Any spatial management system needs data.

Within certain limitations the maxim would apply that the more data the better. Certainly any management system falling under the overall heading of Fisheries or Marine Resources could not possibly function without having access to, not only large amounts of data, but also to data from a wide variety of sources in a potentially huge array of formats. Given these growing data requirements, then spatial management operations can really only function with the aid of Information Technology (IT) systems. There are now a wide variety of relevant computer based IT systems, some of which are general in their use, e.g. database management systems, spreadsheets, graphics packages, and some which have been developed specifically for fisheries (and related) purposes. These latter will be discussed in more detail in later chapters. Spatial management, and associated activities such as location analysis and spatial modelling, is most successful when there is the potential for the whole operation, or a particular problem being tackled, to be visualised in a realistic or pseudo-realistic format. Visualisation is based on the fact that half of the human brain is intended to interpret visual images, and in working this way it can cope with considerable amounts of information. Visualisation in the spatial domain is conventionally carried out via mapping or graphical means, with a map usually being described as a 2-D simplified representation of spatial reality. Spatial analysis has always been most successfully performed via a whole range of mapping techniques. Even for the non specialist there is an old adage which says - A map is worth a thousand words. Amongst those working in fisheries sciences, there has in the past been little recognition of the advantages to be gained for fisheries management from visually based mapping techniques - with a notable exception being the work of Caddy and Garcia (1986). Over the past three decades there has gradually evolved a branch of IT which is specifically dedicated to mapping and spatial analysis. This emerging technology is usually referred to as Geographical Information Systems (GIS), though it has also been called geo-data systems, spatial information systems, digital mapping systems and land information systems. Recently a new term has emerged - desk-top mapping. This latter term is clearly a response to the fact that many GIS software houses are looking to promote GIS as part of an essential suite of tools which will collectively make management decisions easier. The term itself has undoubtedly arisen from the concept of desk-top publishing. Also the term geomatics may be encountered, i.e. as encompassing the complete geographical information technologies. Exact definitions of GIS are made difficult since there are a wide variety of systems, each of which has evolved as a response to different software packages which are offering different functionality in order to capture various niches in the market. Any true definition however, must contain the idea that a GIS comprises of a collection of integrated computer hardware and software which together is used for inputting, storing, manipulating, analysing and presenting a variety of geographical data. Some authors contend that it is also useful to include the requisite geographical databases and skilled GIS personnel into the GIS definition. A GIS can then represent a set of working practices, management structures and data organised so as to utilise the spatial data handling functions of a software/hardware package. Although there has long been GIS's which might have satisfied a non-IT definition of an information system, e.g. the 11th century British Domesday Book or a series of Irish Railway maps published in 1838 (Bernhardsen, 1992), the first digital mapping programmes were

developed in Canada as the Canadian Geographic Information System in 1962. Since then developments have been rapid. It will not be important here to chronicle the evolution and growth of digital GIS, but useful sources for obtaining this information include Burrough (1986), Dept. of Environment (1987), Goodchild (1988), Tomlinson (1989), Star and Estes (1990), Faust et al (1991), Maguire et al (1991). What might be more relevant is to briefly see what those factors are which have led to the recent surge in digital GIS. The main developments can be listed as: a) The proliferation of data. Over the last two decades there has been a surge in the developments of data gathering methodologies. The technology behind some of these will be briefly examined in Chapters 2 and 3. This surge has resulted from the genuine need to see better management strategies implemented and from technology led applications, such as the growth in remote sensing, with its associated digital data output. Data is also much more widely available as specialist data gathering agencies emerge, plus the increasing ability to electronically transfer data. b) The reduction in computing costs. According to Rhind (1990) the cost of computing power has decreased by an order of magnitude every six years over the last 30 (years); thus what cost 1 to compute with state of the art equipment now would have cost about 10 000 (in 1968). In other words today's US$1 000 personal computer (PC) can do roughly the same as a US$1 000 000 mainframe computer could do 20 years ago. This trend is certainly continuing and thus the balance between costs and benefits have shifted significantly in favour of increased markets and opportunities for GIS. c) The integration of parallel developments. For the most part, GIS has been technologically driven. The applications stage of most IT systems lies at the core of a vast array of associated technology. This technology can usually be linked in an almost infinite number of ways so as to achieve any desired output. Not only have there been rapid developments in the requisite hard and software fields, but also in associated IT fields. For GIS these include computer aided design (CAD), remote sensing (RS), spatial and image analysis, digital cartography, surveying and geodesy, computer graphics, photogrammetry, etc. Figure 1.1 gives an indication of the progressive developments which have led to GIS availability on desk top PC's. d) Increasing demand for GIS output. There are several perspectives on demand, all of which are exhibiting extraordinary growth rates. To give some examples: i) GIS is being integrated into the management of a widening range of both public and private companies. GIS is also driven by popular demand for simple spatial map packages to identify markets, for real estates sales, etc., e.g. Atlas/GIS. ii) Quoted growth rates for GIS installations vary from about 14% per annum (Payne, 1993) to 35% per annum (Frank et al, 1991). This would obviously be a function of systems types, the number of systems already installed, individual countries, etc., plus what costs might be included in the installation.

iii) The numbers of organisations, conferences and professional publications dedicated to GIS themes. iv) An increase in the number and variety of GIS related courses both at University level and as offered by the major software houses. v) The growth of national research centres for GIS in many developed countries, and increasingly in developing countries, plus the move towards international standards in GIS. So it can be seen that the current rapid emergence of GIS is part of a complex amalgam of processes which are acting in unison to the extent that a cycle of GIS progress has been achieved - Success breeds success. It is difficult to obtain precise figures on the global market for GIS, e.g. the CCTA (1993) quotes estimates that the 1992 revenue for GIS hardware, software and services was US$2.33 billion, having risen from US$1.98 billion only one year previously, whereas Frost & Sullivan (1994) reports that global GIS revenues were US$1.24 billion in 1993, having risen from US$657 in 1989. The Frost & Sullivan figures probably exclude all hardware. At the present time the U.S.A. and Europe completely dominate the GIS market, but the fastest growth rates are forecast for the Pacific rim area (Frost & Sullivan, 1994). By the end of the century the annual sales of software and services will be about US$4 billion. Rhind (1993) has shown the following recent growth of the GIS market in Europe by various sectors of the economy (Figure 1.2).