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Foreword
Green Solar Cities
2008 Published by: Danish Association of Sustainable Cities & Building c/o European Green Cities Vesterbrogade 149 DK 1620 Kbenhavn V Tel: 33 22 90 90 e-mail: jf@greencities.eu www.fbbb.dk
Editor:
Peder Vejsig Pedersen Birgitte Skjtt Jens Frendrup Planned new-built in Salzburg 1500 copies
idworks a/s, rhus Scanprint a/s, Viby J., Denmark ISO 14001 environmentally certified and EMAS-approved issn 1901-442 As a natural consequence of the Associations approach to the environment, we have chosen to emboss this printed material with the Nordic Swan eco-label. The Swan label guarantees that the paper, ink, etc. conform to stringent environmental standards. Furthermore, this printed material can be recycled after use.
Present-day building is only rarely carried out in a sustainable and energy-efficient manner. This also applies to Denmark where recent years have seen notable urban development with plenty of building projects. There is, however, no particular emphasis on energy and environmental qualities. This means that nowadays, both consultants, builders and planners often lack the knowledge that is needed to ensure that all future building is sustainable and energy-efficienta necessity if we are to take the climate challenge seriously. In 1996 I participated in a partnership with the Salzburg region, the SIR institute, and the GSWB housing association in connection with the first EU-supported, lowenergy building project in the region. Rather than this being an exception, it became the beginning of a development that secured better financing of energy-efficient building through a special point system. During the years that followed, this ensured an impressive development toward making energy-efficient building, including passive-house building, the common standard while at the same time emphasizing the use of sustainable energy solutions such as solar heating and biomass in 60% and 50% of
new building projects, respectively. In Denmark, these percentages probably dont even approach 1%. The achieved EU-subsidy for energy-efficient building and sustainable energy provides an exceptional opportunity for the Concerto project, Green Solar Cities, to use the Valby area in the Municipality of Copenhagen for setting new building standards. In this regard, it is our hope that it will be possible to draw inspiration from Salzburgs accomplishment in mainstreaming the use of energy-efficient building and sustainable energy. By the same token, here in Copenhagen we expect to be able to provide positive solutions that will be beneficial to Salzburg, including the use of solar cells for CO2-neutral building projects or cost-effective solutions that include balanced ventilation with heat recovery.
The Concerto site is located in the Lehen district of Salzburg, a high-density area near the center of the city. The district mostly consists of multi-story residences built between 1950 and 1970, though in recent years its basic composition has undergone fundamental change: the soccer stadium was demolished, commercial zones were abandoned, and the small shops along Ignaz Harrer Street moved to large shopping centers or closed down entirely. During the next few years, targeted construction projects will be carried out to revitalize the district, reintegrate major components of public life (e.g., the city library), and create desperately needed rental apartments. Moreover, two new S-Bahn stops are to be built on the citys rail line, giving the district a new level of accessibility by way of public transportation.
Contents
The Concerto Project Lehen, Salzburg Inge Strassl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 4 The Concerto Project Valby, Copenhagen Jakob Klint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 7 Indoor comfort and user behaviour: Ventilation systems Evert Hasselaar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 New Ventilation Solutions for Renovations Jakob Klint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12 District Heating With Solar Power and local micro grids Helmut Meisl, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13- 14 District heating for the low-energy buildings Peder Vejsig Pedersen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 The passive house development in Sweden Maria Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 - 18 The Samer Msl Passive House Stephan Grger og Marita Gruber . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Architecture and urban development as an instrument in climate contribution Anne Marie Holt Christensen . . . . . . . . 20 - 21 Copenhagen on its way towards CO2neutral conurbations Annette Egetoft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-24 Incentive System for Ecological Housing in Salzburg Inge Strassl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-27
Project Components:
The approx. 43,000 m site once home to the citys public utilities will be transformed into new rental apartments, a kindergarten, and a student residence. On its south end, a business campus featuring a technology center, offices, and medical research laboratories is planned, while the existing office high-rise will undergo
renovations. Along with these major constructions an innovative energy-use plan for the entire site is to be developed as well.
apartments whose heating and warm water will be supplied by thermal solar panels. The green area in the middle will be preserved.
are currently being developed for the gradual connection of these apartments to the local (solar-powered) grid.
2) Renovation of existing buildings: There are many residential buildings on the site built between 1950 and 1975, and only some of these have been given adequate thermal insulation. With the help of thermal imaging renovation plans are to be developed that can be implemented gradually. Innovative renovation ideas are also to be conceived for existing office buildings.
4) General urban planning approach to site with regard to traffic, mobility for new apartment residents, and open space. The new S-Bahn stations will make the district more accessible. In the new construction areas open spaces are to be provided for, though open spaces and parking lots around existing structures are to be examined as well. 5) Community matters: Citizen information and participation, the inclusion of new residents and social assistance in the moving-in phase. Spaces will be available in the ground floor for meetings and cultural activities. The goal of the Concerto Project is to rebuild the Lehen district for a sustainable future. The new construction will illuminate pre-existing structures, consider roads, traffic, and open space, and initiate a process of renewal that will make Lehen a model for sustainable development. Over a relatively small area, the project will demonstrate that the sun can generate electricity and heat apartments in the middle of a city, that innovative places to meet and live can emerge, and that new businesses, cultural activities, and free space can arise where old unused sites once stood.
3) General energy-use plan based on solar power and industrial waste heat from district heating. Technical details: A large thermal solar system (with at least 2,000 m of collector space) will be combined with heat pump technology for increased efficiency. An integrated 100,000 liter buffer tank will supply the sites local grid with warm water and heating. Unused energy is to be fed into the district heating grid. Integrated solar cells for electricity supply of lighting for below-ground garages, commercial zones, and ventilation.
Originally Valby was a little village, but was extended at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century with the construction of houses and factories, thus becoming part of Copenhagen City. Valby is the entrance to Copenhagen, when one approaches the city from the west or the south and many of Copenhagens most important rail and road routes pass through the district. Many major Danish companies started their activities in Valby and many of them still have their headquarters in the district: for example, the Carlsberg Breweries. Today the older industrial areas are being reshaped into residential and business quarters, where new businesses mainly comprise office and service firms and, to a lesser extent, actual factories and production plants.
energy, but also on low energy in renovation and building projects. The plan and initiatives in Valby fit in well with Copenhagens vision of becoming an Environmental Metropolis by 2015 and the various visions of CO2 neutral urban development. In connection with the reshaping of a number of older industrial areas, the coming years will also witness the renovation and conversion of many old buildings, as well as the construction of new dwellings, institutions and office buildings. The Concerto district encompasses many of these projects, where the focus includes low energy building and the use of solar energy.
voltage isolators is now a cultural/sports centre for both the school and the district. The conversion of these buildings included the integration of a great many solar cell installations on the roofs and facades of the buildings. This autumn will see the completion of the most spectacular installation: the decoration of a gable with solar cells and neon lights. This will be a new landmark for the district. Langgadehus will be the final building project in the reshaping of this area. This is the building of a whole block, consisting of an 8,000m2 old peoples centre, including accommodation for the elderly and 60 units 100 m2 private dwellings. This will be a Low Energy Class 2 building project and the private dwellings will be prefabricated in Estonia. The intention is to construct the old peoples centre with solar energy installations on the roof. Building is projected to start in early 2009, ready for occupancy in September 2010.
Karensminde
De Forenede Ejendomsselskaber (The United Association of Property Companies) are constructing a new office building and construction is expected to be low energy. The details of this building project are not yet finalised.
area. There are high environmental ambitions for this area. All construction will be Energy Class 1, 50% better than the approved energy class. There are also many other ambitious environmental goals for the area, in terms of transport, garbage etc. Building starts in 2009.
tured in Estonia and shipped to Copenhagen. 2008 sees their occupancy and solar cells are presently being installed on their roofs.
Hornemanns Vnge
Hornemanns Vnge is a typical building project from the 1970s. It will undergo comprehensive renovation and loft apartments will be constructed. As a consequence of the loft apartments and the expansion of the residential area, a new district plan will be drawn up, which will be completed by the end of 2008. The area will be neighbour to the new west/south rail connection to Copenhagen. The aim is to conduct the renovation as a low energy building project and the intention is to make the loft apartments CO2 neutral dwellings.
Karensminde
In addition to major conversion projects in the older industrial area, the focus on low energy building also involves a number of smaller building projects. Karensminde is a small residential building project in the adjacent district of Kongens Enghave. Here Kuben have built 42 Low Energy Class 2 dwellings, including 12 as part of the cheap dwelling programme. These are prefabricated dwellings, manufac-
Carlsberg
The Carlsberg Brewery area is another largescale conversion project and a new district plan has been drawn up for reshaping the
tion project for low energy building. People will be able to follow the building process on the Solar City Copenhagen website. There are also plans for a wide range of solar cell projects in collaboration with DSB, DONG Energy and public housing departments in Valby. This involves the offer of 30 solar cell installations, which citizens of Valby can apply for and have installed on their houses. Simultaneously with the Concerto project there are plans to create a sustainable district plan for Valby in local collaboration with the administrations of Copenhagen City. The demonstration projects already referred to are part of this plan and key to the realisation of the plan. The creation of the plan is supported by the EU via their Intelligent Energy Europe programme. It is part of the Multiplying Sustainable Energy Communities (MUSEC) project, in which eight Euro-
pean cities are working together towards strategies for sustainable urban development.
The Concerto project, Green Solar Cities, is one of 18 ongoing EU projects comprising totally 45 European communities that carry out extensive development and renovation to low-energy or passivehouse standards while also creating supplemental energy provision on the basis of renewable energy sources.
Figure 2: Regression line showing 10% reduction in exhaust volume/ year More than 70% of exhaust fans in the total housing stock are older than 5 years. On the basis of the reduction in capacity an estimated 70% of all mechanical exhaust systems in the Netherlands perform with less than 60% of standard volumes and 30% with less than half of the required volume. We found a correlation between the age of the fan box and the period used per day: the older, the shorter the period of use. In practice the mechanical exhaust volume in the kitchen is roughly 25% lower than with natural exhaust and about equal in the bathroom.
OCCUPANT BEHAVIOUR
Dwelling characteristics Envelope elements Site and climate characteristics Mass composition Installation system, Equipment
Energy Performance
VENTILATION SYSTEMS
Evert Hasselaar, Technical University in Delft, The Netherlands
Ventilation in dwellings serves to remove building related pollutants and occupant related pollutants, peak emissions and the effect of overheating. Air infiltration through building components are not necessarily affected by user behaviour, whereas natural and mechanical ventilation performance are strongly bonded with user preferences, and indoor comfort.
Ventilation has a conflicting relation with user behaviour: While indoor air quality is strongly dependent on ventilation rate, user preferences with regard to comfort and energy consumption may lead to poor indoor air quality. Therefore, in order to achieve aimed levels of energy performance and indoor air quality, the relation between these two issues and ventilation behaviour should be understood thoroughly. Air movement in buildings, happen mainly in three means: Air infiltration through material, joints, cracks, seams Natural ventilation through windows, ventlights, grills, vertical ducts Mechanical ventilation through inlets and exhausts infiltration contributes to indoor air quality. Modern airtight buildings rely upon controlled ventilation for good indoor air quality while in older buildings the performance depends more on infiltration: high in living rooms and lower in bedrooms. The infiltration effect can be roughly evaluated on the basis of construction method, seam length and type of sealing of openings and joints in the building envelope.
through vertical ducts. The performance depends on climatic conditions and on occupant behaviour. For example; in apartments windows are more used than in single houses probably because of feeling of security. Household age composition like presence of older people and children lead to less ventilation. Preference of warmer indoor environment can be another factor for less ventilation, for instance less ventilation in rooms where higher temperatures are wanted. Insect nets in line grates get clogged with dirt and the effective ventilation surface decreases rapidly. Curtains and blinds can also block the inlet opening. To prevent noise and odour from outdoors inlet openings are sometimes not used at all. Exhaust air flow through vertical ducts is not applied in new buildings, but in buildings with natural exhaust the performance is on average better than with mechanical systems that tend to be at a low set point for most of the time. The natural exhaust depends on the length of the duct, the temperature difference, wind and the location of the exhaust opening on the roof.
Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation includes inlet through windows, ventlights, grills, and exhaust
Mechanical Ventilation
Balanced-flow ventilation is applied for the purpose of heat recovery from exhaust air
(heat-recovery ventilation: HRV). Selfreported respiratory problems observed in houses with HRV in Amersfoort point at poor air change rates. Health complaints resemble sick building syndrome: headaches, running nose, irritated eyes (contact lenses), itch, fatigue and poor overall condition. A previous study conducted in the Netherlands show that 17% of occupants use mechanical ventilation less because of the high levels of noise produced by the system. Also, many occupants do not understand how the system works and how it should be controlled. Ducts are cleaned with an interval of 10 to 15 years. Filters that get clogged with dust within a few weeks, especially in urban areas and near heavy traffic, but the cleaning interval is only 6 months to one year. Tests indicate that the units and ducts accumulate as much dust as the filters. The deposition is not stable: dust clouds are released after pressure differences, vibrations etc. The capacity of mechanical exhaust systems at delivery is compared in different housing blocks with the capacity after 1 to 11 years [figure 2]. This capacity falls back due to dirt on the fan blades, tear and wear of the ball bearings of the fan motor and also dirt in dampers and certain parts of the ducted system. The regression line indicates a reduc-
tion in exhaust volume of about 10% per year (n=60). Dirty filters create more imbalances between inlets and exhaust volumes, depending on the dirt load. In the EcobuildResearch test house the effect of dirty filters on air volume was 15-25%. Maintenance visits can restore the capacity, when the capacity is measured and dampers are adjusted. Cleaning the fan alone does not restore the capacity.
Conclusions
The performance in practice of ventilation systems is generally poor. This performance does not differ as much between the three major systems applied as theory suggests: natural ventilation, natural inlet and mechanical exhaust and heat recovery ventilation exchange similar amounts of air, with even the most volume with natural systems, considering daily practice in most dwellings (in the Netherlands). Besides technical deterioration, there is the problem of poor use by the occupants. One of the major reasons for poor use is avoiding noise from fan units. Indoor air problems tend to occur when users have few options to compensate for poor systems performance. Natural systems are used often as compensation. During the user period, the maintenance of ventilation systems is poor.
Technical
Acoustic level 28-32 dB(A) No draught in living area Inlet per room Exhaust/overflow per room HRV when heating required Mechanical cooker hood Flushing per room Double exhaust enclosed room Fan replacement within 8 years
Use
Flexible choice of services Permanent basic ventilation Demand controlled Bathroom dry within 2 hours Sufficient ACH during sleep Prevent spread of pollutants Filtercleaning /2 weeks Volume adjustment /3 years Unit, ducts clean /5 years
Table 1: Ventilation performance criteria
the exhaust capacity of the bathroom is doubled when air from other rooms is used for removal of moisture, compared to ventilation with fresh air from outside; during the heating season energy efficiency is important and heat recovery ventilation can be the starting point, but in periods without or with low heating demands natural ventilation is suggested (hybrid ventilation); the acoustic level is maximum 28 dB(A) for basis ventilation and during the night, and 32 dB(A) in the daytime.
The author of the article has, among other things, recommended a Danish ventilation system from EcoVent. The system is on display here in pre-fabricated houses at Solengen in Hillerd, Denmark. For more information, visit: www.danskbyokologi.dk
good quality ventilation system with heat recovery is justifiable because one saves the cost of investing in an actual heating system, thus achieving a high comfort level and a good indoor climate, in addition to low energy costs. The situation with renovation is often much different; in this case, the only justifiable factors for the investment are an improved indoor climate and reduced energy consumption. This requires costeffective solutions in order to be able to convince building owners, administrators, and residents that they should invest in such systems. The very comprehensive renovations that are being performed of the
concrete buildings in Denmark dating to the 1960s and 1970s often entail significant concrete renovation that involves insulation of building envelopes, window replacement, renovation of balconies, etc. On the same token, technical facilities such as ventilation systems, risers, heating systems, etc. are renovated and improved as well. In this regard, it is relevant to consider energy-efficient ventilation solutions rather than just solving the ventilation problem by installing exhaust pipes in the bathroom and in the kitchen and fresh air intake through ventilation gaps in the windows, which is the most common solution in Denmark.
to take place, the systems will not perform optimally, leading to dissatisfaction among residents. The other solution (Solution 2) may possibly be even simpler, but only one prototype has been installed. This involves the installation of a small, decentralised unit that is placed in the parapet below the living room and bedroom windows. A possible name for the device could be the parapet model or the radiator model. It features intake and discharge in the faade and works by sucking in air at floor level. This air is exchanged with the fresh air that is blown up outside the window. Both intake and discharge take place in the faade. The unit is furnished with a small heating surface that ensures that the fresh air that is blown in has the desired temperature. The units heating surface is connected to the existing radiator system, and the ventilation system replaces the radiator that was originally located in the parapet. This solution (2) requires continued exhaust in the bathroom and in the kitchen. However, the exhaust can be controlled by the consumer so that it is only activated while cooking on the stove or when the shower, the bathtub, or the toilet is in use. The ventilation units in the parapets by the living room and the bedrooms ensure the necessary air exchange and an optimal indoor climate. Solution 2 is still in the testing phase, and consumer satisfaction, air exchange, and energy output have still not been reported. This solution has great potential if the results are satisfactory, especially when renovating older properties where routing ventilation pipes and placement of heat exchangers, etc., are often difficult because of lack of space. The use of pipe dimensions smaller than 160 mm is seldom a good solution since this typically increases noise from the unit. Thus, for properties with difficult routing and insufficient space, the parapet model may be the perfect solution.
District Heating
temperature of 65C. The return water temperature ranges between 30-35C during the heating period and 35-40C outside the heating period. This means that the system employs only one warm supply line providing both heating and warm water. For networks that contain more than 5 to 10 apartments, this system is clearly superior to all other common methods, both in terms of set up and operation.
Placed in each apartment is what is known as a thermal unit. This device, which hails originally form Scandinavia, contains a heat exchanger for efficient and hygienic (i.e., legionella-safe) warm water as well as all the necessary fixtures for perfect water pressure within the apartment. In addition, the device contains shut-off devices for the apartment as well as meters
Buffer Storage
In most cases, available solar energy and actual energy requirements are not congruent. This is why some of the solar energy must be stored. As always: the simpler, the better. Wherever possible, a single buffer storage containing the entire volume should be installed. This occurs most optimally when the architect cooperates with the design. If the buffer volume must be divided between multiple storage units, then a simple and error-resistant relay is particularly important.
District heating
for the low-energy buildings of the future
Peder Vejsig Pedersen, Cenergia
Extreme low temperature district heating system with pulse operation and more than 50% reduction in distribution losses. Forward temperature 35-40C Return temperature 10-15C
M
Local solar heating systems cover heating demand for 6 month Individual DHW tank Boost heat 60C pump
Energy meter
20C
District heating is a very environmentally friendly form of energy for meeting heating and hot water requirements, partly because it can be used to exploit both renewable energy, e.g. from biomass, and waste heat from waste incineration and electricity production. The new challenge facing district heating is that we now know that, by 2010, the energy used for heating and hot water in all new building projects and all new urban development areas must be reduced to half of the normal consumption up to 2006, and after 2015 we must reduce this to 35% of what was normal.
Buffer tank in a new housing development in Salzburg.
The problem here is that, if district heating is to remain on the market, we will need to develop completely new solutions with a lower level of investment per user installation. We will also need to ensure a massive reduction in the amount of heat lost when district heating is distributed. These initiatives must be combined with built in potential for the use of renewable energy from solar heating systems and attempts to increase the need for district heat, e.g. by using district heating to cover energy consumption that is normally electricity-based (washers, tumble-dryers and cooling systems). The latter form of energy consumption, in particular, has great potential as electricity consumption by cooling systems is increasing significantly. Future district heating technology requirements have been named intelligent district heat in discussions between the Danish District Heating Association and leading manufacturers in the industry. (see figure)
There will be completely new requirements for user installations for intelligent district heating. One of the main issues will be the need for new service pipe solutions. Normally, over 50% of the total distribution loss from the district heating network is from the service pipe and the user installation. There will be a need for the development of intelligent solutions for continuous-flow heat exchangers and hot-water tanks for hot water for domestic use. These solutions must ensure that, most of the time, there is no heat loss from service pipes. At the same time, we must consider intelligent combined solutions such as the use of so-called boost heat pumps. If these are used, return temperatures in district heating systems can, in principle, be reduced so much (e.g. to 10C) that there will be almost no heat loss and we can take advantage of the very low inlet temperatures, which correspond, e.g., to requirements for floor heating (30-40C), and then boost with a small
heat pump solution to a higher temperature if required for hot water for domestic use. Thus, the performance factor, which is the ratio between input electricity and supplied heat, is very high, e.g. in comparison with heat pumps which utilise energy from the air or the earth (earth heat). One of the advantages of being able to exploit very low inlet and return temperatures is that, in e.g. combined heat and power plants, we can achieve an increase in electricity production and, in the case of solar heating, we can increase the yield per m of the solar panel. It also provides us with an opportunity to make use of the heat from aquifiers in the subsoil for the purpose of district heating. Such solutions have already been implemented in Holland and Sweden using central heating pump solutions. Decentralised boost heat pumps are of great benefit when we are aiming for a simultaneous reduction of the distribution heat loss from the district heating supply.
36,2
15,2 14,3
Figure 3: Measured energy consumption of terraced houses in Linds. Energy consumption for water heating, space heating, and electricity for ventilation and pumps (36.2 kWh/m) compared with the new Swedish building regulations for Swedens southern climatic zone (110 kWh/m).
Figure 2: Frilless
A passive house has a highly insulated and airtight building envelope combined with a mechanical ventilation system with efficient heat recovery. This means that the space heating peak load can be so small that the supply air is enough to distribute the heat into the building, using comfort air flow rates. The energy source to preheat the air could be electricity but preferably renewable energy, e.g. biomass, solar or district heating.
In Sweden, the space heating peak load should be between 10 and 16 W/m depending on climate zone and building type. In Germany the peak load is maximum 10 W/ m. However, in Sweden our building code
states that we need a higher minimum air flow rate than in e.g. Germany. Even if this implies higher ventilation losses, this also makes it possible to heat more by using the supply air system which we do need in our colder climate. The limit is that the supply air never should be heated to more than 52C. The Swedish definitions for passive houses (residential) can be found at www. energieffektivabyggnader.se. So far only residential buildings have been dealt with.
house standard. The pre-study showed that it would be possible to build passive houses in the Gothenburg area. Analyses of the energy performance, passive solar energy design, and the indoor climate were carried out using the computer program DEROB LTH during the design stage. Such analyses are an important part of the early design stage. The simulations for the terraced houses in Gothenburg showed the significance of a highly insulated and airtight building envelope, the importance of using windows with a very low U-value, and the influence of the occupants. The passive houses were completed outside Gothenburg in Sweden in 2001. Twenty terraced houses were built according to the passive house standard. Monitoring and evaluation of the completed buildings showed that the average delivered energy requirement was 68 kWh/m a, including DHW and space heating, electricity for fans and
the first single-family house in Sweden, new pumps and household electricity. This is 10,0% 8,0% apartment buildings, and also a renovation approximately 40% of the energy demand for project with apartment buildings from 1970 average single-family houses in Sweden . The built in Alingss (Brogrden), 1994 in which 1995 the solar collectors contributed with 8.9 kWh/ 160 goal is Electricity, common areasenergy use by approximto reduce the ma to the DHW heating, which means that 140 ately 50% compared to today. the total energy requirements for the houses 120 were approximately 77 kWh/ma. DHW and space Space heating / DHW 100 The new Swedish building code (BBR Apartment buildings in Vrnamo heating 80 2006) sets a maximum energy requirement The five residential buildings in Vrnamo for DHW heating, space-heating and electriconsist of 40 rental apartments and are 60 DHW city for mechanical systems at 110 kWh/ma owned by Finnvedsbostder (Figure 3). The 40 Household Household electricity electricity in the southern region, but the houses in tenants moved in during the summer of Household electricity including 20 Linds only need approximately one third of 2006. These passive houses have a highly space heating 0 this (36 kWh/ma). So it is possible to build insulated building envelope with U-values Oxtorget Apollofjrilen houses with a much lower energy demand between 0.07 (roof ) and 0.10 W/mK (extethan required by the new building code. rior walls, ground). The windows are tripleThe lessons learnt from this first project glazed with two low-emissivity coatings and spread to new developers and led to new pasargon filling, with a total U-value of 0.94 1000 sive houses being built or planned. Our W/mK. The entry door has a U-value of 900 ongoing research includes documentation of 0.6 W/mK. Each apartment has its own 800 the construction of passive houses, such as mechanical ventilation system with a heat
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year 2005 2006
Figur 4: Vrnamo
in the exhaust air is recovered and used to preheat the supply air. An electric heater in the supply air heats the apartment when the 2001 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 heat exchanger is not sufficient. Solar collectors r on the south oriented roof contribute to the domestic hot water heating. Auxiliary domestic hot water heating is by electricity. Finnvedsbostder owns part of a wind power plant that supplies electricity to the passive houses in Vrnamo. The monitoring and evaluation of the energy performance is ongoing. In addition interviews with the occupants will be carried out to learn how the tenants like living in a passive house. The very first monitoring results, from autumn 2006 to autumn 2007, show that the total delivered (bought) energy demand was 67 kWh/ma, including household electricity. This can be compared to another area with apartment buildings, Apollofjrilen, also in
2002
2007
2008
2009
0 Oxtorget Apollofjrilen
Report on
. Its three-story connected sub complexes contain a total of 60 residential units offering the highest living comfort and ventilation. Along with high energy efficiency and ecologically compatible building materials, the wooden structure also features a handicapped accessible design. In June of 2007 the Samer Msl passive Andel af boligareal med biomasseopvarmning house was certified by the Austrian environmental initiative klima:aktiv, receiving the highest possible rating of 1,000 points. Reports from residents have been very positive, and their comfort levels 42,4% are high. A major contributing factor to this is the buildings wood con30,4% struction and controlled room ventila20,7% 8 tion. Windows can be open for additi13,0% 8,0% 12,0% airing (e.g., when preparing onal foods with strong aromas), but is no longer necessary. Allergy sufferers can 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 (quite literally) breathe again. The Samer Msl passive house isr situated to receive optimal levels of sunlight for solar energy, something for which its flat roof is ideal. 200 m of solar collectors installed on the roof of the middle complex supply warm water and heating while heating the 21m hot water buffer storage. The solar heating system delivers
Vrnamo and owned by Finnvedsbostder (Figure 4). This area was built 2004, designed to meet the Swedish building code standard. At Apollofjrilen, the total delivered energy was 152 kWh/ma for the same period, which in fact is much lower than the average energy use in the housing areas owned by Finnvedsbostder. Even so, the passive houses only need approximately 44% compared to the apartment buildings at Apollofjrilen.
The Swedish Energy Agency is supporting demonstration projects with some funding for quality assurance during the construction 110 100 phase, measurements and evaluation of the Single-family detached house in buildings and dissemination of results in 80 HusholdningsLidkping order to make the knowledge transfer effielektricitet 60 31,8 The first single-family passive house was cient and increase the development. In Figure 40 Elektricitet til built in Lidkping, see Figure 6. The two5, the development of the15,2 numberventilation, pumper of passive 20 36,2 Varmt vand storey house with 170 m living area was houses in Sweden is shown. After a slow 14,3 Rumopvarmning 0 built by Vrgrdahus for a private client. A start, new projects are now spreading fast. Linds (monitoreret) single-family house needs a very well-insu- Det svenske At Lund University, we will continue to bygningsreglement 2006 Bygget i 2001 lated building envelope; the walls in this case follow up the above mentioned passive house are 54 cm thick. This house is also connected projects and analyse measurements and interto district heating but has no solar collectors. view occupants. Monitoring started in January 2008.
Leveret energi kWh/m2/r
heater, a water heater was installed in the supply air. Space heating and DHW heating is supplied by district heating and solar collectors. The project was finished in Decem120 ber 2006 and monitoring is ongoing.
10,0%
Figure 6: Energy consumption of passive houses in Vrnamo (Oxtorget) compared with standard apartments (Apollofjrilen), also in Vrnamo. Measurements from Finnvedsbostder over the course of September 2006 August 2007. This was the first year in which Oxtorget was inhabited.
1994
Electricity, common areas
Household electricity
A further reason for the slow increase in passive house projects is the way they look. While timber framing 2004 2005 is enti2001 2002 2003 rely acceptable in ski regions like Vorarlberg, it is an unusual aesthetic for Salzburg. Looks notwithstanding, a box-like form is ideal for energy efficiency, as is a flat roof. (Steep roofs can be used but do not provide the same effect.)
2006
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Oxtorget
Apollofjrilen
Kanalgaden
Brogrds Square
tion, while the industrial areas will be converted to alternative functions. This is an unique chance for the modernisation of the city to be carried out efficiently in terms of climate by being an active and direct link between the plan for the reduction of CO2 emissions and the plan for the renovation of the city. It is no coincidence that the City of Albertslund has chosen to focus on the renovation of energy. Albertslund is a young city. It came into being in the 1960s with innovative social, industrialised and quickly constructed buildings. Today many of the residential areas are run down and have a high energy consumption.
the individual activities by asking, Are the activities appropriate to the agreed CO2 reductions, should they be adjusted or do we need to create new initiatives? In the area of supply, as a result of a statutory requirement for saving, we have passed an energy-saving plan with an extensive range of energy-saving activities in every focus area of the climate plan. Municipal planning will enforce physical planning as an instrument in energy and climate contribution. The goal is for climate, sustainability and renewable energy to be integrated much more obviously in municipal planning. We are working on the question of how, in practice, the city plan can motivate energy-efficient building and energy-efficient renovation of dwellings. Architectural values will also be a priority: in the citys existing housing, in new building projects and in the citys overall space. We will make it attractive for residents, manufacturers and energy advisors to renovate the energy of dwellings in Albertslund. Many people are having their eyes opened to the possibility of developing and trying out standardised solutions, which can be used in many other renovation projects, both in Denmark and abroad. The renovation of Albertslund South is a large-scale pilot project. Albertslund South is the biggest housing renovation project in
Denmark with almost 6,000 residents in 2,200 different types of dwelling: flats, terraced houses and detached houses. The project aims at breaking down economic barriers. The goal, after renovation, is for the residential area to have a very low energy consumption (Energy Classes 1 and 2). The subsidy rules laid down by the National Building Foundation do not actually include subsidy for extra investments with a view to reducing energy consumption.
ons and projected city plans for Albertslund. The Albertslund Environmental Knowledge Park a local contribution with global vision The need to renovate the city, along with the citys high environmental profile and ambitions in the field of climate, has led to an initiative to bring together a whole range of parties in a development project, which is titled The Albertslund Environmental Knowledge Park. The purpose of the Environmental Knowledge Park is: to establish partnerships in the building industry, to develop new large-scale technical solutions and concepts for energy renovation and to be a hub for sharing knowledge in the field of energy-effective building renovation. The Environmental Knowledge Park is still at the planning stage and it is not yet decided exactly what form the association will assume. The challenge of the next few years will be to establish actual collaboration on suitable renovation projects in Albertslunds residential areas. Close collaboration, in terms of ideas and solutions to the challenges inherent in renovating large residential areas to low-energy consumption, will pave the way for other Danish cities. They too can become climate cities with their own particular approaches to CO2 reductions, for the benefit of both their citizens and the global environment.
Copenhagen is to be the host of the UN climate summit in December 2009. This provides us with a unique opportunity to put Copenhagen and Denmark on the map as the centre of the worlds climate policy. Copenhagen will assume global responsibility by taking the lead and showing the world and other large cities that CO2 emissions can be efficiently reduced. In connection with the climate summit, the municipality of Copenhagen will present a broad range of initiatives which are aimed at showing the world that there are many different ways of reducing CO2 emissions in a large city. With regard to new development, Copenhagen City and CPH City & Port Development have selected the western district of Amager Flled as a showcase for the CO2neutral neighbourhood of the future. It is expected that approximately 300,000 m of residential and commercial buildings will be built in the Amager Flled West quarter. As part of the initiative up to the climate summit in 2009 suitable areas for demonstrating the reduction of CO2 emissions are being investigated. Two areas are currently in the running: the Haraldsgade quarter on sterbro and the Sundholmsvej quarter on Amager. In addition, we are focusing on promoting sustainability and CO2 reductions in several other areas, e.g. in the new urban
districts in Nordhavn, on the Carlsberg grounds and in the existing urban area of Valby where the EU Concerto project, Green Solar Cities, is being implemented together with a similar effort in the Lehen quarter in Salzburg, Austria.
ned as CO2-neutral operation of the district. In addition, the project will identify whether it is realistic to expect the district to be selfsufficient in CO2-neutral energy for all purposes, such as the operation of buildings, household electricity, energy used on building materials, the handling of water and waste and transport.
CO2-reducing mechanisms
In order to evaluate the districts CO2 emissions and the mechanisms required to ensure a CO2-neutral district on an annual basis, the district will be considered in the analysis both as a district that needs to manage its own supply and a district in which the energy supply will be planned in line with that of the rest of the city and in connection with the energy system. In order to identify whether the mechanisms intended for use in the district will be adequate to ensure that the finished district will be CO2-neutral, the following scenarios have been defined: Reference: CO2 emission from city development in 2008 based on current legislation, physical planning, existing technology and expected behaviour. Scenario 2012: Will indicate how much we will be able to reduce CO2 emissions by applying anticipated future legislation (such as the tightening of building
The system at Njalsgade is Denmarks thirdlargest solar cell installation. The Solar Cell Coop cooperates closely with Copenhagen Energy, which sells solar electricity to the citys most environmentally-conscious consumers.
regulations in 2010), physical planning, existing technology and expected beha viour in 2012. Scenario 2020: Will indicate the CO2 reduction that can be achieved by applying at least the same prerequisites as we apply in the scenario for 2012 plus assumptions on the development of new planning practices, new technologies and the implementation of initiatives to change behaviour.
Copenhagen City aims to demonstrate examples of initiatives in existing urban districts which can indicate ways in which to reduce CO2 emissions in existing buildings. A screening will identify the potential for achieving CO2 reductions in the Haraldsgade quarter on sterbro and the Sundholmsvej quarter on Amager. The screening will form the basis for the municipalitys decisionmaking process and promote selection of specific initiatives for implementation in one or both areas before December 2009. In addition to the fact that the projects must result in CO2 reductions, the projects to be implemented in the Haraldsgade quarter and the Sundholmsvej quarter must: be visible in the local area have demonstration value
be easy to implement in other areas involve citizens in decisions/ commencement of the projects encourage citizens to act in a more climate-friendly manner introduce new methods draw attention to sustainability Taking the above requirements into consideration, the screening will result in a prioritised list of the CO2-saving projects that will be the most obvious candidates for implementation in the two existing urban areas.
The large cities must take the lead in the climate issue
By creating goals for CO2 neutrality in new urban areas in Copenhagen and for significant CO2 reductions in existing urban areas,
Inge Strassl, Engineer SIR Salzburg Institute for Residential Planning and Housing Alpenstrasse 47, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
Carlsberg: Our City - A case study for the futures sustainable cities Solar cell panel on a wall, Vesterbro, Copenhagen
It is Copenhagen Municipalitys ambitious goal to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent by the year 2015. The municipality is therefore both launching projects that will reduce emissions from municipal buildings and implementing initiatives involving businesses and residents. These include educating children and youths about their own influence on the climate. Strong contributions from residents and the business world are necessary if the Municipality is to meet its goal.
Copenhagen City can show the way and inspire other cities to achieve lasting results. During 2009, Copenhagen will be transformed into a showroom, a living exhibition of new technologies and solutions for the improvement of the climate. There is increasing recognition of the fact that the climate policy of the future, significant initiatives and specific influences on our environment will originate from will and initiative in the large cities. It will be possible to agree on general environmental targets at an international and national political level but specific realisation and implementation of these political ambitions will depend on the large cities showing initiative and drive and, not least, helping to
create a framework for the multitude of players who will actually implement the ambitious climate policy. The implementation of the two projects described in the article will provide an indication of the stones we will need to overturn and remove along the way in order to achieve an efficient reduction of energy consumption in large cities. It is important that both widescale and long-term projects are developed with green issues and carbon-neutrality in mind. It is our goal that all future urban development projects contribute to the reduction of Copenhagens total CO2 emissions and that certain neighbourhoods become completely carbon neutral.
In Austria, each federal state is responsible for its own subsidized housing. Since 1993, the state of Salzburg has been using an incentive system for increasing the use of energy-saving measures and renewable energy. The system increases subsidy funding based on the assignment of energy points. This funding is available both for the construction of rental buildings and single-family homes as well as for so-called purchase subsidization, where the buyer receives a subsidy for the purchase of a new residence built by a building promotor. As a result, this incentive system reaches a very high percentage of new construction. The assignment of energy points depends on a buildings energy-saving measures and ecological construction. Every point increases the amount subsidized by the state. Using a simple table, buildings ranging from standard designs to passive houses are divided into 10 classes. This categorization also acts as an effective marketing tool, since it makes a buildings energy efficiency easily transparent for
The System
The main criterion is energy-efficient construction measured by a specific heating load and a LEK value (NORM B8110 and H 5055, developed by Prof. Panzhauser at the TU Vienna). This LEK value indicates the insulation strength of the building envelope with regard to its geometry. In addition to specific heating load (i.e., insulating quality of the building), the use of biomass, the use of commercial or industrial waste heat, connection to district heating or a central heating station, the installation of a solar heating system, the use of a heat pump, the use of a heating system with a return temperature under 40 degrees Celsius, the installation of a controlled room ventilation with heat recovery, and the use of innovative technologies (solar panels, natural insulating materials,
120 100
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Proportion of Housing Space with Biomass Heating 76,5% 62,7% 42,4% 43,7% 55,1% 63,3% 61,8% 73,9%
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The Swedish Linds (monitored) 30,4% Column 9 Column 10 Building Code 2006 Built 2001 20,7% 2 8 13,0% 2 10,0% 8,0% 12,0% 2 2 2 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2 Electricity, common areas Year 2 Figure 1: Biomass Usage Trends (in % of total m) 2 DHW and 2 were established for each of the points. Concontractors, and agencies to check the records space Space heating / DHW heating 2 tractors ask for declarations of these parameand state of processing anytime they need to.
DHW Household electricity including space heating Household electricity
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After assessment, the documents are released for funding via digital signature.
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ters as guarantees (e.g., regarding the solar gain of the solar heating system).
Results
The incentive system in Salzburg resulted in a veritable success story and has contributed to a sustained improvement in building standards, establishing renewable energy technologies in the citys subsidized housing. In the last years, the system has also been adopted for general renovations and for communal constructions. To ensure the effectiveness of the measures, specific quality parameters Approx. 70% of the entire construction sector in Salzburg is included in the enery point model. Almost 100% of the large-scale residential construction and 85% of single-family homes use the point system. The specific heating load (W/m) for residential buildings sank from 63 W/m in 1992 to 25 W/m today.
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The average building LEK value in 1993 was 59.4%; today it is 20.6%. The mean U value was reduced from 0.43 to 0.28 W/m. Solar energy for warm water and heating increased, from 9% to 60% of subsidized housing. Usable living area heated with biomass increased from 10% to 74%.
Controlled Total Energy accounting ventilation Eco-logical 1000 with exit air Points efficiency 900 monitoring system
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Column 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2000 3 3 Column 10
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Column 2 <28 - 26 <26 - 25 <25 - 24 <24 - 23 <23 - 22 <22 - 21 <21 - 20 <20 - 19 <19 - 18 <18
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Figure 3: Houses that Utilise Solar Energy (in % of total developed housing)
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idworks.dk/3577/10.08
In Copenhagen urban area Valby 200 kWp PV is integrated to match electricity use for ventilation in 600 housing units, and solar thermal collectors are combined with water savings to obtain 30-50% solar for DHW for 333 retrofit housing units and 50% for 70 nearly passive house rooftop apartments (36 kWh/m, year), while 200 new built apartments will get 30-50% solar DHW. Besides is used an innovative and cost effective biomass gasification CHP plant using wood pellets. Kuben is Concerto Project Coordinator and local Valby project coordinator in cooperation with Valby Local City Council, Green Valby (local Agenda 21 Centre) and DONG Energy Supply. In Salzburg urban area Lehen it is planned to demonstrate how you can expand the use of solar heating to a higher level of
the total need for heating and DHW, e.g. from 15% today to up to 45% in the best new apartment building schemes. This is done by combining with a gasified heat pump. At the same time will be used district heating which is at least 50% based on biomass for the rest of the heating supply. The SIR is local coordinator for the Green Solar Cities process and the research and local dissemination activities. Further project partners are the city of Salzburg, the non profit housing associations gswb, H and die Salzburg and the builder Prisma for the commercial area, further the energy supply company of Salzburg Salzburg AG. Steinbeis (Germany) is assisting on RTD work especially regarding the new big solar plant being planned. International partners are Technical University Delft (Holland) on socio-econo-
mic analysis and Sustainable Energy Community planning, Lund University (Sweden) on RTD work low energy standards especially regarding passive house concepts, EMI (Hungary) for connecting to associated city Szentendre near Budapest and similar WE Consultants (Holland) for connecting to associated cities Eindhoven and Maastrict. Cenergia is overall technical coordinator besides energy specialist on Valby demo projects and Green Cities is assisting Kuben with project administration, website and dissemination through e.g. European Green Cities Network and Danish Association of Sustainable Cities & Building.
Read more: www.greensolarcities.com