Temperatures range from -40 to 35 centigrade.

The Caucasus is a mountainous country located south of the East European plain, between the Black Sea in the west and the Caspian Sea in the east. The position of the Caucasus between Europe and Asia has long been a source of disagreement between geographers and politicians: does the region belong in Europe or in Asia? The Caucasus is often divided into two parts: the Northern Caucasus and Transcaucasia. These are separated by the Glavny (Vodorazdelny) Ridge of the Greater Caucasus. Although frequently used, this regional model is hardly appropriate from the physiogeographical point of view as it breaks the system of the Greater Caucasus into two parts, with the northern macroslope belonging to the Northern Caucasus and the southern macroslope being a part of Transcaucasia. More correctly at least three entities should be recognized: the Caucasus Foreland, the Greater Caucasus, and Transcaucasia. The Greater Caucasus includes three provinces: northern macro-slope, southern macroslope, and the central part. This is further subdivided into western, central, and eastern sectors with the borders corresponding to the highest summits, the Elbrus (5644 m) and the Kazbek (5033 m). The Rioni-Kura depression, stretching between the Black and the Caspian Seas, separates the Greater Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Transcaucasia includes the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus, the ArmenianDzhavakhetian volcanic plateau extending beyond the borders of the former Soviet Union (FSU) into Turkey and Iran, the Talysh mountains, and the Lenkoran lowland (Figure 15.1).

This Global ecoregion is made up of 6 terrestrial ecoregions: Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe; Caucasus mixed forests; Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests; Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests; Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests; and Elburz Range forest steppe.

Although the collection of NTFPs (Non-Timber Forest Products) is an age-old practice in India and many other parts of the world, there is little concrete knowledge about the sustainability of long-term, intensive extraction of forest fruits, roots, shoots, bark, resins and other products, and what ecological changes follow the commercialization of an NTFP. Such information is required by foresters, conservationists and local people to understand the ways in which wild resources are being manipulated, the subsequent ecological impacts, and to foster sustainable use of resources. extraction of two species of NTFPs by the Soligas of the Biligiri Rangan Hills Today, in many parts of the world, harmful harvesting methods are threatening the very existence of NTFPs. In many places, traditional, non-destructive methods of extraction of NTFPs have been replaced by methods that are less time consuming and labor-intensive, but where the target species is damaged or killed during the process of extraction, NTFP extractions seem to be generally unsustainable.

Harmful harvesting methods and excessive harvesting of various products from the Amazonia have resulted in reduced fruit yields as well as damage to forest structure. Local communities in central India that collect flowers of Madhuca latifolia (Mahua) tend to break the apical twigs of the trees; such a practice affects flower production in the following year. Some other studies have reported forest degradation due to uncontrolled exploitation of forest products. In India, millions of people living in and around forests subsist on collecting NTFPs; local and indigenous people usually have usufruct rights to extract NTFPs from protected areas. A significant percent (over 50%) of the revenue of the Forest Department comes from NTFP extractions and 7580% of forest export income comes from NTFP exports, and these numbers have been rising. Extraction patterns of honey, soapnut, and Indian gooseberry have gone from subsistence-collections to large-scale commercial extractions over the last few years. The NTFPs extracted are contracted to traders or to cooperative societies and these products, either in raw or processed form, eventually reach the local, regional and, in some cases, international markets. So, if an NTFP becomes commercially valuable, can the levels of its extraction be determined and driven by market forces, and can such increased demand change the more traditional low-impact resource extractions? Today, with increased market demand, NTFPs have come to play an important role in largescale commercial income generation and employment in many parts of the world. The role of NTFPs in improving rural economies is well acknowledged, and in some cases can generate more income than timber. In Madhya Pradesh, about 4063% of the total rural income comes from collection and sale of NTFPs. There are many examples where harvesting choices and techniques have affected the extracted species and ultimately led to their depletion. The Soligas are an indigenous people who live within the forests of the Biligiri Rangan Hills in the Western Ghats. They make a living by extracting a wide variety of NTFPs such as fruits, soapnut, honey and lichens. The two focal species of the study, Phyllanthus emblica and P. indofischeri are commonly called Indian gooseberry or amla. The fruits begin to disperse around November and mammals such as sambar, barking deer, mouse deer and chital eat the fleshy fruits that fall to the ground, and regurgitate the hard fruits containing the seeds. The Soligas were given usufruct rights to harvest NTFPs and ca. 12 ha of land per family within the wildlife sanctuary to practice settled agriculture. As the income derived from settled agriculture is low, the Soligas rely extensively on NTFPs for their income; a Soliga household may derive up to 50% of its cash income from extraction of NTFPs. The most heavily harvested NTFPs are the two fruits from the Phyllanthus spp. which have a high potential for generating revenue and contributing significantly to the Soliga economy and subsistence. The Soligas harvest fruits from December to mid-February and sell them to traders through a tribal co-operative society. The fruits are used for preparing pickles, jams, herbal medicines, and cosmetics, as well as in tanning and dyeing. The harvesting techniques used by the Soligas at the time of the study were negatively impacting the very resource that sustains them. Lopping of branches reduces fruit production in the following year, and cutting of trees may make extraction unsustainable. A high percent of the tree stumps ultimately die and are further prone to death from fire. The survival of

reproductive adults is an important parameter that determines the rate at which populations grow. Thus, any factor, such as harmful harvesting techniques, that lowers the survival probability of adults will decrease the rates at which the populations grow thereby. The study was conducted while accompanying the Soligas on their harvesting trips for both P. emblica and P. indofischeri, the most heavily harvested fruit. These were some of the questions raised and answered. Did fruit production see an inter-annual variaton? There was considerable variation in fruit production in both species from one fruiting season to the next. In P. emblica, found in the deciduous forest, the average productivity during 19951996 was almost four times that of the following year. Fruit production in P. indofischeri in the scrub forest showed a substantial decline between the two time periods. What factors influence the Soligas decisions in fruit choice and the extent of collections? The Soligas tend to harvest fruits from trees that have larger fruit crop size. Similar preferences were observed among extractors of Brazil nut in the forest of Peru and Tagua nut in Ecuador, where fruits from the most productive trees were collected and the collection strategies ensured higher net gains while decreasing the risks. What are the techniques used in extraction? Soligas resort to lopping the entire or most of the canopy or cutting the tree during harvesting. The frequency of such harvesting techniques is higher in P. indofischeri in the scrub forest than in P. emblica in the deciduous forest; a greater percent of tree stumps were recorded in the scrub forest. Trees in the scrub forest are smaller in size and harvesters are unable to climb such small, unstable trees. Therefore, lopping of branches and cutting of canopies makes collections of fruits from the ground more efficient. In addition, harvesting techniques that do not involve lopping and cutting may require longer collection times since a single individual must climb the tree to collect the fruits. What are the direct impacts of harvesting techniques currently used by the Soligas on fruit production? Harvesting techniques, such as lopping, showed negative impacts on fruit production in the subsequent year in P. emblica. Lopping of major branches of the tree reduced fruit production in the following year. The effects of such harvesting preferences observed in the Soligas of BR Hills may be neutralized by the inter-annual variation in fruit production; trees that are heavily harvested one year may produce lower fruit yields in the following year and therefore, will be avoided by the Soligas. Moreover, current harvesting levels of fruits per se seem to have less effect on population growth rates than some other anthropogenic pressures. In BR Hills, the inter-annual differences in fruit production are more pronounced in areas that are burned than at those that are not. The fire season in BR Hills coincides with the flowering season. Intense fires can burn the canopy and destroy buds and flowers, leading to low or no fruit production in the subsequent fruiting season.

Do the harvesting techniques, specifically lopping, increase the susceptibility to infestations by hemiparasites? Infestation by hemiparasitic plants influenced the growth rates of trees as well as levels of fruit production in the two species. There was significant variation in growth rates subjected to the three treatmentsno hemiparasite infestations, hemiparasite infestations, and hemiparasite removal. Also, trees of both P. emblica and P. indofischeri that carried a greater load of the hemiparasites produced lower fruit yields. At the individual tree level, harvesting of non-timber products, such as fruits, may also lead to changes in flowering and fruiting patterns and lowered yields. These effects may be further exacerbated when harvesting of fruits act together with natural events, such as infestations of trees by hemiparasitic plants. Presence of plant hemiparasites may represent a drain of resources for the plant, the proximate effects of which may be manifested in slower growth rates and lowered levels of fruit yields. Thus, an assessment of sustainability of extractions of NTFPs such as fruits requires an approach that examines the effects of various forces apart from the most obvious, i.e., harvesting intensities. How can the current harvesting techniques be improved to foster sustainable use of Phyllanthus fruits? In BR Hills, NTFPs have always played a critical role in the subsistence of the Soligas and, over the last few decades, in their economy. The current patterns of resource use and extractions by the Soligas may be driven by market forces, such that low-impact resource-use is being replaced by harmful harvesting techniques. Improving the institutional and policy framework, and offering incentives to the Soligas for conservation and better management of their resources is an important long-term option. One such incentive involves value addition to the NTFPs, which will ensure higher economic returns to the Soligas for their efforts, thereby permitting a change from harmful harvesting techniques to more benign ones. However, the more immediate management intervention is to encourage the Soligas to adopt harvesting techniques that minimize the impacts of harvesting fruits on Phyllanthus trees by creating awareness. This is currently being done through meetings between the Soligas and various non-government organizations working in BR Hills, and participatory resource monitoring. The forests of BR Hills have had a long history of human influence through various activities, such as harvesting of fruits, fire and the spread of invasive plant species, and their intensity and frequency have changed over the years. Linking conservation and use of forest resources with the economic interests of local people can still be a viable management option that might foster sustainable use. Source: Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India, Aditi Sinha and Kamaljit S. Bawa in Forest Ecology and Management 168: 289300, 2002. Tags: BR Hills, BRT Sanctuary, Forest Rights Act, FRA, karnataka, Minor Forest Produce / NTFP, The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act

Leopard The leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) is the rarest species in the Caucasus,celebrated in many local poems, fairytales, and songs. Widespread throughout the Ecoregion a century ago, the big cat is now near extinction. Recent investigations coordinated by WWF showed that about 35-40 animals still inhabit the Zangezur Range in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Nakhchyvan), the Talish Mountains, and northern Iran. A small population survives in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and Iori-Mingechaur Priority Conservation Area. The leopard is listed in the Red Data Books of Rare and Endangered Species (Red Book) in all the countries in the Ecoregion. The subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN C2a). Striped Hyena The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is on the verge of extinction in the Caucasus. They live in plains ecosystems, including arid habitats and floodplain forests. Only a few hyenas remain within a very small range in the southeastern Caucasus plains (in Azerbaijan and a small area of Georgia). The species is considered by IUCN as near threatened (NT), and listed in local Red Books.

Brown Bear The brown bear (Ursus arctos) generally occupies mountain forests, but also occurs in high mountain meadows and open plains woodlands. While the brown bear is not included in the IUCN Red List, the total number in the Caucasus Ecoregion is less than 3,000 individuals, warranting protection measures. According to scientists, there are four subspecies of brown bear in the Ecoregion with complicated interrelations and overlapping ranges. Among these, two subspecies (U. a. syriacus and U. a. lasistanicus) are endangered and in need of immediate protection.

West and East Caucasian Turs Turs are endemic to the Greater Caucasus Range and therefore to the Ecoregion, and historically have had a very narrow rangeinhabiting only the slopes of the Greater Caucasus Range. The two species are differentiated by their horn shape. Turs live in the high mountains from 2,000 to 4,000 m above sea level. Capra caucasica The West Caucasian Tur (Capra caucasica) is listed in the IUCN Red List as endangered (EN A1d+2cde) and the East Caucasian Tur (C. cylindricornis) as vulnerable (VU A1d+2de, C1). Recent data suggests that there are around 3,500 to 4,000 West Caucasian Turs and about 25,000 East Caucasian Turs remaining.

Caucasian Red Deer The Caucasian subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus maral) is one of the most endangered species of wildlife in the South Caucasus, although the subspecies is not listed in IUCN Red List. In Georgia two isolated populations of fewer than 90 deer remain in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, and about 150 deer are left in the Lagodekhi Strict Nature Reserve. Fewer than 600 red deer are left in Azerbaijan in strict nature reserves. Turkey and Iran also harbor small populations of this species. In Russia, several thousand red deer are found along the Greater Caucasus Range. Over the past few decades, deer populations have decreased, but the exact number of deer remaining is unknown.

Bezoar Goat The bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus), or wild goat, is now endangered, found only in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range and in the southern portion of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. Today, there are several highly isolated populations of bezoar goats in different regions. Around 1,000 bezoar goats live in Dagestan and about 3,000 in Armenia (Khosrov Strict Nature Reserve, southern Armenia) and the bordering part of Nakhchyvan (Azerbaijan). Small populations live in Georgia (300 individuals) on the border with Russias Dagestan. The bezoar goat is now listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde) and in the Red Books of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia.

Gmelins Mouflon The rare Gmelins or Armenian mouflon (Ovis ammon gmelinii) is an endemic subspecies of wild sheep. Today there are no more than several hundred of the animals left in southern Armenia and in the Nakhchyvan Autonomous Republic in Azerbaijan. This species is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU A2cde).

Caucasian Chamois The Caucasian chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica) is one of the more remarkable mountain ungulates. Although data on chamois numbers are scarce, it is thought that approximately 3,500 chamois remain in the Kavkazsky Strict Nature Reserve in Russia, and a much smaller population resides in the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain within Georgia and Turkey. This subspecies is listed in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU C1).

Goitred Gazelle The goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), or djeiran, remains only in the Kura Lowlands. A hundred years ago, 50-60,000 gazelles roamed the steppe, but by the end of the 1940s, only 5,000 remained in Azerbaijan. The population fell to catastrophic levels in 1961 only 130 animals were left near the mouth of the Kura River. Conservation measures, including creation of the Byandovan Sanctuary in 1961 and the Shirvan Strict Nature Reserve in 1969, helped save the population from extinction in the South Caucasus. Gazelle numbers in the Shirvan protected areas (Shirvan National Park, Shirvan Strict ature Reserve and Byandovan Sanctuary) grew to more than 4,500 by 2003. A small population of 300 gazelles lives in the Korchay Sanctuary. The goitred gazelle is listed in the IUCN Red List as near threatened (NT) and in the Azerbaijan Red Book.

Pygmy Cormorant In the Caucasus the pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus) is a nesting, migratory, and wintering species. It is globally threatened, classified as near threatened (NT) by IUCN and by Birdlife International as vulnerable in Europe. This bird prefers lowland freshwater and brackish habitats, where fish are easily caught. In the southern Transcaucasia, every lake or body of water covered with reeds has breeding populations of this species.

Imperial Eagle The imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) is predominantly a lowland species, but has been pushed to higher altitudes by human pressures. The eagle is found primarily in the southeastern part of the Ecoregion, in lowland forests along the Araz (Araks), Kura, Alazani, Iori, and Khrami rivers, and in lowlands and foothills westward to the eastern slopes of the Trialeti Ridge. The total global population is estimated at 363 to 604 pairs. In Europe the eagle has suffered a rapid decline in recent decades, and the species is now extremely rare or extinct in many areas. The imperial eagle is classified as vulnerable at the global level by IUCN (VU C1) and endangered at the European level by BirdLife International.

Cinereous vulture Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus), or Eurasian black vultures, feed on carrion and nest in loosely knit groups. Their distribution extends from Spain in the west to Mongolia and Russia in the east. In the Caucasus the species is found mostly in Azerbaijan, in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. In most places, the range and abundance of the cinereous vulture has declined. The cinereous vulture is classified by IUCN as near threatened (NT) globally.

Caucasian Black Grouse The Caucasian black grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi) inhabits areas above timberline in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains, usually at an elevation from 1,500 to 3,300 m above sea level and more often from 2,200 to 2,600 m. The distribution is continuous in the Greater Caucasus, where the population numbers several tens of thousands, but distribution is patchier in the Lesser Caucasus, where the number of birds is probably much lower. This species is listed by IUCN as a species for which data are deficient (DD).

Marbled Duck The marbled duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris) has a scattered distribution in the western Mediterranean, the eastern Mediterranean and western and southern Asia. The species sporadically occurs in Georgia, but is more common in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. It appears to have suffered a rapid population decline largely as a result of extensive habitat destruction. Over 50% of the ducks suitable habitat may have been destroyed during the 20th century. The species qualifies as vulnerable (VU A2cd+3cd a) according to IUCN.

White-headed Duck The white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala) has a wide rangefrom Spain to Mongolia. Within the Caucasus Ecoregion, significant populations of whiteheaded ducks breed primarily in Russia, Turkey, Iran, and Armenia. The white-headed duck is a globally threatened species classified as endangered (EN A2bcde) at the global level by IUCN and at the European level by BirdLife International. Bird counts conducted in mid-winter have indicated that the population has undergone a very rapid decline of as much as 60% in the last decade.

Caucasian Salamander The Caucasian salamander (Mertensiella caucasica) is an endemic of the western Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. The species distribution is sporadic 24 local populations are known across Georgia to Turkey. One local population usually consists of several hundred individuals. Geographic populations from the watershed of the Kura River and rivers in the Black Sea Basin show fixed genetic differences, and are likely different species which have been isolated for more than five million years. It is listed by IUCN as vulnerable (VU B2ab(iii)).

Syrian Spadefoot The Syrian spadefoot toad (Pelobates syriacus) lives in Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Balkans, and the Caucasus. There are six small isolated populations in Georgia, four in Armenia, eight in Azerbaijan, and one in Russia. Since the 1980s, the species distribution has significantly decreased for unknown reasons, probably due to fragmentation of its range. While the species has not been listed by IUCN, limited efforts to coordinate among the three countries of the South Caucasus could help stabilize the species range and avoid further decline.

Sturgeon The Caspian and Azov seas are unique in the world in their diversity of species of sturgeon fish (Huso and Acipenser spp.). The seven species of sturgeon considered focal species are: Russian sturgeon (A. gueldenstaedtii), Persian sturgeon (A. persicus), bastard sturgeon (A. nudiventris), sterlet (A. ruthenus), star sturgeon (A. stellatus), Atlantic (Baltic) sturgeon (A. sturio), and beluga (H. huso). Russian, Persian, bastard, and star sturgeon, as well as beluga are all listed as endangered by IUCN. Atlantic sturgeon is critically endangered (CR A2d), while starlet is vulnerable (VU A1c+2d).

Species of Special Concern

Lynx Lynx (Lynx lynx) is listed as near threatened (NT) by IUCN. The species is widely distributed throughout forest ecosystems in the Caucasus. However, due its secretive habits and the absence of special studies devoted to its biology in the Caucasus, the exact distribution of lynx is unknown and even a rough estimation of the population size is not possible. Trends in population dynamics are similarly unknown.

Otter Otter (Lutra lutra) is listed as near threatened (NT) by IUCN. This species lives in quiet parts of river currents, avoiding densely populated areas. It is found in all kinds of landscapes, from sea level to 2,000 m. It is vulnerable globally. Trends in population dynamics are unknown. All individual habitats should be listed as areas of special concern.

European Mink European mink (Mustela lutreola) is listed by IUCN as endangered (EN A1ace). This is a small mustelid associated with water. The European mink lives in the plains forest belt of the Northern Caucasus. No appropriate data concerning numbers of this species or main threats are available. All individual habitats should be listed as areas of special concern.

Bats The following group of bats is considered as one species of special concern: Western barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Geoffroys bat (Myotis emarginatus) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Schaubs bat (Myotis schaubi) Endangered (EN B1+2c, C2a, D) Bechsteins bat (Myotis bechsteini) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Mediterranean horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus euryale) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros) Not listed Mehelys horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus mehelyi) Vulnerable (VU A2c) Seven bat species (Rhinolophus mehelyi, Myotis bechsteini, M. emarginatus, Barbastella barbastellus, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, R. euryale, R. hipposideros) were listed by IUCN in 2002 as globally threatened. Bats congregate in caves and old trees, forming large nursing and wintering colonies, often consisting of different species. Data on the exact distribution of these bats throughout the Caucasus are scarce, although one can suppose that their ranges roughly coincide with forest distribution.

Caucasian Snowcock Caucasian snowcock (Tetraogallus caucasicus) is not listed as endangered by IUCN, but it is an important endemic species for the Caucasus Ecoregion. The species is found in alpine areas of the Greater Caucasus. Unlike the black grouse, the snowcock prefers habitats in dry alpine landscapes (usually over 2,400 m), and is mostly found where there are rocks in the subnival zone.

Caucasian Viper Five Caucasian vipers are treated as one species of special concern for this report: Darevskys viper (Vipera darevskii) Caucasian viper (Vipera kaznakovi) Dinniks viper (Vipera dinniki) Pontic viper (Vipera pontica) Wagners viper (Vipera wagneri) Critically endangered (CR C2b) Endangered (EN A1cd+2) Vulnerable (VU C1+2) Critically endangered (CR C2ab, D) Endangered (EN A1d+2d)

Caucasian vipers are a group of species containing five narrow-ranged species included in the IUCN Red List: Caucasian viper, Dinniks viper, Pontic viper, Darevskys viper, and Wagners viper. Some other species are not included in the Red List despite their very limited

distributions. Caucasian and Pontic vipers are attributed to the forest belt, while the other species inhabit subalpine and alpine belts of both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. Exact distribution, population sizes, and dynamics are unknown. Persian Brook Salamander Persian brook salamander (Batrachuperus persicus) is near threatened (NT) according to IUCN. This species is an endemic of the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran. It is associated with the mountain forest belt. It lives in the upper reaches of small mountain streams. The brook salamander is an extremely secretive nocturnal animal. Its distribution is sporadic: only a few locations are known. Endemic Fish Two fish species endemic to Lake Sevan are considered as one species of special concern - the Sevan trout (Salmo ischchan) and Gokcha barbel (Barbus goktschaicus). Found only in Lake Sevan, these two species have a very restricted range. Sevan trout occurs in the lake, while Gokcha barbel inhabits only tributaries of the lake. While both species are intensely overfished and threatened by ongoing habitat degradation, neither is not listed in the IUCN Red List.

Endemic and Threatened Plants

Endemics

Pontic Oak (Quercus pontica) Quercus pontica, the Armenian Oak or Pontic Oak, is a species of oak native to the western Caucasus mountains of Georgia, northeastern Turkey and Armenia, where it grows at altitudes of 1,300-2,100 m. It is a small, deciduous tree or large shrub growing to 6-10 m tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm diameter and sparse, stout shoots. Its leaves grow to 10-20 cm long (rarely 35 cm) and 4-15 cm across, ovate, with a serrated margin with numerous small, pointed teeth. The fruit is a large acorn 2.5-4 cm long, produced in clusters of 2-5 together.

Medwedews Birch (Betula medwediewii) Betula medwediewii is a member of the genus Betula and is commonly known as Transcaucasian Birch or Medwedews Birch. It is a shrub that grows 5-7 m high, and is distinguished by glossy corrugated leaves that turn bright yellow in the fall, long glossy winter buds, and brown peeling bark.

Smirows Rhododendron (Rhododendron smirnowii) Smirows rhododendron is distributed over northeastern Turkey and Georgia. In the Caucasus Mountains it can be found under pine and rhododendron scrub at 1500-2300 meters on igneous and limestone outcrops often at the edge of spruce forest or just above the tree line. The plant grows up to 4 m tall. Leaves are 5-15 cm long and dark green. The flowers range from pale pink to deep, rose-purple.

Epigea (Epigaea gaultherioides) Epigaea gaultherioides is native to Georgia and northeastern Turkey. It is a small shrub that is typically about 10 to 20 cm tall at full growth. The leaves are evergreen, alternate and simple. The flowers are produced in mid-spring and are small, white or pink, with a five-lobed tubular corolla. The fruit is a dry capsule with numerous small seeds.

Chestnut-leaf Oak (Quercus castaneifolia) Quercus castaneifolia, the Chestnut-leaved Oak, is a species of oak native to the Caucasus and Alborz mountains of Iran. It is a deciduous tree that grows up to 35 m tall. The leaves are 10-20 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, with 10-15 small, regular triangular lobes on each side. The acorns are very bitter, but are eaten by jays and pigeons; squirrels usually only eat them when other food sources have run out.

Rare and endangered

Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia) Zelkova carpinifolia (Zelkova or Caucasian Zelkova) is a species of Zelkova, native to the Caucasus, Kakar, and Alborz mountains in the extreme southeast of Europe and southwest Asia. It is a medium-sized to large deciduous tree growing to 20-35 m tall, with a trunk of up to 2 m in diameter. The leaves are alternate, 4-10 cm long and 2.5-6 cm broad, the margin bluntly serrated with 7-12 teeth on each side. The flowers are inconspicuous and greenish, with no petals, and are wind-pollinated. The fruit is a small nutlet 5-6 mm in diameter.

Date Plum (Diospyros lotus) Diospyros lotus, also known as date plum, is a tree that is native to the Caucasus, the Middle East and South Asia, especially from China and Japan. This tree can reach up to 30 m tall in warm areas, but will generally be smaller. Leaves of the date plum are deciduous, and are about 10 - 12.5 cm long. Flowers are small and yellow-green. Mature trees bear edible small fruits in autumn.