Report On Exam Paper Security System

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERIVIEW
Our project Exam Paper Security System is a system which will replace the traditional manual exam paper printing and distribution. Manual paper printing and distribution has many loopholes and have more chances of leakage of exam question papers. So, our idea is to make a fully automatic paper printing and distribution system which ensures the integrity of the examinations.
1.1.1 ORIGIN OF PROJECT

In past few months, we have seen that many of the scams related to the leakage of examination papers of exams like AIEEE, B. Ed. etc. took place. On study of these scams we came with the observation that either exam papers were leaked from the printing press or breakage of envelope seal during distribution. These unwanted events made big question mark on the security system and also became cause of big financial loss for the examination boards. In present scenario, most of the examinations are conducted offline at different cities across the globe. The existing system of exam conduction is completely manual. From the beginning of the procedure, there is complete manual interface such as paper printing, paper collection, distribution and finally deliver to the exam center and it increases the chances of paper leak. One basic requirement of exam should be maintained. These should be right time of paper printing, collection, and distribution as per exam schedule. The aim of our project is to make a automatic system which can cover all the above aspects such as paper printing, paper collection and distribution on exam centre with right date and right time. This project aims at creating a man less printing and packaging system with time stamp based security system for examination paper, that contain some important general life elements like LAN system, conveyer belt, printing machine, safe box etc.
EC-A/2011-12/PIET, JAIPUR
1.2 CAPABILTIES
Our project will provide the complete solution which can prevent the examination paper leakage. The centre authority will be allowed to give command. There is only single computer which will be controlled by exam cell in-charge. This computer is directly connected to the printing press room. In printing press room, the computer will give command to print the question papers. There is an infrared counter which count the number of copies printed from the printer. This will increase the efficiency of the system. The paper will be dropped and collected in a wooden box which is also called safe box. The box will be locked automatically. There are a known number of copies in the box. Now, this box will be passed to outside the room with the help of a conveyor belt. The box will be collected at window and respective boxes will be distrusted to centers respectively. Here we can observe that only person is operating the whole process. In this project, there is very few chances of paper leak. Even though, if it happens then only one person is responsible and this will bring out the defaulter. There is no interference of Human being in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak and the financial loss of government due to re-examination will be reduced.
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF STAGE I

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In project stage I, we have done literature survey and studied the feasibility of the project as well as done a thorough market survey. The designing of algorithm and flowchart was carried out in stage I. There was a case study done for different organization having manual paper printing system. We have gone through this type of exam paper printing and distribution mechanism currently being used in India and problems associated with it. Also we have gone through the technical section of our project and synchronization between various modules. The aim of our project is to make an automatic system which can cover all the stuff such as paper printing, paper collection, and distribution on exam center with right date and time. This project is aimed at creating a man less printing and packaging system with time stamp based security system for examination paper. There is no human intervention in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak and the financial loss of government due to the reexamination will be reduced. The paper will be printed only when a responsible authority gives command to computer. There is a single authority that is responsible for the whole activity. A counter is placed to count the number of papers. There is a preset limit of papers for printing. When it reaches its limit, the printer stops to print papers and printed papers are dropped in box and locked by a lock. Using a smart box which is made of a wooden and a electromagnetic lock attached with it, it can open by some responsible authority on right date and time which is already stored in real time control (RTC) chip. A password system is present there in order to make great security of exam papers. The box can be open at the day of exam and it the chances of exam paper leak. The project is practically feasible, components will be easily available and has great applications and benefits in the present scenario where government suffers from a huge financial loss due to re-conduction of examination.
2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature survey covered almost aspect every aspect of paper printing and distribution system were thoroughly studies while preparing the literature survey of exam paper leak prevention system. This gives us better way to analyze the problem statement and try to find out a better and efficient solution of exam paper leak.
2.3 CURRENT PAPER PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

At present, traditional paper printing system is being followed. The private printing press undertakes the contract of paper printing by boards and universities. There is no monitoring sometimes when papers are being printed at the printing press. This gives chances of paper leak right form printing press and there are several other ways to leak the paper. Some of them are: The printing press owner can print more than required number of copies and can sell it into the market. The non-responsible behavior of printing press while carrying the bunch of paper from one place to another. If the seal of the packet is broken before the exam time, it also created a problem since there is no mechanism is check when the seal is broken of packet. Anyone can open the bunch of papers. It does not need a security password.
These drawbacks of traditional paper printing were not acceptable if something goes wrong before the examinations date arrives. The government has to suffer with huge financial loss which occurs due to re-examination as well as precious time of students also gets wasted. As far as distribution is concerned, it does not have a real time application of date and time.
2.4 ORGANISATION SURVEY

We have searched industries provide all type of solutions related to examination at university level, entrance level and recruitment level which includes paper setting, printing, packing and delivery. One of such industry is PRINT- INDIA. It is one of the leading Printing Companies dealing exclusively in confidential jobs for the last 35 years. Another international
organization is PROMETRIC. This year PROMETRIC conducted CAT 2011 exam. We studied the examination system of both the organizations. In Question Paper printing, work is segregated into three Parts : Composing & Proofreading Printing Packing
2.4.1 Composing & Proofreading With an inhouse composing house, we do work with highest confidentiality. The facility of Proofreading is also within the premises with subject wise experts. We are having experts of almost all language for Proofreading and translations, which help us to do our jobs efficiently without any error. 2.4.2 Printing Secondly the composed paper is printed on latest machines available till date any quantity can be printed from 100(in lakhs) in minimum time duration.
FIGURE 2.1: PRINTING MACHINE
2.4.3 Packing The third step is packing of Question Paper-Booklets. In above mentioned all steps phase no. 3 which is packing, is one of the most important and crucial in itself. Today, most of our clients demand centrewise packing. We do centrewise packing with the help of computerised programming which is 99.9% error less. In this our clients / institutes provides us the paper number, quantity, centrewise distribution details. We feed all these informations in our software programme and got printed the envelope labels. Centrewise challans are also taken out of computer.
2.5 MARKET ANALYSIS

Different types of safe boxes are available in the market. The boxes are password protected and have a mechanical lock. Some of the safe boxes available in the market are: Digimatic Electronic Safety Locker Godrej Electronic E-Swipe Safe Shadows Electronic Safe Lock Godrej Electronic Taurus Safe
2.5.1 Market Analysis Inferences

Lots of safe boxes are available in the market which are highly secure in terms of their designing. But none of them has capability of real time handling. All the safe boxes are only designed of the storage purpose. No electronic box is yet designed which can be used for the transportation of the examination papers.
2.6 ONLINE EXAMINATION

Online examination is a new technique to conduct an examination through internet. The formal examination system is a very long procedure to conduct an examination. From the respect of the exam, they should give extra effort on the examination to select employees for the organization. This is a huge responsibility and extra load to the recruiter to conduct an
examination. This is very costly and extremely tedious to conduct an examination. Side by side online examination is a very sophisticated examination conducting system. Lot of companies is gladly taking this modern system to exemption form the tedious written examination system. Low cost, minimum effort, minimum employee deployment, saving time, instant result and conduct an examination India and abroad.
FIGURE 4.8: ONLINE EXAMINATION HALL
2.6.1 Drawbacks of Online Examination

Computerized testing, often described as facile and efficient, has some drawbacks. The most common disadvantages are computer glitches, errors in content, and security lapses. There have been several documented occurrences of security breaches. One example is the Graduate Record Examination, which in 2002 was apparently hacked and sold on the internet in Asia. This was a live and active exam, not a practice test. This had damaging consequences, not only for the test administrators, but for the thousands of students taking the test. On the practical side, some test takers report that it is more difficult to navigate back to rework problems. Some test takers are resistant to the computerized testing process because they are accustomed to taking notes and circling questions and/or answers for later review. Others say that they read more quickly and more easily on paper than on a glaring computer screen. Another incident of standardized test cheating on the GRE occurred when a student on
the East coast relayed information to students on the West coast; that scheme took advantage of the three-hour time difference between the two regions. While electronic glitches are rare, they have been known to occur, for instance when computer crashes voided the efforts of thousands of GMAT takers. There are also cases in which the correction software has corrupted scores.
2.6 MODIFICATIONS IN PROJECT

Later on, there was a little bit change in our project execution idea. These changes were made because either of the non-availability of resources or some technical limitations. Some of the proposed changes in our project are:
Earlier we were planning to use DS12887 RTC chip (Serial Communication) but it is not available in the market in Jaipur. So, we have to drop our idea of using DS 12887 and finally we went for DS1307 RTC chip with same function with different protocol (i2c protocol).
Synchronization of various modules and sequential arrangement were also made due to some technical problem and mechanical assembly.
CHAPTER 3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The centre authority will be allowed to give command. There is only single computer which will be controlled by Exam cell in charge. This computer is directly connected to the printing press room. In printing press room, the computer will give command to print out the papers. There is an Infrared counter which count the number of copies printed from printer. For example, if there is a bunch of 100 papers, then only adjust number of copies will be printed. This will increase the efficiency of the system. The paper will be dropped and collected in a wooden box which is also called safe box. The box will be locked automatically. There are a known number of copies in the box. Now, this box will be passed to outside the room with the help of a conveyor belt. The box will be collected at window and respective boxes will be distrusted to centers respectively. Here we can observe that only person is operating the whole process. In this project, there are very few chances of paper leak. Even though, if it happens then only one person is responsible and this will bring out the defaulter. There is no interference of Human being in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak.
FIGURE 3.1: FUNTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
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3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Power Supply
Keyboard
LCD
Electro Mechanical Lock
Real Time Clock
MICRO CONTROLLER
Alarm
FIGURE 3.2: BLOCK DIAGRAM
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3.3 WORKING OF SAFE BOX

The exam centre in-charge will be allowed to open the box after a predefined set time and date. So when box is tried to open matching of correct password (if entered) with the date and time at time of access is take place and box is unlocked if predefined conditions are matched. It will be much known the date and time of the exam which is going to be organized. So each paper will have some particular date and tine and the digital clock are set. The box will be open on the exam day pre-defined time. There is a real time control on the safe box and it gives an additional feature to our project. There is an Electro-mechanical lock will be associated with safe box. It is similar to the Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) lock which has a predefined password. Lock can only be open by entering the correct password in limited attempts. If someone tries to open the lock before time or tries to open the box by entering passwords beyond attempts, then alarm signal will be generated and it will give information to the nearest police station or exam in-charge and appropriate action can be taken. So, this project will be helpful to reduce the chances of Examination paper leak. This methodology can be applied in many National level exams, board exams and university exams etc. This technology is helpful to reduce the government loss because there is an huge amount of money is spent on conducting examinations at national level. It will also save the time wasted because of re-examination conduction.
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CHAPTER 4 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FIGURE 4.1: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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4.2 CIRCUIT WORKING

The main idea of smart safe box is that digital code locked should open after the preset date and time. So, Current date and time has to be tracked and intelligence has to be applied accordingly. For this purpose we are using microcontroller AT89c5l and RTC chip DSl307. AT89C5l is product from ATMEL (based on 805l architecture) DSl307 I2C serial interface real-time clock (RTC) is a low-power, full binary-coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar IC. On the First use RTC, Correct Date and Time are stored in the internal registers of DS1307. Later, whenever user tries to enter password, date and Time are fetched from RTC chip. Now to enter the password, a means of communication between microcontroller and user has to be provided. Keyboard is used as this means of communication. In our Project we are using 4*4 matrix keypad. This keypad provides 16 keys and our password length is 7, so it is sufficient for our project. Matrix keypad is designed by us as market cost is 8-9 times higher. Now, User can enter the password using the keypad. The LCD is used to display the output and the date and time. The user is given three attempts to enter the correct password. If the user fails to enter the correct password in given attempts then the system will terminate automatically. If the user enters correct password then the electromechanical lock will open and the examination papers can be taken out.
4.3 PCB DESIGN

4.3.1 Printed Circuit Boards
The miniaturization in electronic equipment design has introduced a new technique known as Printed Circuit Board. Printed circuit board is used to interconnect various electronic circuit printed on it and is provided with holes to accommodate various electronic components. Printed circuit board (PCB) consists of an insulating base substrate, which is rigid, with metallic circuitry photo chemically formed up on the substrate. Interconnections between components are achieved by means of conducting paths (thin Cu film) running on or through the substrate called tracks. The width of the tracks depends on the amount of current it has to carry. The tracks meet components to which they are to be connected by means of Land or pads which takes form of larger area of Cu. The lands may be of different shapes and sizes
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and have holes drilled through them. These holes can either accommodate component leads or via-holes. The via holes also known as plated through holes (PTH) provide connections through the substrate to other track areas. These aroused in case of double sided and multilayer PCBs only.
FIGURE 4.2 PCB FEATURES Once PCB is designed and fabricated, the circuit can be assembled easily by mounting and soldering the component in the holes provided for them.
4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Printed Circuit Boards

Advantages 1. Phase saving of wire: In PCB the interconnection between the components is made through copper tracks instead of using a number of wires carrying electric circuit. 2. Saving of space: The circuit layout of PCB is designed such that it occupies least space. Also the use of Cu tracks in place of wires makes the interconnections less bulky. Thus printed circuit board occupies less space and thus has less weight than the circuit assembled on general-purpose circuit board. 3. Saving of time: Much time is saved in assembling a circuit over a PCB as compared to conventional method. 4. Tight connection: As the connections are made automatically through Cu tracks, there is no chance of loose connection or short circuit 5. Low cost: Mass production can be achieved at lower cost.
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6. Reliability: All the above factors bring reliability in performance of the equipment 7. Now-a-days component wiring and assembly can be mechanized by wave soldering of vapour phase reflow soldering. Disadvantages 1. As the copper tracks are very thin, they can carry little current. Hence a PCB cannot be used for circuit with heavy currents because in that case the strips will be heated up and can cause problems. 2. Soldering needs precautions as the risk of strips being overheated and destroyed is always there.
4.3.3. Types of PCB

There are four types of printed circuit boards 1. Single sided PCB 2. Double sided PCB 3. Multi-layered PCB 4. Flexible PCB 4.3.3.1 Single Sided PCB In single sided boards, as the name suggests, copper is coated on one side of the board or laminate. So the circuitry is only on one side of the board and thus is the simplest form of PCB. These are simplest to manufacture and hence have least cost of production. In these PCBs, to jump over the Cu tracks jumper wires may be used. Use of jumper is restricted as far as possible because it decreases the reliability and if their number is more than a few, the use of double sided PCB should be considered.
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FIGURE 4.3 SINGLE SIDED PCB 4.3.3.2 Double Sided PCB These are used where space is more important than cost of the PCB. Double sided boards are Cu-coated on both sides. Circuit is etched on both sides but components are mounted only on one side. Tracks on one side can be joined to tracks on the other side by means of wire links. Now a days plated through holes (PTH) are available which do the same thing, but their use makes the PCB expensive. So the total number of PTH should be kept to a minimum for reasons of economy and reliability.
FIGURE 4.4 DOUBLE SIDED PCB 4.3.3.3 Multi layered PCB In multi-layered boards, two or more boards with circuitry formed upon them are carefully aligned, stacked up and bonded together. These boards are used where a very large circuit has to be fabricated on a single board. At the same time, they are the most complex from manufacturing point of view. Here also, components are mounted on only one side of the board. Electrical connections are established from one side of the board to the other and to the inner layer circuitry by using PTH.
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FIGURE 4.5 MULTI-LAYERED PCB 4.3.3.4 Flexible PCB This is basically a highly flexible variant of the conventional rigid PCB. The flexible boards are of two types, static and dynamic. Static flexible circuits can be bent into particular configuration which remains constant throughout product life and results in space saving. Dynamic flexible circuits can be deformed continuously during operations and are used to interconnect devices which need to he moved relative to each other.
4.3.4 Laminates
The board on which the circuit is etched consist of base material\laminate on which conductor foils are bonded or deposited by some process. (a) Base material: PCBs are laminates. They are made from two or more sheets of base materials stuck together. There are many materials used for making laminates for PCBs. Commonly used materials are phenolic resin reinforced with paper filler (phenolic laminates) for low cost, melamine resin reinforced with glass filler (melamine laminates) for abrasion resistance, epoxy resin reinforced with glass filler (epoxy laminations) for higher mechanical strength, low dimensional change and fungus resistance; Teflon reinforced with glass (Teflon laminations) for microwave applications; silicon resin reinforced with glass (silicon laminates) for high temperatures. Reliability of PCB greatly depends on the quality of base material used. (b) Conducting material: The conducting materials used for coating the laminate are copper, silver, gold, brass and aluminium. However, the most widely used material is high purity electrolytic copper and the laminates coated with copper foil are called as Cu clad laminates.
4.3.5. Design of PCB Layout/Pattern
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Throughout the manufacturing process of a PCB, visual and electrical inspection is carried out to locate any flaws that might have crept in due to process automation like Tombstone effect when the solder is heated too quickly and one end of the component lifts up from the board failing to make contact, or excess flow of solder or bridging. Even after the manufacturing process, the boards are tested for the output levels under varying conditions of environment, stress and strain.
FIGURE 4.6 FLOW DIAGRAM OF PCB MANIFUACTURING
Before designing a PCB layout, complete circuit diagram must be available with the designer. The design of the layout is done on the computer using CAD (Computer Aided Design) or a standard drawing program. The layout is designed in such a way as to accommodate the whole circuit in minimum space avoiding use of jumpers as far as possible. Besides the complete outlines and interconnections, the layout should include information on:
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a. Component hole diameter b. Conductor width c. Minimum spacing to be provided between the tracks. Finally take the print out of the pattern / layout on a normal A4 size paper. Also make sure that it is the correct size; Check the layout carefully. This printout is called as positive film.
4.3.6. Film Making or Mask Making

The film negative which is finally used as a mask for the direct exposure of the photo resistcoated PCB is called Film Master. Making of a Negative film (Film master) from a positive involves the steps listed below. All these steps are performed in a dark room.
Film Maker Machine: Collect the positive film from the CAD lab. Cut lithography film on which the negative is to be made to the size equal to the positive film. Start the machine for 5 seconds. Take the negative film out of the machine by lifting it from the corners.
Development: Take a developing tray. Put sufficient developer in the tray so that the negative film is dipped completely in it. The film should be handled at its corners with the help of forceps. Now slide the negative film through the developing solution. Turn the tray quickly and lift the tray on each side of rotation. This is continued throughout the developing time (1-1.5min).
Stop bath: After the development is over, the film is lifted above the developing tray (with the help of forceps) for a few seconds so that the excess developer drops out. Immediately thereafter, the film is immersed in to the stop bath (plain water taken in a tray) for 1 min. This will effectively stop the development action
Fixing: Now mix 1 cap of fixer solution in 1 glass of water in a tray. Place the film in this fixing bath for 0.5 min.
Washing: Take out the film from the fixer bath and wash it in running water. Washing is an important stage in film master preparation because if some chemicals
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remain on it, they will decompose and attack the image, causing stained and faced film.
4.3.7 Making of Printed Circuit Boards

Various steps involved in the making of PCB are:

Pre-processing Lithography Etching Stripping Drilling Testing Loading of components Soldering
Pre-processing
As its name, this step involves all the initial preparation to be made before actual processing of copper clad laminate starts, such as a) Collect the printout of the layout from the CAD lab. b) Cut the copper clad laminate to the required size using a cutter. c) Clean the board by scrubbing with steel wool or very fine wet sand paper. Dry the board thoroughly. Make sure that the board is clean and free from fingerprints or any traces of contamination.
d) Drill tooling/mounting holes.
Lithography
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Lithography is typically the transfer of the copper track and land pattern from the negative film to a material (copper clad). It includes the following steps:
1. Pattern Transfer: To precede you will need a cut-out of a single PCB image from the
glossy paper, a very clean copper board and a clothes iron. The PCB-to-be needs to be very clean.PCB can be washed with hot water and dish soap. Using acetone or alcohol to rub it clean seems to work well but may not be necessary. Make sure the copper is dry and that no soap or chemical residue remains. Do not touch the copper with your fingers as you'll spread greasy human juice which may keep the toner from sticking. You can gently sand the board, using very fine sandpaper. When the copper looks clean, shiny and new, you are ready to proceed. Place the PCB mirror image face down on the copper, ensuring it is correctly positioned. You can use a few pieces of tape to secure the glossy paper to the board but I find that, if you are careful when you begin to iron, the paper sticks and stays in place on its own. Preheat your trusty clothes iron, using the hottest setting its got (cotton, linen or above). When you are done, be careful as the board will be hot. Immerse the board and paper in hot water for a few minutes (up to 10 if you've got the patience). This will soften things up a bit. Carefully remove the paper. If certain areas seem particularly difficult to peel off, you can try soaking a bit more. If everything went well, you will have a copper board with your PCB pads and signal lines traced out in black toner. You can see that even fine lines, such as the contour, have been successfully transferred.
2. Development: After lithography process, the image of the pattern transferred on the
copper clad needs to be developed. The development stage involves removal of less soluble unexposed area of resist in case of negative resist and exposed areas in case of positive resist. Here, we are using a negative photo resist Method. Take a tray and put sufficient developer solution in it such that the board can be completely dipped in it. Developer solution is prepared by mixing liquid photo resist developer concentrate with 1 part developer to 9 part of water. Place the board into the white developer solution. The board should be handled at its corners with the help of forceps. Now lift the tray on each side in rotation so that the liquid developer is flowed over and back on the board. This is continued throughout the
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developing time (1 min). During development, the developer solution etches away the unexposed region of the negative photo resist showing copper and the PCB layout will be revealed. After the development is over, lift the board and wash it in stop bath. This will effectively stop the development action.
FIGURE 4.7 DEVELOPMENT OF PCB
3. Fixing: To fix the pattern on the board, mix 1 cap of fixer (blue die solution) in 1 glass of
water in tray. Place the board in the solution for at least 0.5 min. Remove the board from the fixer bath and wash it under running water.
4. Etching: This process is used for removal of PCBs copper surface, which is not
protected by the photo resist. Thus final Cu pattern is formed on the board after etching. The board obtained after photolithography is dipped in an etching solution and heated for 6-10 min. at 400C. The solution etches \ dissolves away the exposed\ undesired copper areas, leaving the desired copper pattern on the board. The different Types of etching solution used are: a. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) b. Chromatic Chloride c. Cupric Chloride (CuCl2) d. Alkaline Ammonia
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Out of these four, ferric chloride is the most commonly used etchant. The reaction of FeCl3 and CuCl2 etching solutions with copper are: FeCl3 + Cu FeCl2 + CuCl Ferric chloride Copper Ferrous chloride CuCl2 + CuCl 2CuCl Chromatic acid etching is usually carried out with the addition of Sulphuric acid. Hence it is called chromic Sulphuric acid. The choice of suitable etchant solution for PCB production depends on factors like etching speed, copper dissolving capacity, etchant price etc. Stripping
After etching, the negative photo resist coating left on the copper pattern can be removed using a tube of photo resist stripper and the PCB is washed clean under tap water and dried using tissue paper. Drilling
Drilling is used to create the component lead holes and through holes in a PCB. These holes pass through the land areas and should be positioned correctly. The drilling process can be performed by using manually operated drilling machines or by using CNC drilling machines. For a particular PCB, a wide range of drill holes may be required smaller holes are required for component leads whereas larger diameter holes are required for bolting heat sinks, connectors etc.
FIGURE 4.8: DRILLING
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Bare Board Testing
Before mounting the components on the PCB, this bare board needs to ensure that the required connections exist (i.e. visual inspection), and that there are no short circuit (i.e. continuity testing) and that drill holes are properly placed. After drilling and testing, the board the board is now ready to stuff components. Loading Component
Loading of components on a PCB is the process of inserting components in to the holes in the board. This loading can be done by hand or by machine. Machine is used when there is mass production of boards of the same pattern. Soldering
Solder the components loaded on the PCB by using either manual soldering or wave soldering technique. Manual soldering is done with the help of soldering iron, while in wave soldering; large number of joints is made simultaneously using a older bath. Wave soldering is a more efficient method and is used in large scale industry where high productivity is required.
FIGURE 4.9: COMPONENT SOLDERED Finally take the print out of the pattern / layout on a normal A4 size paper. Also make sure that it is the correct size; Check the layout carefully. This printout is called as positive film.
4.4 PCB LAYOUT
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FIGURE 4.10: BASIC CONTROLLER PCB LAYOUT
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FIGURE 4.11: RTC PCB LAYOUT
FIGURE 4.12: LCD BASE PCB LAYOUT
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4.5 PCB SOFTWARE DETAILS

Express PCB is a complete state-of-the-art PCB Design System. It includes:
PCB Layout PCB designs with an easy-to-use manual routing tools, shape-based auto router and auto-placer. Schematic Schematic Capture with multi-level hierarchy and export to PCB Layout, Spice or Net list. Component and Pattern Editors allow you to make new parts and footprints. Standard Libraries - include 100,000+ parts. Import/Export Features - allow you to exchange designs and libraries with other EDA tools. Step-by-Step Tutorial - learn the software and start real work in a few hours.
FIGURE 4.13: EXPRESS PCB SCREENSHOT
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4.5.1 Express PCB provides the following features:

Easy to learn user interface: To design a schematic, simply select and place
components onto your document and connect them together using the wire and bus tools. Multi sheet and hierarchical schematics are supported. Then select the menu option 'Convert to PCB' to convert the schematic to PCB. Layout can be updated from Schematic in a few clicks at any time. When you create or edit design objects they are highlighted to improve your work.
Smart placement and auto-placement features: After converting Schematic to PCB
layout, place board outline and arrange components. Then use "placement by list" for chips/connectors and auto-placement for other components to get acceptable result in a few minutes and start routing.
Easy to use manual and powerful automatic routing: Express PCB software
includes 2 automatic routers (Shape-based and Grid-based). Shape Router is able to route complex layouts with SMD components as well as single-layer boards. Grid Router can also make single-layer boards with jumper wires. With Spectra DSN/SES interface you can use external shape-based or topological auto router. Intelligent manual routing tools allow you to create and edit traces by 90, 45 degree or without any limitations. Curved traces are supported. Through, blind or buried vias can be used in automatic and manual routing. Board size is not limited.
Shape-based copper pour: Powerful copper pour system can help to reduce your
manufacturing costs by minimizing the amount of etching solution required. To use it, all you have to do is insert a copper area on your board in the PCB Layout program and any pad or trace inside the selected area will be automatically surrounded with a gap of the desired size. Using copper pour you can also create planes and connect them to pads and vias (different thermal types are supported).
Advanced Verification Features: Schematic and PCB design modules have number
of verification features that help control project accuracy on different design stages: The ERC function shows possible errors in Schematic pin connections using defined rules and allows you to correct errors step-by-step. DRC function checks the clearance between design objects, minimum size of traces, and drills. Errors are displayed graphically and you can fix them step-by-step and rerun the DRC in one click after any corrections. Net Connectivity Check verifies if all nets of PCB are electrically
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connected. This feature uses traces; copper pour filled area and shapes to control connectivity, then reports broken and merged nets with area details. Comparing to Schematic allows you to check if routed PCB is identical with Schematic.
Spice Support: With Express PCBSchematic Capture or Component Editor specify
spice settings or attach models to the parts. Then export .cir net-list of your Schematic to LT Spice or another simulation software to verify how it works.
Import/Export Features: Package modules allow you to exchange schematics,
layouts and libraries with other EDA and CAD packages (DXF, Eagle, P-CAD, PADS, ORCAD). Express PCB Schematic Capture and PCB Layout also support Accel, Allegro, Mentor, PADS, P-CAD, Protel and Tango net list formats.
Manufacturing output formats: Express PCB provides support for a number of
different manufacturing output formats. Using this PCB software you can produce N/C Drill files for numerically controlled (N.C.) drilling machines and RS-274X Gerber files for sending to board manufacturers. Vectorizing function allows exporting true-type fonts and raster images. Also Express PCBDXF output.
Producing PCBs using milling method: Express PCBallows you to export edge
poly lines to DXF. The DXF files can be converted to G-code with Ace Converter. Before edge exporting the DRC function of PCB layout program checks the design and shows possible problems if exist.
Standard component libraries: Express PCB package includes component and
pattern libraries which contain 100,000+ components from different manufacturers.

Creation of your own libraries: Component and Pattern Editors allow designing
your own symbols and patterns. To create complete components simply connect them together using Component Editor.
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FIGURE 4.14: BASIC MICROCONTROLLER CIRCUIT
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FIGURE 4.15: REAL TIME CLOCK CIRCUIT
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CHAPTER 5 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

5.1 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
The Intel 8051 microcontroller is one of the most popular general purpose microcontrollers in use today. The success of the Intel 8051 spawned a number of clones which are collectively referred to as the MCS-51 family of microcontrollers, which includes chips from vendors such as Atmel, Philips, Infineon, and Texas Instruments.
About the 8051

The Intel 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller which means that most available operations are limited to 8 bits. There are 3 basic "sizes" of the 8051: Short, Standard, and Extended. The Short and Standard chips are often available in DIP (dual in-line package) form, but the Extended 8051 models often have a different form factor, and are not "drop-in compatible". All these things are called 8051 because they can all be programmed using 8051 assembly language, and they all share certain features (although the different models all have their own special features).
FIGURE 5.1: 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
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Some of the features that have made the 8051 popular are:

64 KB on chip program memory. 128 bytes on chip data memory (RAM). 4 register banks. 128 user defined software flags. 8-bit data bus 16-bit address bus 32 general purpose registers each of 8 bits 16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less). 3 internal and 2 external interrupts. Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes. Four 8-bit ports, (short models have two 8-bit ports). 16-bit program counter and data pointer. 1 Microsecond instruction cycle with 12 MHz Crystal.
8051 models may also have a number of special, model-specific features, such as UARTs, ADC, OpAmps, etc...
5.1.2 Typical applications

8051 chips are used in a wide variety of control systems, telecom applications, and robotics as well as in the automotive industry. By some estimation 8051 family chips make up over 50% of the embedded chip market.
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FIGURE 5.2: PIN DIAGRAM OF THE 8051 DIP
5.1.3 Basic Pins

PIN 9: PIN 9 is the reset pin which is used reset the microcontrollers internal registers and ports upon starting up. (Pin should be held high for 2 machine cycles.) PINS 18 & 19: The 8051 has a built-in oscillator amplifier hence we need to only connect a crystal at these pins to provide clock pulses to the circuit. PIN 40 and 20: Pins 40 and 20 are VCC and ground respectively. The 8051 chip needs +5V 500mA to function properly, although there are lower powered versions like the Atmel 2051 which is a scaled down version of the 8051 which runs on +3V. PINS 29, 30 & 31: As described in the features of the 8051, this chip contains a built-in flash memory. In order to program this we need to supply a voltage of +12V at pin 31. If external memory is connected then PIN 31, also called EA/VPP, should be connected to ground to indicate the presence of external memory. PIN 30 is called ALE (address latch enable), which is used when multiple memory chips are connected to the controller and only one of them needs to be selected. We will deal with this in depth in the later chapters. PIN 29 is called PSEN. This is "program select enable". In order to use the external memory it is required to provide the low voltage (0) on both PSEN and EA pins.
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Ports There are 4 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3. PORT P1 (Pins 1 to 8): The port P1 is a general purpose input/output port which can be used for a variety of interfacing tasks. The other ports P0, P2 and P3 have dual roles or additional functions associated with them based upon the context of their usage. PORT P3 (Pins 10 to 17): PORT P3 acts as a normal IO port, but Port P3 has additional functions such as, serial transmit and receive pins, 2 external interrupt pins, 2 external counter inputs, read and write pins for memory access. PORT P2 (pins 21 to 28): PORT P2 can also be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P2 will act as an address bus in conjunction with PORT P0 to access external memory. PORT P0 (pins 32 to 39) PORT P0 can be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P0 acts as a multiplexed address and data bus that can be used to access external memory in conjunction with PORT P2. P0 acts as AD0-AD7, as can be seen from fig 5.1. Oscillator Circuits The 8051 requires the existence of an external oscillator circuit. The oscillator circuit usually runs around 12MHz, although the 8051 (depending on which specific model) is capable of running at a maximum of 40MHz. Each machine cycle in the 8051 is 12 clock cycles, giving an effective cycle rate at 1MHz (for a 12MHz clock) to 3.33MHz (for the maximum 40MHz clock). This is "program select enable". In order to use the external memory it is required to provide the low voltage (0) on both PSEN and EA pins.
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5.1.4 Internal Architecture
FIGURE 5.3: INTERNAL SCHEMATICS OF 8051
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Data and Program Memory The 8051 Microprocessor can be programmed in PL/M, 8051 Assembly, C and a number of other high-level languages. Many compilers even have support for compiling C++ for an 8051. Program memory in the 8051 is read-only, while the data memory is considered to be read/write accessible. When stored on EEPROM or Flash, the program memory can be rewritten when the microcontroller is in the special programmer circuit. Program Start Address The 8051 starts executing program instructions from address 0000 in the program memory. Direct Memory The 8051 has 256 bytes of internal addressable RAM, although only the first 128 bytes are available for general use by the programmer. The first 128 bytes of RAM (from 0x00 to 0x7F) are called the Direct Memory, and can be used to store data. Special Function Register The Special Function Register (SFR) is the upper area of addressable memory, from address 0x80 to 0xFF. A, B, PSW, DPTR are called SFR. This area of memory cannot be used for data or program storage, but is instead a series of memory-mapped ports and registers. All port input and output can therefore be performed by memory move operations on specified addresses in the SFR. Also, different status registers are mapped into the SFR, for use in checking the status of the 8051, and changing some operational parameters of the 8051. General Purpose Registers The 8051 has 4 selectable banks of 8 addressable 8-bit registers, R0 to R7. This means that there are essentially 32 available general purpose registers, although only 8 (one bank) can be directly accessed at a time. To access the other banks, we need to change the current bank number in the flag status register. A and B Registers
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The A register is located in the SFR memory location 0xE0. The A register works in a similar fashion to the AX register of x86 processors. The A register is called the accumulator, and by default it receives the result of all arithmetic operations. The B register is used in a similar manner, except that it can receive the extended answers from the multiply and divide operations. When not being used for multiplication and Division, the B register is available as an extra general-purpose register.
Computer A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from external source and allow the results of operations to be sent out. A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment. The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
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5.2 DS 1307 (RTC)

The DS1307 serial real-time clock (RTC) is a low-power, full binary-coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar plus 56 bytes of NV SRAM. Address and data are transferred serially through an IC, bidirectional bus. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The clock operates in either the 24-hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. The DS1307 has a built-in power-sense circuit that detects power failures and automatically switches to the backup supply. Timekeeping operation continues while the part operates from the backup supply.
FIGURE 5.4: REAL TIME CLOCK
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FIGURE 5.5: DS 1307 PIN DIAGRAM
The key features of DS 1307 are:
Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month, Month, Day of the week, and Year with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to 2100 56-Byte, Battery-Backed, General-Purpose RAM with Unlimited Writes IC Serial Interface Programmable Square-Wave Output Signal Automatic Power-Fail Detect and Switch Circuitry Consumes Less than 500nA in Battery-Backup Mode with Oscillator Running Optional Industrial Temperature Range: -40C to +85C Available in 8-Pin Plastic DIP or SO
FIGURE 5.6: INTERFACING OF RTC
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5.3 RESISTORS
Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltages and currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has very high resistance. Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the air.) A low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That is why wires are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point without any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This keeps the wires from coming in contact with other wires and creating short circuits. High voltage power lines are covered with thick layers of plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous when the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other things by insulation. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
FIGURE 5.7: RESISTORS
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5.4 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. It commonly consists of wire leads attached to two sheets of metal foil, separated by insulating film, rolled into a tube.
FIGURE 5.8: CIRCUIT SYMBOL OF CAPACITOR Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric and the ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte
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evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
FIGURE 5.9: CAPACITOR
5.5. POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
FIGURE 5.10: POTENTIOMETERS Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled
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load (see infinite switch). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
5.6 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line. Voltage Regulator (regulator), usually having three legs, converts varying input voltage and produces a constant regulated output voltage. They are available in a variety of outputs. The most common part numbers start with the numbers 78 or 79 and finish with two digits indicating the output voltage. The number 78 represents positive voltage and 79 negative one. The 78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. And the 79XX series is designed for negative input.
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FIGURE 5.11: VOLTAGE REGULAOR
5.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators." Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
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FIGURE 5.12: CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
5.7.1 Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut
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(relative to its crystallographic axe). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
5.7.2 Commonly used crystal frequencies

Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard frequencies, such as 3.579545 MHz, 4.433619 MHz, 10 MHz, 14.318182 MHz, 17.734475 MHz, 20 MHz, 33.33 MHz, and 40 MHz The popularity of the 3.579545 MHz crystals is due to low cost since they are used for NTSC colour television receivers. Using frequency dividers, frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits; it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one reference frequency. 14.318182 MHz (four times 3.579545 MHz) is used in computer video displays to generate a bitmapped video display for NTSC colour monitors, such as the CGA used with the original IBM PC. (The IBM PC used 14.318182 MHz, divided by three, as its 4.77 MHz clock source, using one crystal for two purposes.) The 4.433619 MHz and 17.734475 MHz values are used in PAL colour television equipment and devices intended to produce PAL signals. Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies, from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency, so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors.
5.8 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs does not emit light directly. They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available
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in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units. Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction. The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the centre of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can
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be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. This electric field also controls (reduces) the double refraction properties of the liquid crystal. The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field). When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.
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FIGURE 5.13: LCD
5.8.1 Applications
LCD have been adopted by the United States of America military instead of CRT displays because they are smaller, lighter and more efficient, although monochrome plasma displays are also used, notably for their M1 Abrams tanks. For use with night vision imaging systems a US military LCD monitor must be compliant with MIL-L-3009 (formerly MIL-L-85762A). These LCD monitors go through extensive certification so that they pass the standards for the military. These include MIL-STD-901D - High Shock (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-167B Vibration (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-810FField Environmental Conditions (Ground Vehicles and Systems), MIL-STD-461E/FEMI/RFI (Electromagnetic Interference/Radio Frequency Interference), MIL-STD-740B Airborne/Structure borne Noise, and TEMPESTTelecommunications Electronics Material Protected from Emanating Spurious Transmissions.
5.9 BUZZER
FIGURE 5.14: BUZZER A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. Mechanical A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.
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Electromechanical Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made. Piezoelectric
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.
FIGURE 5.15: PIEZOELECTRIC DISC BEEPER
5.9.1 Uses

Annunciator panels Electronic metronomes Game shows Microwave ovens and other household appliances Sporting events such as basketball games
5.10 SWITCHES
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FIGURE 5.16: DIFFERENT TYPES OF SWITCHES Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and non conducting. A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically-operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
5.11 DIODE
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Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used. In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple on-off action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
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FIGURE 5.17: DIODE
5.11.1 Semiconductor diodes
FIGURE 5.18: TYPICAL DIODE SYMBOLS AND CODES A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts a current of electrons in a direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction; that is, a conventional current flows from anode to cathode (opposite to the electron flow, since electrons have negative charge). Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.
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5.11.2 Applications
Radio demodulation The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving an audio signal which is the original audio signal, minus atmospheric noise. The audio is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves. Power conversion Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator of earlier dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in CockcroftWalton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages. Over-voltage protection Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from overvoltages at higher power (see Diode types above). Logic gates Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND & OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.
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Ionizing radiation detectors In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particles energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. Temperature measurements A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a Silicon band gap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant current) but depends on doping concentration and operating temperature (Size 2007). The temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or positive for temperature sense diodes down to about 20 Kelvins. Typically silicon diodes have approximately 2 mV/C temperature coefficient at room temperature. Current steering Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An Uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Similarly, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy duty split charge diode is used to prevent the higher charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower charged battery when the alternator is not running.
5.12 HEX KEYPAD
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The hex keypad is a peripheral that connects to the DE2 through JP1 or JP2 via a 40-pin ribbon cable. It has 16 buttons in a 4 by 4 grid, labelled with the hexadecimal digits 0 to F. Internally, the structure of the hex keypad is very simple. Wires run in vertical columns (we call them C0 to C3) and in horizontal rows (called R0 to R3). These 8 wires are available externally, and will be connected to the lower 8 bits of the port. Each key on the keypad is essentially a switch that connects a row wire to a column wire. When a key is pressed, it makes an electrical connection between the row and column. The specific mapping of hex keypad wires (C0 to C3 and R0 to R3) to pins is given below:-
FIGURE 5.19: SCHEMATICS OF HEX KEYPAD
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FIGURE 5.20: HEX INPUTS
5.13 ELECTROMAGNETIC LOCK

An electromagnetic lock is a device used to control the access through a door. It consists of an electromagnet mounted in or on the door frame and a matching plate that is affixed to the door. When energized, the electromagnet holds the plate with a retention force that may exceed 1000 lbs., thus effectively locking the door. They are typically controlled through security systems, keypads, key switches, card access systems, request to exit buttons, and/or by special devices worn by persons whose safety could be compromised by uncontrolled egress. In order to prevent unauthorized egress, one option would be the use of alarms that are activated when the door is opened, or other similar means that permit free egress under emergency conditions, while discouraging unauthorized use of the door. Where it is desired to prevent unauthorized entry, the use of an electric strike is an acceptable option, providing that the door is manually openable in the direction of exit travel through a latch that is mechanically linked to the door handle, lever, push bar, etc. Electromagnetic locks that do not incorporate latches, pins or other similar devices to keep the door in the closed position are permitted to be installed on exit doors other than doors leading directly from a high hazard industrial occupancy, provided:-
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a) The building is equipped with a fire alarm system. b) The locking device, and all similar devices in the access to exit leading to the exit door, release upon actuation of the fire alarm signal. c) the locking device releases immediately upon loss of power controlling the electromagnetic locking mechanism and its associated auxiliary controls. d) the locking device releases immediately upon actuation of a manually operated switch readily accessible only to authorized personnel.
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CHAPTER 6 SOFTWARE USED AND FLOW CHART OF PROGRAM

6.1 INTRODUCTION
We are using TopView Simulator for designing and testing of the embedded c code for Real Time Control (RTC), Counter, Timer, 8051 microcontroller and LCD display coding and simulation. Topview Simulator gives an excellent simulation environment for the industry's most popular 8 bit Microcontroller family, MCS 51. It gives required facilities to enable the system designers to start projects right from the scratch and finish them with ease and confidence.
FIGURE 6.1: ARCITERCTURE OF TOPVIEW SIMULATOR
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6.2 FEATURES OF TOP VIEW SIMULATOR

6.2.1 Device Selection
A wide range of device selection, including Generic 8031 devices and Atmel's AT89CXX series 8051 microcontrollers.
6.2.2 Program Editing

Powerful editing feature for generating your programs both in C and Assembly level and the facility to call an external Compiler / Assembler (Keil / SDCC Compilers) to process input programs.
6.2.3 Clear View

Clearview facility gives all the internal architectural details in multiple windows. Information about the Program, Data Memory, register, peripherals, SFR bits are clearly presented in many windows to make you understand the program flow very easily.
6.2.4 Program Execution

A variety of program execution options including Single Stroke full speed execution, Single Step, Step Over and Breakpoint execution modes give you total control over the target program. Clearview updates all the windows with the correct and latest data and it is a convenient help during your debugging operations.
6.2.5 Simulation Facilities

Powerful simulation facilities are incorporated for I/O lines, Interrupt lines, Clocks meant for Timers / Counters. Many external interfacing possibilities can be simulated:

Range of Plain Point LEDs and Seven Segment LED options. LCD modules in many configurations.
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Momentary ON keys. A variety of keypads upto 4 X 8 key matrix. Toggle switches. All modes of onchip serial port communication facility. I2C components including RTC, EEPROMs. SPI Bus based EEPROM devices.
6.2.6 Code Generation Facilities

Powerful and versatile Code Generating facility enables you to generate the exact and compact assembly code / C Source code for many possible application oriented interfacing options. You can simply define your exact needs and get the target assembly code / C Source code at a press of button at anywhere in your program flow. The code gets embedded into your application program automatically. You are assured of trouble free working of final code in the real time.

All modes of the serial port. Interfacing I2C/SPI Bus devices. Range of keypads. Many LED/LCD interfacing possibilities.
FIGURE 6.2: TOPVIEW SIMULATOR SCREENSHOT
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6.3 ALGORITHM
Step 1: Display Date and Time. Step 2: Exam authority log in into smart box security system. Step 3: Smart box check Log-in date and time. Step 4: If date and time matches, initialize the user attempts else RESET the system. Step 5: If attempts are less than or equal to 3, then ask for password or go to step 4. Step 6: If number of attempts exceed 3, then TERMINATE the system with 5 minute delay. Step 7: If password matches, open the smart box and distribute the papers. Step 8: End
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6.4 FLOWCHART
WELCOME TO SMART BOX
DISPLAY DATE AND TIME
USER INTERRU PT TERMINATE
NO
YES
MATCH DATE & TIME
NO
YES
INITIALLIZE ATEMPT=1
NO
IF ATTEMPTS <= 3
YES
X
ATTEMPT ++
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IF PASSWOR D MATCHES
YES
OPEN THE SMART BOX
DISPLAY THANK YOU
FIGURE 6.3: PROJECT FLOW DIAGRAM
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CHAPTER 7 PROBLEMS FACED

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Project can be defined as solution to a real world problem, which has to be accomplished. For designing the solution there are several factors to he kept in mind and each has to be satisfied. Much observation has to be done, results have to be analyzed and better alternates (if required) have to be explored. In the same way, we faced numerous problems in design, test and implementation phase.
7.2 DESIGN PHASE PROBLEMS

7.2.1 Algorithm Designing
An Algorithm defines the Working Process of the Project. There were many ideas/ways to implement the project but most appropriate and shortest path is essential in order to complete the project in given time. In Project algorithm designing, security was the main concern and manual interference should be avoided. So, there is a step to step algorithm designing starting right from user input date and time, log in, access the data, paper drop in to the box and finally locking of the box. This was the shortest and most efficient way to fulfill the goal of project.
7.2.2 Box Designing

In the designing of the box, structure should be compatible with paper printing and drop it into an box. Wooden and acrylic were two options in the designing or box but we prefer the wooden over acrylic because it is cheaper as compared to the acrylic box.
7.2.3 Process Synchronization

Another problem we have faced is synchronization of various modules with one another. We have faced problems associated with smart box with the outer module and paper counter
67
module. Later on, we have sort out the problem associated with smart box synchronization with other modules.
7.2.4 Non-Availability of RTC Chip

In Real time control selection, there were two options:1. DS12887 (Serial Communication) 2. DS 1307 (I2C Protocol) DS 12887 is not available in the market. So there was no option left for us. We finally go for DS1307 in our project having the same function but with different protocol.
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CHAPTER 8 APPLICATIONS
8.1 Introduction
In present scenario, most of the examinations are conducted offline at different cities across the globe. The existing system of exam conduction is completely manual. From the beginning of the procedure, there is complete manual interface such as paper printing, paper collection, distribution and finally deliver to the exam center and it increases the chances of paper leak. One basic requirement of exam should be maintained. These should be right time of paper printing, collection, and distribution as per exam schedule. So, this project will be helpful to reduce the chances of examination paper leak. This methodology can be applied in many national level exam, university and board exam specially. This technology is helpful to reduce the government loss because there is huge amount which is spent on conducting exam on national level.
8.2 Future Scope

Theme of our project to develop a system which can assure total security of the examination papers, write from printing till it reaches the student/candidate (on the exam).This project aims at creating man less printing and packaging system with time stamp based security system for examination paper, that contain some important general life element like LAN system, conveyer belt, printing machine, safe box etc .Safe box equipped with timer, electromechanical lock system so that the goal of granting permission to centre authority for opening the box after a predefined time and date can be achieved. This project also uses a GSM modem so that information in case of any attempt to harm the box is sent a message to the board of examination and nearest police station. This approach is planned in such way that it would be not too much costly when manufactured in large quantity and also when compared with loss of money arranging the exam once again. The project will helps in removing the question mark putted on the steps taken for security available for examination system.
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8.3 Applications
The proposed outcome is Exam Paper Security System which can also be developed for further improvements. This project can be efficiently utilized in organizing examination of university boards and competition level exams. This technology is helpful to reduce the government loss because there is huge amount which is spent on conducting exam on national level.
It will also save the time wasted because of conduction of re-examination. If the paper is leaked then only one person is responsible for that who can be easily caught.
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CONCLUSION
In the project stage I, we have already done with the documentation part of the project and analysis and study of various module and components that will be using in the circuit. In the project stage II, we completed our project within stipulated time and done all the works ranging from PCB designing to interfacing of hardware and software.
Advantages
The traditional exam paper printing and distribution system (manual mtheod) is having so many loopholes and being a reason of exam paper leak. This offers a great financial loss to the government and exam boards due to re-conduction of the exams. Students also have to suffer from exam paper leak and time wastage due to exam re-conduction. This fact aspires us to make a real time application which can prevent exam paper leak. Parameter Paper printing counting Paper distribution Manual and A publisher Automated and Using a counter for paper counting and stop after counting limits. By smart box and conveyer belt. The centre authority will be allowed to give command. There is only single computer which will be controlled by Exam cell in-charge. The papers will be dropped and collected in a wooden box which is also called safe box. The box will be locked automatically. There is a known number of copies in the box. Now, this box will be passed to outside the room with the help of conveyer belt. The box will be collected at the window and respective box will be distributed to the centre respectively. Here we can observe that only one person is operating the whole process. In the project, there is very few chances of paper leak. Even though, if it happens then only one person is responsible and this will bring out the defaulter. There is no human intervention in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak.
prints
manual counting of papers. By different authorities.
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Limitations
1. Smart box circuitry should be monitored by the exam cell authority time to time. 2. If someone changes the data on Real Time Chip (dd/mm/yyyy) the paper can be bring outside the scheduled date of exam and time
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ANNEXURE
A1. DATA SHEETS
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
A2. CODING
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A3. COST OF PROJECT

1. Electronic Components And Devices Cost
S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Particulars
Glass PCB 8051 Microcontroller Crystal Oscillator (various) Chip Socket (various) Capacitor (various) Resistor (various) Push to on Switch Connectors (male and female) Network Resistance LED Positive Voltage Regulator (7805 & 7812) LCD (16*2) DS 1307 (RTC) Hex keypad Stepper Motor Electromagnetic Lock Diode Two Pins Connectors
Quantity
1 2 4 5 10 10 4 5 2 20 4 2 1 1 2 1 4 6 Total
Cost (Rs.)
180 100 30 25 30 10 12 20 24 10 20 240 80 240 300 2000 4 15 3340/-
2. Consumable Cost
S. No.
1. 2.
Particulars
Wooden Box Report Writing & Stationary Cost
Quantity
1 6 Total
Cost (Rs.)
1500 2100 3600/-
Total Cost of Project Rs 7000 (Approx)
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.mikroe.com/eng/chapters/view/65/chapter-2-8051-microcontrollerarchitecture [2] http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/embedded_system/8051_Microcontroller [3] http://www.freewebs.com/maheswakhede/lcd.html [4] http://www.8051projects.net/lcd-interfacing [5] http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/login.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%ieee.org
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[6] http://www.engineersgarage.com/microcontroller/8051projects/interface-lcd-at89c51circuit [7] http://www.botskool.com/user-pages/tutorials/electronics/2X16-lcd-and4X4keypadinterfacing-8051-assembly-language [8] http://www.beyondlogic.org/parlcd/parlcd.html [9] http://www.engineersgarage.com/sites/default/files/LCD%2016X2.pdf [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/registers [11] http://en.wikipedia/wiki/capacitors [12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/voltage_regulator [13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/light-emiting-diode [14] http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/led.html [15] http://www.itl.nist.gov/iad/mig/publications/AShistory/index.html [16] http://www.businessweek.com/1998/08/b3566022.html
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. Ramakand Gayakwad, Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits, Prentice Hall India Publication Company. [2]. Roy Choudhuri, Linear Integrated Circuits, New Age Inernational Pvt. Ltd. [3]. J. Bannet, D.W. Price, A. Rudys, J. Singer, and D. S. Wallach, Hack-A-Vote: Security Box, IEEE Security and Privacy, pg 32-37, Jan-Feb 2004. [4]. Michel Mouly & Marie-Bernadatte Pautet, The conveyor belt system for the box security, Pearson Publication. [5]. William Stallings, Wireless Communication, Tata Magraw Hill Publication [6]. Stephen ansolabehere, resudial security box attribute to technology, the Caltech/Mit box technology Project,version 2,march 30,2001. [7]. The History of box technology system Evaluations at NIST. [8]. L.Rabiner, A tutorial on hidden Markov models and selected applications in box technology Proc. IEEE, vol. 77,pp.257-286,feb.1989.
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EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

1.1.1 ORIGIN OF PROJECT

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF STAGE I

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.3 CURRENT PAPER PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

2.4 ORGANISATION SURVEY

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 2.1: PRINTING MACHINE

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

2.5 MARKET ANALYSIS

2.5.1 Market Analysis Inferences

2.6 ONLINE EXAMINATION

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.8: ONLINE EXAMINATION HALL

2.6.1 Drawbacks of Online Examination

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

2.6 MODIFICATIONS IN PROJECT

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

CHAPTER 3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 3.1: FUNTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Electro Mechanical Lock

Real Time Clock

FIGURE 3.2: BLOCK DIAGRAM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

3.3 WORKING OF SAFE BOX

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

FIGURE 4.1: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.2 CIRCUIT WORKING

4.3 PCB DESIGN

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Printed Circuit Boards

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.3.3. Types of PCB

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.3.5. Design of PCB Layout/Pattern

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.6 FLOW DIAGRAM OF PCB MANIFUACTURING

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.3.6. Film Making or Mask Making

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

4.3.7 Making of Printed Circuit Boards

Pre-processing Lithography Etching Stripping Drilling Testing Loading of components Soldering

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.7 DEVELOPMENT OF PCB

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.8: DRILLING

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

Bare Board Testing

4.4 PCB LAYOUT

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.10: BASIC CONTROLLER PCB LAYOUT

EXAM PAPER SECURITY SYSTEM

FIGURE 4.11: RTC PCB LAYOUT