal rhetoric and persuasion communication technology
and choose a method to investigate (methodological or ideological) within their means decision making. Major Decisions to make:Approach Objective Social scientists assume a real world that can be agreed upon Common traits e.g. loyalty found in all people Used to predict human behaviour Subjective Phenomenologists and ethnographers try to understand peoples subjective world
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Researcher How involved should I get with my human subjects?
Dispassionate Scientific trad. Is to remain detached Quest for knowledge
Sample How many is enough to be accurate? Which size is suitable for my purpose / goal? Affected by resource constraints (time, attitude of informants) Data Majority Wins, part of a democracy. In reality, its not an either/or situation, but a blend of 2 ways to solve a problem
Reporting Different ways to writing research People have set of values that they subscribe to
Large Gives numbers and knowledge Doesnt mean Understanding Predict happening, more people, closer to consensus Quantitative Qualitative Best truth is the Truth is listening to most widely stories that accepted participants tell us Get numbers to Interviews find trend Get words, Yet, unable to descriptions, but no capture more turning to numbers complex / subtle interpersonal things Triangulation: using multiple methods providing multiple perspectives to ensure a good fix Objective Subjective Scientific, e.g. Researchers use using APA style for qual. Language of writing. their informants Dont matter how I Using a few think participants to show how they feel Social scientists use hard stats to Involved researchers report and interpret use I in writing Dispassionate E.g. I lived with researchers use Thomas and his two neutral language children for 3 months and we formed a E.g. Subjects were warm social bond recorded on video and their facial Accuracy enhanced expressions by including personal subsequently experiences and reactions Accuracy maximized by lack of subjective contamination
Involved Action Research Specifically to improve lives Engaged contributor to society Small Find out how people feel Goal is not about generalization, but to get in-depth info
Both research and research writing are communication activities.
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1.3 Posing, Solving and Peer Persuasion

Problem Posing Have to decide what the research qsn is Hardest part Problem Solving How to best ans it More than just selecting a method and using it Can serve to amend inappropriate mtds and discovering new questions Peer Persuasion Research must be published to have value to the world Part of publication Have to go thru peer review by scholars before publication
2.1 Major Approaches to Communication Research

Question: Are SCI students smarter than NTU students?
(Content Analysis) Functionalist Observe, measure from researchers perspective More objective Doesnt matter how I feel (Rhetoric) Interpretive Observe, interpret from participants perspectives More subjective Critical / Radical Ask whose interests are advanced by communication Dont rely on first hand data, dont trust what they see Want to change society with their research E.g. Does NTU culture stereotype minorities? Tell people something is wrong
Survey and rate SCI Students Not to be part of it I have a trend in mind, I devise an experiment to test if its true
Observe daily life of SCI students Ask them how long they take to dress up / their activities Observe other schs students and compare Researchers report is subjective cos they report from the participants perspectives
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Interests Regulation, stability, consensus.
Objective Reality FUNCTIONALIST Rational behavior, social units based on consensus the ability to assess some kind of tangible social reality. RADICAL STRUCTURALIST
Subjective Reality INTERPRETIVE Communication must be understood from the individual (subjective) perspective. RADICAL HUMANIST Conflict and difference but - focus on the symbolic ways difference is maintained.
Conflict, power, oppression.
Basic conflict within society tangible differences between people.
2.2 Starting Points for Research #1 What? Interest Area

Dependent on area of specialization o (mass, organizational, group, interpersonal communication vs. rhetoric / argumentation) Theories need to be supported by evidences theory + observation 3 thought processes link observation with theories:o Induction, Deduction & Abduction
Scenario: Group of students drinking coffee and wrestling with their individual academic workloads.
Induction (FORM) / ITFT" Reasoning from Observation form Theory to explain observation Deduction (FROM) From Theory defining Observation to test theory Abduction From an observed effect reason out possible causes. [This results in HYPOTHESES] I dont know why its happening, but it could be because of (a hunch) Obs: My son keeps peeing, but what causes him to pee? Possible cause: Drinking too much water leads to peeing in bed (Hypothesis) Action: Dont drink anything 2 hours before bed
I see something happening, and I want to develop an explanation for it. Obs: Gender clustering guys tend to sit with guys; vice versa Theory: Students have greater comfort among peers of same gender Action: See which theory best explains the phenomenon
I have a theory about this, I want to test this out in real life. Theory: Women are more likely to discuss grades than men Obs: A test; record the no. of times the word GPA appears in a convo for both sexes. Action: If frequency in women > men, my theory is supported.
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One further step: find a way to see which induced theories are correct Requires prior confidence that observations are enough and accurate
IF #1: True for all students? IF #2: True for all times? Appropriate Sampling Deduction is better than induction, because deduction leads to a specific observation to test hypothesis or statement about the relationship I expect to find. Deduction
Induction All beans from this bag are white These beans (oddly) are white These beans are from this bag (Theory to explain Obs)
Rule Fact (Observation) Case
All beans from this bag are white Beans are from this bag This bean must be white (Observation to test theory)
Abduction (Educated Guess, but not be an observation, might be a hunch) Deductive reasoning is NOT always functionalist, because in research, there can be a mixture of inductive & deductive. Interpretive research is usually inductive but not absolutely.
#2 Why? Starting with a Purpose

Goals and Values of Research:
Exploration Curiosity-based research E.g. I wonder why the residents of 2 dorms have so different lifestyles? Quantitative: Statistical summary of students by age, gender, class, etc. Qualitative: What it means to be a student, to socialize with others. E.g. Obs: Women more likely than than to socialize over coffee after class [Female behaviour] Exp: More women live on campus,
Description
Descriptions of what I am interested in (quantitative & qualitative) Qualitative makes compelling read, but still leaves people asking why
Explanation
Attempt to answer why question to an observation
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Prediction
Control
Interpretation
Criticism
Gives greater credibility to explanations Yet, doesnt account for external factors (like bad internet at home) To manipulate consumer behavior E.g. to watch a show, to buy a product, to open a mail In another persons shoes From the POV of others Reporting results of my research in the language of my research participants Understanding and explaining how comm is used to exercise and maintain power in groups, org and societies
easiest way to organize grp proj over coffee. [Housing status] Set an experiment for equal no. of off-campus students see if more people at caf are campus residents. E.g. If you make your mail shape unusual, then people will open it E.g. Meeting up for coffee what does it really mean? (Getting hooked? Relaxing? Discussing work? etc) In Org comm, does the org structure hinder or facilitate progress of certain groups st within (males, females, 1 year students, minority races)
#3 How? Starting with a Method

The choice of research methods needs proper reasoning. Researchers conduct surveys, experiments, observation, interviews, focus groups and content analysis, depending on epistemology. Epistemology explains how communication should be understood. (How I get to know things) E.g. How do you know that your chair wont give way when you sit on it?
Tenacity Intuition Authority Empiricism Rationalism Scientific method Serendipity Weve always done it that way. It just seems right. Because X said so. Because Ive seen it. (observation only) It is logical. observation and testing. the accidental breakthrough I have always sat on it, and it doesnt give way. It seems sturdy. Because the factorys CEO said it can withstand 100kg of weight. Because I see that my friend didnt fall when sitting on it. A chair is supposed to hold the weight of anyone sitting on it. This chair has been tested by the authorities to be stable and strong. A fat guy fell on the chair, but it was still intact.
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#4 Starting with a World View

Worldview I Human behavior is predictable, objectively measurable and can be generalized Assumes that Researchers make generalization that holds through space and time Worldview II Human behavior is individualistic, unpredictable and subjective Assumes knowledge is constructed by interactions between people Researchers attempts to describe and assess the subjectivity and individuality of human comm, instead of trying to discover universal norms Idiographic approach E.g. Find out how consumers respond subjectively to media content (To understand why some TV viewers develop a close relationship to comedians and not others)
Nomothetic approach E.g. Advertising / Audience research, to find rules that predict advertising, marketing successes. (What kind of TV commercial styles attracts sales from TV audiences)
Research methods must logically follow either worldviews (human assumptions).

Worldview I What type of survey can I run? Quantitative method Worldview II What focus groups or interviews will I need? Qualitative method
Ontological questions: addresses nature of human comm and what is it we really observe when we observe it. E.g. To what extent do we make real choices? Is it really a choice to go to school? (We cant really choose, we mostly go cos we have to).
2.3 Operationalizing Constructs

In Worldview I, we need to identify key constructs (ideas and concepts) and operationalize them (define them in a measurable way).
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Constructs (cannot measure) Operationalize Variables (Can measure)
#6 Starting from the Work of Others: Literature Review

Do regard the work of others, so as to: Avoid doing redundant research (stuff that has aldready been done) Avoid missing out on relevant research methods and helping findings Avoid missing out on what is good research
#7 Hypotheses
Hypotheses: Making Predictions Hypothesis (H): statement about a relationship between variables
Two-tailed hypotheses (Non-directional) Relationship between 2 variables, but no direction specified Relationship + Direction (Already Predicted) No relationship between variables H1: There is a relationship between involvement in video games and academic performance. H2: As time spent in playing video games, academic performance decreases. H0: There is no relationship between involvement in video gaming and academic performance.
One-tailed hypotheses (Directional) Null hypotheses (H0)
#8 Research Questions
When preliminary research is insufficient to give certainty for predictions, use research questions (RQ).
Open-ended RQ Asks simply if there is a relationship between variables Focuses on direction of relationship RQ1: Is there a relationship between involvement in video games and academic performance? RQ2: Does academic performance decline as involvement in video gaming increases?
Closed-ended RQ
RQs good for exploratory studies in absence of evidences. Open-ended RQ Close-ended RQ Relationship (Hypothesis)
+ evidence
+ more evidence
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#9 Starting Without a Question

Because a specificity of a question or hypothesis could blind us to relevant phenomena hinder success of research. Groping through data collection until we make sense of what we collect making no assumptions until an assumption can be made. Methods and findings will change as study progresses.
2.4 Summary & Key Terms

Researchers differ in their: basic assumptions about communication (ontology and World View), views on how communication should be understood (epistemology), views on how theory and research relate, reasons for doing research,
and therefore, their research methods. Research a systematic process of asking and answering questions about human communication. Researchers specialize by: interest area research method(s).
Research methods reflect: Researchers interest area Researchers assumptions about the nature of human communication.
Research begins with

What? Why? How? Epistemological and ontological assumptions. A research purpose. World View or basic assumptions. Links between observations and theory. The work of others. Research questions and hypotheses. explains how communication should be understood (How I get to know things) addresses nature of human comm and what is it we really observe when we observe it WV1 (Objective) or WVII (Subjective) Tenacity, Authority, Empiricism, Rationalism, etc
Epistemological assumption
Ontological assumption
What really is it? What is an attitude?, Do we really have real choices?
World View
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03 Literature Review: Ethics 3.1 Ethical Considerations

Ethics: study of right and wrong. Appropriate behavior towards research participants. CR ethics: to protect well-being of human participants Many research designs / methods are legal, but not necessarily ethical. E.g. To let audiences fake their responses to a speaker to study his reaction. E.g. To exposes audience to sexually explicit content to study their response. E.g. To spread a false rumor to test the pervasiveness and speed of information spread in an organization.
3.2 Issues with Communication Research

Honesty Confidentiality & Anonymity Generalisation deception is part of legitimate and professional research studies researchers have ethical responsibilities to readers and participants Finding nothing or counterintuitive results is still contributive and can be reported Using Respondent A and Conf: Not releasing any info that Respondent B to refer to identifies my participants people Ano: Data collector will NOT know who participated Violation is a ethical and legal issue All recruited participants are volunteered into my research Responses are naturally biased towards me So I cannot say the results talk about the non-volunteer group too Deception must be revealed to participants as follow-up (Ethical obligation) Summary & evaluation of other researchers work on my topic Show how my rsc contributes to knowledge Reviewing summary may lead to oversimplification Publishing proprietary info is a ethical and legal violation Who are the others that contributed to my research Documents be understandable to layman (High School level) Writing can actually misinform (ethical) Illegal and unethnical Used Goods other researchers read my plagarised data as if it were new
Debriefing Literature Review
Acknowledging Others Appropriate Language Plagiarism
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3.3 Ethics
Classic Ethic Positions Judeo-Christian: Do to others what you wan others to do unto you Kant: Behavior is valid if applicable unto universal rule Utilitarianism: Small sacrifice justified for greater good Veil of Ignorance: Blinding ourselves to the roles (researcher or participant) in the research Contemporary (Formal) Codes of Ethics Professional standards of behavior for researchers E.g. Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report
3.4 Peer Review for Ethical and Human Participation

Qualified researchers assessing each others work provide check on ethics of research Informal (over coffee) or formal (Institutional Review Board)s IRB is a panel to review research proposals based on their impact (physical & psychological) on humans.
3.5 Researchers Involvement with Participants in CR

Dispassionate Observer Involved in Participants condition Low People Subjects People Participants High People Informants People Collaborators
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04 Reading Research 4.1 Library Research

Purpose of any research ADD to knowledge Need to know what has been done before, so that:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. will not duplicate research will add to knowledge will give me a broader view of my field suggest proper research methods have confidence of own contribution to field
Look at literature published scholarly research done to academic standards.

Method Ethics Language & Style Inspiration Focus group Field interview Ethnography Experiment How to deal with minors, manage issues of deception etc. Learn of the way to write for a particular field Breakthrough paper that makes a difficult concept clear
4.2 Finding Relevance & Quality in Literature Search

Relevance Relevant Info info that is immediately useful Develop good vocab, know the difference that different search terms can bring Quality Quality info Info that is credible, reliable and meets academic standards of research community Obtained thru peer reviewing and refereeing (reviewed or refereed by other researchers in same field)
Info can be relevant but not of academic quality, or vice-versa. So my research must have BOTH. Must focus on communication.
V Relevant X Not of Quality E.g. National Enquirers report about communicating with aliens not of scholarly merit X Irrelvant V Of Quality E.g. New England Journal of Medicines research not relevant to corporate rhetoric
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4.3 Databases vs. Search Engines

Databases =/= search engines.
Databases To find academic journals Have defined no. of entries Contain peer reviewed articles No irrelevant hits Results have high cred. Need to know search terms; wrong terms wrong results More sophisticaded interface Can focus in on specific databases (Business, Mass Media etc) Search Engines (+) Ease of use, Easy access (-) Unmanageble amounts of data (-) Questionability of results
Choose databases over search engines
4.4 Scholarly, Trade & Popular Publications

Peer review to check professionalism, contribution and violations.
Format References Frequency Examples Sources Scholarly Headings of Abstract, Method, etc Have references Published monthly, quarterly Journal of Primary (Original; have citations) Trade In between Popular Published w/o refereeing process; no formal heading No references Published daily / weekly
Newspapers / mags Secondary (Only have summaries)
4.5 Gathering Information

Must Record Authors full name Title of book / article Date of publication Edition number Page number URLs for websites & date of info download Should Record Method how rsc was conducted Results what were the results and conclusions Participants who or what was studied Unique aspects of the study
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4.6 Writing the Literature Review

Purpose: show my justification for doing that research, and how my research contributes to existing knowledge Use either chronological or pro-con structure.
4.7 Mixed Methods (Readings)

Combines quanti and quali research methods.
1. What types of questions should be presented? 2. When & what information is most needed to convey the nature of the study?
You can write a mixed methods study in 3 ways:

1. Write separate quanti and quali 2. Write separate quanti and quali + mixed method qsn 3. Write only a mixed method qsn Quantitative It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between students in the middle school and those in the junior high in attitude toward science as a school subject. Qualitative What differences currently exist between the middle school instructional strategy and the junior high instructional strategy at this school in transition? Mixed Method How do the interviews with teachers, the principal, and university consultants help to explain any quantitative differences in achievement for middle- school and junior high students?
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RQs and Hs narrow the purpose statement (specific topic and goals of a research) and become major signposts for readers.
Qualitative researchers Ask > one central question and several subquestions begin questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore or describe pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers RQs inquiry about relationship among variables Does _________ (theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent var), controlling for the effects of _________ (independent var)? Hs predictions of expected rsn among variables There is no significant difference between _________ (independent var) on _________ (dependent var). Write either RQ or H Include variables categorized into groups for comparison; independent and dependent variables are measured separately Proposals RQs Formal statement of research H H are predictions about outcomes of results:o Alt H: specifying the exact results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something) o H0 (null form): indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on a dependent variable Researcher writes independent variable(s) first followed by dependent variable(s) Begin with descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups.
Central Qsn: broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study.

Descriptive Qsn How do the students rate on critical thinking skills? A descriptive question focused on the independent variable Inferential Qsn Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement? An inferential question relating the independent and the dependent variables
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05 Sampling
Sampling: process of selecting individual units for study. Not practical to collect data from every individual in a population. Sampling can be either nonprobability or probability sampling. Sample size determined by homogeneity of population and level of confidence.
5.1 Sampling Decisions

Sampling lets us make intelligent estimates from a large / unknown quantity.
Population Every indv of a type I want to study Census A study of every member of a population Sample Selected segment of a population presumed to represent the population
5.2 Nonprobability Sampling

Decision based on professional judgment. Cannot claim generalizable ability. Assumption that probabiity
Convenience Sampling Advantages Good for pretesting Due to constraints of time or money Convenience Sampling Belief that a specific person or media content will meet the criteria of the researcher Replicating in the sample what is important in the pop. Relying on members of a network to introduce other members. Complete sample size of populations. Will provide information and volunteer enthusiasm Disadvantages sample not representative
Purposeful / Judgmental Sampling Quota Sampling
Network or Snowball Sampling
Not randomly sampled. Chosen by researchers judgment, so may be biased. Dependent on willingness and ability of others to identify people to me.
Volunteer Sampling
Findings will be biased since I have no idea what nonvolunteers will say.
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5.3 Probability Sampling

Probability sampling reduces bias of convenience make generalisations of a population from a sample Random Selection Process: Using a mechanism (over which the researcher has no control) every unit has an equal chance of being selected.
Sampling Frames Master list from which a probability sample is selected Sampling Units Units selected for study. Usually individuals, or couples, corporations etc. Disadvantages May or may not reflect the population that they are drawn from Randomness possible to entirely leave out a subgroup Stratified Random Sampling To force all groups to be counted in my sample Proportional representation Selecting a randomly decided nth unit, and every nth there after. N = sampling interval. Sampling larger units first, then the smaller units thereafter. Relative ease of identifying people (using states instead of millions of people).
Random Sampling (Simple Random)
Advantages Reflective of actual demographic, not necessarily diverse
Systematic Sampling
Multistage Cluster Sampling e.g. randomly select housing units randomly select floors randomly select units
Findings may be affected If pattern exists in original population which matches the sampling interval Potential bias at every stage, cos no two stage types (e.g. states, towns, city blocks) are equal result in over/under representation.
5.4 How Big a Sample do I need?

Larger sample size reduced sampling error, but the extent of reduction depends on the homogeneity of population.
Homogeneity of Population Refers to range of diversity. E.g. 100% voting for WP Totally homogeneity 75% voting for WP Less homogeneity 50% voting for WP Minimal homogeneity 25% voting for WP More homogeneity (since majority are not voting for WP) The less homogeneity need a larger sample to ensure diversity is captured. Level of Statistical Error I can tolerate Larger sample size more likely to reflect the population (less sampling error) But dependent on
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5.5 Method and Method Issues in Sampling

Method selected affects ability to form an appropriate sampling frame.
Method Postal Sampling Phone Sampling (from phone directories) - Convenient - Easy Random Digit Dialing Issue Excludes the homeless and transient Cannot reach people who have moved Many phone numbers are unlisted Will exclude those owners of unlisted numbers Excludes poor households that cannot afford telephone lines Many sequences of numbers not in use Excludes people who abandon traditional telephony for internet telephony (e.g. Skype) Excludes people who dont know how to use the internet No comprehensive directory or format unequal chance of selection Tricky when accessing special populations (e.g. military families, prisoners, mentally ill people) Difficult for organisations to disclose list of members List will not be exhaustive (not all subscribers to a magazine will be desirable units, not all desirable units are subscribers)
Internet Sampling
Special Population Sampling Membership Lists Subscription Lists
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06 Quantitative Research 6.1 Why numbers?

Assigning numbers to things lend precision to an imprecise world; basis of all statistical analysis. Validity: Need to measure what theyre supposed to measure Reliability: Measure consistently
Numerals Meaningless labels e.g. 13, 2010, 64 could be street addresses, a brand name, plane number, etc Numbers Have value and are relative to phenomena e.g. 1 to 5 indicate increasing level of agreement in a survey
Advantage of numbers:Able to discriminate accurately Able to generalise To see if there are real differences between groups Allows us to generalize Large figures gives us more confidence Easy to input responses as number choices than essay replies
Easy to process
6.2 Introduction to Scales

Measurement: process of finding out if our focus of interest has more or less of an attribute we are interested in.
E.g. whether people watch 5 or 50 hours of TV in 1 week
Some cases are harder to measure than others

E.g. Whether rich or poor
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6.2 Research NOIR

N Nominal Labels Labeling / classification e.g. of nominal measures Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, 413, 455, 560, 934 Male 1, Female - 0
O Ordinal Ordered Labels
Coding (subbing words for computer numerals 0, 1) is still nominal measures NOT numbers Dont measure anything Can only generate percentages Indicate level of progression One category has more than the previous Still vague and imprecise hard to quantify how much more Assuming equal intervals between points on a scale Common in quantitative rsh Have a true zero, referring to absence of that attribute Top of NOIR hierarchy, since they allow us to use most sophisticated statistical tools Can also be percentages
30% male, 70% female
e.g. of ordinal measures Freshmen, sophomore, junior, senior, first, second, third
Interval Meaningful Distances Ratio Absolute Zero
E.g. Likert scale, Semantic scale
E.g. Class attendance, going to movies can be zero, as in never happened Copy from Photo.
Example: how age can be measured at 4 levels of NOIR.

Nominal Parent, Child Ordinal Child, adolescent, adult Can classify and rank Interval Ratio __ 0-4 __ 5-9 Age in years _____ __ 10-14 ___15-19 Use as reporting and decision making tool
NOIR is relevant because some attributes can only belong to one NOIR category. E.g. Sex is nominal, only 1 (male) OR 0 (female), no 0.74 (??). can only be classified, not computed.
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6.3 More than NOIR Reliability and Validity

Reliability + Validity = Credibility of measuring instrument Reliability: to repeat measurements and comparing extend of results (same or not) Testing Reliability:Test-Retest Do again and again Test administered to a group and repeated 1 or 2 weeks later Test scores Correlation scores Reliability Coefficient Intercoder / Observer Reliability We need observers to agree they are observing the SAME thing & to RECORD the same thing We have to first operationalize categories E.g. Define unarmed aggression so all observers are on the same page. Cos different people have differing definitions of whats considered armed and aggression.
Ranges from 0 and 1.0 (perfect
Reliability without Validity is useless. Testing Validity (am I measuring what I want to measuring):Content Validity Looks OK Face Validity: as seen by the lay person Need to find the right people to ask questions Construct Validity Theoretically OK Convergent Validity: a close rsn to similar measures e.g. identification, loyalty, commitment Test on coolness of Sg should correspond to test on happiness of Sgpreans Divergent Validity: should not show relationship to dissimilar measures e.g. high on loyalty, low on individuality Criterion validity Tests OK Concurrent Validity: score on one measure to correlate highly with other measures e.g. anger on test A will correlate with anger in test B
Expert / Panel Validity: as seen by more knowledgeable insiders like comm scholars Preferred since its passed peer approval.
Predictive Validity: predict real world outcomes e.g. High GPA predicts success in high school
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6.4 Two Common Measurement Scales

Allows us to assign numbers to respondents answers & make summary statements about their responses.
Lickert Scale Framed as a statement A different statement for each scale Vary between 5 to 7 points Standard responses (Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree) each ans given a numerical value Respondants check the best ans answer recorded as a score Semantic Scale Pairs polar opposites (e.g. Powerful, Weak; Expensive, Cheap) Same questions for many scales Multiple scales per concept
Respondents to decide between the two concepts, where their opinion lies
1. Hybrid Cars for powerful. SA A N D AD __ __ __ __ __
1. Hybrid Cars Powerful __ __ __ ___ __ Weak Expensive __ ___ ___ __ __ Cheap
More difficult to do Must pretest words (to see if they are really the opposite of each other)
6.4 Drawbacks / Limitations of Quantitative Research

Both scales make assumption of equal distance between points may not be true psychologically The test becomes the thing. E.g. IQ tests become a test of IQ. While in reality IQ is much more than answer human-worded quizzes.
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07 Qualitative Research
Communication researchers use both quantitative and qualitative methods because human interaction is more complex and intricate than can quantified with measuring devices. Qualitative research methods are sensitive to social constructs, and explore social phenomena thru emphasis on empirical, inductive and interpretive approaches. Studies the communication environment of recipients, allowing us to explore social phenomena.
7.1 What is Quantitative Research?

Best to understand it in relation to quantitative research.
Quantitative Changes form and content of human interaction Subject to mathematical transformation Converts, separates and isolates into numerical form Qualitative Preserves form and content of human interaction Not subjected to mathematical transformation Does not become numerical data
Includes participant observation, interviews, focus groups, narrative analysis and ethnography. Discourse (naturally occurring talk or gesture) is captured in the form it is originally in (no change).
Subjectivity the interpretive research processes used to make the subject of interpretation meaningful Opposed to common definition of being individualized. Inter-subjectivity the social accomplishment of how people co-construct and co-experience the interaction of social life and their rules for it).
All Qua. Research methods: Interest: All have theoretical interest in human communication process Context: All treat study of comm. as socially situated human actions and artifacts Subjects: All use human investigators as primary research instrument Medium: All rely on textual, written forms for coding data
Qua. Reports are very different from quanti. Reports
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Unlike quanti. reports that talk about causality (what causes what), Qualitative reports suggests mutual simultaneous shaping (everything influences everything else) impossible to identify specific causality Interaction is non-directional cannot say what causes what quantitative way of dissecting events into parts is inappropriate. All qua. Research methods: Treat human interaction as data Have researchers there in person to observe or obtain detailed records of interaction Participants are natural actors in their settings
Hallmark of qua. Research methods
7.2 Inductive Analysis

Qua. Methods rely on inductive reasoning (specific general).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Researcher become intimately familiar with field of interaction Needs time to think and assimilate into the surroundings Take (better) description of surroundings Analysis and interpretation Synthesis and making whole Writing the research document
Qualitative research has a process with a beginning, middle and end, but it is more cyclical then linear researchers need to return to research literature and refine their design and topic (iterative).
7.3 Credibility in Qualitative Research

Reliability and validity is difficult to apply to qua. research use credibility instead. Credibility: extent to which interpretations can be validated as true, correct and dependable. Credibility is important because qualitative research can produce many interpretations.
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Researchers use triangulation (use of various methods to bring credibility to their findings):
Data triangulation Using various sources (e.g. survey data, interviews, focus groups) Using several data sources Using various researchers / evaluators greater confidence in findings since results are not dependent on a single person Reseachers from various disciplines work together They can question each others bias and perspectives
Investigator triangulation
Interdisciplinary triangulation
7.4 Conceptualizing RQs for Qualitative Research

The process is inductive since theory is developed during data analysis. Quantitative processes already have a theory in place, and then test it out. Qua. RQs are broadly stated and nondirectional. e.g. RQ1: How do nurses managers define their roles? Qua. RQs:1. provide us with a focus 2. Allows us wide latitude to follow paths which only appear as we collect data
Qualitative studies are structured around an overall RQ. Qua. RQs: start with how or what explain, seek, explore, describe a process are worded nondirectionally (e.g. X affect, X influence, V play a role) Reference the research site (context)
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7.5 What counts as Data?

Difficult to say what counts as data since anything captured can be data. Researches use two issues to help them decide what is data:Interpreting Meaning 1. Researcher Construction Interpretation based on researchers subjective position evidence is fully the construction of the researcher 2. Subjective Valuing Mix of objective (tangible artifacts) and subjective elements (with some researcher interpretation). 3. Contingent Accuracy Relies on tangible artifacts believed to be accurate representations of the phenomena. Best selection requires least interpretation. Level of Evidence (data) Can be one-word or lengthy desc. Microlevel: can stand on its own Macrolevel: broad-scale and have many similar data belonging to the same classification Midlevel: somewhere between the two
E.g. Micro >> Mid >> Macro Direct quotes >> Interaction process >> Org norms A book >> TV genres >> Cultural values Some qua. studies focus on the same level of evidences.
7.6 Making the Case for Qualitative Research

Advantages Able to catch things that the participants themselves are oblivious to e.g. Able to provide info about those who cannot or will not speak for themselves e.g. Babies, elderly cannot be tested in lab Can supplement info provided by quantitative analysis Disadvantages Only can work for accessible communicative environments e.g. Parents talking to children about sex are not accessible env Inaccuracy since people who are observed become conscious change their behavior Observation filtered thru interpretive lenses of researchers More time consuming than quanti researchers may choose the convenient way to research not get the whole picture
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Threats to credibility:Inaccurate or incomplete data Problem of our interpretation Threat to Theoretical Validity Selection Bias / Reactivity Bias Inability to make audio or video recording (Skewed by our own perception or knowledge), or interpretation of others (different people see and think differently) Solution: listen to participants POV, see if can justify the differences btw ppl Data that do not support my finding Solution: need to analyze them, not dismiss them Selection Bias: when certain data stands out to me Reactivity Bias: when participants interaction becomes affected by presence of (e.g. after knowing that Im the researcher, will they react differently?)
Solutions: Use triangulation, feedback; check each others behavior etc.
7.7 Key Similarities and Differences in Qua & Quanti

Similarities Both rely on empirical evidence external to the researcher (not from himself, but something he can point to, to make a conclusion). Both provide useful info for describing, understanding and explaining human behavior. Differences (Qua vs Quanti) Observation Qua: Text Quanti: Numbers Selection of participants to be studied Qua: Purposely-selected Quanti: Can use probability selection Contextuality Qua: Deeply situated in environment Quanti: lab conditions remove the environment Location of Argument Qua: replies on interpretation of researcher Quant: relies on formal logic based on statistical analysis Interaction Reality Qua: Assumes many realities that cannot be quantified Quanti: Assumes a reality that can be easily measured and tested
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08 Surveys
Survey: series of formatted questions delivered to a defined sample of people, expecting their responses immediately or very soon. Questionnaires: specific set of questions that respondents answer.
8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surveys

Advantages Can answer large no. of questions rapidly Many people can be surveyed rapidly thru use of technology Can make generalizations with a known level of understanding Disadvantages Gives no understanding behind numbers Most surveys do not allow assessing of causality Increasing unwillingness of consumers to participate in surveys Responses may not be entirely truthful
8.2 Types of Surveys

Cross-sectional Capture responses at ONE point in time Slice of life Results may differ another time Soln: Decide that peoples attitudes are unlikely to change, or use longitudinal studies
Trend
Panel Cohort Cross-lagged
Measure same items over time but draw different samples from population each time New people may differ in People are replaced should opinion. some drop out of study Same group of individuals sampled over time High attrition rate, group No changes in people gets smaller over time composition over time Groups of people defined by a common event (e.g. grad class of 2011) Measure a dependent and independent variable at 2 points in time Tells us about causality
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8.3 Question Formats

Open-ended Can get insights that cannot be gotten with highly structured questions Time consuming to code and analyze Force people to choose 1 of 2 possible answers Life choices are rarely so straightforward Only suitable for clear-cut choices Provide several possible answers and, can select multiple and rank Select as many to look for patterns of response Likert Scale o Always statements, never questions o Similar statements to find out new things Semantic Differential Scale o Topic, Concept, then scales with words of opposite meaning E.g. Where do you live? ____ E.g. How do you feel? ___
Dichotomous
E.g. What is your gender? __ Male __ Female
Additional Category (+)
Intermediate Category
E.g. I am willing to:__ Go filming __ Pick up trash __ Fly a kite __ Make a cake E.g. Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, Strongly disagree
E.g. Good _ _ _ _ _ Bad
8.4 Common Problems with Survey Wordings

Leading Questions DoubleBarreled Questions Force people into an assumption that may be false Lead people to a particular answer Asks two questions but allow for only one answer Need to split them into 2 separate questions format as yes/no or Likert qsns Don't use statements in their negative states, e.g. not Easy to miss that word out Negative wording + Double barreled question E.g. Why do you think the school administration is unethical? E.g. When did you start to plagiarizing your research paper? E.g. Do you think NTU is an asset or should it close down?
Negative Wording Double Negative
E.g. Chinese should not be included in the University curriculum E.g. Does it seem impossible or not that pigs cannot fly?
8.5 Guiding respondents through Surveys

Funnel format: Broad Specific Inverted Funnel format: Specific Broad
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8.6 Filtering (rerouting) Questions and Instructions

Some questions are irrelevant to certain people. E.g. Questions of Facebook related questions do not pertain to non-users of internet. Route the respondents pass these questions to the next relevant ones. If this home has an Internet connection, please continue with question 6. If it has no Internet connection, please go to question 18.
8.7 Pros and Cons of Survey Methods

Phone Mail Most households have phones Can survey large samples quickly Give people time to think and answer in any order Quick and cheap Interactive; can have video and audio Can get sensitive information Shallow; Can only ask few questions People dont pick up Low response rate Cannot know who did the survey Only captures literate people Answers may not be truthful Cannot generalize to public Need to drive traffic to the survey Cannot know who did the survey
Internet
8.8 Pretesting
If it can be misunderstood it will be.
Aesthetics and design of questionnaire Logic and flow of wording. Words specific meaning(s)
Construct Validity: test using convergent (e.g. Good must tally with Kind) and discriminant validity (e.g. Good must be inverse to Bad).
8.9 Improving Response Rates

Advance letter or phone call Reminder letter or phone call Reply paid envelopes for mail Small gift or donation to charity Follow up thank you
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9.1 Survey / Experiments vs. Observations

Survey / Experiments Require a RQ to begin Adds indv to increase sample size Respondents are similar Search for theories Observations Does not require RQ to begin Adds indv to gather new views, diff data Respondents are different and subjective Search for meaning
More valid, but less reliable.

Reliability: the ability to repeat a measurement to study a trend. E.g. Observation as a research method is less reliable than experiments because human behavior (even in the same individual) can also change over time. Validity: the ability to measure what I want to measure. E.g. Observation as a research method holds more validity participants are in their real-life settings. People behave more naturally, so the data is hence more accurate. Yet, since participants are not randomly selected, people chosen cannot represent the population (if that is what I want to measure).
Ethnography: study of human behavior (observe, describe and interpret) How + What Level of involvement?
9.2 Researcher-Participant Relationships

The level of engagement between researchers and participants. Researcher-Informant relationships as:Complete Observer - No interaction with informants Observing as a participant - one-visit scenario - low involvement Participating as an observer - Some time is spent - Trust develops btw rshr and participants Complete Participant - Very close participation - Rshrs role is unknown to them - Rshr pretends Become unable to function well as observers Ethical risk?
Not enough understanding of situation
If friendship develops, one might be afraid to ask hard questions
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9.3 Interview Considerations

Interviews: series of questions to get information that rshrs are interested in. Questions can be specific or general. Effective interviews need to have the following considerations:
Setting Rshrs office or participants natural setting? Clothes worn? Cultural, religious, tech sensitivities Full structured Semistructured Rshrs office is easier to manage, but may have less honest answers.
Sensitivities Structure
Sequence Question Types
People scared of camera, women afraid to talk to men etc. Rshr merely records answers Rshr asks some questions to allow further elaboration Rshr starts with generic questions Unstructured Funnel: Broad to Specific Order of questions Inverted Funnel: Specific to Broad Funnel or Inverted Funnel Descriptive: Overview of everyday occurrences Structural: Relationships among terms that informants use Contrast / Ranking: Explain differences / similarity / importance of informants concepts
Why use interviews? Interviews are personal.
9.4 Focus Groups

6-12 people led by moderator with good interview and discussion skills. Need to select a diverse set of members.
9.5 Saying =/= Behaving

People can say one thing and do another. But we can check peoples behavior and relate to what they say thru unobtrusive measures. E.g. If all respondent say they never text when driving Check the traffic on the road Provides a general sense of whether the self-reports of respondents are credible.
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9.6 Categorising Qualitative Data as Analysis

Categorisation: Identifying each piece of data as belong to certain categories determined by rshr or by data set. How to categorise?
Fixed Coding Assign items to specific, preassigned categories No room for others as a reason, too constrained within fixed categories Flexible Coding Start with theoretically No pre-fixed categories, assigned categories that may allow new categories and change as data come in theories to emerge Subcategorisation. Creating new main categories.
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10 Experiments
Experiments: manipulating one variable to see if another variable changes as a result. Its more than just asking (as in surveys), but to try them out in practice.
10.1 Experiment to determine Causality

To see if variables have a real causal relationship. Does A (independent) cause B (dependent)? Only if:Temporal Ordering A must precede B in time Covariance A and B must vary together Elimination of Ext Factors B must demonstrably be caused ONLY by A and not something else Ensure B is not caused by anything else.
A must first exist, only then B can be affected Experiments can capture change in variable thru time (surveys cannot)
Any changes to A must change B at the same time Still not enough to conclude causality (other factors might influence B)
Strength: can identify variables with causal relationships, and find out the direction of causality Weakness: Artificial, mental condition different in experimental states (ecological isomorphism) dont resemble real life
10.2 Solomons 4-Group Design for 2 Variables

Formulates RQ 2-tail hypothesis.
One-group Pretest-Posttest Design O1 X O2 Control (groups) 1. O1: Baseline observation 2. X: Exposure to an experimental condition 3. O2: Post-experimental obs Does not take into account other variables that may play a part
Two-group Pretest-Posttest Design + Control O1 X O2 O1 O2
Need a control To remove all other possible variables from experimental design To be sure only treatment variable itself is causing change Control Groups: Not exposed to any experimental variable Use 2 groups, but place only 1 group in a control environment (isolate it no treatment variable)
If control group changes something else is causing change Still cannot conclude, since characteristics in one group (as compared to another) may cause the results need random assignment
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If more than 1 characteristic in a group factors other than experimental variable could cause the change. Cannot remove these variables cos we don't know what they are. Random assignment: equal chance of any peculiarity appearing in both experiment and control groups. Random assignment =/= random sampling. Since unknown factors now influence both groups equally, we can eliminate them out.
Two-Group Random Assignment Pretest-Posttest Design R O1 X O2 + Control R O1 O2 Non-pretest rd 3 (Ctrl) Group R X O2 Non-pretest, Non-variable th 4 (Ctrl) Group R O2 Same as 2-Grp Pretest-Posttest Individuals are now randomly assigned (R)
All other factors can occur equally in both groups Any changes resultant must be reasonably assumed as due to experimental variable to eliminate possibility of pretest results O1 affecting posttest results O2 O1 is removed Group has no pretest, but will go thru X and be observed at posttest O2 Group of randomly assigned individuals who simply has posttest O2
Two-Group Random Assignment PretestPosttest Design R O1 X O2 Test Group
+ Control
Non-pretest rd 3 (Ctrl) Group
Non-pretest, Non-variable th 4 (Ctrl) Group R O2 Make sure only pretest and variable influence experiment
R O1 O2 What will happen w/o exp var?
R X O2 Make sure pretest does not influence results Solomon Four-Group Design
To determine specific influence of a variable Time-series Analysis: to see if results will hold thru time. R O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
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10.3 Factorial Designs for > 2 Variables

Factorial Designs: for more than 2 variables (3 or more) Formulates 2-tail hypothesis. e.g. 2 x 2, 2 x 2 x 2
10.4 Between Subjects vs Within-Subjects Design

To reduce no. of participants (between subjects), we can reuse them again (within-subjects design).
Problem 1: One experimental condition will affect the other condition. E.g. Being previously in a group study session will affect their reaction to individual study. Problem 2: Not possible to be both sometimes. E.g. Cannot be guy and girl at the same time.
10.5 Validity and Experimental Design

Some variables of interest can be more easily operationalized than others.
E.g. Gender Ask students to reply (Male / Female)
Other variables are subjective / difficult to define.

E.g. Being In a study group Online study group? Active or inactive participation? E.g. Test scores Can numerical scores capture true academic performance outside tests?
Also, require many participants Impractical
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11 Content Analysis: Understanding Text & Image

Media content analysis includes any recorded communication. Content analysis: a quantitative, systematic and objective technique for describing manifest content of communications.
Quantitative Count occurrences of whatever we're interested in Systematic Count all relevant aspects of sample; cannot arbitrarily pick what aspects get analyzed Objective Select units for analysis, categorize them using clearly defined criteria Manifest Count the tangible, & observable (the opposite of abstract and latent)
Latent vs manifest content: latent deals with measuring a concept, manifest deals with measuring variables that operationalize a concept.
E.g. Cannot count patriotism as a concept because its latent / abstract. But we can count the frequency of the word patriotism.
11.1 Advantages of Content Analysis

Quantitative emphasis Verifiable results Availability Cheap and doable Dont need approvals Emphasis on systematic coding, counting and analysis of content If procedures are explicit, precise and replicable Raw materials (things to be studied) are readily available Can be done anytime Low cost Human research approvals not required
11.2 Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Addresses only questions of content Usefulness limited to comparisons Assumptions cannot be made easily Cannot determine causality Only has application if used for comparisons Interpretation can be subjective / inaccurate E.g. Have public sentiment of the govt improved since GE? E.g. frequency of patriotism used by Candidate X MUST be compared with Cand Y to have meaning E.g.: Just because Cand X used the word patriotism more often, doesn't mean he is really more patriotic
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11.3 Seven Steps to a Content Analysis Study

Good content analysis requires: systematic sampling, clear definition of units and unambiguous categories. HQ Universe Sampling Frame Sampled Unit
1. Develop H/RQ about comm. content 2. Define universe of content to analyze
E.g., H1: Alcohol and tobacco products will differ from pharmaceuticals in frequency of occurrence in comic strips. Decide how many different instances of a unit to be included in the universe Can narrow down the scope of universe Universe narrow down sampling frame (list from which to draw specific samples) comic strips, wherever they come from - books, websites, newspapers Refine by deciding, say, you only want strips featuring human characters
3. Sample universe of content 4. Select units for coding (5 types) Decide what units to sample
This is narrowed universe the sampling frame Define how frequent is the systematic sampling E.g. yearly systematic sampling, monthly sys sampl. Physical: occupy observable space in print media or time in audiovisual media. Syntactical: units of language Referential Propositional Thematic E.g. 1 entire comic strip or individual panels in a strip?
5. Develop coding scheme 6. Assigning occurrences of a unit to a code in coding scheme 7. Count occurrences & report their frequencies
E.g. words, sentences visual content, wording Refer to a person/event Structures stories and dramas Broad topics within a structure Coding sheet-recording frequencies of appearance. Categories cannot overlap and no unit can be coded twice For things that don't fit anywhere, might have to create generic category for them. E.g. Beer, Aspirin, Cigar Identify word references Assign each occurrence of refers to Substance a unit in the sample to a code in coding scheme For any analysis involving multiple coders, code a no. of units as trial run. Chi-square test tells us Not very informative, so whether distribution of have to supplement with occurrences varies additional information significantly by type of user like conditions and types. or by setting. Extra info goes into an additional column on coding sheet.
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11.4 Other forms of Analysis

Interaction analysis Capture and understand interactions among group members and the roles they play Behaviors can be categorized as:o Task-oriented (focus on groups work by assigning tasks) o Group-oriented and (ensure group remains cohesive) o Self-centered (refuse to participate or dominate discussions) Group becomes the unit of analysis The observed behavior is coded Convo transcripts Looks for rules governing social examined for:acts, studying the mechanisms that Turn taking allow conversations to happen successfully (speaking rights handed from one Interested in mechanisms that person to another), ensure a convo takes place successfully Adjacency pairs (Q&A) NOT about content of conversation Repair mechanisms Adds convo-related codes (e.g. time (actions that restore between utterances) a conversation threatening to break down) Examine texts to identify and assess their persuasive strategies (Aristotle) Rhetorical determine effectivensss :o Ethos character of the speaker o Pathos use of emotion o Logos use of logic and facts (Burke) Dramatistic pentad (five-part) analysis:o Act (what) o Agent (who) o Agency (how) o Scene (where, when) o Purpose (why) by answering first 4 questions, you will get the answer for 5th E.g. act-scene, act-agent, Examining relative significance of act-agency --> gain insight each pentad unit in a given into motives behind comm situation and reveal inconsistencies between elements E.g. Stop sign, yet we take Concerned with relationship it as Stop, and proceed between language, esp. signs and when it is safe their meanings to us E.g. Some people take Stop Since relationship is arbitrary, sign as drive a bit slower if multiple interpretations are possible Researcher explores possibilities for you dont see the police misinterpretation and so becomes alert to nuances and possibilities of interpretation Analyzes formal properties of stories. Generally attempts to identify plot, setting, characters and order of events. Specific attention to how stories play out over time.
Conversation analysis
Rhetorical and dramatistic analyses
Ratio analysis
Semiotics analyses
Narrative analyses
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Discourse Analyses Critical analyses
Focuses on systems of meaning and how particular labels/concepts are developed and strengthened through use of language Ways in which communication establishes, reinforces and maintains power structures in society. Marxist criticism examine content for hidden messages that reinforce ideology of system (e.g. management in a company) Feminist criticisms assess content from a woman's perspectives
Purposes and methods for analyzing media content often overlap.
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12 Writing Research & Review

Research papers: detail and discuss the theory behind the research, the research method(s), sampling, results and conclusions.
12.1 Writing Process

2 extreme ways to write: Imagine the entire final product and simply write it down Before the research even begins Only lack the results and conclusions Or, write and revise by critical examination and multiple re-workings
necessary for standard survey and experimental designs need to make known beforehand the Hypotheses / RQs, identify people sampled, methods and review literature
necessary for projects have no initial hypotheses / RQs or specific research tools group write copious notes arranges notes into categories as research progresses thinking about the project itself shapes the final paper
Most research fall between the 2 extremes. We should have our basic stuff like literature reviews, basic RQs and a sampling description etc.
12.2 Importance of Writing Scholarly

Use standard strict writing styles (e.g. APA, MLA, Chigago) to ensure all relevant aspects of research are appropriately reported. Citations must be accurate: Help other researchers access the material too Give the sources due public recognition Avoid plagiarism
12.3 Paper vs Panel

Can be made public thru scholarly paper (publishing reports) or panel presentation (in academic conferences). made for scholarly public (the people who are in academic study)
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12.4 Importance of Writing for Other Publics

Interest Groups e.g. Govt corps, NGOs, Interest groups, Agencies a Professional report is presented to clients, since its written for professionals X Lit Review X Reference X Jargons V Basic Intro-Body-Conc V Gives audience idea of what the rsher thinks need to adapt scholarly writing to the wide public audience so they can understand results, conclusion & relevance e.g. a study on how TV ads can influence food preferences to children interest parents, regulatory agencies etc News Media
answers WIIFM (whats in it for me) when writing need to be timely and relevant news format, news style
e.g. a study on cross-cult comm a story on how to date someone from another culture
12.5 Ethics of Style and Accuracy

Writing objectively (in a passive voice) vs. impressively (using the active, 1st person voice). Writing knowingly or otherwise shape readers interpretation of research with choice of words. Details can be lost in summary reports or news writing of research. How to give readers unbiased reporting of our research?
Systematic reporting of RQs, lit reviews, methods, sampling decisions will help scholars decide Peer review process ensures published papers met scholarly standards Instead of trying eliminating all biases, we make them explicit
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CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

jeremiah wong Module Chapters

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

01 & 02 Getting Started: Possibilities and Decisions

1.1 What is Research?

1.2 Communication Research: Its Fields

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

Researcher How involved should I get with my human subjects?

Dispassionate Scientific trad. Is to remain detached Quest for knowledge

Both research and research writing are communication activities.

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

1.3 Posing, Solving and Peer Persuasion

2.1 Major Approaches to Communication Research

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

Interests Regulation, stability, consensus.

Conflict, power, oppression.

Basic conflict within society tangible differences between people.

2.2 Starting Points for Research #1 What? Interest Area

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

Rule Fact (Observation) Case

#2 Why? Starting with a Purpose

Attempt to answer why question to an observation

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

#3 How? Starting with a Method

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

#4 Starting with a World View

Research methods must logically follow either worldviews (human assumptions).

2.3 Operationalizing Constructs

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

Constructs (cannot measure) Operationalize Variables (Can measure)

#6 Starting from the Work of Others: Literature Review

One-tailed hypotheses (Directional) Null hypotheses (H0)

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

#9 Starting Without a Question

2.4 Summary & Key Terms

Research begins with

What really is it? What is an attitude?, Do we really have real choices?

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

03 Literature Review: Ethics 3.1 Ethical Considerations

3.2 Issues with Communication Research

Debriefing Literature Review

Acknowledging Others Appropriate Language Plagiarism

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

3.4 Peer Review for Ethical and Human Participation

3.5 Researchers Involvement with Participants in CR

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

04 Reading Research 4.1 Library Research

Look at literature published scholarly research done to academic standards.

4.2 Finding Relevance & Quality in Literature Search

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

4.3 Databases vs. Search Engines

Choose databases over search engines

4.4 Scholarly, Trade & Popular Publications

Newspapers / mags Secondary (Only have summaries)

4.5 Gathering Information

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

4.6 Writing the Literature Review

4.7 Mixed Methods (Readings)

You can write a mixed methods study in 3 ways:

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

CS2008 Fundamentals of Research

5.1 Sampling Decisions

5.2 Nonprobability Sampling

1. Hybrid Cars for powerful. SA A N D AD __

1. Hybrid Cars Powerful _ Weak Expensive _ _ Cheap

E.g. What is your gender? Male Female