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TURKISH GRAMMAR
REVISED AND ENLARGED ACADEMIC EDITION TRANSFORMATIONAL
TURKISH GRAMMAR
REVISED AND ENLARGED ACADEMIC EDITION
YKSEL GKNEL
Vivatinell Bilim-Kltr Yaynlar 2012
Grafik Tasarm Uygulamalar Vivatinell Press Yksel Gknel
Vivatinell Cosmopharmaceutics
Fetih Mah. Tunca Sk. No:2 34704 Ataehir / stanbul / TRKYE Tel: +90 216 470 09 44 Faks: +90 216 470 09 48
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am coming.
pred (VP)
um (ge*li*yo*rum)
subj (NP)
In Turkish, a personal concept is expressed by a personal suffix either attached to a verb at the end of a sentence, or expressed by both a pronoun in the beginning and a suffix at the end of a sentence. Using personal suffixes attached to the ends of the Turkish sentences (except the third person singular) is a grammatical necessity. Furthermore, the subject, verb, and object sequence of the English language differs in Turkish as subject (pronoun), object, verb, subject (suffix); or object, verb, subject (suffix): English: We are picking
V
flowers.
obj
subj (pron)
Turkish 1: Biz
subj (pron) obj
iek
obj
The reason why there may be two identical alternative sentences in Turkish is that one should compulsorily use a personal suffix attached to the verb in a sentence, but if he wants to emphasize the subject, he can also use a pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a personal suffix representing the pronoun at the end. If we use a sentence without a personal suffix, the sentence becomes ungrammatical although it is understandable: *Ben yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor. (ungrammatical) (Ben) yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben can be ignored.) *Ben sen-i seviyor. (ungrammatical) (Ben) sen-i veviyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben can be ignored.) As a general syllabication rule in Turkish, the single underlined consonants detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes as in the examples above. This operation of the oral
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The boy who was walking along the street found a watch.
who what
The boy who was walking along the street found the watch that I lost.
who what
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The parts that are not underlined in the sentences above are verbs. If someone wants to ask about these verbs he says, what did jack do?, and for the underlined parts he says, From where was Jack coming?, Where was Jack coming from?, Whom did Jack see?, etc. Consequently, it is possible to say that a person fills the subject and predicate logical storages using interrogative instruments. As in all natural languages, the Turkish language production system governs three groups of sequences. The first sequence is the logical sequence which governs the basic network of a sentence in which all sentences take form. The second sequence is the morphemic sequence which arranges the sequence of the morphemes in the Turkish words. The third sequence is the oral or phonological sequence which arranges the syllables and the overall harmony of the allomorphs in a sentence.
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r er ir
As one can see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one can build up
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However, when pronouns are used in the possessor position, they are suffixed with the [im, in, un, im, in, n] allomorphs: ben-im (be*nim), sen-in (se*nin), o-un (o*/n/un), biz-im (bi*zim), siz-in (si*zin), o-lar-n (o/n/*la*rn) Note: The single underlined consonants in the examples above show the consonants that detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs while the syllabication process is going on. Exception: su (su*/y/un). Example: (a*ra*ba*/n/n / h*z), (su*/y/un / h*z)
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ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutucuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck (little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby). [CE.IZ] allomorphs: [ce.iz, ca.z, e.iz, a.z] (innocence) kedi-ceiz (innocent cat), kz-caz (innocent girl), hayvan-caz (innocent animal), kpek-eiz (innocent dog), ku-az (innocent bird). [CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a] ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Russian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese), Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek). MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES [CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul] ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)
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zel-lik (speciality), zgn-lk (originality, genuineness), kararsz-lk (hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance), sreklilik (continuity), kararl-lk (determination, avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik) (idleness), yzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kt-lk (famine), sarknt-lk (molestation), kibar-lk (kindness, politeness), dayankl-lk (durability), bo-luk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence), yal-lk (agedness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk (irresponsibility), gayretke-lik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lk (callousness), tutarsz-lk (inconsistency), deli-lik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik) (ignorance), benzer-lik (resemblance), karamsar-lk (moodiness), gzel-lik (beauty), kzgn-lk (anger), bak-lk (immunity), dman-lk (enmity, hostility), budala-lk (stupidity, idiocy) MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS TO PRODUCE NOUNS In agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system, the last consonants of the last syllables of the verbs detach from their syllables,
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[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]
diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz- (ya*z) (script, text), l- (l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense), gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k) (jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t) (scales), art- (ar*t) (plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru) (question), rt- (r*t) (any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework), yet-i (ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l), (corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma, perfume), bl- (b*l) (slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), gldr- (comedy) do-u (do*u) (east), bat- (ba*t) (west), arp- (cross, times), bl- (b*l)
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[KN] allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]
se-kin (se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn (astonished), ili-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), pi-kin (well done, impudent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce), dz-gn (smooth), ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin (discouraged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack (noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stagnant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original), say-gn (honorable), yay-gn (common, widespread), kz-gn (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suitable, convenient), z-gn (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kn (inclined to do)
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O siz-i gr-d. O o/n/-lar- gr-d. In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them.
obj obj obj obj obj
Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i", "sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes in speech such as (be*ni), (se*ni), (bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*r). The /u/ consonant in "o/n/u" is a glide produced by the oral system of the Turkish Language to maintain the harmonic sequence of the language. The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by one of the "i, , , u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowel harmony rules when they are used as objects: Ahmet Aye-/y/i gr-d. Fatma Hasan- bul-du. retmen Ahmet-i yakala-d.
object object object object object object
In English: Ahmet saw Aye. Fatma found Hasan. The teacher caught Ahmet. Note: The /y/ glide (semivowel), which is a product of the Turkish sound system, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious link. As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is used in the object position in a sentence, it is compulsorily attached by one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs. If the common nouns are not definite, they may be preceded by sme indefinite determiners as the ones in English: Ahmet Hasan- grd. Ahmet ben-i grd. Ahmet tavan- grd.
definite obj definite obj definite obj
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[E] allomorphs: [e, a] When these allomorphs attach to nouns, pronouns, or nominal phrases (nominals), they signify the direction of an action, and change these nominals into adverbial phrases. These adverbial phrases are generally called adverbials. For instance: Aye mart-lar-a bakyor. Aye is looking at the seagulls.
adverbial prepositional phrase adverbial adverbial adverbial
Fatma biz-e bakyor. Fatma is looking at us. [DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta] These allomorphs signify the place, the state of a pronoun, or a noun by changing their function into an adverbial: Ahmet ev-de. Ahmet is at home. Postac kap-da. Th postman is at the door.
adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial
Aye masa-da otur-u.yor Aye is sitting at the table. Her ey aklm-da. Evrything is in my mind. Jane mutfak-ta. Jane is in the kitchen. Kitap-n ben-de. Your book is with me. Onun ba- dert-te. He is in trouble. When the [de, da, te, ta] suffixes attach to nouns, pronouns or nominal phrases they function as adverbials in sentences. The same adverbials in English are structurally prepositionai phrases functioning as adverbials. [DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan] When ane of the allomorphs of the [DEN] morpheme is attached to a noun, a pronoun or a nominal phrases, it signifies the starting point of an action, and changes the function of the nominal into an adverbial: Aye okul-dan geliyor. Aye is coming from school.
adverbial adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial
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NOMINAL PHRASES
It is considered that the mind has a logical system which manages three rational storages to fill to produce a sentence. These storeges are out of order before someone is born. When he begins learning his native language, these orderless storages sequence according to one's native language. For an English speaking person his logical sequence is "subject + verb + object", but for a Turkish spaking person this sequence is "(subject) + object + verbpersonal suffix". For instance: English sequence: I love you.
object subj verb
sen-i
seviyor-um.
In Turkish, using "ben", "sen", "biz", "siz" pronouns at the beginning of a sentence is optional, these pronouns are only used when they are stressed. However, using the personal suffixes repesenting these pronouns at the ends of the sentences is a grammatical rule. Therefore, these pronouns are showed in parentheses. However, although the third person singular has the pronoun "o", which means "he", "she", or "it", the sentences containing this pronoun does not need a personal suffix representing "o" pronoun. A sentence without a personal suffix at the end of a sentence means that the sentence is the third person singular. For instance the followig two Turkish sentences are identical: (O) sen-i seviyor-.. He, she or it loves you. Sen-i seviyor-. He, she or it loves you. Although the sentenes given above are all simple sentences, the human mind uses the same flexible subject, verb, object storages to produce all the sentences in a language whether they are long or short. 1a: All pronouns can be used as subjects such as: "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "o/n/-lar". (I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they) 1b: All pronouns can be used as objects such as "ben-i", "sen-i", "onu", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them)
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Ahmet's coming to school late made the teacher angry. 4bb: The [me, me] infinitives can be used in noun compounds as objects: (Ben-im) baba-am (ben-im) futbol oyna-ma-am- istemiyor.
(noun compound) subj NP (nound compound-) object NP VP | verb
Definite noun compounds in Turkish are suffixed by personal allomorphs both at the possessor and possessed parts of a noun compound. As these two personal allomorphs bear the same meaning, the possessor pronouns in the possessor parts of a noun compound can be ignored because the allomorphs attached to the possessed parts bear the same meaning as the allomorphs attached to the possessor parts of a compound. Namely, "babaam" means, "ben-im baba-am", and "futbol oyna-ma-am" means, "ben-im futbol oyna-ma-am". The sentence above is generally said and written as follows: Baba-am
noun comp subj NP
4ca: The [i, , , u, es, a] infinitives can be used in noun compouns in a limited number in certain expressions:
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(predicate) VP The players waited until the final whistle of the match. 4da: The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] infinitives can be used in noun compounds: "(ben-im) git-tik-im", "(sen-in) git-tik-in)", "(o-/n/un) git-tik-i)", "(biz-im git-tiki.miz)", "(siz-in git-tik-i.niz)", "o/n/-lar-n git-tik-i". (be*nim / git*ti*im), (se*nin / git*ti*in), (o*nun / git*ti*i), etc. "(ben-im) gr-dk-m", "(sen-in) gr-dk-n". (be*nim / gr*d*m), etc. The noun compounds above can be used as objects: (Ben) o-/n/un iit-tik-i-/n/i sanmyorum. I don't think that he heard.
subj NP noun compound-i-/n/i | (object) NP verb (predicate ) VP
The same noun compounds can also be used as determiners: Ben-im gr-dk-m araba beyazd. The car that I saw was white.
(noun compound) noun | determined determiner determiner determined | subject subject predicate NP NP VP verb predicate VP
Kzlar snf-a nee-/y/le girdi. The girls entered the class cheerfully.
subj NP adverbial adverbial (predicate) VP verb subj NP verb object adverbial (predicate) VP
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2. The birds were flying. that the birds were flying eat insects. the birds that eat insects
4. Birds eat insects. that birds eat insects 5. Birds eat insects. the insects that the birds eat 6. Roses are beautiful. the roses that are beautiful the beautiful roses 7. Roses are beautiful. that roses are beautiful The human mind can insert the nominalized phrases above into the "NP" segment of the phrase structure rules. The "VP" segment contains either an intransitive verb "Vi", which does not need an object, or a transitive verb "Vt" that needs a "NP" (an object). Therefore, a "NP + VP" base sentence-producing logical pattern may be rewritten either as "NP + Vi" or "NP + Vt + NP" for an English speaking person. However, a person speaking Turkish uses a different sequence "NP + NP + Vt" in the "VP" segment of the "NP + VP" basic sentence-producing pattern. Moreover, adverbs and adverbials should also be included in a Verbal Phrase (predicate) because their function is to add some significant concepts to verbs. The following example sentences show how transformed nominalized sentences above are used as nominal phrases in the "NP + VP" logical pattern: 1. I saw the birds that were flying above my head
NP V NP VP adverbial
6. The roases that are beautiful smell sweat. The beautiful roses smell sweat.
NP
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In general, as soon as thought is materialized in morphemes in a language, they are seperated into words, and placed into the linear logical phrase structure sequence. While this process is going on, the phonological rules of the language simultaneously divide the words into syllables and harmonze them in agreement with the general sound system of a language. The logical , morphemic, and oral (phonological) sequences behave independantly of one another in coordination to produce sentences. A morpheme that changes the meaning of a stem is called a derivational morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not change the meaning of a stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (ekim eki). Both the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. Some morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation variants that bear the same meaning as their morphemes. For instance, in English, when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun book, it is pronounced as /s/; in boy-s as /z/; and in box-es as /iz/. As they are the different pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named as the allomorphs of the morpheme [S]. Turkish sound system produce a lot more morphemes than English. This is because bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant changes due to the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish language when they are attached to stems, and to one another, and this process causes different allomorphs to arise. All the allomorphs of a certain morpheme carry the same meaning vocalizing differently, and therefore they do not change the meaning of the morphemes. The Turkish sound system functions independently of the Turkish morphemic system.
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I bought a book
subj NP | verb det + noun object VP
In the sentence above, Ben and kitap are structurally and syntactically nouns. In the following sentences, however, the noun stems attached to [E], [DE], [DEN], or [LE] morphemes undertake the role of adverbs in sentences. Adverbial means a word or words that function as an adverb. Jack
noun subj
okul-a gitti.
noun-[E] adverbial V
Jack is at school.
noun subj V prep + noun prep phrrase adverbial
ev - e
otobs - le geldi.
V
The other transformed nouns and adverbs could be found in the transformation section.
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onlar o/n/-lar-a (on*la*ra), o/n/-lar-da (on*lar*da), onlar-dan (on*lar*dan), oniar-la The infinitives that take the allomorphs of the morphemes above are as follows: bekle-mek beklemek-e (This form is not used; bekle-me-e (bek*le*me*/y/e) is used insted.), bekle-mek-te (bek*le*mek*te), bekle-mek-ten (bek*le*mek*ten) bekle-me bekleme-i-e (bek*le*me*/s/i*/n/e), bekleme-i-de (bek*le*me*/s/i/n/*de), bekleme-i-den (bek*le*me*/s/i/n/*den). These are the possessed parts of the noun compounds, such as: Ben onun bekle-me-/s/i/-/n/e alknm. I am accustomed to his waiting.
NP noun compound + e adverbial noun compound + den adverbial V
The following interrogative adverbs which ask for the adverbials, and the adverbials themselves are some of the fundamental language concepts in all natural languages: Nere-/y/e? (ne*re*/y/e) (Where?); Nere-/y/e gitti? (ne*re*/y/e / git*ti) (Where did he go?); Okul-a (To school.); Nere-de? (Where?); O nere-de? (Where is he?); Okul-da. (In school.); Nere-den? (From where?); O nere-den geli-
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Okul-a gitti. noun - [a] (noun-morpheme) (smin [E] hali) He went to school. to + noun (preposition + noun) (prepositional phrase)
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(ah*met / va*zo*/y/u / ma*sa*/y/a / koy*du ) Ahmet put the vase on the table. (Sen) o-/n/u masa-/n/n st--/n/e koy.
subj obj noun comp-/n/e adverbial phrase V
(o*/n/u / ma*sa*/n/n / s*t*/n/e / koy) Put it on the table Fare (sen-in) yatak-n-n alt--/n/a sakla-an-d.
NP chain noun compound-/n/a adverbial phrase V
(fa :*re / ya*ta**nn / al*t*/n/a / sak*lan*d ) The mouse hid under your bed. (reflexive)
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(si*ze / yar*dm / et*me*/y/e / ka*rar / ver*dik ) We decided to help you. ("To help" is a prep phrase used as an adverbial.) Jack'le George otobs dura-/n/a ko-tu-lar. (Ko is intransitive, otobs dura is a noun compound, otobs dura-/n/a is an adverbial.) (jack*le / george~/ o*to*bs / du*ra**/n/a / ko*tu*lar ) Jack and George ran to the bus stop. retmen bana bak-t. (Bak is intransitive, bana is an adverbial.) (*ret*men / ba*na / bak*t ) The teacher looked at me. ("At me" is a prep phrs used as an adverbial.) Jack top-u bana at-t. (jack~ / to*pu / ba*na / at*t ) (At is transitive, topu is its object, and bana is an adverbial.) Jack threw the ball to me. ("To me" is an adverbial.) Jack kedi-/y/e bir ta at-t. ("Kedi-/y/e" is an adverbial.) (jack / ke*di*/y/e / bir / ta / at*t ) Jack threw a stone at the cat. ("At the cat" is a prepositional phrase fonctioning as an adverbial.) Jack, Mary-/n/in kedi-/s/i-/n/e bir ta at-t.
noun comp-/n/e adverbial phrase
(jack~ / mary*/n/in / ke*di*/s/i*/n/e / bir / ta / at*t ) Jack threw a stone at Marys cat. retmen biz-e kz-d. (biz-e is an adverbial.) (*ret*men / bi*ze / kz*d ) The teacher got angry with us. O bana k. (Bana is used instead of *ben-e: adverbial.) (o / ba*na / a:*k ) She is in love with me. Biz Allah'a inan-r-z. (biz / al*la:*ha / i*na*n*rz ) We believe in God.
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All common nouns, infinitives, and transformed nominalized sentences can be used in the possessed parts of the noun compounds, such as:
ben-im okul-um
common N
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onun al-tk-
nominalized phrs (det)
irket
noun
Personal Suffixes Attached to the Possessed Parts of the Compounds: (ben): [im, m, m, um, em, am]: (ben-im sepet-im), (ben-im baba-am) When the nouns end with consonants, these consonants detach and attach to the allomorphs following them, but when they end with vowels, they join the first vowels of the identical vowels of the following allomorphs, which are showed in bold face. (ben): [im, m, m, um, em, am]: ben-im sepet-im (be*nim / se*pe*tim); ben-im okul-um (be*nim / o*ku*lum); ben-im araba-am (be*nim / a*ra*bam); ben-im baba-am (ba*bam); ben-im gl-me-em (be*nim /gl*mem); ben-im bala-ma-am (ba*la*mam); ben-im turu-um (be*nim / tur*um); ben-im ene-em (be*nim / e*nem) (sen): [in, n, n, un, en, an]: sen-in defter-in (se*nin / def*te*rin), sen-in mesele-en (me*se*len), sen-in kutu-un (ku*tun), sen-in tarla-an (tar*lan), sen-in ev-in (e*vin), sen-in gz-lerin (se*nin / gz*le*rin), sen-in yz-me-en (se*nin / yz*men) (o), or a proper noun, or a common noun): [i, , , u]: In the possessor part of a noun compound either o, or a "noun", or an "infinitive" can be used. The possessor and the possessed allomorphs that attach them are as follows: possessor possessed example Jack-in okul-u Jack-in araba-/s/ perde-/n/in kumaAye-/n/in anne-/s/i
C-[in, n, n, un]; C-[i, , , u] . ..C-[in, n, n, un] V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u] V-[/n/in, /n/n, /n/n, /n/un] C-[i, , , u] V-[/n/in, /n/n, /n/n, /n/un] V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u]
In the table above, C represents a noun ending with a consonant; V represents a noun or a pronoun ending with a vowel.
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This similarity could be seen in the following two sentences: Bu benim kitabm. This is my book. Bu kitap benim. This book is mine. Bu senin araban. This is your car. Bu araba senin. This car is yours. Sometimes the [K] morpheme, which does not follow the vowel harmony rules and consequently has no allomorphs, is attached to benim, senin, o-nun, Jackin possessor pronouns. This morpheme generally means this one among others: Bu anta benim-ki. (bu / an*ta / be*nim*ki ) This bag is mine among others. u koltuk sizin-ki. (u / kol*tuk / si*zin*ki ) This seat is yours among others. Bu masa Jackin-ki. This table is Jacks among others. Bu araba Ouzun-ki. This car is Ouzs among others. The first parts of the noun compounds are syntactically determiners. For instance, in the expressions, the car, this car, all cars, and my car; the, this, all, and my have determining functions. Therefore, one cannot put a, an,the, or some before these words, such as *the this car, *the all cars, *a my car. The possessor parts of the definite noun compounds are words like the and some; therefore, in English, people say the gate of the garden, but in Turkish, people say bahe-/n/in kap-/s/, where bahe-/n/in is a determiner, so we can formulate bahce-/n/in kap-/s/ as D + N.
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(gen*le*rin / spor / yap*ma*s*nn / *ne*mi*nin / an*la*l*ma*s / ge*re*kir) It is necessary to understand the importance of the youngsters playing sports. PREPOSITIONS (ENG) and POSTPOSITIONS (TURK) (edatlar or lgeler) The English prepositions on, in, under, near, behind, in front of are all nouns in Turkish: st (on), alt (under), yakn (near), i (in), arka (behind, back), n (front) As all the words above can be attached to the allomorphs of the morphemes [], [E], [DE] and [DEN], they are nouns. Besides these morphemes, the allomorphs of [], which are also the allomorphs of the possessed morpheme [], can be attached to the above nouns to form the possessed parts of noun compounds: Masa-/n/n st- (ma*sa*/n/*ns*t) (the upper side of the table) (liaison) Kutu-/n/un i-i (ku*tu*/n/u*ni*i) (the inside of the box) (liaison) Karyola-/n/n alt- (kar*yo*la*/n/*nal*t) (the underside of the bed) (liaison) Sandalye-/n/in arka-/s/ (san*dal*ye*/n/i*nar*ka*/s/) (the back of the chair) The two parts of the compounds above can also be separately said: (ma*sa*nn / s*t), (ku*tu*nun / i*i), (kar*yo*la*nn / al*t), (san*dal*ye*nin / ar*ka*s). When the above compounds are used as objects, they take the allomorphs of the defining [] morpheme linked by the /n/ glides: Masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizledi-im. (ma*sa*nn / s*t*n / te*miz*le*dim ) I cleaned the surface of the table. In the sentence above, the first // is the possessed allomorph; the second // is the defining morpheme, and the /n/ phonemes are the glides linking the successive /a/, // and //, // vowels. In such compounds, either of the stressable syllables of the possessor or the possessed parts of a compound can be stressed. The dominant (primary) word syllables are symbolized in bold face, and the secondarily stressed syllables are showed in italics. See how the meanings of the sentences change when the primarily stressed words change in the following sentences:
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Dn kk bir ocuk ukur-un i-i-/n/e d-t. (dn / k*k / bir / o*cuk~ / u*ku*run / i*i*/n/e / d*t) Yesterday a little boy fell into the ditch.
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(Ben) masa-/n/n st--/n/ temizle-di-im. I cleaned the upper side of the table.
NP noun compound (obj) NP V NP V noun compound (obj) NP
The [] and [i] are the allomorphs of the defining morpheme [].
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Jack is at school.
(prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial prep phrs adverbial prep phrs adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial prep phrs adverbial
Jack okul-a gitti. Jack went to school. jack deniz-e dt. Jack fell into the sea. Biz bulutlar-a baktk. We looked at the clouds. Jack okul-dan geldi. Jack came from school. Top masa-/n/n alt--/n/a gitti. The ball went under the table. Kpek it-in st-/n/-den atlad. The dog jumped over the fence. Tren tnel-den geiyor. The train is passing through the tunnel. Jack anahtar delik-i/n/-den bakyor. Jack is looking through the key hole.
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In the examples above, the underlined English parts of the sentences are structurally prepositional phrases, but they are syntactically adverbials as they are in the Turkish sentences.
baka, gayr: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + baka (determiner) Sen-den baka kimse ben-i anlayamaz.
determiner NP noun NP V
(sen*den / ba*ka / kim*se / be*ni / an*la*ya*maz ) No one can understand me but you (except you).
beri: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + beri (adverbial phrase)
(Ben) sabah-tan beri alyorum.
NP postp adverbial phrs VP V
I have been working since morning. (Ben) sen-i (ben-im) ilk gr-dk-m-den beri seviyorum. NP NP (noun comp) nominal phrs postp V
postpositional adverbial phrs of time
(se*ni / ilk / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / se*vi*yo*rum ) I have been in love with you since I saw you first.
bu yana: noun or noun compound-[den, dan, ten, tan] + bu yana (adverbial phrase)
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(fi*yat*lar / ge*en / ay*dan / bu / ya*na / yk*se*li*yor ) The prices have been going up since last month. Ayak--/n/ incit-tik-i/n/-den bu yana Jack okul-a gidemiyor
noun comp-den postp postpositional adverbial phrase NP adverbial V
(a*ya**n / in*cit*ti*in*den / bu / ya*na~ / cek / o*ku*la / gi*de*mi*yor) Jack hasnt been able to go to school since he injured his foot.
(ge*en / haf*ta / di*na*zor*la*ra / da:*ir / bir / ki*tap / o*ku*dum ) I read an article about dinosaurs last week.
(sa*ba*ha / dek / u*yu*ya*ma*dm ) I couldnt sleep until morning. Koca-/s/-/n/n ev-e dn-me-/s/i-/n/e dek kaynana-/s//y/-la tartt
nominal phrs (noun comp)-/n/e postp postpositional adverbial phrase of time adverbial V
(ko*ca*s*nn / e*ve / dn*me*si*ne / dek~ / kay*na*na*sy*la / tar*t*t ) She had a row with her mother in law until her husband came back home.
(ev*de*dir / di*ye / ka*p*y / al*dm ) I knocked at the door thinking that he was at home. Aye telefon et-er diye (ben) ev-den ayrlmadm.
sentence used as a NP postp NP adverbial postpositional adverbial phrase sentence V
(ay*e / te*le*fon / e*der / di*ye / ev*den / ay*rl*ma*dm ) I didnt leave home hoping that Aye might telephone.
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TURKISH GRAMMAR, REVISED AND ENLARGED ACADEMIC EDITION dar: noun - [den, dan, ten, tan] + dar (adverb)
(O), para-/y/ de-me-den lokanta-dan (dar) kt.
NP infinitive- den adverbial adverbial adverb V
(pa*ra*y / *de*me*den / lo*kan*ta*dan / k*t ) He left the restauraunt without paying. Dar k! (d*a*r / k )
order
Go out!
We rowed towards the island. Baba-am-n ev-e gel-me-/s/i-/n/e doru anne-em sofra-/y/ hazrlad.
noun compound-/n/e postp postpositional adverbial phrase NP NP V
(ba*ba*mn / gel*me*si*ne / do*ru~ / an*nem / sof*ra*y / ha*zr*la*d ) Mother laid the table about the time father came back home.
dolay: noun or noun comp-[den. dan, ten, tan] + dolay (postp adv phrs)
Youn trafik-ten dolay okul-a ge kaldm.
adj + noun-den postp postp adverbial phrs adverbial V
(yo*un / tra*fik*ten / do*la*y / o*ku*la / ge / kal*dm ) I was late for school because of the heavy traffic. (Ben-im) okul-a ge gel-me-em-den dolay mdr ben-i cezalandrd.
possessor adverbial adv possessed -den | noun compound-den postp postpositional adverbial phrase of cause NP NP V
(o*ku*la / ge / gel*mem*den / do*la*y~ / m*dr / be*ni / ce*za:*lan*dr*d) The principal punished me because of my coming to school late.
(sa*at / do*ku*zu / be / ge*e~ / ha*va / a*la*n*na / var*dm ) I got to the airport at five minutes past nine.
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(bi*zim / e*vin / *n*ne~ / ku*le / gi*bi / bir / bi*na: / di*ki*yor*lar ) They are erecting a buiding like a tower in front of our house. (Sen) bir centilmen gibi davranmalsn.
NP postp adverbial phrs V
(kz / kar*de*i*me / g*re~ / ka*dn*lar / er*kek*ler*den / da*ha / ye*te*nek*li*dir ) According to my sister, women are more talented than men. Bana gre o ok iyimser.
postp adv phrs NP intens pred adj
(cek / fut*bol / hak*kn*da / bir / kom*po*zis*yon / ya*z*yor ) Jack is writing a composition about football.
(bi*zim / vo*ley*bol / ta*k*m*mz~ / i*yi / oy*na*d* / hal*de / ma* / ka*za*na*ma*d) Although our volleyball team played well, they couldnt win the game.
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TURKISH GRAMMAR, REVISED AND ENLARGED ACADEMIC EDITION ieri: ieri + V (adverb)
eri gir. (i*e*ri / gir ) Come in. ocuk-lar ieri gir-di. (o*cuk*lar / i*e*ri / gir*di ) The boys came in.
(ba*bam / be*nim / i*in / bir / bil*gi*sa*yar / al*d ) My father bought a computer for me. Herkes kralie-/y/i gr-mek iin ayaa kalk-t.
NP infinitive postp postp adverbial phrs V
(her*kes~ / k*ra*li*e*yi / gr*mek / i*in / a*ya*a / kalk*t ) Everybody stood up to see the queen.
(dev / ka*dar / bir / a*dam~ / gk*g*rl*t*s / gi*bi / gr*le*di) A man as big as a giant roared like thunder.
(ma~ / do*ku*za / ey*rek / ka*la / ba*la*d ) The game started at a qarter to nine.
(sen / *te*ki / kz*la*ra / na*za*ran / da*ha / g*zel*sin ) You are more beautiful compared to other girls.
(yo*un / kar / ya** / ne*de*niy*le / *ren*ci*le*rin / o*u / o*ku*la / ge / gel*di ) Most of the students came to school late because of the heavy snow fall.
(yat*ma*dan / n*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mi*tim ) (liaison) I had finished my homework before I went to bed.
(yor*gun / ol*ma*m*za / ra*men~ / a*l*ma*ya / de*vam / et*me*li*yiz ) We have to go on working although we are tired.
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TURKISH GRAMMAR, REVISED AND ENLARGED ACADEMIC EDITION zere: [mak, mak] infinitive + zere (adverbial)
Misafir-ler gel-mek zere.
NP infinitive postp postp predicate
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(ke*di / per*de*/n/in / ar*ka*/s//n/*da ). The cat is behind the curtain. Gzlk-ler-im ayna-/n/n n-/n/-de. (ay*na*nn / *n) (gz*lk*le*rim / ay*na*/n/n / *n/n/*de ) My glasses are in front of the mirror. Terlikler-in karyola-/n/n alt-/n/-da. (kar*yo*la*nn / al*t) (ter*lik*le*rin / kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da ) Your slippers are under the bed. Ben-im ev-im bakkal-n bitiik-i/n/-de. (bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*i) (be*nim / e*vim / bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*in*de ). My house is next to the grocer. Sen-in dkkn-n bakkal-n kar-/s//n/-da. (bak*ka*ln / kar**s) (se*nin / dk*k*nn / bak*ka*ln / kar**/s//n/*da ) Your shop is opposite (to) the grocer. stasyon sol-da. (is*tas*yon / sol*da ) The station is on the left.
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(o / bur*da) or (o / bur*da ) He is here. ("Here" is a predicate adverb.) Ben bura-da-/y/m (ben / bur*da*ym ) or (ben / bur*da*ym ) I am here. Kedi ura-da (urda). (ke*di / ur*da ) or (ke*di / ur*da ) The cat is there. Onlar ora-da (orda). (on*lar / or*da ) or (on*lar / or*da ) They are there. Onlar bura-dan (burdan) git-ti-ler. (on*lar / bur*dan / git*ti*ler ) They left here. Bura-dan (burdan) ayrl-ma. (bur*dan / ay*rl*ma ) Don't leave here. Onlar ora-dan ayrl-.yor-lar. (on*lar / or*dan / ay*r*l*yor*lar ) They are leaving there. Ben bura-/y/ hi gr-me-di-im. (ben / bu*ra*y / hi / gr*me*dim ) I have never seen here. ("Buray" is the object of the sentence.) Ben bu-/n/u anla-ma-d-m.
nominal (obj)
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(sa*at / do*kuz*da~ / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da*/y/m) (They want me to be at school at nine. (This is the rule.) (external obligation) renci-ler alkan ol-mak zorunda. (*ren*ci*ler ~/ a*l*kan / ol*mak / zo*run*da ) Students have to be hardworking. (This is their duty.) (external obligation) (Ben) saat dokuz-da okul-da ol-mak zorunda deil-im. (ben~ / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*mak / zo*run*da / de*i*lim ) I don't have to be (or neednt be) at school at nine tomorrow. (absence of external obligation)
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(Ben-im) saat dokuz-da okul-da ol-ma-am-a gerek yok. (be*nim / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*kul*da / ol*ma*ma / ge*rek / yok ) I neednt be at school at nine. I dont have to be at school at nine. Note: The last [a] is one of the allomorphs of the morpheme [E]. (lack of external obligation) (Ben-im) yarn leden sonra bro-da ol-ma-am-a gerek yok. (be*nim / ya*rn / *le*den / son*ra / b*ro*da / ol*ma*ma /ge*rek / yok ) I neednt be at the office tomorrow afternoon. I dont have to be (Siz-in) hazr ol-ma-an-z gerek-i.yor. (ha*zr / ol*ma*nz / ge*re*ki*yor ) You have to be ready. You should be ready. You ought to be ready. (external obligation) (onun) kayglan-ma-/s/-/n/a gerek yok. (o*nun / kay*g*lan*ma*/s/*/n/a / ge*rek / yok ) She neednt be anxious. (Biz-im) yeni bir araba al-ma-a.mz-a gerek yok.
noun compound-a adverbial phrase
(ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*ma*m*za / ge*rek / yok ) We neednt buy a new car. (Sen-in) kz-ma-an-a gerek yok. (kz*ma*na / ge*rek / yok ) You neednt be angry.
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Note there are two kinds of first person plural personal morphemes "[Z] and [K]" attached to time morphemes in Turkish. The time morphemes ending with consonants attach to the [iz, z, z, uz] allomorphs such as git-eriz, "kal-r-z, ksr-r-z, gel-i.yor-uz, etc. However, when the past allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu], which end with vowels, attach to the personal allomorphs, the first person plural allomorphs [ik, k, k, uk] are used. As the last phonemes of the [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu], and the first phonemes of the [ik, k, k, uk] are vowels, the vowels of the past allomorphs coinciding with the vowels of the [ik, k, k, uk] allomorphs join and verbalized as a single vowel such as: gel-di-ik (gel*dik), gr-d-k (gr*dk), yendi-ik (yen*dik), anla-d-k (an*la*dk), l-d-k (l*dk). As the condition allomorphs [se] and [sa] also end with vowels, they take the [ek] and [ak] personal allomorphs, such as: al-sa-ak (a*l*sak), yr-seek (y*r*sek), anla-sa-ak (an*la*sak), bekle-se-ek (bek*le*sek), konusa-ak (ko*-nu*sak), bala-sa-ak (ba*la*sak), dinle-se-ek, ezberle-se-ek Note: The glides "/n/, /s/, // and /y/" are the consonants (semivowels) produced by the phonological system of the Turkish language. These semivowels do not carry meaning. They only help to harmonize the speech production. Therefore, they are showed between slashes in sentences. Follow the example sentences:
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(onlar) : mi/y/-di-ler, m/y/-d-lar, m/y/-d-ler, mu/y/-du-lar The identical vowels that attach to one another unite, and verbalize as a single vowels: i-i i; - ; - ; u-u u; e-e e; a-a a Although these words follow the vowel harmony rule patterns when they are articulated and written, they are considered to be words, and so they are separately written. The /y/ consonants used above are all glides. Dn hasta m/y/-d-n? (dn / has*ta / m/y/*dn ) Were you ill yesterday? Ma skc m/y/-d? (ma / s*k*c / m/y/*d ) Was the match boring? ocuk-lar mutlu mu/y/-du-(lar)? (o*cuk*lar / mut*lu / mu/y/*du*lar ) Were the children happy? Sorular zor mu/y/-du? (so*ru*lar / zor / mu/y/*du ) Were the questions difficult? Onlar zengin mi/y/-di-(ler)? (on*lar / zen*gin / mi/y/*di*ler ) Were they wealthy? Mutlu mu/y/-du-un? (mut*lu / mu/y/*dun ) Were you happy? The [mi, m, m, mu] question allomorphs can also be used after the primarily stressed words:
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THERE IS, THERE ARE; HAVE, HAVE GOT Var & Yok
The equivalents of the above expressions in Turkish are -de var, -da var, and ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un var. Consider the following sentences: Garaj-da bir araba var. (ga*raj*da / bi*ra*ra*ba / var ) (liaison) There is a car in the garage. (exist) Garajda (ben-im) sadece bir araba-am var.
noun compound
(ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*bam / var ) I have (got) only one car in the garage. (possess) Uak-ta on yolcu var. (u*ak*ta / on / yol*cu / var ) There are ten passengers on the plane. (exist) (Ben-im) iki kz-m var.
noun compound
(be*nim / i*ki / k*zm / var ) Ive (got) two daughters. (possess) (Sen-in) ka erkek karde-in var?
noun compound
(se*nin~/ ka / er*kek / kar*de*in / var) How many brothers have you? (Sen-in) ka para-an var?
noun compound
(se* nin / ka / pa*ran / var) How much money have you got? (possess) The negative of var is yok: Garaj-da hi araba yok. (ga*raj*da / hi / ar*ra*ba / yok ) There arent any cars in the garage. (not exist)
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(be*nim / a*ra*bam / yok ) I havent got a car. (not possess) The past form of the above expression is var-d; there was, had got: Garaj-da sadece bir araba var-d. (ga*raj*da / sa:*de*ce / bir / a*ra*ba / var*d ) There was only one car in the garage. (exist) (Ben-im) ok para-am var-d. I had (got) a lot of money. (possess)
noun compound
Uak-ta on yolcu var-d. There were ten passengers on the plane. (exist) The negative form of var-d is yok-tu: there wasnt, didnt have: Yirmi sene nce (ben-im) ok para-am yok-tu.
noun compound
I didnt have much money twenty years ago. (not possess) Mutfak-ta bir masa yok-tu. (mut*fak*ta / bir / ma*sa / yok*tu ) There wasnt a table in the kitchen. (not exist) Duvar-lar-da hi resim yok-tu. (du*var*lar*da / hi / re*sim / yok*tu ) There werent any pictures on the walls. (not exist) There were no pictures Onun hi ocuk-u yok-tu. (o*nun / hi / o*cu*u / yok*tu ) He didnt have any children. (not possess) He had no children. Garaj-da hi araba var m/y/-d? (ga*raj*da / hi / a*ra*ba / var / m/y/*d ) Were there any cars in the garage?
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(be*nim~ / ok / pa*ram / var*d ) I used to have a lot of money. (possessed in the past, not now)
THERE MUST (MAY) (SHOULD) BE, THERE CANT BE, THERE IS GOING TO BE, THERE WILL BE
Ol-ma.l (there must be); ol-a.maz (o*la*maz) (there cant be); ola.cak (o*la*cak) (there is going to be, there will be); "ol-a.bil-ir" (o*la*bi*lir) (there may be); ol-ma-/s/ gerek-ir (ol*ma*/s/ / ge*re*kir) (there should be) expressions should also be included in the above sentence types: ler-de bir kaza ol-ma.l. (i*ler*de / bir / ka*za: / ol*ma*l ) There must be an accident ahead. Bir yanl anla-ma ol-ma.l. (bir / yan*l / an*la*ma / ol*ma*l ) There must be a misunderstanding. Bu mektup-ta bir yanllk ol-a.maz. (bu / mek*tup*ta / bir / yan*l*lk / o*la*maz ) There cant be a mistake in this letter. Kavga k-a.cak (ol-a.cak). (kav*ga / *ka*cak ) There is going to be a fight. Bir hava saldrs ol-a.cak. (bir / ha*va / sal*d*r*s / o*la*cak ) There is going to be an air raid. Bu mektup-ta baz yanl-lar ol-a.bil-ir. (bu / mek*tup*ta~ / ba:*z / yan*l*lar / o*la*bi*lir ) There may be some mistakes in this letter.
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WISH (stek)
To turn a verb stem or frame into the wish mood, [e, a] and the personal allomorphs are added: Al-a-/y/m. (a*la*/y/m ) Let me take. Bak-a-/y/m! (ba*ka*/y/m ) Let me see! (Let me have a look!) Git-e-/y/im. (gi*de*/y/im ) Let me go. All the verb stems used above end with consonants, but when they end with vowels, the /y/ glides are inserted between their last vowels and the [e, a] allomorphs: Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*/y/e*/y/im ) or (bek*li*ye*yim ) Let me wait. However, in speech, the /y/e syllable attached to bekle drops, and the word becomes (bek*le*yim ). Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*yim ) Let me wait. Ertele-/y/e-/y/im. (er*te*le*yim ) Let me postpone. Anla-/y/a-/y/m. (an*la*ym ) Let me understand For the first person plural, [li-im], or [l-m] personal allomorphs are used after the [e, a] allomorphs: Al-a-l-m. (a*la*lm ) Let us take (buy). Se-e-li-im. (se*e*lim ) Let us choose. Bala-/y/a-l-m. (ba*la*/y/a*lm ) Let us begin. Oku-/y/a-l-m. (o*ku*/y/a*lm ) Let us read. Bekle-/y/e-li-im. (bek*le*/y/e*lim ) Let us wait. The verb stems above ending with vowels, such as "bala", "oku" and "bekle" are attached to the [e, a] wish allomorphs with the /y/ glides. Sometimes "gidem", "olam", "gidesin", "olasn", "gide", "ola" words are heard in prayers and curses, such as "Cehennem-e gide-sin!" (Go to Hell!), "Tuttuun altn ola!" (I wish what you hold be gold!)
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We take or buy.
(Biz) gtr-r-z. (g*t*r*rz ) We take ... to. (Biz) otur-ur-uz. (o*tu*ru*ruz ) We sit. (Biz) bekle-er-iz. (bek*le*riz ) We wait. (Biz) bala-ar-z. (ba*la*rz ) We start. (Biz) yen-il-ir-iz. (ye*ni*li*riz ) We are beaten, defeated. (passive) (Siz) yz-er-si.niz. (y*zer*si*niz ) You swim. (Siz) al-r-s.nz. (a*lr*s*nz ) You take or buy. (Siz) gtr-r-s.nz. (g*t*rr*s*nz ) You take ... to (Siz) otur-ur-su.nuz. (o*tu*rur*su*nuz ) You sit. (Siz) oku-ur-su.nuz. (o*kur*su*nuz ) You read. (Siz) u-ar-s.nz. (u*ar*s*nz ) You fly. (Siz) anla-a-r-s.nz. (an*la*r*s*nz ) You reach an agreement. (reciprocal) (Onlar) yz-er-ler. (y*zer*ler ) They swim. (Onlar) al-r-lar. (a*lr*lar ) They take or buy. (Onlar) sakla-ar-lar. (sak*lar*lar ) They hide. (Onlar) gtr-r-ler. (g*t*rr*ler ) They take ... to (Onlar) otur-ur-lar. (o*tu*rur*lar ) They sit. (onlar) yr-r-ler. (y*rr*ler ) They walk. (onlar) ka-ar-lar. (ka*ar*lar ) They run away. (Onlar) anla-a-r-lar. (an*la*r*lar ) They reach an agreement. (reciprocal) (Onlar) bekle-er-ler ) They wait.
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(k*zm / sa*at / do*kuz*da / o*ku*la / gi*der ). My daughter goes to school at nine. (intransitive) Ben genellik-le yedi-de kalk-ar-m.
subj adverbial adverbial intr verb
(ben / ge*nel*lik*le / ye*di*de / kal*ka*rm ) I generally get up at 7. (intransitive) Karde-im her sabah oda-/s/-/n/ dzenle-er.
subj adverbial object transitive verb
(kar*de*im / her / sa*bah / o*da*s*n / d*zen*ler ) My sister tidies her room every morning. (transitive) In Turkish, the order of a VP is different from that of an English VP. In English, its order is VP V + NP, but in Turkish, the order is VP NP + V. For instance: Ben elma sev-er-im.
NP NP VP V
I
NP
like apples
V VP NP
I read books.
NP V VP NP
As it is noticed, in the Turkish sentences above, the words elma and kitap are not in plural form as they are used in their English equivalents. This is because, if a common noun represents all of its own kind and covers all books or apples, these nouns do not need plural allomorphs "[ler] or [lar]" attached to them when they are used in the object or subject position. For instance: Benim kzm kitap okumaz. My daughter doesnt read books. Halbuki, kitap faydaldr. Books are useful, however. Gmlek-ler-im-i ben tle-er-im. I iron my shirts. In the last example above, the pronoun ben is not in the beginning of the sentence, which is its usual position. It is used after the object to em-
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SOME NOUN STEMS USED TOGETHER WITH ET, YAP, LE, OL, AL TO PRODUCE VERBS
In Turkish, some noun stems (which are generally borrowed words) are used together with the verbs et, ol, yap, al or ile to produce verbs:
et:
alay et (a*la*yet) (make fun of), affet (af*fet) (forgive), armaan et (ar*ma*ga*net) (present as a gift), ba et (ba*et) (manage, cope with), beraat et (be*ra*a*tet) (be acquitted), beyan et (be*ya:*net) (declare), buyur et (bu*yu*ret) (invite someone to), davet et (da:*ve*tet) (invite), dahil et (da:*hi*let) (include something in), daktilo et (dak*ti*lo / et) (type), dans et (dan*set) (dance), deli et (de*li / et) (make someone mad), dert et (der* det) (occupy oneself with problems), devam et (de*va:*met) (continue), dikkat et (dik*ka*tet) (pay attention to, be careful), dua et (du*a: / et) (pray, say ones prayers), elde et (el*de / et) (obtain), gayret et (gay*re*tet) (try hard, do ones best), g et (g*et) (migrate), haberdar et (ha*ber*-da:*ret) (in-form someone), hakaret et (ha*ka:*re*tet) (insult), hapset (hap*set) (put in prison, imprison), hareket et (ha*re*ke*tet) (act, behave, start), hata et (ha*ta: / et) (make a mistake), hayl et (ha*y:*let) (dream, imagine, picture in ones mind), hazmet (haz*met) (digest), hizmet et (hiz*me*tet) (serve, assist), idare et (i*da:*re* / et) (manage, control), iftira et (if*ti*ra: / et) (slander), ihanet et (i*ha:*ne*tet) (betray), ikram et (ik*ra:-*met) (offer someone to eat or drink something), ihll et (ih*l:*let) (violate), ikna et (ik*na: / et) (convince, persuade), ihra et (ih*ra:*cet) (export, expel), ikaz et (i:*ka:*zet) (warn), Imza et (im*za: / et) (sign), iml et (i:*m:*let) (manufacture), intihar et (in*ti*ha:*ret) (commit suicide), iptal et (ip*ta:*let) (cancel), isabet et
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yap:
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ol:
abone ol (a*bo*ne / ol) (subscribe to), destek ol (des*te*kol) (support, back up), gerek ol (ger*e*kol) (come true) kayt ol (kay*dol) (enroll), raz ol (ra:*z /ol) (be willing to, consent to), sahip ol (sa:*hi*bol) (possess), ahit ol (a:*hi*tol) (witness), ehit ol (e*hi:*dol) (die while fighting for Islam or his country), teslim ol (tes*li:*mol) (surrender to), ye ol (*ye / ol) (be a member), drst ol (d*rs*tol) (be honest to), kahrolmak (be depressed)
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THE VERBS THAT ARE NOT USED IN THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IN TURKISH
Some verbs that are not normally used in continuous tenses in English are especially used in The Present Continuous Tenses in Turkish, and strange to say, these verbs are not generally used in The Simple Present Tense. These verbs are as follows: adore, appreciate, believe, care, desire, forgive, hate, hear, know, like, love, mean, mind, miss, recall, refuse, remember, see, smell, seem, think, trust, understand, want, wish. Consider and compare the following sentences: Sen-i affet-i.yor-um. (se*ni / af*fe*di*yo*rum ) I forgive you. (The /t/ changes into /d/.) Sen-i sev-i.yor-um. (se*ni / se*vi*yo*rum ) I love you. Sana tap-.yor-um. (sa*na / ta*p*yo*rum ) I adore you.
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swim
intr verb
in the river.
adverbial
Olum gn-de sekiz saat uyur. My son sleeps eight hours a day.
subj adverbial adverbial intr verb subj intr verb adverbial
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BOTH TRANSITIVELY AND INTRANSITIVELY USED ENGLISH VERBS (The Ambitransitive English Verbs)
Some English verbs are both transitive and intransitive. There are few verbs used in this fashion in Turkish. Therefore, those who are studying English or Turkish as a second language face some difficulties in learning them. In the following list, you can find frequently used English verbs that are used both transitively and intransitively. The Turkish equivalents of such verbs and how their allomorphs change are given in the examples below: As it has already been noted, the identical vowels following each other unite, and the single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach
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Naturally, as all the allomorphs of the [D] morpheme [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] end with vowels, and the personal allomorphs [im, m, m, um; in, n, n, un; ik, k, k, uk; i.niz, .nz, .nz, u.nuz] start with vowels, the first vowels of the personal allomorphs coincide with the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and unite; such as in di-im (dim), d-m (dm), d-m (dm), du-um (dum), ti-im (tim), t-n (tn), ti-ik (tik), t-k (tk), t-.nz (t*nz), etc. (Ben) iki saat nce i-im-i bitir-di-im. (ben / i*ki / sa*at / n*ce / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim ) I finished my work two hours ago. (Ben) i-im-i bitir-di-im. (ben / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim ) I have finished my work. (My work is ready now.) Onlar geen hafta sinema-/y/a git-ti. (on*lar / ge*en / haf*ta / si*ne*ma*/y/a / git*ti ) They went to the cinema last week. Onlar sinema-/y/a git-ti. (on*lar / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti ) They have gone to the cinema. (They are at the cinema or on the way to the cinema.)
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negative:
The negation allomorphs [me, ma] are put after verb stems or verb frames, and then they are followed by the [di, d] time allomorphs, which are followed by the personal allomorphs respectively. The other time allomorphs that are used in positive forms [d, du, ti, t, t, tu] are not used here as a result of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs: Fatma-/y/ pazar-dan beri gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / pa*zar*dan / be*ri / gr*me*dim ) I havent seen Fatma since Sunday. Fatma-/y/ bir hafta-dr gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*/y/ / bir / haf*ta*dr / gr*me*dim ) I havent seen Fatma for a week. Fatma-/y/ geen hafta gr-me-di-im. (fat*ma*y / ge*e*naf*ta / gr*me*dim ) I didnt see Fatma last week. Daha ev dev-im-i yap-ma-d-m. (da*ha / e*v*de*vi*mi / yap*ma*dm ) (liaison) I havent done my homework yet. Dn bu oda-/y/ temizle-me-di-ler. (dn / bu / o*da*/y/ / te*miz*le*me*di*ler ) They didnt clean this room yesterday.
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positive question:
The question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], which are separately written, are used either after the verbs, or they may be used after the stressed words in sentences: Ahmet mi okul-a otobs-le git-ti? (ah*met / mi / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-ti? (ah*met / o*ku*la~ / o*to*bsle / mi / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet otobs-le okul-a m git-ti? (ah*met / o*to*bs*le /o*ku*la / m / git*ti ) Has Ahmet gone to school by bus? Ahmet okul-a git-ti mi? (ah*met / o*ku*la / git*ti / mi ) Has Ahmet gone to school? (All of the sentences are yes, no questions.) If the last syllable in a sentence is used with a rising intonation (), the sentence means, I am surprised to hear it, or I could not hear you well. If it is used with a falling intonation (), the question is a yes, no question. Mektuplar- at-t-n m? (mek*tup*la*r / at*tn / m ) Have you posted the letters?
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negative:
After the verb stems or frames, one of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs is used; and then only the [mi, m] allomorphs follow them according to the vowel harmony rules, and finally the personal allomorphs are added: O, al-ma-/y/a bala-ma-m bile. (o~/ a*l*ma*/y/a / ba*la*ma*m / bi*le ) They say he hasnt started working yet. (astonishment and complaint) Sen snav- ge-me-mi-sin. (sen / s*na*v / ge*me*mi*sin ) They say you didnt pass, or havent passed the examination. Olun dn okul-a git-me-mi. (o*lun / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi ) They say, or I heard that your son didnt go to school yesterday. Mektup-u at-ma-m. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*m ) I heard that he didnt post the letter. Teklif-i kabul et-me-mi-ler. (tek*li:*fi / ka*b:I / et*me*mi*ler ) I heard that they hadnt accepted the proposal. Ben-im oul-um dn okul-a git-me-mi. (be*nim / o*lum / dn / o*ku*la / git*me*mi ) I heard that my son didnt go to school yesterday. This type of verb structure is also used to express surprise: Kedi papaan-m- ye-mi! (ke*di / pa*pa*a*n*m / ye*mi~) The cat has eaten up my parrot! (astonishment and anger)) Kek yan-m! (kek / yan*m~) The cake has been burned (burnt)! (astonishment)
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negative question:
In negative questions, [me, ma] negation allomorphs are attached to verb stems or frames: Kap-/y/ kilit-le-me-mi-ler mi?! (ka*p*y / ki*lit*leme*mi*ler / mi) Didn't they lock the door? (Im shocked to hear that.) Ben-i gr-me-mi mi? (be*ni / grme*mi / mi) Does he say that he didn't see me? (I can't believe!) (Incredible!) Ev dev-i-/n/i yap-ma-m m? (ev / *de*vi*ni~ / yapma*m / m) Does he say that he hasn't done his homework? (anger and astonishment) Daha kalk-ma-m-m? (da*ha / kalkma*m / m) (surprise) Do you say that he hasnt got up yet? (How lazy he is!)
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Bir gn ben-i anla-/y/a.cak-sn. (bir / gn / be*ni / an*la*/y/a*cak*sn ) You will understand me some day. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.) Param ol-un.ca sana yardm et-er-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*rim ) I will help you when I have enough money. (The /t/ consonant changes into the voiced /d/.) (promise) Param olunca sana yardm et-e.cek-im. (pa*ram / o*lun*ca ~/ sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*ce*im ) I will certainly help you when I have enough money. (strong promise) The underlined /t/ and /k/ unvoiced consonants above change into the voiced /d/ and // consonants respectively.
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negative:
The negation allomorphs of this tense are [me] or [ma], which are followed by [e.cek] or [a.cak] allomorphs. When "me-/y/e.cek" or "ma-/y/a.cak" allomorphs follow one another, the successive /e/ or /a/ vowels are linked by the /y/ glides to maintain the harmonious link between these vowels: Toplant-/y/a git-me-/y/e.cek-im. (top*lan*t*ya / git*me*ye*ce*im ) or (git*mi*ye*ce*im), or informally, (git*miy*cem) I wont go to the meeting. (refusal)). The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /e/ vowels, and the unvoiced consonant /k/ changes into the voiced form //. Onlar-n teklif-i-/n/i kabul et-me-/y/e.cek-iz. (on*la*rn / tek*li:*fi*ni / ka*bl / et*me*ye*ce*iz ) We wont accept their proposal. (The /n/ and /y/ are glides which are inserted between the successive /i/ and /e/ vowels. The /k/ unvoiced consonant in ecek changes into the voiced //.) Yamur ya-ma-/y/a.cak. (ya*mur / ya*ma*/y/a*cak ) It is not going to rain. (The /y/ glide is inserted between the successive /a/ vowels.)
positive question:
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negative question:
In the negative question form, [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs follow the verb stems or verb frames: Biz-im-le gel-me-/y/e.cek mi-sin? (bi*zim*le / gel*me*/y/e*cek / mi*sin ) Wont you come with us? (The /y/ glide links the successive /e/ vowels.) When the question words are involved, mi-/y/im, mi-sin, etc. are not used: Saat ka-ta ev-e dn-e.cek-sin? (sa*at / ka*ta / e*ve / d*ne*cek*sin ) What time will you come back home?
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negative:
Although the negation allomorphs of this tense are [me] and [ma], their last vowels drop when they are attached to the allomorphs of [.YOR]: Gel-me-i.yor-lar-d. (The /e/ drops, and the /m/ attaches to /i/.) (gel*mi*yor*lar*d ) They were not coming. Onlar- bekle-me-i.yor-du-uk. (on*la*r / bek*le*mi*yor*duk ) We were not waiting for them. O ben-i sev-me-i.yor-du. (o / be*ni / sev*mi*yor*du ) She wasnt in love with me. O ben-i anla-ma-.yor-du. (O beni anlamad.) (o / be*ni / an*la*m*yor*du ) She didnt understand me. Ben uyu-ma-u.yor-du-um. (ben / u*yu*mu*yor*dum ) I wasn't sleeping.
positive question:
The question allomorphs of this tense are [mi, m, m, mu]. Each one of these allomorphs is separately used after any stressed word in a sentence: Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-i.yor-du? (ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bsle*mi / gi*di*yor*du ) Was Ahmet going to school by bus?
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negative question :
As usual, the [me, ma] negation allomorphs are used in negative questions: Onlar otobs-le git-me-i.yor mu/y/-du-lar? (on*lar / o*to*bs*le / git*mi*yor / mu/y/*du*lar ) Werent they going by bus? The double underlined /e/ drops, the /m/ attaches to /i/ and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mu] and [du]. Instead of gitmiyor muydu-lar?, gitmiyorlar myd? is often heard. When the question words are involved, the [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs are not used, and the verbs are in positive form: Ne yap-.yor-du-un? (ne / ya*p*yor*dun) What were you doing? Sana kim yardm et-i.yor-du? (sa*na / kim / yar*dm / e*di*yor*du) Who was helping you? (The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/.)
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negative:
The negation allomorph, which is used without the /z/ consonant for the first person in The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) negative, is used with the phoneme /z/ in negative used to tenses, such as git-mez, oku-maz. After this, the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and the personal allomorphs follow: Gen-ken basketbol oyna-maz-d-m. (gen*ken / bas*ket*bol / oy*na*maz*dm ) I didnt use(d) to play basketball when I was young. Okul-a otobs-le git-mez-di-ik. (o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*mez*dik ) We didnt use(d) to go to school by bus. Babam gzlk-ler-i-/n/i tak-ma-am-a izin ver-mez-di. (ba*bam / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*ma*ma / i*zin / ver*mez*di ) My father didnt use(d) to let me wear his eyeglasses.
positive question:
To produce a positive question, one of the Simple Present Tense allomorphs is attached to a verb stem or frame, and then, as a separate word, one of the question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], and one of the Simple Past Tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du] is linked to the question allomorphs by the /y/ glide, and finally a suitable personal allomorph follows them: Siz her gn ngilizce al-r m/y/-d-.nz? (alyor muydunuz?) (siz / her*gn / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*r / my*d*nz ) Did you use(d) to study English every day? (The /y/ glide is inserted between [m] and [d].)
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When I arrived at the airport, the plane had already taken off. (O) (ben-im) hangi lke-ler-e git-tik-im-i ren-mek iste-di.
NP NP (noun compound) (object of renmek) NP inf V
He wanted to know which countries I had been to. Daha nce (kendi-/s/i-/n/in) ben-im-le karla-m ol-duk-u-/n/u sy.le-di. (da*ha / n*ce / be*nim*le / kar**la*m / ol*du*u*nu / sy*le*di ) He said that he had met me before. The /k/ phonemes in [dik, dk, dk, duk] change into the voiced // phonemes.
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INFINITIVES (MASTARLAR)
In Turkish, the grammar term infinitive (mastar) covers both the gerunds and the infinitives of the English language. Therefore, we will talk about only infinitives. All infinitives are nouns made up of verb stems or verb frames. All infinitives are timless. There are four kinds of infinitives in Turkish: 1. The [mek, mak] allomorphs attached to verb stems or frames: oku-mak (reding, to read); yz-mek (swimming, to swim); yardm et-mek (helping, to help); konu-mak (talking, to talk); temizle-mek (cleaning, to clean); oyna-mak (playing, to play); tart-mak; tart-l-mak (tar*tl*mak); tart-mak (tar*t*mak; ka-mak; ka-n-mak (ka*n*mak; ka--mak (ka**mak); srt-mek; srt-l-mek (sr*tl*mek); srt-n-mek (sr*tn*mek); srt--mek (sir*t*mek); dv-mek; dv-l-mek (d*vl*mek); dv-nmek (d*vn*mek; dv--mek; ek-mek; ek-il-mek; ek-in-mek; ek-imek; at-mak; at-l-mak; at--mak; sev-mek; sev-il-mek; sev-in-mek; sev-i-mek; de-mek; de-in-mek; de-il-mek. 2. The [me, ma] allomorphs attached to verb stems and verb frames: git-me (going, to go); gel-me (coming, to come); al-ma (working, to work); eletir-me (criticizing, to criticize); anla-ma (understanding, to understand); ezberle-me (memorizing, to memorize); tart-ma, tart-l-ma (tar*tl*ma), tart--ma (tar*t*ma); gr-me, gr-l-me (g*rl*me), gr-n-me (g*rn*me), gr--me; ka-ma; ka-n-ma; ka--ma. 3. The [i, , , u, e, a] allomorphs attached to verb stems: gl- (g*l) (way of smiling); bak- (ba*k) (way of looking); anla-/y/ (an*la*/y/) (ability of understanding), gel-i (ge*li) (way of) coming); davran- (dav*ra*nu) (way of behaving), bekle-e (bek*le) (wait together) 4. The [dik. dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs attached to verb stems or frames:
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WHERE AND HOW THE INFINITIVES ARE USED 1 (a). The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used in the subject position of a sentence:
Yz-mek salk iin yararl-dr. (yz*mek ~/ sa*lk / i*in / ya*rar*l*dr ) Swimming is good for health. Sigara i-mek zararl-dr. (si*ga*ra / i*mek ~/ za*rar*l*dr ) Smoking is harmful. Gnde sekiz saat uyu-mak salkl bir kii iin yeterlidir. (gn*de / se*kiz / sa*at / u*yu*mak~/ sa*lk*l / bir / ki*i / i*in / ye*ter*li*dir) Sleeping eight hours a day is enough for a healthy person. (It is enough for.. Btn gn televizyon seyret-mek zaman kaybdr. (b*tn / gn / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*mek / za*man / kay*b*dr ) Watching television all day long is a waste of time. Onu ikna et-mek kolaydr. (o*nu / ik*na: / et*mek / ko*lay*dr ) To convince him is easy. It is easy to convince him. He is easy to convince
1 (b).The same [mek, mak] infinitives are used before yerine and iin postpositions:
Bahede al-mak yerine tenis oyna-d-k.
infinitive (noun) postp postp phrs (adverbial)
(bah*e*de / a*l*mak / ye*ri*ne~/ te*nis / oy*na*dk ) We played tennis instead of working in the garden. (Yerine is a postposition.) Televizyon seyret-mek yerine i-in-i yap. (te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*mek / ye*ri*ne~ / i*i*ni / yap ) Do your work instead of watching television.
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1 (c). The infinitives with [mek, mak] are used as objects of the verb iste" and the adverbial "zoru/n/-da" ("want, wish" and "have to")
Trke ren-mek iste-i.yor-um. (trk*e / *ren*mek / is*ti*yo*rum ) I want to learn Turkish. Trke ren-mek zoru/n/-da-/y/m. (trk*e / *ren*mek / zo*run*da*ym ) I have to learn Turkish. Bulak-lar- yka-mak iste-me-i.yor-um. (bu*la*k*la*r / y*ka*mak / is*te*mi*yo*rum ) I dont want to wash the dishes. Bu kitab oku-mak iste-i.yor mu-sun? (ster misin?) (bu / ki*ta*b / o*ku*mak / is*ti*yor / mu*sun ) Do you want to read this book? Canm okul-a git-mek iste-me-i.yor. (ca*nm / o*ku*la / git*mek / is*te*mi*yor ) I dont feel like going to school.
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2 (a). The [me, ma] infinitives are used in the second part of the possessor + possessed noun compounds.
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(Sen-in) gerek-i syle-me-en-i is.te-i.yor-um. (se*nin~ / ger*e*i / sy*le*me*ni / is*ti*yo*rum) I want you to tell the truth. senin gerei sylemen is a transformed nominalized sentence: (Sen) gerei sylersin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei sylyorsun (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei syledin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei sylerdin. (senin) gerei sylemen (Sen) gerei syleyeceksin. (senin) gerei syleyecek olman (Sen) gerei sylemitin. "(senin) gerei sylemi olman" The personal allomorphs attached to both parts of a "noun + infinitive" compound are as follows: (ben-im) git-me-em (sen-in) git-me-en (o-/n/un) git-me-/s/i (biz-im) git-me-e.miz (siz-in) git-me-e.niz (on.lar-n) git-me-/s/i (ben-im) al-ma-am (sen-in) al-ma-an (o-/n/un) al-ma-/s/ (ben-im) bekle-me-em (sen-in) bekle-me-en (o-/n/un) bekle-me-/s/i
Note: All the identical e-e, a-a vowels unite, and the single underlined syllables leap over to the following morpheme while the phonological component reorganizing the syllables. As the personal allomorphs used in the possessed parts of a compound are enough to express the possessive adjectives (ben-im, sen-in, etc.), they may be ignored unless they are thought to be necessary to attract the listeners attention.
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syle-me-en-de,
syle-me-en-den,
My father wants me to study harder. A final rule to add to the previous explanations is that in Turkish certain verbs need certain morphemes such as, [], [E], [DE], [DEN] or [LE] attached to nouns or pronouns. The allomorphs of these morphemes can also be attached to infinitives, or noun + infinitive (or infinitive + noun) compounds, which might be named as syntactic nouns or nominal phrases. 2 (b). The verbs that take noun + nfinitive compounds as objects:
noun + infinitive - []
Yamur, (biz-im) zaman-n-da tiyatro-/y/a git-me-e.miz-i engelledi.
NP possessor adverbial adverbial possessed noun + infinitive compound (object) NP V
(ya*mur / bi*zim / za*ma:*nn*da / ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*mi*zi / en*gel*le*di ) The rain prevented us from going to the theatre in time.
NP V NP prep phrs adverbial prep phrs adverbial prep phrs adverbial
I dont understand your behaving like that. (Ben) (o/n/-dan) (Ben-im) siyah pantolon-um-u (o-/n/un) tle-me-/s/i-/n/i rica ettim.
NP adverbial possessor possessed possessor possessed noun comp + [] (obj of tle) noun comp + [] (obj of rica et) NP NP chain noun compounds V
The mental development of this last sentence contains two basic simple sentences: 1 . O ben-im siyah pantolonum-u tlesin. 2. Ben ondan bu-/n/u rica ettim.
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piyano
al-ma-/s/-/n/ seyrettim.
V
(ma*ri*/n/in / pi*ya*no / al*ma*/s/*/n/ / sey*ret*tim ) I watched Mary playing the piano. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Ben) (Sen-in) ev-e dn-me-en-i bekle-i.yor-um. (e*ve / dn*me*ni)
NP possessor adv possessed noun compound (object) NP V
I am waiting for your coming back home. O/n/un konu-ma-/s/-/n/ anla-ma-.yor-um. (o*nun / ko*nu*ma*s*n / an*la*m*yo*rum ) I dont understand his way of speaking. (The /n/, /s/ and /n/ glides are respectively used.) (Sen) (Ben-im) sana kahve getir-me-em-i iste-er mi-sin? (sa*na / kah*ve / ge*tir*me*mi / is*ter / mi*sin ) Would you like me to serve you coffee? (Ben-im) onun-la evlen-me-em imkn-sz.
possessor adverbial possessed noun compound (subject) V
(o*nun*la / ev*len*mem / im*kn*sz ) It is impossible for me to marry her. (Benim is optional.) (Ben) onu, (o-nun) bize yardm et-me-/s/i iin ikna et-ti-im. (ik*na: / et*tim)
subj obj noun + inf comp (object of iin) postp. postpositional phrase of purpose V
I convinced him to help us In the sentence above, the /s/ is a glide; onun is not necessary, it is put there to show the reader the deleted "possessor" part of the compound.
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2 (c). The verbs that need noun + infinitive compounds followed by [e], or [a] allomorphs:
Baba-am, (ben-im) futbol ma--/n/a git-me-em-e izin ver-di. (git*me*me)
NP noun + infinitive compound - [e] (adverbial phrs) V
My father allowed me to go to the football match. Babam, kzkarde-im-in gece yalnz sinema-/y/a git-me-/s/i-/n/e kzd.
NP possessor adv adv adverbial possessed noun + infinitive compound + [e] = adverbial phrs V
My father got angry about my sisters going to the cinema alone at night. Babam, araba-/s/-/n/ (ben-im) kullan-ma-am-a hi izin ver-me-i.yor. (ba*bam / a*ra*ba*s*n / kul*lan*ma*ma / hi / i*zin / ver*mi*yor ) My father is never allowing me to use his car. (Complaint) (benim is optional) Babam (benim) balk tut-ma-/y/a git-me-em-e itiraz et-ti (kar durdu). (ba*bam~ / ba*lk / tut*ma*ya / git*me*me / i:*ti*ra:z / et*ti ) My father objected to my going fishing. (benim is optional)
My mother dislikes my (me) coming home late. There are two basic simpe sentences in the phonetic sentence above: 1. Ben eve ge geliyorum. 2. Annem bundan holanmyor. Sentence Nr.1 is transformed and nominalized as "benim eve ge gelmem". When this transformed-nominal phrase is put in the place of "bundan" in the second sentence, the new synonymous sentence "Annem benim eve ge gelmem-den holanmyor" phonetic (oral) sentence structure is produced.
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her ey-i
anla-ma-/s//n/-dan korkuyorum.
V
possessor obj of anla possessed noun + infinitive compound nominal phrase-[DEN] adverbial phrs
I am afraid of her understanding everything. (The /s/ and /n/ glides are used.) Infinitives attached to [e or a] allomorphs: V- [me/y/e, ma/y/a] (Ben) klasik mzik dinle-me-/y/e dknm.
NP NP infinitive-[e] adverbial phrs V
I am fond of listening to classical music. -im-i tamamla-ma-/y/a alyorum. (i*i*mi / ta*mam*la*ma*ya / a*l**yo*rum ) I am trying to complete my work. Dert-et-me-/y/e demez. (liaison) (der*det*me*ye / de*mez ) It is not worth troubling about. al-ma-/y/a devam etti. (a*l*ma*ya / de*va:*met*ti ) He went on (continued) working. Yamur ya-ma-/y/a balad. (ya*mur / ya*ma*ya / ba*la*d ) It began to rain (raining).
3 (a). The third kind of noun + infinitive compounds are made by adding
[i, , , u] allomorphs to verb stems, such as: ben-im gl--m, senin bak--n, which means my way of smiling, your way of looking etc. These compounds may take [], [E], [DE] or [DEN] morphemes: (O) (ben-im) gl--m-e (g*l**me) hayran-dr. He adores my way of smiling. (Ben) (sen-in) bana bak--n- (ba*k**n) zle-di-im. I missed your way of looking at me.
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possessor noun + V - [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] - [pers]
ben-im
possessor
yz-dk-m
possessed
Note: In the sentence above, the /k/ phoneme changes into the voiced //, and the last [] is the determiner that defines the nominal phrase benim denizde yzdk-m. The same noun + infinitive compound can also be used as a determiner: Ben okula gidiyorum. ben-im git-tik-im okul
determiner + noun nominal phrs
The possessed parts of the noun + infinitive compounds are also used as objects of postpositions (English prepositions):
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A final note that should be added to the above explanations is that as the infinitives are made up of verbs, they can take objects like verbs when they are transitive, but if they are intransitive, they can take only adverbs or adverbials. The sentences that contain infinitives are produced as follows: 1. O beni beklesin. onun beni bekle-me-/s/i 2. Ben bunu istiyorum. If the first nominalized phrase is used in the place of bunu in the second sentence, we produce the following sentence containing a noun compound: (Ben) (onun) ben-i bekle-me-/s/i-/n/i iste-i.yor-um. (be*ni / bek*le*me*si*ni / is*ti*yo*rum ) I want him to wait for me.
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MODALS
PRESENT MODALS While English modals are made of auxiliary verbs, Turkish modals are made either of morphemes, or of words, or of both. They convey nearly the same concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of them, which we think, might be more useful. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered more satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them, which may lead to misunderstanding.
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Finally, after the above pronoun + infinitive compounds gerekir is used as a separate word: (Sen-in) daha ok al-ma-an ge.rek-ir. (se*nin / da*ha / ok / a*l*man / ge*re*kir ) You should (ought to) study harder. (advice) Senin is optional, senin alman is a noun + infinitive compound, and daha ok is an adverbial. rencilerin yeni kelimeleri ezberle-me-/s/i (ezberle-me-ler-i) gerekir.
(noun compound) (subj) NP V
The students should memorize the new words. (The /s/ glide is used between /e/ and /i/.) (advice)
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(ba*ba*nn / **d*n / i*yi / d*n*men / ge*re*kir ) You should think well about your fathers advice. Snav sonu-lar--/n/n bekle-en-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (s*nav / so*nu*la*r*nn / bek*len*me*si / ge*re*kir ) It is necessary to wait for the examination results. (passive) To make a negative advice, the [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs are inserted between verb stems or frames and the [me, ma] infinitive allomorphs: (Sen-in) ok para harca-ma-ma-an gerek-ir. (se*nin / ok / pa*ra / har*ca*ma*man / ge*re*kir ) You shouldnt spend much money. (advice) Bir baba-/n/n ocuk-lar--/n/ ihml et-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (bir / ba*ba*nn / o*cuk*la*r*n / ih*ma:l / et*me*me*si / ge*re*kir ) A father shouldnt neglect his children. (The /n/ and /s/ glides are inserted between consecutive vowels.) Vergi deme-/n/in ertele-en-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (ver*gi / *de*me*nin / er*te*len*me*me*si / ge*re*kir ) Paying tax shouldnt be postponed. (advice) (passive) In the senentence above, the /n/ glide is used between the first "e, i", and the /s/ glide is used between the last "e, i". May and can are both expressed in [e.bil, a.bil] allomorphs in Turkish. Therefore, they can be used with the question tag mi in questions. Compare the following sentences: Haber doru ol-a.bil-ir. (ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir ) The news may be true. Haber doru ol-a.bil-ir mi? (ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir / mi ) Can the news be true? ocuk-lar ev-de ol-a.bil-ir. (o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir ) The children may be at home.
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cant have
The verb chain above is used to form a verb composition to convey past impossibility. In doing this, when [a.maz] negation allomorph is attached to the first person personal allomorph [am], the /z/ consonant drops, the /a-a/ vowels unite and verbalized as a single vowel: Gr-m ol-a.maz-am. (gr*m / o*la*mam ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-sn. (gr*m / o*la*maz*sn ) Gr-m ol-a.maz. (gr*m / o*la*maz ) Gr-m ol-a.ma-/y/z. (gr*m / o*la*ma*yz ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-s.nz. (gr*m / o*la*maz*s*nz ) Gr-m ol-a.maz-lar. (gr*m / o*la*maz*lar ) Example sentences:
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(ev / *de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di ) You should (ought to) have done your homework. (But you didnt.) Bu araba-/y/ satn al-mak iin (sen-in) daha ok para biriktir-me-en gerek-ir-di. (bu / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tn / al*mak / i*in~ / da*ha / ok / pa*ra / bi*rik*tir*men / ge*re*kir*di ) You should have saved more money to buy this car. (But you didnt.) Snav-da (ben-im) daha dikkat-li ol-ma-am gerek-ir-di. (s*nav*da / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*mam / ge*re*kir*di ) I should have been more careful in the examination. (But I wasnt.)
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(se*nin / ek*mek / al*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di ) You shouldnt (neednt) have bought bread. (But you did.) (advice) (Sen-in), kz karde-in-e bar-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di. (kz / kar*de*i*ne / ba*r*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di ) You shouldnt have shouted at your sister. (But you did.) (advice) (O-/n/un) yalan syle-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di. (o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ) He shouldnt have told a lie. (But he did.) Mehmet-in snav-da kopya ek-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di. (meh*me*din / s*nav*da / kop*ya / ek*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ) Mehmet shouldnt have cheated in the examination. (But he did.)
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(ay*e*nin / a*ce*le / et*me*si*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) Aye neednt have hurried. (But she did.) (Sen-in) btn soru-lar-a cevap ver-me-en-e gerek yok-tu. (b*tn / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*me*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) You neednt have answered all the questions. (But you did.) (Onlar-n) ma- ertele-me-ler-i-/n/e gerek yoktu. (on*la*rn / ma* / er*te*le*me*le*ri*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ) They neednt have postponed the match. (But they did.) (Siz-in) iek-ler-i sula-ma-a.nz-a gerek yoktu. (i*ek*le*ri / su*la*ma*n*za / ge*rek / yok*tu ) You neednt have watered the flowers. (But you did.) (Sen-in) ift ayakkab al-ma-an-a gerek yoktu. ( / ift / a*yak*ka*b / al*ma*na / ge*rek / yok*tu ) You needn't have bought three pairs of shoes. Note: git-me-se de olurdu, sula-ma-sa-lar da olurdu sentence types can also be used as alternatives to the above sentences. The noun compounds in the sentences above and below are all showed between inverted commas.
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TRANSFORMATIONS (ENGLISH)
The transformational activity of the mind has two interactive functions. One of these functions is to recall the morphemes of his native language matching his set of thought before producing a simple sentence using the innate logical structures, and the other one is to transform the same simple sentence into a Nominal Phrases to use it in the same NP + VP logical sentence-producing system to produce longer sentences. One of the language activities of the mind is to recall the morphemes stored up in its memory fitting to express ones sets of thought in a target language. During this mental activity the mind finds the most reasonable and available ones to fit into the NP + VP innate sentence producing system. Besides the innate sentence producing system (NP + VP), the memory of a human being possesses the phonemes, the syllabication and the transformational rules of his native language that have been stored up in his memory including some basic speculative concepts generalized in the question words in languages such as the English interrogative words who, whom, what, where, when, how, why, "whose", for whom, from whom,
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You can see the boys (who are) swimming in the lake.
NP V NP (object of see)
The explanations above are grammatical explanations, but thought acts more inclusively while producing a sentence. When somebody has an item of thought, such as "article" in his mind, he may have had two simple sentence alternatives in store in his mind to convey his thought to his listener or reader. It may be a sentence that he uttered before such as, "I read an article in a newspaper". If he has uttered this sentence before, he goes on conveying his thought by saying that "It was interesting". If he did not utter the same sentence, but he already has it in store in his mind (in his memory), he transforms the same sentence into a noun + determiner compound such as, "an article, which I read in the newspaper", and completes his sentence saying that "An article, which I read in the newspaper, was interesting. On the other side, the person who has heard what the speaker said may go on saying: "Yes, I saw it, or Yes, I saw the article that you read in the newspaper". This shows us that the logic transforms the simple sentences into nominal phrases so that they may be used as subjects or objects in the NP+VP sentence pattern. In English, however, some transformations are also carried out within a simple sentence itself to change it into the question form such as, You like pop music Do you like pop music?; You haven't done your homework Haven't you done your homework? A passive transformation may also be carried out within a simple sentence so as the object to be used as if it were the subject of a sentence. It is also possible to transform the interrogative and passive simple sentences into Nominal Phrases: Haven't you done your homework? whether I have done my homework Mother wants to know whether I have done my homework.
NP (obj)
Thieves stole a necklace. "A necklace was stolen by some thieves" "the necklace that was stolen by the thieves" The necklace that was stolen by the thieves hasn't been found yet.
NP (subj)
Transformational, phonological, and syllabication rules are specific for every language, which means that all languages have their own transformational,
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The sentences that contain only one finite verb can be transformed into (noun compounds) nominal phrases to be used in other sentences as subjects, objects, and as objects of prepositions. Consider the following: Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children last week.
who V where (adverbial) how (adverbial) why (adverbial) for whom (adverbial) when (adverbial)
The question words under the lines and the answers to them on the lines are the basic conceptual elements of thought of simple sentences in languages. Therefore, I avoid using the term kernel sentence in this book. For instance, when you hear the word went, you want to find answers in your mind to the questions who? and where? because only the word went does not convey satisfactory information. If you hear the sentence Jane went to the supermarket, your mind accepts it as a reasonable and satisfactory sentence. The interrogative words are "who", whom, where, to whom, for whom, "when", how, why, which, "whose", how long, from where, from whom, by whom, etc. These question words and the answers to them are the essential elements of a simple sentence. For instance, Did Jane go? does not make any sense if it is not preceded by some other sentences. However, Where did Jane go? is a complete sentence as it is Jane went to the supermarket. The entire simple example sentence above can be nominalized only by putting that in the beginning of the sentence in English, and leaving the rest of the sentence unchanged: that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children in the morning is a transformed, nominalized and vocalized sentence because it can occupy the place of any NP in S NP + VP basic sentence-producing system.
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As it is seen, the nominalized sentences (nominal phrases) beginning with question words are not in the interrogative form. They are transformed, nominalized and oral phrases ready to occupy the places of nouns or pronouns that can be used as subjects, or objects of verbs as all nouns and pronouns can. I
S
know
V
it.
obj
What do I know?
I know that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children.
NP V VP NP (obj of know)
I know who went to the supermarket. (nominal phrase) I know where Jane went. (nominal phrase) I know how Jane went to the supermarket. (nominal phrase) I know why Jane went to the supermarket. (nominal phrase) I know for whom Jane wanted to buy toys. (nominal phrase) I know when Jane went to the supermarket. (nominal phrase) The parts that are printed in bold face in the sentences above are all used as the objects of the verb know. The same nominal phrases can also be used as the objects of the following verbs: know, guess, ask, tell, remember, say, and the like I guess (that) she went to the supermarket. He asked me when Jane went to the supermarket. She says (that) Jane went to the supermarket.
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The same nominal phrases can be used as the objects of prepositions, as well: It depends on what Jane says.
object of on
The interrogative simple sentences can also be nominalized: Have you done your work? whether I have done my work Mother asks me whether I have done my work.
NP (object)
Why didnt you come to the party? why I didnt come to the party Jane wonders why I didnt come to the party.
NP (object)
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To determine the underlined girls, the girls that (who) is put in the beginning of the sentence, and the rest of it is added to it without being changed: the girls who were picking flowers in the garden" is constructionally a noun + determiner compound, but syntactically it is a syntactic nominal phrase that can be used as a subject or an object in a sentence: The girls who were picking flowers in the garden were my students.
D N D synt nominal phrase (subject) (NP) predicate (VP)
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I
NP
saw the flowers that the girls were picking in the fields.
V NP
The same process above can also be initiated to determine the noun garden: the garden in which (where) the girls were picking flowers
D N NP D
The garden in which the girls were picking flowers was not in good condition.
syntactic nominal phrase (NP) predicate (VP)
The same transformed phrases can be used in other parts of different sentences, as well: I
NP
dont know
V
A woman was chasing the girls who were picking flowers in the garden.
NP (subj) V VP (predicate) NP
The simple sentences with verbs be and have got are transformed as follows: The roses were red the roses that were red the red roses
sentence transformed phrase transformed phrase
There are some books on the table. the books that are on the table
sentence nominal phrase
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to borrow
The car that I have got is a second-hand car. My car is a second-hand car.
Now, consider the following four basic simple sentences: 1. Jack caught a fish. 2. Mr. Brown cleaned it. 3. Mary fried it. 4. Jane ate it.
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Contrary to the above sentence production, if we start with the first basic sentence, the complex sentence will become as follows: Jack caught the fish that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate. If you try to understand the sentence above, it sounds funny, doesnt it? How can Jack catch the fish that Jane ate? A fish cannot be caught after it has been eaten. This example shows us that while producing complex sentences out of basic sentences, one should be careful about the sequence of the determiners. Furthermore, only the words that jack caught that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate do not make sense without the words the fish, which complete the chain of determiners as a NP although the words the fish are in the beginning of the sentence. Therefore, one can say that all natural languages may be infinitely long as long as they are approved by the Phrase Structure rules, and so long as the human short-term memory can tolerate them. An example from a Turkish sentence may clarify the above explanation: Jackin yakalad, Mr. Brownn temizledii, Marynin piirdii (?) sequence of words do not make sense without the word balk, which is the final word of the NP in Turkish. Moreover, to complete this nominal phrase, a person has to add a verbal phrase to produce a grammatically well-formed acceptable sentence: The fish that Jack caught that Mary fried that Jane ate was delicious.
NP VP
Whether sentences are infinitely long or short they end up in NP + VP inborn basic sentence-producing system. A final point to add to the explanations above is that the final word in Turkish is at the end of a NP, but in English, it is in the beginning. The reason why we begin organizing the logical simple sentences beginning with the last simple sentence and going on to the first one in English is that the mind organizes the transformed phrases starting with the last one and going to the
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when, while, before, after, as soon as, until, since, just as, where, wherever as, how as... as, not so ...as, the ... the, so long as, as long as adj (adv)-[ER] + than or more + adj (adv) + than because, as, since, for although, even though, even if, no matter how (who, when) so that, in order that, in case, lest so, so ... that if, unless
TIME
when: while: before: after: as soon as: until: by the time: just as:
Jane was beautiful when she was a baby. It began to rain while I was watering the flowers. Mary wants to buy a car before she gets old. Ill do these exercises after I go home. The students stood up as soon as the teacher arrived. Ill stay here until you promise to marry me. Ill have finished my work by the time the visitors arrive. The postman knocked at the door just as I was leaving home.
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where: wherever:
Put my dictionary back where you found it. I will remember you wherever I go.
MANNER
as:
as ... as: not so... as: the ... the: so ... as:
You should study as hard as you can. You are not so careful as you ought to be. The easier they rise, the harder they fall. You can stay here so long as you keep quite.
COMPARISON
than:
The bus arrived earli-er than we expected. Turkish is more complicated than English. Mary studies hard-er than her brother.
CAUSE
I cant help you now because Im busy watching television. As Im busy doing my homework, I cant help you right now. Since you are not interested in watching football, wed better go fishing. Mary cant drive, for she is only a baby.
CONTRAST or CONCESSION
for:
although:
Although she studied hard, she couldnt succeed in the examination I have to go on working although I am madly in love with you. We cant get to the bus stop in time even if we hurry. While some people are poor, others are wealthy.
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so that: in case:
They ran to the bus stop so that they shouldnt miss the bus. Take an umbrella in case it rains. Ring the bell in case of fire.
RESULT
so... that:
The book was so boring that I was able to read only a few pages.
such... that:
The children were making such a lot of noise that I had to leave home. He didnt study hard, so he failed.
CONDITION
so:
if :
If you dont understand, please ask me. If you were a fish, a cat would eat you. If you had passed the examination, I would have bought you a new car She wont speak to you unless you apologize to her. Don't sign the document unless you read it carefully. You cant learn unless you read.
unless:
When the whole sentence above is transformed into a syntactic nominal phrase (structurally into a noun compound), it results in as follows: Aye/n/in ocuk-lar--/n/a baz oyuncak-lar al-mak iin sabah-le.yin otobs-le supermarket-e git-me-/s/i or git-tik-i. (git*ti*i)
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(Ben) Aye/n/in okul-a git-tik-i-/n/i bil-i.yor-um. I know that Aye went to school.
NP NP (obj) VP V NP V VP NP (obj)
In the sentence above, Ayenin 0kula git-tik-i is structurally a noun+ infinitive compound, but syntactically it is a syntactic nominal phrase because it is a transformed simple sentence nominalized so as to be used in the NP+VP mold as a NP. (A VP may contain a V and a NP). The phoneme changes in the above sentence are as follows: The /k/ changes into its voiced form //, the first [i] is the possessed allomorph [i], the /n/ is a glide, and the second [i] is the defining allomorph. These syntactic phrases can occupy the places of both nouns and determiners in sentences: Ayenin okula gittik-i biliniyor. That Aye goes to school is known.
NP (noun compound) passive V NP (synt nominal phrs) (passive) V
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In the sentence above, no question words are used and the noun compound is used as a subject. Kimin spermaket-e git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (*Kimin gitmesi is not used.) (The question word kim-in is added.) Aye/n/in supermarket-e niin git-tik-i (git*ti*i) ben-i ilgilendirmez. (The question word niin is added.) Aye/n/in kim-e oyuncak al-mak iin spermarkete git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (The question word kime is added.) Kim-in, niin, ne zaman, ne/y/-le, nere-/y/e, nasl git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendirmez. (Successive question words are added.) When the answers to the above questions are put into the sentences, the [tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are also used in noun compounds: (Sen) Aye/n/in her hafta bir futbol ma--/n/a git-tik-i-/n/i biliyor musun?
NP(subj) NP (obj) V
Do you know that Aye goes to a football match every week? However, if a transformed noun compound is used as the subject of a sentence, a noun + V-[me-/s/i, ma-/s/] noun compound is used:
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When the Turkish simple sentences are nominalized, they are logically transformed into noun compounds and used as Nominal Phrases in sentences. Although "(that) Jack likes pop music", and "(that) she loves me" subordinate English noun clauses do not look like physically transformed phrases, they can be considered as syntactically and mentally transformed phrases when they are used as Nominal Phrases. The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous, The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Perfect, The Present Perfect Continuous and Used To tenses are nominalized as follows:
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The [u] allomorph is one of the allomorphs of the defining [] morpheme. (Ben-im) bir balk tuttuum kocaman bir yalandr. That I caught a fish is a big lie.
(subject) NP (predicate) VP (subj) NP VP
(be*nim / bir / ba*lk / tut*tu*um ~/ ko*caman / bir / ya*lan*dr ) The nominalization of the rest of the above tenses result in the same noun + infinitive compounds because most infinitives are timeless: The noun + infinitive compounds (syntactic nominal phrases) above can be used in the following sentences: Herkes ben-im balk tut-tuk-um-u bil-ir. Everybody knows that I catch fish
NP NP (obj) VP V NP V VP NP
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Baba-am gel-in.ce ben-im balk tut-tuk-um-u gr-d. (ba*bam / ge*lin*ce ~/ be*nim / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / gr*d ) When my father came, he saw that I was catching fish. Her gn balk tut-tuk-um-u bil.i.yor-sun. (her / gn / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / bi*li*yor*sun ) You know that I catch fish every day. ki saat-tir balk tuttuk-um-u baba-am-a syle-me. (i*ki / sa*at*tir / ba*lk / tut*tu*u*mu / ba*ba*ma / sy*le*me ) Dont tell my father that I have been catching fish for two hours. The other three tenses are transformed as follows:
(ya*rn / o*nu / sa*t*na*la*ca**m / bi*li*yor*sun ) (liaison) You know (that) I will buy it tomorrow.
NP V (noun clause) (obj) NP
Ne zaman bitir-e.cek-im? ne zaman bitireceim (no structural change) (Ben) (Ben-im) onu ne zaman bitir-e.cek-im-i tahmin edemem.
NP (noun compound) (object) NP V
I
NP
cant guess
V
(Benim) onu ne zaman bitireceim kesin deil. (noun compound) (subject) NP VP When I will finish it is not certain.
(noun clause) (subj) NP VP
The (ben) and (benim) parts of the above compounds are optional. They are not used unless they are intentionally stressed.
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Even I don't know when Ill have finished it. (Bile" is an intensifier.)
NP V (noun clause) (obj) NP
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(sen-in) anne-en-in kitp--/n/n ka.pak--/n/n renk-i (se*nin / an*ne*nin / ki*ta*b*nn / ka*pa**nn / ren*gi ) the color of the cover of your mothers book Although a noun + noun compound is a finite sequence, one can turn it into an infinite sequence by using successive possessor nouns. When we add a possessed noun to the end of the sequence, however, the sequence closes and becomes a Nominal Phrase. We can show this endless sequence with the following nonsense chain of possessors: ey-in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i-/n/in ey-i
infinite (determiners) possessors N O M I N A L P H R A S E possessed final
The last nonsense word ey-i ends the sequence and turns it into a NP. The determiner sequences that are not put into Nominal Phrases are incomplete chains of words. For instance, that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr. Brown lived in is an incomplete infinite sequence of determiners if the house is not put in the beginning of the sequence. When this is done, the house that Jack built that Mary bought that Mr. Brown lived in becomes a NP suitable to be used in NP+VP sentence-producing system.
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I
NP
I
NP
The underlined parts of the last two sentences are chain noun compounds that act as syntactic nominal phrases in sentences. In the last Turkish sentence, the /k/ consonant changes into the // voiced consonant, and the /n/ glide is inserted between the last two vowels. Sen doktor-sun. sen-in doktor ol-duk-un (ol*du*un)
sentence NP NP (obj) NP V NP (subj) V NP (obj)
Herkes (sen-in) doktor ol-duk-un-u biliyor. Everybody knows that you are a doctor. The [u] allomorph in the sentence above is the defining [] morpheme. Btn kzlar gzeldir. btn kzlar-n gzel ol-duk-u- (ol*du*u)
sentence sentence NP NP
All girls are beautiful. that all girls are beautiful (Ben) btn kz-lar-n gzel ol-duk-u-/n/u dn-.yor-um.
NP NP (obj) V
(b*tn / kz*la*rn / g*zel / ol*du*u*nu / d**n*yo*rum ) I think that all girls are beautiful.
NP V NP (obj )
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You are a wrestler. that you are a wrestler Sen-in bir grei olduk-un nemli deil.
NP (subj) NP (subj) VP (predicate) VP (predicate)
That you are a wrestler is not important. (It is not important that ocuklar hazr m? Are the children ready? ocuklar hazr m? ocuklar-n hazr ol-up ol-ma-dk- (ol*ma*d*)
sentence sentence NP NP
Are the children ready? "whether the children are ready" When someone hesitates over whether the verb is positive or negative, olup olmad positive and negative successive infinitives (ol-duk-u-/n/u ya da ol-ma-dk--/n/) are used as whether is used in English: (Ben) ocuklar-n hazr olup ol-ma-dk--/n/ bilmiyor-um.
NP NP (obj) V
(ben~ / o*cuk*la*rn / ha*zr / o*lup / ol*ma*d**n / bil*mi*yo*rum ) I dont know whether the children are ready (or not).
NP V NP (obj)
Karde-im nerde? karde-im-in nerede ol-duk-u (ol*du*u) Where is my sister? where my sister is Kardeimin nerede olduu-/n/u bilmiyorum. I dont know where my sister is. Ben kim-im? ben-im kim ol-duk-um (be*nim / kim / ol*du*um) Who am I? who I am (Sen) (ben-im) kim ol-duk-um-u tahmin edebilir misin?
NP NP V NP (obj) NP V
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You know that I clean the house everyday. (The last [i] is the defining [i] allomorph.)
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I
NP
(Ben) (ben-im) ev dev-im-i yap-.yor-um. ev dev-im-i yap-tk-m (Sen) (ben-im) ev dev-im-i yap-t-m- gr-.yor-sun.
NP NP (obj) V
You can see that I am doing my homework. Seyahat ettiini biliyorum. = I know that he travels; I know that he is traveling; I know that he has traveled; I know that he has been traveling; I know that he traveled; I know that he used to travel. As it is seen, all the above six English sentences are expressed in the same transformed Turkish nominal phrase. To avoid this time ambiguity, suitable adverbs of time should be added to Turkish transformed phrases to make the meaning clearer. This is necessary because after the simple sentences are transformed and nominalized, they become noun + infinitive compounds. Like all infinitives, these compounds are timeless. u anda seyahat et-tik-i-/n/i biliyorum. I know that he is (you are) traveling right now. To avoid the above second ambiguity, either senin or onun possessive adjectives should be added to the above sentence: Senin (or onun) u anda seyahat ettiini biliyorum. Onun her yl seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that he travels every year. Onun btn yl bounca seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that he travels all the year round. Senin geen yl seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that you were traveling last year. Senin geen sene boyuna seyahat ettiini biliyorum. I know that you were always traveling last year. When boyuna or habire adverbs are added to continuous tenses, they imply that the speaker is complaining about something:
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That you travel every year is well known. Or "It is well-known that you travel every year." The Simple Future Tense allomorphs [e.cek, a.cak] are kept when such sentences are nominalized: (Ben) yarn eski araba-am- sat-a.cak-m. ben-im yarn eski araba-am- sat-a.cak-m
sentence NP (subj) sentence VP (predicate) NP (noun clause) NP
(Benim) yarn eski araba-am sat.a.cak-m kesin deil. (sa*ta*ca*m) I will sell my old car tomorrow. that I will sell my old car tomorrow That I will sell my old car tomorrow is not certain. (It is not certain that NP (subj) (noun clause) VP (predicate) (Sen) (ben-im) yarn eski araba-am- sat-a.cak-m- bil-me-i.yor mu-sun?
NP NP (obj) V
(sen / be*nim / ya*rn / es*ki / a*ra*ba*m / sa*ta*ca**m / bil mi*yor / mu*sun) (astonishment) Dont you know that I will sell my old car tomorrow? (The /k/ consonants used in the satacak verbs change into the voiced //.) In The Past Perfect Tense, [M] and [D] morphemes are used one after the other. When the same tense is nominalized, the [M] morpheme is attached to the verb stem or frame, then the ol verb stem is used atached to the [duk] allomorph, which is followed by a personal suffix.
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(e*vi / te*miz*le*mi / ol*du*u*mu / g*r*yor*sun ) You (can) see that I have cleaned the house.
NP V NP (obj)
All nominal phrases can be used in the "NP + VP" = NP + NP + V syntactic pattern as Nominal Phrases.
(se*nin / ni*in / bek*le*di*i*ni / bi*li*yo*rum ) I know why you are waiting. (Ben) (Sen-in) nere-de bekle-dik-in-i gr-d-m.
NP NP (obj) V
I understood who you were laughing at. (Sen) Jackin kim-i sev-dik-i-/n/i bil-i.yor mu-sun? (jac*kin / ki*mi / sev*di*i*ni / bi*li yor / mu*sun ) Do you know who Jack is in love with?
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(o*nun / na*sl / zen*gin / ol*du*u / bir / sr*dr ) How he became rich is a mystery.
NP (subj) VP
(be*nim / ne / d*n*d*m / se*ni / il*gi*len*dir*mez ) What I am thinking about doesnt concern you.
NP (subj) V NP
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(The reason) why the questions were so difficult should have been explained by the teacher. (Sen-in) dolap-ta gr-dk-n bir iskelet ol-a.maz.
NP (noun compound) (subj) VP (predicate)
(do*lap*ta / gr*d*n / bir / is*ke*let / o*la*maz ) What you saw in the cupboard cant be a skeleton.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
(on*la*rn / ne / is*te*dik*le*ri / an*la**la*ma*d ) (The /k/ does not change.) What they wanted couldn't be understood. NP (subj) V (passive) (O-/n/un) tm ye-dik-i sadece be sandvi-ti.
NP (subj) NP (predicate)
(o*nun / tm / ye*di*i ~/ sa:*de*ce / be / san*d*vi*ti ) All he ate was only five sandwiches. (O-/n/un) kim ol-duk-u polis tarafndan aratr-l-.yor.
NP (subj) (postp phrase) (adv) V (passive)
(o*nun / kim / ol*du*u / po*lis / ta*ra*fn*dan / a*ra*t*r*l*yor ) Who he is is being investigated by the police.
NP V (passive) adverbial
(Sen-in) ara-dk-n (ey) ekmece-/n/in i-i/n/-de. (a*ra*d*n~/ ek*me*ce*nin / i*in*de ) What you are looking for is in the drawer. Banka-/y/ kim-in soy-duk-u hl bir sr. (ban*ka*y / ki*min / soy*du*u / ha:*l: / bir / sr ): Who robbed the bank is still a mystery. Fatma-/n/n niin ala-dk--/n/ bil-i.yor mu-sun? (fat*ma*nn / ni*in / a*la*d**n / bi*li*yor / mu*sun ) Do you know why Fatma is crying?
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1. tarlalar-da iek topla-/y/an kzlar the girls who are picking flowers in the fields
determiner determined 1
2. kzlar-n iek topla-dk- tarlalar the fields where the girls are picking flowers
determiner determined 2
3. kzlar-n tarlalar-da topla-dk- iekler the flowers that the girls are picking in the fiels
determiner determined 3
We can derive the following rules from the transformed nominal phrases above: 1. When someone intends to determine the subject of a simple sentence, he transforms the sentence into a determiner + noun compound by using V - [en, an] + noun composition. This composition is a nominal phrase that can be used in the NP + VP sentence mold. If a verb stem or a verb frame ends with a consonant, it takes one of these allomorphs such as "konu-an" (ko*an), a-an (a*an), "bek-le-en (bek*le*en). However, if a verb ends with a vowel, it needs the /y/ glide to be linked to one of the following [en] or [an] allomorphs: bekle-/y/en, oku-/y/an, bala/y/an. This transformational rule can be applied to the verbs in The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous Tenses and (imdiki Zama-n'n Hikyesi) used to. However, the verbs in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses keep their forms with the help of the verb ol: Kzlar yarn tarlalarda iek topla-/y/a.cak-lar. yarn tarlalarda iek topla/y/a.cak ol-an kzlar (o*lan) Kzlar tarlalarda iek topla-m-t. tarlalarda iek topla-m ol-an kzlar Consequently, Kzlar bahede koar, Kzlar bahede kotu, Kzlar bahede kouyor, Kzlar bahede kouyordu, and Kzlar bahede koard simple sentences are all transformed into the determiner + noun structure as bahede koan kzlar. As has already been noted, none of the
249
2. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mufak 3. ki kz mutfakta patates soyuyor. iki kz-n mutfakta soyduk-u patatesler As all the determiner + determined (Turkish) or determined + determiner (English) compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they can be used in the NP + VP basic sentence pattern as Nominal Phrases: 1. Mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz ben-im kzlar-m-dr. (so*yan)
(noun compound) (subj) NP (noun compound) (subj) NP (noun compound) (subj) NP NP (noun compound) (object) (NP) VP V predicate VP predicate VP predicate VP
2. ki kz-n patates soy-duk-u mutfak ok geni-tir. (soy*du*u) 3. ki kz-n mutfakta soy-duk-u patates-ler ok kaliteli-dir. (soy*du*u) (Ben) mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz gr-d-m.
If the simple sentences from which the transformed compounds were transformed were in different tenses, except the future and the past perfect tenses, the result would also be the same transformed phrases above: Mutfakta iki kz patates soyar, soyuyor, soydu, soyuyordu, soyard are all transformed as mutfakta patates soyan kzlar or kzlarn soyduu patatesler, or kzlarn patates soyduu mutfak. The English equivalents of the above sentences are as follows: 1. the two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen
determined (1) determiner
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3. the potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen As all the determined + determiner compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they can be used in the NP + VP basic sentence pattern as Nominal Phrases: The two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters.
NP NP NP VP VP VP NP VP
The kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes is very large. The potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen are of good quality. I
NP
saw the two girls that were peeling potatoes in the kitchen.
V
As an exception, the sentences in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses are transformed as follows: (Ben) bir problem z-e.cek-im. (ben-im) z-e.cek-im problem
sentence sentence NP (subj) determiner (noun compound) determined determined VP determiner (NP) (subj) VP
I will solve a problem. the problem that I will solve (Benim) zeceim problem ok zor. The problem that I will solve is very difficult. (Ben) bir problem z-m-t-m. (ben-im) z-m ol-duk-um problem I had solved a problem. the problem that I had solved zm olduum problem ok zordu.
NP (subj) NP (subj) VP VP
The problem that I had solved was very difficult. Some examples of the determiner + determined sentence transformations are as follows: O dn bir mektup yaz-d. onun dn yaz-dk- mektup = NP
determiner determined
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(an*ne*min / her / gn / ter*tip*le*di*i / ev~ / kar*ma*ka*r*k ) The house, which my mother tidies every day, is in a mess.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
ocuk-lar havuz-da model kayk-lar yzdr-.yor-du. ocuk-lar-n havuz-da yz-dr-dk- model kayk-lar = NP ocuklarn havuzda yzdrd model kayklar el yapmyd.
NP (subt) VP (predicate)
(o*cuk*la*rn / ha*vuz*da / yz*dr*d* / mo*del / ka*yk*lar~ / el / ya*p*my*d ) The modal boats that the children were sailing on the pond were handmade.
NP (subj) VP (predicate)
Parmak-m-a bir ine bat-t. parmak-m-a bat-an ine Parmama batan ine kck-t.
(NP) (subj) (NP) (subj) VP (predicate) VP (predicate)
The needle that stuck in my finger was very small. Bir problem z-me-/y/e al-.yor-dum. "z-me-/y/e al-tk-m problem" zmeye altm problem ok gt
(NP) (subj) VP (pred)
(z*me*ye / a*l*t*m / prob*lem / ok / g*t ) The problem that I was trying to solve was very difficult.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
(dn / su*la*d*m / i*ek*le*rin / hep*si / sol*du ) All the flowers that I watered yesterday have faded.
NP (subj) VP
Geen hafta bana bir cep telefon-u al-d-n. geen hafta bana al-dk-n cep telefon-u (Ben) (sen-in) geen hafta bana aldn cep telefon-u-/n/u kaybet-ti-im.
NP (subj) NP (obj) V
(ge*en / haf*ta / ba*na / al*d*n / cep / te*le*fo*nu*nu / kay*bet*tim ) I have lost the mobile telephone that you bought me last week. Amca-am patates yetitir-i.yor. amca-am-n yetitir-dik-i patates-ler Amcamn yetitirdii patatesler en st kalitedir.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
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(gk*y*zn*de / u*u*an / mar*t*lar ~ / ha:*ri*kay*d) The seagulls that were flying about in the sky were fantastic.
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
renci-ler saat sekiz-den beri retmen-ler-i-/n/i bekle-i.yor-lar. saat sekiz-den beri retmen-ler-i-/n/i bekle-/y/en renci-ler" Saat sekizden beri retmenlerini bekle/y/en renciler sabrszlanyor.
NP (subject) NP (subject) VP (predicate) VP
The students who have been waiting for their teachers for an hour are being impatient. Kedi masa-/n/n alt-/n/-da kan-.yor. masa-/n/n alt-/n/-da kan-an kedi Masann altnda kanan kedi senin mi ?
(NP) (subj) VP (predicate)
(ma*sa*nn / al*tn*da / ka**nan / ke*di / se*nin / mi ) Is the cat (that is) scratching under the table yours?
(NP) (subj) VP
Renk-ler sonbahar-da dei-ir. sonbahar-da dei-en renkler Sonbahar-da dei-en renkler herkes-i byle-er. (son*ba*har*da / de*i*en / renk*ler / her*ke*si / b*y*ler ) The colors that change in the autumn fascinate everybody. iek-ler sabah-le.yin a-ar. sabahleyin a-an iek-ler
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254
noun + infinitive = noun comp = syntactic noun = NP noun + infinitive = determiner+noun = syntactic noun= NP noun + infinitive = noun comp = synt noun = NP
8. benim gitmi oldugum noun + infinitive = determiner + noun = synt noun = NP 9. benim gitmi olacam noun + infinitive = noun comp = synt noun = NP
10.benim gitmi olacam noun + infinitive = determiner + noun = synt noun = NP In the examples above, only the first person is given; the other persons might have been given accordingly, which would not change the result. Nr.1 and Nr.2 compounds can only be used as noun compounds such as Benim oraya gitmem olanaksz. or Benim gidiim-i bekliyor Nr. 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; and 9 and 10 are used both as noun compounds and as determiners such as: Benim gittiim-i grd. (syntactic nominal phrase). However, Benim gittiim okul" is structurally a determiner + noun compound, but syntactically it is a nominal phrase. Therefore, these noun compounds are used both as noun compounds and as determiners. As in all infinitives, the infinitive parts of these compounds may have
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My going to Bursa last week to watch a football match made my wife mad. (Ben-im) geen hafta bir ift ayakkab almak iin gittiim dkkn ok kalablkt.
possessor adverbial adverbial of reason determiner NP possessed noun VP (predicate) determined
The shop where I went to buy a pair of shoes last week was very crowded. Benim ..gittiim-i grdn. = noun compound (object) = nominal phrase
noun compound
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Davetiye-ler bas-l-.yor. (da:*ve*ti*ye*ler / ba*s*l*yor ) The invitations are being printed. imdi ne yap-l-a.bil-ir? (im*di / ne / ya*p*la*bi*lir ) What can be done now? Dn ne yap-l-d? (dn / ne / ya*pl*d ) What was done yesterday? Her ey bitir-il-di bile. (her*ey / bi*ti*ril*di / bi*le ) Everything has already been finished. Burada ttn sat-l-maz. (bu*ra*da / t*tn / sa*tl*maz ) Tobacco is not sold here. (Ben) aldat-l-d-m. (al*da*tl*dm ) I have been cheated. (Siz-in) araba-a.nz onar-l-d. (a*ra*ba*nz / o*na*rl*d ) Your car has been repaired. Nehir kenar-/n/-da byk bir ev yap-l-.yor. (ne*hir / ke*na*rn*da / b*yk / bir / ev / ya*p*l*yor ) A large house is being built by the river. (Sen) cezalandr-l-a.bil-ir-sin. (ce*za:*lan*d*r*la*bi*lir*sin ) You may be punished.
257
258
259
260
a ak
art
a akt al anla anlat ara artr as ar aykla at atlat azdr bas batr balat bayl bekle beklet besle bi bil bitir bktr boz bl bul bk caydr cotur al al(tr) arptr atlat ek
atr akttr aldr anlattr arat artrt astr art ayklat attr atlattr azdrt baktr bastr batrt balattr baylt beklet beklettir beslet bitir bildir bindir bitirt bktrt bozdur bldr buldur bktr caydrt coturt aldr altrt arptrt atlattr ektir
bin bit bk
al aktl aln anlal anlatl aran artrl asl arl ayklan atl atlatl azdrl bakl basl batrl balatl bayltl beklen bekletil beslen biil bilin binil bitiril bkl bozul bln bulun bkl cayl aln altrl arpl atlatl ekil
al aln anla
at
bakn
bak
bozul bln
bozu bl bulu
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PASSIVE izil rpl kertil zl daldrl dayatl dayanl damlatl denil deil deinil deitiril delin denen denetlen dengelen dikil dinlen dlan dourul dokun doldurul dondurul doyurul dkl dndrl dnl duyurul drtl drl dnl eklen ellen engellen ertelen estiril eitlen esnetil edil
REFLEXIVE
RECIPROCAL
iz rp kert z daldr daya damlat de dedir dein deitir del dene denetle dengele dik dinle dila dour doku doldur dondur doyur dk dndr dndr duy drt dr dn ekle elle engelle ertele estir eitle esnet et
izdir rptr kerttir zdr daldrt dayat damlattr dedirt dedirt deitirt deldir denet denetlet dengelet diktir dinlet dlat dourt dokut doldurt dondurt doyurt dktr dndrt dndrt duyurt drttr drt dndrt eklet ellet engellet ertelet estirt eitlet esnet ettir
dei
dolu
dkn dn
drt
d dn
elle
es esne
esnen
esne
262
gl
in sr
ile
ka kal kan
giy gr gster gldr hala hatrla hazrla hesapla i indir sr slat iit ilet inkr et it izle kar kandr kap kapat kapla karala kartr karlatr kas ka kat kaydet
gstert gldrt halat hatrlat hazrlat hesaplat iir indirt srt slattr iittir ilettir inkr ettir ittir izlet kart kandrt kaptr kapattr kaplat karalat kartrt karlatrt kastr kat kattr kaydettir
kar karla
ezil frlatl geil geril getiril gezdiril gsteril giril gidil giyil grl gsteril gln halan hatrlan hazrlan hesaplan iil indiril srl slatl iitil iletil inkr edil itil izlen karl kaln kandrl kapl kapatl kaplan karalan karl karlatrl kasl kan yaydedil
gr
gl
hazrlan hesapla
slan
iti kan ka
kap kapan
kasl kan
263
kayr kaz kes kr ky kz kzart kokla kondur konutur kopar korkut koru koy kur kurut kurula kustur kstr kurut kurula lekele oku onar oturt oy oyala oyna l de ldr p r rt ttr v patlat piir san
oku otur
oyna
patla pi
kayrt kazdr kestir krdr kydr kzdr kzarttr koklat kondurt konuturt kopart korkut korut kotur koydur kurdur kuruttur kurulat kusturt kstrt kuruttur kurulat lekelet okuttur onart oturttur oydur oyalat oynat ltr det ldrt ptr rdr rttr ttrt vdr patlattr piirt
kay()rl kazl kesil krl kyl kzl kzartl koklan kondurul konuul koparl korkutul korun koul koyul kurul kurutul kurulan kusul ksl kurutul kurulan lekelen okun onarl oturul oyul oynan ll den ldrl pl rl rtl vl patlatl piiril sanl
kesi kr kz kokla
korun kou
kurulan ks kurulan
264
sap sark
sakla saptr sar sarkt sars sat say se sev seyret sez sdr
saklat saptrt sardr sarkt(tr) sarstr sattr saydr setir sevdir seyrettir sezdir sdrt
saklan saptrl sarl sarktl sarsl satl sayl seil sevil seyredil sezil sl
say
sevin sevi
sn
sn sv
sktr szdrt sildir sindirt souttur soldurt sordurt sorgulat soydur sktr sndrt svdr sylet
susturt srttr sslet szdr arttr iirt taktr tarat tart tat tattr temizlet tercih ettir
skl szdrl silin sindiril soutul soldurul sorul sorgulan soyul skl sndrl
sylen sunul susturul srtl sslen szl artl iiril takl taran tarl tan temizlen tercih edil
skn
sk
soyun
sylen
sus
a i
tak
ta
265
uy
uyu uza
yerle yeti
yksel yr yz
tut uur um unut uydur uyar uygula uyut uzat fle tle z ver vur yadr yakala yak yap yaptr yaat yatr yaz ye yedir yen yerletir yetitir y yka yldr yrt yut yor ykselt yrt yzdr
tuttur uurt unuttur uydurt uyart uygulat uyuttur uzattr flet tlet zdr verdir vurdur yadrt yakalat yaktr yaptr yaptrt yaattr yatrt yazdr yedir yedirt yerletirt yetitirt ydr ykat yrttr yuttur ykselttir yrttr yzdrt
tutul uurul umul unutul uydurul uyarl uygulan uyutul uzatl flen tlen zl veril vurul yakalan yakl yapl yaptrl yaatl yatrl yazdrl yenil (yen) yediril yenil yerleil yetiil yl ykan yrtl yutul yorul ykseltil yrtl yzl
tutu uu
uyu
uyun uzan
vuru
yakn
yaan yatl
yat yaz
yeni
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Personal Allomorphs: (ben) (sen) (o) (biz) (siz) (onlar) : : : : : : [im, m, m, um, em, am] [sin, sn, sn, sun], [in, n, n, un, en, an] [] [iz, z, z, uz], [ik, k, k, uk] [si.niz, s.nz, s.nz, su.nuz], [i.niz, .nz, .nz, u.nuz] [], [ler, lar]
Time Allomorphs: Simple Present : Simple Past : [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] [i.yor, .yor, .yor, u.yor] [mi, m, m, mu] [e.cek, a.cak] [ir-di, r-d, r-d, ur-du, er-di, ar-d] [i.yor-du, .yor-du, .yor-du, u.yor-du] [e.cek-ti, a.cak-t] [mi-ti, m-t, m-t, mu-tu] *([di/y-di, d/y/-d, d/y/-d, du/y/-du, ti/y/-di, t/y/d, t/y/d, tu/y/-du])
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I asked someone to wash my car. Araba-am- ykat-t-m. I had my car washed. (The doer of the verb is not mentioned.) As it is seen in the two sentences above, the two Turkish verb compositions are identical: ykattm. However, in the first sentence, the doer of the verb wash is mentioned; in the second one, it is not. In English, when the doer of the verb is mentioned make somebody do something, or the alterna-
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Hrsz kasa-/y/ bana a-tr-d. (hr*sz / ka*sa*y / ba*na / a*tr*d ) The thief made me open the safe. (causative) Kasa kim-e a-tr-l-d? (ka*sa / ki*me / a*t*rl*d ) Who was made to open the safe? (passive causative) Kasa bana a-tr-l-d. (ka*sa / ba*na / a*t*rl*d ) I was made to open the safe.
Double causative forms are rarely used in Turkish, therefore they are not put in the verb frames list above: Araba-am- ykat-trt-t-m. (a*ra*ba*m / y*kat*trt*tm ) I asked someone to have my car washed. (double causative)
SYLLABICATION
As it is explained in the article "Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience / Memory and Language, wikibooks.org/wiki/", the memory is divided into three parts: Sensory memory, Short-term memory, and Longterm memory. Sensory memory holds information for milliseconds and is separated into two components. The iconic memory is responsible for visual information, whereas auditory information is processed in the echoic memory.
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Aye-/n/in araba-/s//y/-la geldi-ik. (ay*e*nin / a*ra*ba*/s//y/*la / gel*dik) The allomorphs starting with vowels: Each morpheme, bound or free, has its own meaning stored up in ones memory. However, if we want to teach them or see them separately, we can syllabize them artificially as (ba*la*a*bil*ir*iz), (ko*nu*a*ma**yor*um). If one wishes, he can verbalize these two words as it is seen, but the Turkish syllabication rule does not accept this sort of syllabication, and therefore, recomposes the morphemes keeping their meanings and forms while applying a different syllabication rhythm. In other words, the Turkish sound system recomposes them in such a way that the syllables are articulated along with the morphemes in agreement with the general syllabication rules of the Turkish language so that they could be smoothly, fluently, and harmoniously articulated by the speech organs. Although the recomposed syllables do not have meanings on their own, they still carry the meanings and the forms of the morphemes although their last consonants detach and attach to the following allomorphs, and even though a vowel drops or two identical vowels unite or link to one another with glides. When the last syllable of a word or a morpheme ends with a consonant, this consonant detaches from its syllable and attaches to the first vowel of the following allomorph. All the free and bound morphemes ending with consonants may detach their last consonants and attach them to the first vowels of the following allomorphs. This process can be checked while reading the underlined consonants in the example sentences in this book. The inflectional morphemes, especially those in the verb compositions, may follow one another in succession detaching consonants and attaching them to the first vowels of the following morphemes, such as: Tut-un-a.bil-i.yor-uz. (tu*tu*na*bi*li*yo*ruz) Bitir-e.me-i.yor-um. (bi*ti*re*mi*yo*rum) One can easily detach the single underlined consonants from their morphemes and attach them to the following vowels if one follows the single underlined consonants in the example sentences. The morphemes given below are either derivational or inflectional. The inflectional allomorphs which have only one vowel are as follows: [i, , , u]: (inflectional)
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Dropping a vowel, inserting the /y/, /n/, /s/ or // glides between two vowels, changing the /p/, /t/, // or /k/ unvoiced consonants to the /b/, /d/, /c/ or // voiced consonants, detaching consonants from the last syllables and attaching them to the first vowels of the following morphemes, and creating different allomorphs from the morphemes are all the function of the phonological
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DIVIDING THE VERB COMPOSITIONS INTO SYLLABLES AND THE PRIMARILY STRESSED SYLLABLES
The Simple Present Tense Positive verb "be": Although all the verb compositions in Turkish end with personal allomorphs such as "im, m, m, um"; "sin, sn, sn, sun; in, n, n, un"; "", "iz, z, z, uz; ik, k, k, uk"; "si.niz, s.nz, s.nz, su.nuz; i.niz, .nz, .nz, u.nuz"; and "", or "ler, lar", these allomorphs, as a syllable rule, have to turn into "c.v.c" (consonant . vowel . consonant) syllables in Turkish except for the third person singular and plural, whose personal suffixes are () morphemes. If these allomorphs are made up of "c.v.c" syllables, they do not need to borrow any consonants to form "c.v.c" syllables. However, the allomorphs that are formed of "v.c" need another "c" to form a "c.v.c" syllable. Either in order to fill this consonant deficiency, the "v.c" allomorphs borrow the last consonants of the preceding syllables, or if the preceding syllables end with vowels, they fill up this gap with the /y/ glides. Although these are the rules, however, the native speakers do not learn them intentionally. They only hear people speaking around, and memorize them unconsciously and effortlessly as they memorize a piece of melody. Consider how the last syllables form in the following examples: retmen-im (*ret*me*nim). akn-m (a*k*nm). giriken-iz (gi*ri*ke*niz). duygusal-z. (duy*gu*sa*lz). ben-im (be*nim). Ev-de-/y/im (ev*de*/y/im). hakl-/y/m (hak*l*/y/m). iyi-/y/iz. (i*yi*/y/iz). sevinli-/y/im (se*vi*li*/y/im). sokakta-/y/m (so*kak*ta*/y/m) Bekle-er-im (bek*le*rim), tart.r-m (tar*t**rm), gven.ir-im (g*ve*ni*rim), destekle-er-im (des*tek*le*rim), unut-ur-um(u*nu*tu*rum) Okul-da-sn (o*kul*da*sn). gzel-sin (g*zel*sin). yi-sin. (i*yi*sin) toplant-da-s.nz (top*lan*t*da*s*nz). bitir.ir-si.niz (bi*ti*rir*si*niz). Temizle-er-sin (te*miz*ler*sin). yaz-ar-sn (ya*zar*sn). ko-ar-sn (ko*ar*sn). al-r-s.nz. (a*l*r*s*nz), gl-er-si.niz (g*ler*si*niz). No personal allomorphs are used for the third person singular, so they do not have "c.v.v" syllables:
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THE RUMOR FORMS OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT, THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS, AND THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSES
The verb compositions containing these tenses and the allomorphs of the [M] morpheme are as follows. Anla-ar-m-m. (an*lar*m*m) They say that I understand. Anla-ar-m-sn. (an*lar*m*sn) They say that you understand. Anla-ar-m. (an*lar*m) They say that he understands. Anla-ar-m-z. (an*lar*m*z) They say that we understand. Anla-ar-m-s.nz. (an*lar*m*s*nz) They say that you understand. Anla-ar-lar-m. (an*lar*lar*m) They say that they understand. al-.yor-mu-um. (a*l**yor*mu*um) They say that I am working. Bil-i.yor-mu-sun. (bi*li*yor*mu*sun) They say that you know. Din.le-i.yor-mu. (din*li*yor*mu) They say that he is listening. Bekle-i.yor-mu-uz. (bek*li*yor*mu*uz) They say that we are waiting. Bekle-i.yor-mu-sun.uz. (bek*li*yor*mu*su*nuz) They say that you are waiting. Uyu-u.yor-lar-m. (u*yu*yor*lar*m) They say that they are sleeping. Bitir-e.cek-mi-im. (bi*ti*re*cek*mi*im) They say that I will finish. Sev-e.cek-mi-sin. (se*ve*cek*mi*sin) They say that you will like. Gel-e.cek-mi. (ge*le*cek*mi) They say that he will come.
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a:
iek-ler sabah-le.yin a-ar. (i*ek*ler / sa*bah*le*yin / a*ar ) The flowers open in the morning. (intransitive) Jack kap-/y/ a-t. (jack / ka*p*y / a*t ), (jack / ka*p*y / a*t), (jack / ka*p*y / a*t ) Jack opened the door. (transitive) Jacke kap-/y/ a-tr-d-m. (ce*ke / ka*p*y / a*tr*dm ) I made (had) Jack open the door. (causative). Kap-/y/ a-tr-d-m. (ka*p*y / a*tr*dm ) I had the door opened. (causative) Kap bil-in-me-/y/en bir kii tarafndan a-l-d. (ka*p / bi*lin*me*yen / bir / ki*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / a*l*d ) The door was opened by an unknown person. (passive) Hava a-l-d (at). (ha*va / a*l*d) The clouds scattered and the sun began to shine. (reflexive) Kap, Jacke a-tr-l-d. (ka*p /ce*ke / a*t*rl*d ) Jack was made to open the door. (passive causative)
al, aln
Kitap- al-d-m. (ki*ta*b / al*dm ) I have taken (received, bought) the book. (transitive) Kitap- satn aldr-d-m. (ki*ta*b / sa*t *nal*dr*dm ) (liaison) I (have) had the book bought. (causative)
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anla:
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anlat:
Jack biz-e bir masal anlat-t. (jack / bi*ze / bir / ma*sa*lan*lat*t ) (liaison) Jack told us a story. (transitive) retmen masal- Ahmete anlat-tr-d. (*ret*men / ma*sa*l~/ ah*me*te / an*lat*tr*d ) The teacher made (had) Ahmet tell the story. (causative) Masal anlat-tr-d-m. (ma*sa*l / an*lat*tr*dm ) I had the story told. (causative) Masal dn anlat-l-d. (ma*sal / dn / an*la*tl*d ) The story was told yesterday. (passive) Masal Ahmete anlat-tr-l-d. (ma*sal~ / ah*me*te / an*lat*t*rl*d) Ahmet was made to tell the story. (passive causative) retmen bir konu anlat-.yor (retiyor). (*ret*men / bir / ko*nu / an*la*t*yor ) The teacher is teaching a subject. (transitive)
art:
Hz art-t. (hz / art*t) The speed increased. (intransitive)
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bala:
Oyun bala-d. (o*yun / ba*la*d ) The game (has) started. (intransitive) Hakem oyun-u balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu / ba*lat*t ) The referee started the game. (transitive) Hakem oyun-u Ahmete balat-t. (ha*kem / o*yu*nu~ / ah*me*de / ba*lat*t ) The referee made Ahmet start the game. (causative) Oyun Ahmete balat-l-d. (o*yun / ah*me*de / ba*la*tl*d ) Ahmet was made to start the game. (passive causative) Oyun balat-l-d. (o*yun / ba*la*tl*d ) The game was started. (by someone) (passive)
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bat:
kinci Dnya Sava-/n/da birok gemi bat-t. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / bat*t ) A lot of ships sank during The Second World War. (intransitive) kinci Dnya Sava/n/da ok gemi batr-d-lar. (i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*tr*d*lar ) They sank a lot of ships during The Second World War. (transitive) Sava-ta birok gemi batr-l-d. (sa*va*ta / bir*ok / ge*mi / ba*t*rl*d ) A lot of ships were sunk during the war. (passive) (O), parmak--/n/a bir ine batr-d. (par*ma**na / bir / i*ne / ba*tr*d ) She stuck a needle into her hand. (transitive) Parmak-m-a ine batt. (par*ma**ma / i*ne / bat*t ) A needle stuck into my finger. (intransitive)
bul:
Yzk--/n/ bul-du. (y*z**n / bul*du ) She has found her ring. (transitive) Yzk--/n/ koca-/s/-/n/a bul-dur-du. (y*z**n / ko*ca*s*na / bul*dur*du ) She got her husband to find her ring. (causative) Yzk koca-/s/-/n/a bul-dur-ul-du. (y*zk / ko*ca*s*na / bul*du*rul*du ) Her husband was made to find the ring. (passive causative) Yzk--/n/ bul-dur-du. (y*z**n / bul*dur*du ) She had her ring found. (causative)
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al:
Birisi o-/n/un anta-/s/-/n/ al-d. (bi*ri*si / o*nun / an*ta*s*n / al*d ) Somebody stole her handbag. (transitive) anta-/s/-/n/ al-dr-d. (an*ta*s*n / al*dr*d ) She had her handbag stolen. (causative) Geen hafta onun anta-/s/ al-n-d. (ge*en / haf*ta / o*nun / an*ta*s / a*ln*d ) Her handbag was stolen last week. (passive) Jack piyano al-a.bil-ir. (jack / pi*ya*no / a*la*bi*lir ) Jack can play the piano. (transitive) Hakem ddk--/n/ al-d. (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d ) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive)
arp:
Top pencere-/y/e arp-t. (top / pen*ce*re*ye / arp*t ) The ball hit the window.. (Turkish intransitive; English transitive) Klp-im sen-in iin arp-.yor. (kl*bim / se*nin / i*in / ar*p*yor ) My heart is beating for you. (intransitive) Araba-/s/-/n/ elektrik direk-i-/n/e arp-t. (a*ra*ba*s*n / e*lek*trik / di*re*i*ne / arp*t ) She hit her car to a lamppost. (intransitive) Kap-/y/ arp-t. (ka*p*y / arp*t ) He slammed the door. (transitive)
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al:
Almanyada al-.yor. (al*man*ya*da / a*l**yor ) He is working in Germany. (intransitive) Motor-u al-tr-a.ma-d. (mo*to*ru / a*l*t*ra*ma*d ) He couldnt start the engine. (transitive) Kar-/s/-/n/ al-tr-ma-.yor. (ka*r*s*n / a*l*tr*m*yor ) He doesnt let his wife work. (causative) Eskiden otomobil motor-lar- el-le al-tr-l-r-d. (es*ki*den~ / o*to*mo*bil / mo*tor*la*r~ / el*le / a*l*t*r*lr*d ) In the past car engines used to be manually started. (passive) Bu fabrika-da kask-sz al-l-maz. (bu / fab*ri*ka*da / kask*sz / a*l*l*maz ) It is forbidden (dangerous) to work without helmets in this factory. (passive shaped intransitive verb)
atla:
Bardak atla-d. (bar*dak / at*la*d ) The glass (has) cracked. (intransitive) Kaynar su bardak- atla-at-t. (kay*nar / su / bar*da* / at*lat*t ) The boiling water cracked the glass. (transitive) Bardak- sen atla-at-t-n.) (bar*da* / sen / at*lat*tn ) You made the glass crack. (causative) (You cracked the glass.)
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ek, ekin
Bu baca iyi ek-er. (bu / ba*ca / i*yi / e*ker ) This chimney draws well. (intransitive) Anne-/s/i-/n/e ek-mi. (an*ne*si*ne / ek*mi ) She seems to have taken after her mother. (intransitive) Araba-/y/ iki at ek-i.yor-du. (a*ra*ba*y / i*ki / at / e*ki*yor*du ) Two horses were pulling the cart. (transitive) Kl--/n/ ek-ti. (k*l*c*n / ek*ti ) He drew his sword. (transitive) (O) ac ek-i.yor. (a*c / e*ki*yor ) He is suffering. (transitive) Eskiden insan-lar kuyu-lar-dan su cek-er-di. (es*ki*den / in*san*lar ~ / ku*yu*lar*dan / su / e*ker*di ) People used to draw water from wells in the past. (transitive) Teklif (ben-im) dikkat-im-i ek-ti. (tek*lif / dik*ka*ti*mi / ek*ti ) The proposal attracted my attention. (transitive) Araba-am ek-il-di. (a*ra*bam / e*kil*di) (a*ra*bam / e*kil*di ) My car has been towed away. (passive) Araba-am- ek-tir-di-im. (a*ra*ba*m / ek*tir*dim ) I had my car towed. (causative) Bir di-im-i ektir-di-im. (bir / di*i*mi / ek*tir*dim ) I had a tooth pulled out. (causative)
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k:
Ev-den k-t. (ev*den / k*t ) He (has) left home. (intransitive) Ceket-i-/n/i kar-d. (ce*ke*ti*ni / *kar*d ) He took off his coat. (transitive) apka-am- kart-t. (ap*ka*m / *kart*t ) He made me take off my hat. (causative) Dar k-ar-l-d. (d*a*r / *ka*rl*d ) He was taken out. (passive) Boyuna sorun kar-.yor. (bo*yu*na / so*run / *ka*r*yor ) He is always creating problems. (transitive)
z:
Bir problem z-.yor. (bir / prob*lem / *z*yor ) He is solving a problem. (transitive) Problem-i baba-/s/-/n/a z-dr-d. (prob*le*mi / ba*ba*s*na / z*dr*d ) She got her father to solve the problem. (causative)
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daya:
Merdiven-i duvar-a daya-d. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*ya*d ) He leaned the ladder against the wall. (transitive) Merdiven-i duvar-a dayat-t. (mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*yat*t ) He had the ladder leaned against the wall. (causative) Merdiven duvar-a daya-an-d. (mer*di*ven / du*va*ra / da*yan*d ) The ladder has been leaned against the wall. (passive)
dayan:
Bu ayakkab-lar daha ok daya-an-r. (bu / a*yak*ka*b*lar ~ / da*ha / ok / da*ya*nr ) These shoes last longer. (intransitive) Bu scak-a dayan-a.ma-.yor-um. (bu / s*ca*a~ / da*ya*na*m*yo*rum ) I can't endure (tolerate) this warm weather. (intransitive)
dal:
Deniz-e dal-d. (de*ni*ze / dal*d ) He dived into the sea. (intransitive) El-i-/n/i su-/y/a dal-dr-d. (e*li*ni / su*ya / dal*dr*d ) He plunged his hand into the water. (transitive) Onu deniz-e daldrt-t. (o*nu / de*ni*ze / dal*drt*t ) He got him to dive into the sea. (causative)
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dinle:
Syle-dik-im-i din-le. (sy*le*di*i*mi / din*le ) Listen to what I say. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive) Bana, ark-/s/-/n/ dinle-et-ti. (ba*na / ar*k*s*n / din*let*ti ) She got me to listen to her song. (causative)
do:
Ben Adanada do-du-um. (ben / a*da*na*da / do*dum ) I was born in Adana. (Turkish intransitive, English passive) Gne alt-da do-du. (g*ne / al*t*da / do*du ) The sun rose at six. (intransitive) Geen ay bir olan dour-du. (ge*en / ay / bir / o*lan / do*ur*du ) She gave birth to a son last month. (transitive)
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dol:
Okul hemen ocuk-lar-la dol-du. (o*kul / he*men / o*cuk*lar*la / dol*du ) The school soon filled with children. (intransitive) Sepet-i-/n/i elma/y/-la doldur-du. (se*pe*ti*ni / el*may*la / dol*dur*du ) She filled her basket with apples. (transitive) Sepet-i-/n/i bana elma/y/-la dol-durt-tu. (se*pe*ti*ni / ba*na / el*may*la / dol*durt*tu ) She made me fill her basket with apples. (causative) (onun) sepet-i elma/y/-la dol-dur-ul-du. (o*nun / se*pe*ti / el*may*la / dol*du*rul*du ) Her basked was filled with apples. (passive) Sepet bana dol-durt-ul-du. (se*pet / ba*na / dol*dur*tul*du ) I was made to fill the basket. (passive causative)
dn:
Tekerlek-ler yava yava dn-.yor. (te*ker*lek*ler / ya*va / ya*va / d*n*yor ) The wheels are turning slowly. (intransitive) Geri dn. (ge*ri / dn ) Turn back. (intransitive) Sa-a dn. (sa*a / dn ) (normal): (sa*a: ~ / dn ) (military order) Turn right. (intransitive) Sonbahar-da yaprak-lar sar-/y/a dn-er (sarar-r). (son*ba*har*da / yap*rak*lar / sa*r*ya / d*ner ) (sa*ra*rr ) Leaves turn yellow in the autumn. (intransitive)
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d:
Kalem-im yer-e d-t. (ka*le*mim / ye*re / d*t ) My pen fell on the floor. (intransitive) Kalem-im-i dr-d-m. (ka*le*mi*mi / d*r*dm ) I dropped my pencil. (transitive) Ben-i dr-d. (be*ni / d*r*d ) He made me fall down. (causative) Ar bavul-u-/n/u dr-d. (a*r / ba*vu*lu*nu / d*r*d ) He let his heavy bag fall. (transitive) Dr-l-d-m. (d**rl*dm ) I was made to fall down. (passive causative)
ge, gein:
Araba-lar n-m-den ge-i.yor. (a*ra*ba*lar / *nm*den / ge*i*yor ) Cars are passing in front of me. (intransitive) Snav- ge-e.me-di-im. (s*na*v / ge*e*me*dim ) I couldnt pass the exam. (transitive) Onlar iyi gein-i.yor-lar. (on*lar / i*yi / ge*i*ni*yor*lar ) They are getting on well with each other. (reflexive)
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gr, gr-n:
Yanllk- gr-me-di-im. (yan*l*l* / gr*me*dim ) I didnt (notice) see the mistake. (transitive) Yorgun gr-n-.yor-sun. (yor*gun / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look tired. (reflexive) Bu teklif ilgin gr-n-.yor. ( bu / tek*lif / il*gin / g*r*n*yor ) This proposal sounds (looks, seems) interesting. (reflexive) mkn-sz gr-n-.yor. (im*kn*sz / g*r*n*yor ) It seems (sounds) impossible. (reflexive)
gl:
Bebek gl-.yor. (be*bek / g*l*yor ) The baby is laughing. (intransitive) O ben-i her zaman gl-dr-r. (o / be*ni / her*za*man / gl*d*rr ) She always makes me laugh. (causative) Gl-dr-l-d-m. (gl*d*rl*dm ) I was made to laugh. (passive causative) Bu sorun-lar-a gl-n-mez. (bu / so*run*la*ra / g*ln*mez ) It is not decent to laugh at such problems. (passive shaped intransitive) Kz-lar bahe-de gl--.yor-lar-d. (kz*lar / bah*e*de / g*l**yor*lar*d ) The girls were giggling in the garden. (reciprocal)
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hazrla:
Annem le yemek-i-/n/i hazrla-d. (an*nem / *le / ye*me*i*ni / ha*zr*la*d ) Mother has prepared the lunch. (transitive) Annem yemek-i bana hazrla-at-t. (an*nem / ye*me*i / ba*na / ha*zr*lat*t ) Mother made me prepare the lunch. (causative) Yemek hazrla-an-d. (ye*mek / ha*zr*lan*d ) The lunch has been prepared. (passive) Hazrla-an-.yor-um. (ha*zr*la*n*yo*rum ) I am getting ready. (reflexive) (*I am preparing myself.)
i:
Annem her sabah bir bardak ay i-er. (an*nem / her / sa*bah / bir / bar*dak / ay / i*er ) Mother drinks a cup of tea every morning. (transitive)
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iit:
yi iit-e-bil-i.yor mu-sun? (i*yi / i*i*te*bi*li*yor / mu*sun ) Can you hear well? (intransitive) Onun Londrada olduk-u-/n/u iit-ti-im. (o*nun / Lon*dra*da / ol*du*u*nu / i*it*tim ) I heard that he is (was) in London. (transitive) Onun yalan syle-dik-i hi iit-il-me-di. (o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*di*i / hi / i*i*til*me*di ) He has never been heard to tell a lie. (passive)
sr:
Havla-/y/an kpek sr-maz. (hav*la*yan / k*pek / *sr*maz ) A barking dog never bites. (intransitive) (a proverb) Sen-in kopek-in dn bacak-m- sr-d. (se*nin / k*pe*in / dn / ba*ca**m / *sr*d) Your dog bit my leg yesterday. (transitive) Kuduz bir kpek tarafndan sr-l-d. (ku*duz / bir / k*pek / ta*ra*fn*dan / *s*rl*d) She was bitten by a mad dog. (passive) Ben-i kopek-i-/n/e srt-t. (be*ni / k*pe*i*ne / *srt*t ) She made (let) her dog bite me. (causative)
ka:
311
it:
Ben-i kenar-a it-ti. (be*ni / ke*na*ra / it*ti ) He pushed me aside. (transitive) Kenar-a it-il-di-im. (ke*na*ra / i*til*dim ) I was pushed aside. (passive) Araba-/s/-/n/ bana it-tir-di. (a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / it*tir*di ) She made me push her car. (causative)
312
kandr:
Adam ben-i kandr-d. (a*dam / be*ni / kan*dr*d ) The man cheated me. (transitive) Kandr-l-d-m. (kan*d*rl*dm ) I was cheated. (passive) Ben-i kandr-ma-/y/a al-ma! (be*ni / kan*dr*ma*ya /a*l*ma ) Don't try to deceive me! (transitive)
kap:
Kk bir ocuk anta-am- kap-t. (k*k / bir / o*cuk / an*ta*m / kap*t ) A little boy snatched my handbag. (transitive) anta-am- kap-tr-d-m. (an*ta*m / kap*tr*dm ) I had my handbag snatched. (causative) anta-am kap-l-d. (an*tam / ka*pl*d ) (an*tam / kap*l*d ) My handbag has been (was) snatched. (passive)
kapat:
Kap-/y/ kapat-t-m. (ka*p*y / ka*pat*tm ) I have closed the door. (transitive)
313
karla:
Araba-/s/-/n/ ben-im-ki/y/-le karla-tr-d. (a*ra*ba*s*n~ / be*nim*kiy*le / kar**la*tr*d ) He compared his car with mine. (transitive) retmen bana ngilizce/y/le Franszca/y/ karla-trt-t. (*ret*men / ba*na / in*gi*liz*cey*le~ / fran*sz*ca*y / kar**la*trt*t ) The techer made me compare English to French. (causative) Mutluluk-la znt karlatr-l-a.maz. (mut*lu*luk*la / *zn*t / kar**la*t*r*la*maz ) Happiness and sorrow cant be compared. (passive) Onlar sokak-ta karla-t. (on*lar / so*kak*ta / kar**la*t ) They came across in the street. (reciprocal)
ka:
Ba--/n/ ka-d. ( ba**n / ka**d ) He scratched his head. (transitive)
314
kr:
Vazo-/y/u sen kr-d-n, deil mi? (va*zo*yu / sen / kr*dn / de*il / mi ) You broke the vase, didnt you? (transitive) Vazo dn kr-l-d. (va*zo / dn / k*rl*d ) The vase was broken yesterday. (passive) Sen ben-i kr-d-n. (sen / be*ni / kr*dn ) You hurt my feelings. You refused me. You broke my heart. (transitive) Klp-im-i kr-d-n. (kl*bi*mi / kr*dn ) You broke my heart. (transitive) Kr-l-d-m. (k*rl*dm ) I was hurt. (passive) Tahta kutu-/y/u bana kr-dr-d. (tah*ta / ku*tu*yu / ba*na / kr*dr*d ) She made me break the wooden box. (causative)
kz:
O bana kz-d. (o / ba*na / kz*d ) He got angry with me. (intransitive)
315
kzar:
Balk-lar kzar-.yor. (ba*lk*lar / k*za*r*yor ) The fish are frying. (intransitive) Balk kzart-.yor. (ba*lk / k*zar*t*yor ) She is frying fish. (transitive) Tm balk-lar- bana kzart-t. (tm / ba*lk*la*r / ba*na / k*zart*t ) She made me fry all the fish. (causative) Tm balk-lar kzart-l-d. (tm / ba*lk*lar / k*zar*tl*d ) All the fish have been fried. (passive) Yz- kzar-d. (y*z / k*zar*d ) Her face reddened. She blushed with shame.(intransitive)
kok:
Bu balk bayat kok-u.yor. (bu / ba*lk / ba*yat / ko*ku*yor ) This fish smells stale. (intransitive) Bu ekmek dilim-i sarmsak kok-u.yor. (bu / ek*mek / di*li*mi / sa*rm*sak / ko*ku*yor ) This slice of bread smells of garlic. (intransitive)
316
konu:
Onun-la yarn konu-a.cak-m. (o*nun*la / ya*rn / ko*nu*a*ca*m ) Ill talk (speak) to him tomorrow. (intransitive) Polis onu konu-tur-a-bil-ir. (po*lis / o*nu / ko*nu*tu*ra*bi*lir ) The police can make him talk. (causative) O, iki dil konu-ur. (o / i*ki / dil / ko*nu*ur ) She speaks two languages. (transitive) Trkiyede Trke konu-ul-ur. (tr*ki*ye*de / trk*e / ko*nu*u*lur ) Turkish is spoken in Turkey. (passive)
kop:
p kop-tu. (ip / kop*tu ) The rope broke. (intransitive) Aa-n bir dal--/n/ kop-ar-d. (a*a*cn / bir / da*l*n / ko*par*d ) He broke a branch off the tree. (transitive)
317
ko:
Baz ocuk-lar okul-a ko-u.yor. (ba:*z / o*cuk*lar / o*ku*la / ko*u*yor ) Some children are running to school. (intransitive) At--/n/ drtnal ko-tur-du. (a*t*n / drt*nal / ko*tur*du ) He made his horse run at a gallop. (causative) At- drtnal ko-tur-ul-du. (a*t / drt*nal / ko*tu*rul*du ) His horse was made to run at a gallop. (passive causative) ocuk-lar bahe-de ko-u-u.yor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*u*u*yor*lar ) The children are running about in the garden. (reciprocal) Bu tarla-da ko-ul-maz. (bu / tar*la*da / ko*ul*maz ) It is impossible to run in this field. (passive shaped intransitive)
kuru:
iek-ler-im-den baz-lar- kuru-du. (i*ek*le*rim*den / ba:*z*la*r / ku*ru*du ) Some of my flowers dried. (intransitive) Yaz-n baz nehir-ler kuru-ur. (ya*zn / ba:*z / ne*hir*ler / ku*rur ) Some rivers dry up in summer. (intransitive) Kzgn gne iek-ler-im-i kurut-tu. (kz*gn / g*ne / i*ek*le*ri*mi / ku*rut*tu ) The hot sun dried my flowers. (transitive) Sa--/n/ bana kurut-tu. (sa**n / ba*na / ku*rut*tu ) She got me to dry her hair. (causative)
318
oku:
Osmann baba-/s/ gazete-/s/i-/n/i oku-u.yor. (os*ma*nn / ba*ba*s / ga*ze*te*si*ni / o*ku*yor ) Osmans father is reading his newspaper. (transitive) Mektup-u bana okut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / ba*na / o*kut*tu ) He made (had) me read the letter. (causative) Btn hikye bana okut-ul-du. (b*tn / hi*k:*ye / ba*na / o*ku*tul*du ) I was made to read all the story. (passive causative) u ana kadar on sayfa oku-un-du. (u / a:*na / ka*dar / on / say*fa / o*kun*du ) Ten pages have been read up to now. (passive)
onar:
Musluk-u sz-an bir boru-/y/u onar-.yor. (mus*luk*u / s*zan / bir / bo*ru*yu / o*na*r*yor ) The plumber is repairing (fixing) a leaking pipe. (transitive) Bu sz-an boru-/y/u onart-ma.l-sn. (bu / s*zan / bo*ru*yu / o*nart*ma*l*sn ) You must have this leaking pipe repaired. (causative) Araba-am henz onar-l-ma-d. (a*ra*bam / he*nz / o*na*rl*ma*d ) My car hasnt been repaired yet. (passive) Anne-em krk vazo-/y/u bana onart-t. (an*nem / k*rk / va*zo*yu / ba*na / o*nart*t ) Mother made me fix the broken vase. (causative)
otur:
319
oyna:
ocuk-lar bahe-de basketbol oyna-u.yor-lar. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / bas*ket*bol / oy*nu*yor*lar ) The children are playing basketball in the garden. (transitive) Ko onu mata oynat-ma-d. (ko / o*nu / ma*ta / oy*nat*ma*d ) The coach didnt let him play in the match. (causative) O ma-ta oynat-l-ma-d. (o~ / ma*ta / oy*na*tl*ma*d) He wasnt allowed to play in the match. (passive causative) Onlar oyna-a-.yor-lar. (on*lar / oy*na**yor*lar ) They are carrying on a love affair. (reciprocal)
320
l:
O, 1920de l-d. (o~/ bin / do*kuz / yz / yir*mi*de / l*d ) He died in 1920. (intransitive) Onu yanl-lk-la ldr-d. (o*nu / yan*l*lk*la / l*dr*d ) He killed him by mistake. (transitive) O-/n/u o-/n/a ldrt-t. (o*nu~ / o*na / l*drt*t ) She made him kill her. (causative) O, ona ldrt-l-d. (o~/ o*na / l*dr*tl*d ) He was made to kill her. (passive causative) Vatan iin l-n-r. (va*tan / i*in / *l*nr ) One can sacrifice himself for his country. (reflexive)
rt:
Koltuk-lar- toz-dan koru-mak iin rt-t. (kol*tuk*la*r / toz*dan / ko*ru*mak / i*in / rt*t ) She covered the armchairs to protect them from dust. (transitive) Mobilya-/y/ bana rttr-d. (mo*bil*ya*y / ba*na / rt*tr*d ) She made me cover the furniture. (causative)
321
t:
Ku-lar t-er. (ku*la*r*ter ) (ku*lar / *ter ) (intransitive) Birds sing. Hakem ddk--/n/ t-tr-d (al*d). (ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d ) The referee blew his whistle. (transitive) O gzel ark syle-er. ( o / g*zel / ar*k / sy*ler ) She sings beautifully. (Turkish transitive; English intransitive). Ddk-m- t-trt-t. (d*d**m / t*trt*t ) He made (let) me blow my whistle. (causative) Ddk al-n-d. (d*dk / a*ln*d ) The whistle has been blown. (passive) Ku-lar t-.yor. (ku*lar / *t**yor ) The birds are singing. (reciprocal) Horoz-lar t-.yor. (ho*roz*lar / *t*yor ) The roosters are crowing. (intransitive)
v:
O ben-i v-d. (o / be*ni / v*d ) He praised me. (transitive)
322
patla:
Bir su boru-/s/u patla-d ve ev su/y/-la dol-du. (bir / su / bo*ru*su / pat*la*d~/ ve / ev / suy*la / dol*du ) A water pipe burst and the house filled with water. (intransitive) Bir bomba patla-d. (bir / bom*ba / pat*la*d ) A bomb exploded. (intransitive) Bir bomba patlat-t-lar. (bir / bom*ba / pat*lat*t*lar ) They exploded a bomb. (transitive) Bomba-/y/, ona patlattr-d-lar. (bom*ba*y / o*na / pat*lat*tr*d*lar ) They made him explode the bomb. (causative) Bomba ona patlattr-l-d. (bom*ba / o*na / pat*lat*t*rl*d ) He was made to explode the bomb. (passive causative) Bomba onun tarafndan patlatl-d. (bom*ba / o*nun / ta*ra*fn*dan / pat*la*tl*d ) The bomb was exploded by him. (passive)
pi:
Yemek pi-i.yor. (ye*mek / pi*i*yor ) The meal is cooking. (intransitive)
323
sakla:
ocuk, oyuncak-lar--/n/ dolap-n arka-/s/-/n/a sakla-d. (o*cuk / o*yun*cak*la*r*n / do*la*bn / ar*ka*s*na / sak*la*d ) The boy hid his toys behind the cupboard. (transitive) Jack, yrtk gmlk-i-/n/i bana saklat-t. (jack~ / yr*tk / gm*le*i*ni / ba*na / sak*lat*t ) Jack made me hide his torn shirt. (causative) al-n-m mal-lar bir maara-/y/a sakla-an-d. (a*ln*m / mal*lar / bir / ma*a*ra*ya / sak*lan*d ) The stolen goods were hidden in a cave. (passive) Kedi koltuk-un arka-/s/-/n/a sakla-an-d. (ke*di / kol*tu*un / ar*ka*s*na / sak*lan*d ) The cat hid behind the armchair. (reflexive) (It hid itself.)
sark:
Duvar-dan sark-t. (du*var*dan / sark*t) He hung down the wall. (intransitive) Sepet-i pencere-den sarkt- t. (se*pe*ti / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*t ) He let the basket hang down the window. (Turkish transitive, English causative) Sepet-i bana pencere-den sarkt-tr-d. (se*pe*ti / ba*na / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*tr*d ) He made me hang down the basket from the window. (causative)
324
sars:
Patla-ma yer-i sars-t. (pat*la*ma / ye*ri / sars*t ) The explosion shook the ground. (transitive) Yer sars-l-d. (yer / sar*sl*d ) The ground was shaken. The ground shook. (Turkish and English are both passive and reflexive.)
sat:
Eski araba-/s/-/n/ sat-t. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / sat*t ) He has sold his old car. (transitive) Eski araba-/s/-/n/ bana sattr-d. (es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / sat*tr*d ) He made me sell his old car. (causative) (Ben-im) eski araba-am sat-l-d. (es*ki / a*ra*bam / sa*tl*d ) My old car has been sold. (passive)
sev:
Sen ben-i sev-me-i.yor-sun. (sen / be*ni / sev*mi*yor*sun ) You dont love me. (transitive) O bana kendi-/s/i-/n/i sev-dir-di. (o / ba*na / ken*di*si*ni / sev*dir*di ) She made me love her. (causative) O herkes tarafndan sev-il-ir. (o / her*kes / ta*ra*fn*dan / se*vi*lir ) She is loved by everybody. (passive) Hep-im-iz sev-in-di-ik. Hepimiz mutlu olduk. (he*pi*miz / se*vin*dik ) We all became happy. (reflexive).
325
seyret:
Boyuna televizyon seyret.i.yor. (bo*yu*na / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*di*yor ) She is always watching television. (transitive) (complaint) Anne-em bana televizyon izlet-tir-me-i.yor. (an*nem / ba*na~ / te*le*viz*yon / iz*let*tir*mi*yor ) Mother doesnt let me watch TV. (causative) (complaint) Byle televizyon program-lar- seyret-il-me-me.li. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*re*dil*me*me*li ) Such TV programs shouldnt be watched. (passive) (advice) Byle televizyon program-lar- ocuk-lar-a seyret-tir-il-me-me.li. (by*le / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r~/ o*cuk*la*ra / sey*ret*ti*ril*me*me*li ) Children shouldnt be allowed to watch such TV programs. (passive) Baz televizyon program-lar- seyret-me-/y/e (izlenmeye) demez. (ba*z / te*le*viz*yon / prog*ram*la*r / sey*ret*me*ye / de*mez ) Some TV programs are not worth watching.
sinirlen:
Onun ne syle-dik-i-/n/i iit-in.ce sinirlen-di-im. (o*nun / ne /sy*le*dik*i*ni / i*i*tin*ce / si*nir*len*dim ) I got mad when I heard what he said. (intransitive) Kz karde-im ben-i sinirlen-dir-di. (kz*kar*de*im / be*ni / si*nir*len*dir*di ) My sister made me mad (angry). (transitive) Sinirlen-dir-il-di-im. (si*nir*len*di*ril*dim ) I was irritated. (passive)
sou:
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soy:
Patates soy-u.yor. (pa*ta*tes / so*yu*yor ) She is peeling potatoes. (transitive) Elma-lar soy-ul-u.yor. (el*ma*lar / so*yu*lu*yor ) The apples are being peeled. ( passive) Patates-ler-i hep bana soy-dur-u.yor. (pa*ta*tes*le*ri / hep / ba*na / soy*du*ru*yor ) She is always making me peel the potatoes. (causative) (complaint) Banyo yap-tr-mak iin bebek-i-/n/i soy-du. (ban*yo / yap*tr*mak / i*in / be*be*i*ni / soy*du ) She undressed her baby to bath him. (transitive) Dn gece bir banka soy-du-lar. (dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / soy*du*lar ) They robbed a bank last night. (transitive) Dn gece bir banka soy-ul-du. (dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / so*yul*du ) A bank was robbed last night. (passive) Soy-un-u.yor. (so*yu*nu*yor ) She is undressing. (She is undressing herself) (reflexive)
syle:
327
sus:
Sus-tu. (sus*tu ) He stopped talking or crying. (intransitive) retmen renci-ler-i sus-tur-du. (*ret*men / *ren*ci*le*ri / sus*tur*du ) The teacher made the students stop talking. (causative)
328
spr:
Kuru yaprak-lar- bahe-den spr-d-m. (ku*ru / yap*rak*la*r / bah*e*den / s*pr*dm ) I have swept the dry leaves out of the garden. (transitive) Anne-em bahe-/y/i bana sprt-t. (an*nem / bah*e*yi / ba*na / s*prt*t ) Mother made me sweep the garden. (causative) Oturma oda-/s/ henz spr-l-me-di. (o*tur*ma / o*da*s / he*nz / s*p*rl*me*di ) The living room hasnt been swept yet. (passive)
sr:
O araba-/s/-/n/ dikkat-li sr-er. (o~ / a*ra*ba*s*n / dik*kat*li / s*rer ) She drives her car carefully. (transitive) Ben tarla-am- sonbahar-da sr-dr-r-m. (ben / tar*la*m ~/ son*ba*har*da / sr*d*r*rm ) I have my field ploughed in the autumn. (causative) Tarla-lar k-n sr-l-mez. (tar*la*lar / k*n / s*rl*mez ) Fields arent ploughed in winter. (passive)
ssle:
ocuklar Christmas iin oturma oda-/s/-/n/ ssle-di. (o*cuk*lar / kris*mas / i*in / o*tur*ma / o*da*s*n / ss*le*di ) The children decorated the sitting room for Christmas. (transitive)
329
a:
Onun syle-dik-i sz-e a-t-m. (o*nun / sy*le*di*i / s*ze / a*tm ) I was astonished by what he said. (Turkish is intransitive; English is passive.)
art:
Syle-dik-i sz ben-i art-t. (sy*le*di*i / sz / be*ni / a*rt*t ) What he said surprised me. (transitive) Snav-da sor-ul-an soru-lar ben-i art-t. (s*nav*da / so*ru*lan / so*ru*lar / be*ni / a*rt*t ) The questions asked in the exam confused me. (transitive.) art-l-d-m. (a*r*tl*dm ) I was confused. (passive)
tara:
Sa--/n/ tara-.yor. (sa**n / ta*r*yor) She is combing her hair. (transitive) Sa--/n/ anne-/s/i-/n/e tarat-t. (sa**n / an*ne*si*ne / ta*rat*t ) She got her mother to comb her hair. (causative)
330
tart:
Yal adam uyan-r uyan-maz altn-lar--/n/ tart-t. (ya*l / a*dam / u*ya*nr / u*yan*maz ~/ al*tn*la*r*n / tart*t ) The old man weighed his gold coins as soon as he woke up. unlar- tart-tr. (un*la*r / tart*tr ) Have these things weighed. Tart-.yor-lar. (tar*t**yor*lar ) They are discussing. They are having a row. (reciprocal)
ta:
Nehir ta-t. (ne*hir / ta*t ) The river overflowed. (intransitive) St ta-t. (st / ta*t ) The milk boiled over. (intransitive) St- ta-r-ma. (s*t / ta*r*ma ) Dont let the milk boil over. (causative)
ta:
Baz bcek-ler hastalk ta-r. (ba*z / b*cek*ler / has*ta*lk / ta*r ) Some insects carry disease. (transitive) Bebek-i-/n/i bana tat-t. (be*be*i*ni / ba*na / ta*t*t ) She made me carry her baby. (causative)
331
temizle:
Anne-em buzdolab-/n/ temizle-i.yor. (an*nem / buz*do*la*b*n / te*miz*li*yor ) Mother is cleaning the refrigerator. (transitive) Anne-em ev-i temiz-let-e.cek. (an*nem / e*vi / te*miz*le*te*cek) Mother is going to have the house cleaned. (causative) Snf temizle-en-i.yor. (s*nf / te*miz*le*ni*yor ) The classroom is being cleaned. (passive)
tercih et:
Kzm, televizyon seyret-me-/y/i dev yap-ma-/y/a tercih et-er. (k*zm~ / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*me*yi ~ / *dev / yap*ma*ya / ter*ci:*he*der ) (liaison) My daughter prefers watching TV to doing her homework. Genellik-le kalabalk ehirler-de kk araba-lar tercih et-il-ir. (ge*nel*lik*le~ / ka*la*ba*lk / e*hir*ler*de~ / k*k / a*ra*ba*lar / ter*ci:*he*di*lir ) (liaison) Compact cars are generally preferred in crowded cities. (passive)
unut:
Ik-lar- sndr-me-/y/i unut-ma. (*k*la*r / sn*dr*me*yi / u*nut*ma ) Dont forget to turn off the lights. (transitive) Mektup-u atma-/y/ unut-tu. (mek*tu*bu / at*ma*y /u*nut*tu ) He forgot to post the letter. (transitive)
332
uy:
Bu ceket bana uy-ma-u.yor. (bu / ce*ket / ba*na / uy*mu*yor ) This coat doesnt fit (become) me. (transitive) Gmlek-in sana iyi uy-u.yor (yakyor). (gm*le*in / sa*na / i*yi / u*yu*yor ) Your shirt fits ( becomes) you well. (intransitive)
uyu:
Ml ml uyu-u.yor. (m*l / m*l / u*yu*yor ) She is sleeping soundly. (intransitive) Bir saat-tir uyu-u.yor. (bir / sa*at*tir / u*yu*yor ) He has been sleeping for an hour. (intransitive) Bebek-i yarm saat nce uyut-tu-um. (be*be*i / ya*rm / sa*at / n*ce / u*yut*tum ) I had the baby sleep half an hour ago. (causative) Bebek daha yeni uyut-ul-du. (be*bek / da*ha / ye*ni* / u*yu*tul*du ) The baby has just been made to sleep. (passive causative) Bu grlt-de uyu-un-maz. (bu / g*rl*t*de ~/ u*yun*maz ) It is impossible to sleep in such a noise. (passive shaped intransitive)
333
z:
it-tik-im sz-ler ben-i z-d. (i*it*ti*im / sz*ler / be*ni / z*d ) What I heard made me sorry. (transitive) z-l-d-m. (*zl*dm ) I felt sorry. (reflexive) z-l-me. (*zl*me ) Dont worry. (Dont feel sorry.) (reflexive)
yakala:
334
yan:
Kuru odun kolay yan-ar. (ku*ru / o*dun / ko*lay / ya*nar ) Dry wood burns easily. (intransitive) Mutfak-ta yemek piir-ir-ken parmak-lar--/n/ yak-t. (mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*rir*ken~ / par*mak*la*r*n / yak*t ) She burnt her fingers while cooking in the kitchen (transitive) Tepe-de bir ate yak-t-lar. (te*pe*de / bir / a*te / yak*t*lar ) They lit a fire on the hill. (transitive) Anne-em mum-lar- bana yaktr-d. (an*nem / mum*la*r / ba*na / yak*tr*d ) Mother had me light the candles. (causative) Yak-n-.yor. (ya*k*n*yor ) She is complaining. (reflexive)
yap:
Zarf-a pul yap-tr-ma-/y/ unut-tu-um. (zar*fa / pul / ya*p*tr*ma*y / u*nut*tum ) I forgot to stick a stamp on the envelope. (transitive)
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yat:
Saat 11de yat-t-m. (sa*at / on*bir*de / yat*tm ) I went to bed at 11 p.m. (intransitive) Anne-ler-i onlar- saat 10da yat-r-r. (an*ne*le*ri / on*la*r / sa*at / on*da / ya*t*rr ) Their mother makes them go to bed at 10 p.m. (causative) Bebek-i yatak--/n/a yatr-d. (be*be*i / ya*ta**na / ya*tr*d ) She laid the baby in her bed. (transitive) Onu gr-dk-m-de yer-de yat-.yor-du. (o*nu / gr*d*m*de~ / yer*de / ya*t*yor*du ) When I saw her, she was lying on the floor. (intransitive) Yorgun-um. Yat-ma.l-/y/m. (yor*gu*num) (yat*ma*l*ym ) I am tired. I must lie down. (intransitive)
yaz:
Mary bir mektup yaz-.yor. (ma*ry / bir / mek*tup / ya*z*yor ) Mary is writing a letter. (transitive) rertmen snav-da biz-e bir kompozisyon yaz-dr-d. (*ret*men / bi*ze / s*nav*da / bir / kom*po*zis*yon / yaz*dr*d ) The teacher made us write a composition in the examination. (causative)
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ye:
Saat kata akam yemek-i ye-er-si.niz? (sa*at / ka*ta / ak*am / ye*me*i / yer*si*niz ) What time do you eat dinner? (transitive) Bebek-i ye-dir-i.yor. (be*be*i / ye*di*ri*yor ) She is feeding the baby. (transitive) Bu hamburger yen-(il)-mez. (bu / ham*bur*ger / yen*mez ) This hamburger is not edible. (passive) (It cant be eaten.) Akam yemek-i yen-i.yor. (ak*am / ye*me*i / ye*ni*yor ) Dinner is being eaten. (passive) Anne-em bana iki tabak sebze ye-dir-di. (an*nem / ba*na / i*ki / ta*bak / seb*ze / ye*dir*di ) Mother made me eat two plates of vegetables. (causative)
yka:
Kz karde-im bulak-lar- yka-.yor. (kz*kar*de*im / bu*la*k*la*r / y*k*yor ) My sister is washing the dishes. (transitive) Annem kk karde-im-e yemek-ten nce el-ler-i-/n/i ykat-r. (an*nem / k*k / kar*de*i*me / ye*mek*ten / n*ce / el*le*ri*ni / y*ka*tr ) Mother makes my little brother wash his hands before lunch. (causative) Araba yka-an-.yor. (a*ra*ba / y*ka*n*yor ) The car is being washed. (passive) Jack yka-an-.yor. (Jack banyo yapyor.) (jack / y*ka*n*yor) Jack is having a bath. (reflexive)
yor:
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yksel:
Balon gk-te yksel-i.yor. (ba*lon / gk*te / yk*se*li*yor ) The balloon is rising in the sky. (intransitive). iddet-li yamur-dan sonra nehir yksel-di. (id*det*li / ya*mur*dan / son*ra / ne*hir / yk*sel*di ) The river rose after the heavy rainfall. (intransitive) Gne dou-dan do-ar ve bat-dan bat-ar. (g*ne / do*u*dan / do*ar / ve / ba*t*dan / ba*tar ) The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west. (intransitive) Soru-/y/a cevap ver-mek iin el-i-/n/i kaldr-d. (so*ru*ya / ce*vap / ver*mek / i*in / e*li*ni / kal*dr*d ) He raised his hand to answer the question. (transitive) Genellik-le gne do-ma-dan kalk-ar-m. (gen*nel*lik*le / g*ne / do*ma*dan / kal*ka*rm ) I usually rise before the sun rises.
yr:
Ona rasla-dk-m-da cadde-de yr-.yor-du-um. (o*na / ras*la*d*m*da / cad*de*de / y*r*yor*dum ) I was walking along the street when I met him. (intransitive) Otobs-e yeti-mek iin ben-i hz-la yrt-t. (o*to*b*se / ye*ti*mek / i*in / be*ni / hz*la / y*rt*t ) She made me walk fast to catch the bus. (causative)
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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Postpositional Adverbial Phrases In general, we can transform Turkish simple sentences into timeless adverbial phrases to furnish them with the concepts of time, contrast, cause, purpose, result, manner, degree, and place, etc. However, when we want to build up a conditional sentence, we attach either [se] or [sa] allomorphs to the ends of simple sentences to produce the only Turkish conditional clauses. English adverbial clauses are structurally simple sentences that are connected to main clauses by subordinating conjunctions, which are characterized by some fundamental adverbial concepts mentioned above. On the other hand, Turkish simple sentences undergo some transformational changes before they are used as adverbial phrases. Therefore, we can say that the English adverbial clauses are structurally adverbial sentences (clauses) as they have finite verbs at the ends of all adverbial clauses.
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This time concept is expressed in V - [me-den] ([ma-dan]) + nce in Turkish. Ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. Sonra okul-a gel-di-im. I did my homework. Then I came to school. One can understand from these sentences that the time of the first sentence is before the time of the second one. To furnish the first English sentence with a previous time concept, The Past Perfect Tense may be used to convey this time difference, and the conjunction before is put in the beginning of the second sentence without its order (the simple sentence structure) being changed: I had done (or did) my homework
sentence (NP + VP)
before
I came to school.
Although the normal order of the English sentence is like the sentence above, the regular order of the Turkish sentence is Before I came to school, I had done my homework. If we think about how this sentence is produced, we can find out that there are two simple sentences underlying it in our minds: Ben ev devimi yaptm. Ben okula geldim. In order to add a "before" time concept to the sentence "I came to school", only the word "before" is put in the beginning of the English sentence. However, in Turkish, to add the same concept "before (nce)" to the Turkish sentence, the sentence "Ben okula geldim + nce" is transformed into "ben okul-a gel-me-den nce", which is a timeless postpositional phrase. ben okula geldim + nce ben okul-a gel-me-den nce (Ben) okul-a gel-me-den nce (ben) ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. subj infinitive-den posp | |
NP postpositional adverbial phrs (predicate) VP (obj) NP V
Ben eve gideceim + nce ben ev-e git-me-den nce Ben ev-e git-me-den nce biraz meyve al-a.cak-m.
subj NP infinitive-den postp postp adverbial phrase VP | (object) NP | V
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In the sentence above, the [me, ma] allomorphs are a cause of confusion in Turkish. They are considered either as the allomorphs of an infinitive morpheme [me, ma] or the allomorphs of the negation morpheme [me, ma]. Therefore, Turkish students tend to build up English sentences like *"I had done my homework before I didn't come to school. "This is because the syllable stress in speech is generally used on the verb stem (gel*me*den), not on the [den, dan] allomorphs, which misleads the learners of English. In fact, these are the infinitive allomorphs; if they were not, the [den, dan] allomorphs would not be attached to them. The sentence order above may also change as follows: (Ben) ev dev-im-i, okul-a gel-me-den nce yap-m-t-m.
subj NP obj NP inf-[den] + postp postpositional phrs of time VP | V
(ben / e*v*de*vi*mi~/ o*ku*la / gel*me*den / n*ce / yap*m*tm ) This sentence order above is used when the adverb of time is stressed. The adverbial clauses in English start with subordinating conjunctions, and both the main clauses and the subordinate clauses in such complex sentences have finite verbs, which mean that both clauses are structurally simple sentences. When a subordinating conjunction such as before, after, since, although, until, when, or while, etc. is placed before one of these sentences, these subordinating conjunctions transform them into adverbial clauses, which are furnished by the concepts of these conjunctions. On the contrary, when adverbial phrases are formed in Turkish, the simple sentences are transformed into postpositional phrases before they become adverbials. If we think about how this sentence is produced, we can see that there is a simple sentence underlying the phrase "ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am" such as in the following example: (Ben) istasyona vardm + nce "ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan + nce (Ben) istasyona vardm + nce "ben istasyona var-ma-dan + (nce)" Ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan nce tren git-ti (git-mi-ti). Ben istasyon-a var-ma-dan (nce) tren git-mi-ti.
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git-mi-ti
|
This sentence is like the English sentence, The train had left before my arriving at the station. In this sentence, ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a noun + infinitive compound. stasyon-a is an adverbial which is composed of a noun-[E]. Ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a nominal phrase. As all nouns can be followed by [], [E], [DE], [DEN], and [LE] morphemes, this nominal phrase can be followed by a [dan] allomorph. nce is a postposition used after a noun-[DEN] such as: le-den nce, okul-dan nce, sen-den n-ce, yemek-ten nce, sen gel-me-den nce. Therefore, benim istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan nce is a noun compound-dan + nce, which is a postpositional phrase functioning as an adverbial of time. istasyon-a var-ma-dan nce
adverbial inf + [DEN] postp postpositional phrase of time
Consider and compare the following sentences: Ben istasyon-a var-ma-dan (nce) tren git-mi-ti. (ben / is*tas*yo*na / var*ma*dan / n*ce / tren / git*mi*ti ) Before I arrived at the station, the train had left. Tren, ben istasyon-a var-ma-dan nce git-mi-ti. (tren~ / ben / is*tas*yo*na / var*ma*dan / n*ce / git*mi*ti ) The train had left before I arrived at the station. Cevap ver-me-den (nce) dn. (ce*vap / ver*me*den / n*ce / d*n ) Think before you answer. Unut-ma-dan nce onu defter-im-e yaz-a.cak-m. (u*nut*ma*dan / n*ce / o*nu / def*te*ri*me / ya*za*ca*m ) I will write it in my notebook before I forget it. Bro-un-a git-me-den nce tra ol-ma.l-sn. (b*ro*na / git*me*den / n*ce / tra / ol*ma*l*sn ) You must shave before you go to your office. Dar k-ma-dan nce ceket-in-i giy. (d*a*r / k*ma*dan / n*ce / ce*ke*ti*ni / giy ) Put your coat on before you go out.
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To transform a simple sentence into a sonra phrase, one should use V[dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]-[ten, tan] + sonra composition following the vowel and consonant harmony rules. Sonra is a postposition used after noun-[DEN] + sonra such as okul-dan sonra, sen-den sonra, sen gel-dik-ten sonra, which are all postpositional adverbial phrases. For example: gel-dik-ten sonra, al-dk-tan sonra, gl-dk-ten sonra, oku-duk-tan sonra, se-tik-ten sonra, gne do-duk-tan sonra, piir-dik-ten sonra, yuttuk-tan sonra, gr-n-dk-ten sonra, bekle-e-tik-ten sonra, anla-a-tktan sonra, pi-ir-il-dik-ten sonra, biz-den sonra, ondan sonra, anla-dktan sonra, ben-den sonra, ondan sonra, bala-dk-tan sonra, etc. Note: The symbol V covers both the verb stems, verb frames, and verbal compositions. In the composition above, the [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are the allomorphs of the phoneme [DK], which produce infinitives that can be used before the postposition sonra. Like all infinitives, this composition does not convey a time concept. Its time concept is inferred from the time concept of the main clause that is used together with the postpositional adverbial phrases: Follow the examples:
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He went to bed after he had done (he did) his homework. ocuk-lar zil al-dk-tan sonra futbol oyna-mak iin
NP inf - [DEN] + postp postp adverb phrs of time
dar-/y/a k-t-lar.
| V
to play football
Bitir-dik-ten sonra kompozisyon-um-u teslim et-ti-im. (bi*tir*dik*ten / son*ra / kom*po*zis*yo*nu*mu / tes*lim / et*tim ) After I had finished my composition, I handed it in. Onlar k-tk-tan sonra al-ma-/y/a bala-d-m. (on*lar / k*tk*tan / son*ra / a*l*ma*ya / ba*la*dm ) I began to study after they (had) left. stanbul-dan ayrl-dk-tan sonra sana bir mektup yaz.a.cak-m. (is*tan*bul*dan / ay*rl*dk*tan / son*ra / sa*na / bir / mek*tup / ya*za*ca*m) I will write you a letter after I leave (I have left) stanbul. Bir ift yeni ayakkab al-dk-tan sonra ev-e git-ti. (bir / ift / ye*ni / a*yak*ka*b / al*dk*tan / son*ra ~ / e*ve / git*ti ) She went home after she (had) bought a new pair of shoes. Emekli ol-duk-tan sonra bir ky-de yaa-ma-/y/a bala-d. (e*mek*li / ol*duk*tan / son*ra ~ / bir / ky*de / ya*a*ma*ya / ba*la*d ) He began to live in a village after he (had) retired. Okul-dan ayrl-dk-tan sonra ne yap-t-n? (o*kul*dan / ay*rl*dk*tan / son*ra / ne / yap*tn) What did you do after you (had) left school? Du yap-tk-tan sonra yat-t. (du / yap*tk*tan / son*ra / yat*t ) He went to bed after he had (had) a shower. Konser bit-tik-ten sonra bir restoran-a git-e.lim. (kon*ser / bit*tik*ten / son*ra / bir / res*to*ra*na / gi*de*lim ) Lets go to a restaurant after the concert is over.
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To transform a simple Turkish sentence into a when clause, V-[in.ce, n.ca, n.ce, un.ca] verb composition is used. The [N.CE] morpheme is a suffix which is attached to verb stems or frames to express the concept of when of the English language. Likewise, the [R-KEN] morpheme, which has the allomorphs of [ir-ken, r-ken, r-ken, ur-ken, er-ken, ar-ken], is attached to verb stems and frames to expresses while. The [N.CE] and [R-KEN] morphemes correspond to the English words when and while respectively. In the following examples, the [N.CE] and [R-KEN] morphemes are attached to verbs that end with consonants: When ben okul-a gel-in.ce ben onu sat-n.ca o gl-n.ce sen ona dokun-un.ca zil al-n.ca okul al-n.ca elma-lar sat-l-n.ca while ben okul-a gel-ir-ken sen onu al-r-ken sen ksr-r-ken sen konu-ur-ken sen elma-lar- e-er-ken sen patates-ler-i soy-ar-ken biz bahe-de gez-er-ken
When the verbs end with vowels, however, the allomorphs of [N.CE] are attached to these verbs with the /y/ glides. On the other hand, when the allomorphs of [R-KEN] are attached to verbs ending with vowels, the coinciding vowels (i-i, -, -, u-u, e-e, a-a) unite: when durak-ta bekle-/y/in.ce ben onu anla-/y/n.ca ben oku-ma-/y/a bala-/y/n.ca sen uyu-/y/un.ca while sen durakta bekle-er-ken Ahmet horoz-u kovala-ar-ken Mary sa--/n/ kurula-ar-ken sen uyu-ur.ken
Besides the [N.CE] morpheme, there are two more adverbial alternatives that can convey the concept of when: V - [DK] - [possessed personal morpheme] + zaman, or V - [DK] - [possessed personal morpheme] - [de, da] Okula git-in.ce retmenini greceksin. (gi*din*ce) Okula git-tik-in zaman retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in / za*man) Okula git-tik-in-de retmenini greceksin. (git*ti*in*de)
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(o*ku*la / gi*din*ce / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin ) You will see your teacher when you go to school. 2. Okul-a git-tik-in zaman retmen-in-i gr-e.cek-sin. (o*ku*la / git*ti*in / za*man / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin ) You will see your teacher when you go to school. 3. Okul-a git-tik-in-de retmen-in-i gr-e.cek-sin. (o*ku*la / git*ti*in*de / *ret*me*ni*ni / g*re*cek*sin ) You will see your teacher when you go to school. When Turkish simple sentences are transformed into when adverbial phrases, they lose their time concepts as they do in before and after clauses. This time deficiency is fulfilled by the finite verbs of the main clauses. Follow the examples: (Biz) al-n.ca (biz) ren-ir-iz. (a*l*n*ca / *re*ni*riz ) We learn when we study. (O) ben-i gr-n.ce glmse-di. (be*ni / g*rn*ce / g*lm*se*di ) She smiled when she saw me. (Siz) susa-/y/n.ca (siz) ne i-er-si.niz? (su*sa*/y/n*ca / ne / i*er*si*niz) What do you drink when you are thirsty?
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In order to insert the duration concept of while into a transformed adverbial phrase, you should use the V-[ir-ken, r-ken, r-ken, ur-ken, er-ken, arken] structure when action verbs are involved, such as gel-ir-ken, git-erken, yaz-ar-ken, otur-ur-ken, beklen-ir-ken. This morpheme is like the morpheme [.YOR] whose second syllable never follows the vowel harmony rules. However, when you use adjectives, nouns or noun-[DE] adverbials, you should attach only ken morpheme to these words to convey both when and while. This syllable does not follow the vowel harmony rules, and consequently has no allomorphs. In fact, the [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] allomorphs are The Simple Present Tense allomorphs attached to [KEN] morphemes. Note: The /y/ glide is used when a word ends with a vowel; but when a word ends with a consonant only ken morpheme is attached to such words such as ev-de/y/-ken, okul-da/y/-ken, boyal/y/-ken, evli/y/-ken, be-kr-ken, ocuk-ken, var-ken, kasap-ken, gen-ken, yal/y/-ken, burada/y/-ken, sokak-ta-/y/ken, etc. The mental composition of "while" (duration) adverbials are as follows: Jack okula gidiyordu + duration Jack okul-a git-er-ken (gi*der*ken) Jack okul-a git-er-ken bir kese altn para bul-du. Jack was going to school + duration while Jack was going to school While jack was going to school, he found a purse of gold coins. Consider the example sentences below: Oul-um bahe-de oyna-ar-ken eski bir para buldu. (The /u/ drops, and the /l/ attaches to /u/.) (o*lum / bah*e*de / oy*nar*ken ~/ es*ki / bir / pa*ra / bul*du) My son found an old coin while he was playing in the garden. Ben ev-de/y/-ken btn ev i-ler-i-/n/i kendim yap-ar-m. (ben / ev*dey*ken ~/ b*tn / e*vi*le*ri*ni / ken*dim / ya*pa*rm ) I do all the housework myself when I am at home.
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In order to express as soon as in Turkish, one should use the positive and negative forms of The Simple Present Tense following one another. The adverbial phrases that are built up with these verbal compounds are timeless and their function is adverbial: Zil ald. zil al-ar al-maz (a*lar / al*maz) Jack eve geldi. Jack ev-e gel-ir gel-mez (ge*lir / gel*mez) Gne doacak. gne do-ar do-maz (do*ar / do*maz) Mary beni grd. Mary ben-i gr-r gr-mez (g*rr / gr*mez) Mary odasna girdi. Mary oda-/s/-/n/a gir-er gir-mez (gi*rer / gir*mez) As it is seen, the transformed phrases above are timeless and function as adverbial phrases of time: Jack ev-e gel-ir gel-mez dev-i-/n/i yap-ma-/y/a bala-d Gne do-ar do-maz yol-a koyul-a.cak-lar. Mary ben-i gr-r gr-mez kap-/n/n arka-/s/-/n/a saklan-d. Mary oda-/s/-/n/a gir-er gir-mez bir iskelet-le karla-t.
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As soon as the bell rang, the students went out to play in the garden. The places of adverbs and nouns are arranged in sentences in accordance with the importance given to these units. Therefore the following alternatives of the sentence above may also be produced as follows: renciler, zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin diar ktlar. renciler, bahede oynamak iin zil alar almaz dar ktlar. Zil alar almaz, bahede oynamak iin renciler dar ktlar. *Dar ktlar renciler zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin. The last sentence above is understandable, but a Turkish teacher may not accept it as a good sentence. The main point in changing the places of the above units is that the nearer to the verb, the more important these units are. However, in doing this, the grammatical units should be kept intact. The grammatical units in the sentences above are as follows: 1. renciler 2. zil alar almaz 3. bahede oynamak iin 4. dar ktlar. Examples: Yatak--/n/a yat-ar yat-maz uyku-/y/a dal-d. (ya*ta**na / ya*tar / yat*maz / uy*ku*/ya / dal*d ) He fell asleep as soon as he went to bed. Sokak-ta-ki ocuk-u gr-r gr-mez fren-e bas-t. (so*kak*ta*ki / o*cu*u / g*rr / gr*mez / fre*ne / bas*t ) He hit the brakes as soon as he saw the boy in the street. Sen hazr ol-ur ol-maz dar k-a.cak-z. (sen / ha*zr / o*lur / ol*maz~ / d*a*r / *ka*ca*z ) Well go out as soon as you are ready. Avc Kaplan- gr-r gr-mez ate et-ti. (av*c / kap*la*n / g*rr / gr*mez / a*te / et*ti ) The hunter fired as soon as he saw the tiger. Vaktin ol-ur ol-maz gel ben-i gr. (vak*tin / o*lur / ol*maz / gel / be*ni / gr ) Come and see me as soon as you have time
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When the nouns, such as sabah, yarn, saat alt is chosen, they are attached to [e, a] allomorphs followed by the postposition kadar:
Gece yars-/n/a kadar (dek) televizyon seyret-ti-ik. (ge*ce / ya*r*s*na / ka*dar / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*tik ) We watched TV until midnight. (Kadar and dek are postpositions.) Saat -e kadar ben-i bekle. (sa*at / *e / ka*dar / be*ni / bek*le ) Wait for me until three oclock. Gelecek sene-/y/e kadar ngilizce al-ma-/y/a devam et-e.cek-im. (ge*le*cek / se*ne*ye / ka*dar / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*ma*ya / de*va:m / e*de*ce*im ) I will go on studying English until next year. If a simple sentence is chosen to be used as an adverb of time, V - [e.ne, a.na] + kadar structure, which is a timeless adverbial phrase of time, is used to express until in Turkish. The logical mental composition of "until" is as follows: Gne dodu + kadar gne do-a.na kadar (do*a*na) Gne do-a.na kadar tarlada altlar. The sun rose + until until the sun rose They worked in the field until the sun rose. Gne doacak + kadar ne do-a.na kadar Gne do-a.na kadar tarlada al-a.cak-z. (a*l*a*ca*z) The sun will rise + until until the sun rises We will work in the field until the sun rises. (Onlar) gne do-a.na kadar tarla-da altlar.
NP adverbial postp | postp adverbial phrs adverbial VP | V
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As an alternative to the above adverbial phrase V - [in.ce-/y/e, n.ca-/y/a, n.ce-/y/e, un.ca-/y/a] + kadar form can also be used: Boya kuru-/y/un.ca-/y/a kadar (kuru-/y/a-/n/a kadar) duvar-lar-a dokun-ma. (bo*ya / ku*ru*ya*na / ka*dar / du*var*la*ra / do*kun*ma ) Dont touch the walls until the paint dries. Sen ev-e dn-e.ne kadar ders al-a.cak-m-a sz ver-i.yor-um. (sen / e*ve / d*ne*ne / ka*dar / ders / a*l*a*ca**ma / sz / ve*ri*yo*rum ) I promise I will study until you come back home. Hava karar-a.na kadar ocuk-lar bahe-de oyna-d-lar. (ha*va / ka*ra*ra*na / ka*dar / o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / oy*na*d*lar ) The children played in the garden until it got dark. (Sen) bir iftlik-e gel-e.ne kadar bu patika-/y/ izle. (bir / ift*li*e / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bu / pa*ti*ka*y / iz*le ) Follow this path until you come to a farm. Yardm gel-e.ne kadar bekle-mek zorunda kal-d-lar. (yar*dm / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bek*le*mek / zo*run*da / kal*d*lar ) They had to wait until the help came. l-e.ne kadar sava-t-lar. (*le*ne / ka*dar / sa*va*t*lar ) They fought until they died. ar-l-a.na kadar dar-da bekle. (a*r*la*na / ka*dar / d*a*r*da / bek*le ) Wait outside till you are called. (passive) Bir ada-/y/a gel-e.ne kadar krek ek-ti-ler. (bir / a*da*ya / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / k*rek / ek*ti*ler ) They rowed until they came to an island.
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By or by the time means not later than in English. This time concept is reflected into Turkish sentences by using The Future Perfect Tense, such as: bitir-mi ol-a.cak-m, gel-mi ol-a.cak-lar, etc., preceded by a noun[e, a] + kadar, or "V-[e.ne, a.na] + kadar", or "V-[in.ce-/y/e, n.ca-/y/a, n.ce/y/e, un.ca-/y/a] + kadar" timeless adverbial phrases: Study the following carefully: (Ben) yarn-a kadar i-im-i bitir-mi ol-a.cak-m.
NP postp phrs of time NP VP NP VP V
I
NP
If a simple sentence is needed to be transformed, V - [e.ne, a.na] + kadar structure is used in the adverbial phrase section of a sentence. The logical process of this transformation is as follows:
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(an*nem / e*ve / d*ne*ne / ka*dar~ / i*i*mi / bi*tir*mi / o*la*ca*m ) I will have finished my work by the time my mother comes back home.
| NP | | V | | NP prep phrs V adv | adverbial clause of time NP adv
VP
Dn-n.ce-/y/e kadar may also be used as an alternative to the above expression: Biz stadyum-a var-n.ca-/y/a kadar ma bit-mi ol-a.cak. (biz / stad*yu*ma / va*rn*ca*ya / ka*dar / ma / bit*mi / o*la*cak ) The match will have been over by the time we get to the stadium. Sen ev-e var-n.ca-/y/a kadar btn pasta-y/ yemi ol-a.cak-lar. (sen / e*ve / va*rn*ca*ya / ka*dar~/ b*tn / pas*ta*y / ye*mi / o*la*cak*lar) They will have eaten up all the cake by the time you arrive home.
SINCE
If single nouns or determiner + noun compounds such as dokuz, sabah, le, dn, "geen hafta", "geen ay", "geen yl" are chosen to express, a noun-[den, dan] + beri or a possessor + possessed[den, dan] + beri postpositional phrase structure is used to express since nine, since morning, "since last year", since last summer, or since you went away expressions. The word beri is a postposition. The function of these phrases is adverbial: (Ben) onu geen hafta-dan beri gr-me-di-im.
NP NP postp adverbial phrs of time VP V
I
NP
havent seen
V
her
NP
Saat dokuzdan beri bekle-i.yor-um. (sa*at / do*kuz*dan / be*ri / bek*li*yo*rum ) I have been waiting since nine.
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Sen-i ilk gr-dk-m-den beri sev-i.yor-um. (se*ni / ilk / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / se*vi*yo*rum ) I have been in love with you since I saw you first. (Sen-in) stanbuldan ayrl-dk-n-dan beri sen-den bir mektup al-ma-d-m. (is*tan*bul*dan / ay*rl*d*n*dan / be*ri / sen*den / bir / mek*tup / al*ma*dm ) I havent received a letter from you since you left stanbul. (Ben) (sen-in) evden k-tk-n-dan beri birsey yap-ma-d-m. (ev*den / k*t*n*dan / be*ri / bir / ey / yap*ma*dm ) I havent done anything since you left home. (Ben-im) sen-i son gr-dk-m-den beri (sen) ne yap-.yor-sun? (se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ne / ya*p*yor*sun ) What have you been doing since I saw you last? Kz-lar-dan baz-lar- snf-a gir-dik-ler-i/n/-den beri gl--p konu-u.yor-lar. (kz*lar*dan / ba*z*la*r / s*n*fa / gir*dik*le*rin*den / be*ri / g*l*p / ko*nu*u*yor*lar ) Some of the girls have been chatting and giggling since they came into the classroom. Sen-(in) bura-/y/a gel-dik-in-den beri ne kadar oldu? or Sen bura-/y/a gel-e.li ne kadar ol-du? (sen / bu*ra*ya / ge*le*li / ne / ka*dar / ol*du) How long is it (has it been) since you came here?
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CAUSE or REASON
As, since or because subordinating conjunctions are used in English to express cause or reason. In Turkish, in place of as or since, iin postposition is used. Since all postpositions follow nouns in Turkish, iin can also follow a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a noun + infinitive compound. All noun + infinitive and determiner + noun compounds are syntactic nominal phrases. Follow the simple sentences below: Ben eve ge geldim + iin (ben-(im) ev-e ge gel-dik-im iin I came home late + as as I came home late As the (ben-im) parts in the noun compounds are generally ignored, only the possessed parts of the noun compounds are used as gel-dik-im and ge gel-dik-im. Since these parts are the possessed parts of the noun compounds, they are also nouns, and so, they can be followed by the postposition iin: (ben-im) okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin (onlar) ben-i cezalan-dr-d-lar.
noun + inf comp + postp postpositional phrase of cause NP NP VP V
Note: (Ben-im) and (onlar) are not generally used; they are put there so that the noun compounds should be well understood. The personal suffixes at the end of the verb compositions are enough to express the pronouns. (Ben-im) okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin = As I came to school late,
noun + inf compound + postp postpositional phrase of cause adverbial clause of cause
ben-i cezalandr-d-lar
sentence
they punished me
sentence
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Note: The /s/ and /n/ are glides. "Kendisinin" and "o" are put here to help the learners understand the deleted parts of the compounds. They are not used in current Turkish because "kendisinin" and "o" can be understood from the personal suffixes. The mental production of this sentence is as follows: (O) ok alt + ramen (kendi-/s/i-/n/in) ok alma-/s/-/n/a ramen" He studied hard + although although he studied hard He couldnt succeed although he studied hard
NP V adverbial clause of contrast adv VP noun compound - /n/[a] postp | | postpositional phrase of contrast adverbial adverbial VP | V
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Tm glk-ler-e ramen da-n doruk-u-/n/a trman-a.bil-di-ler. (tm / g*lk*le*re / ra*men~ / da*n / do*ru*u*na / tr*ma*na*bil*di*ler ) They were able to climb the peak of the mountain in spite of all difficulties. Tm kt hava art-lar--/n/a ramen pilot uak- baar-/y/la indir-di. The pilot landed the plane successfully in spite of all the unfavorable weather conditions. Kk gz-ler-i-/n/e ramen yakkl-dr. (k*k / gz*le*ri*ne / ra*men~ / ya*k*k*l*dr ) He is handsome in spite of his small eyes. Note: Some speakers and writers tend to use "karn" in place of "ramen" to avoid this borrowed word: "Kk gzlerine karn (ramen) yakkldr". [Ken] morpheme can also be used like while to express contrast: Baz kimse-ler zengin-ken dier baz-lar- yoksul-dur. (ba:*z / kim*se*ler / zen*gin*ken~ / di*er / ba:*z*la*r / yok*sul*dur ) While some people are wealthy, some others are poor. Karnca al-r-ken, austos bcek-i zaman--/n/ ark syle-/y/e.rek boa harca-ar-d. While the ant was working, the cicada used to waste time singing. Baz kimseler ay- tercih et-er-ken, dier bazlar- kahve-/y/i tercih eder. While some people prefer tea, some others prefer coffee. Baz renci-ler ren-mek iin istek-li/y/-ken, dier baz-lar- ders-ler-e kar kaytsz-dr. While some students are eager to learn, some others are indifferent to lessons.
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(O) ieri-/y/e gir-e-/y/im diye kapy at. He opened the door to let me go in.
NP sent (nominal phrs) postp postp phrase of purpose VP | NP | V NP V NP adv phrs of purpose VP
eri gir-e.bil-e-/y/im. eri gir-e.bil-e-sin. eri gir-e.bil-sin. eri gir-e.bil-e-lim. eri gir-e.bil-e-si.niz. eri gir-e.bil-sin-ler.
Let me be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish him to be able to go in. Let us be able to go in. I wish you to be able to go in. I wish you to let them be able to go in.
1. V -[e.bil, a.bil]-[e-/y/im, e-sin, sin, e-lim, e-si.niz, sin-ler] + diye 2. V - [e-/y/im, a-/y/m], [e-sin, a-sn], [sin, sn, sn, sun], [e-si.niz, a-snz], [sin-ler, sn-lar] + diye Follow the examples: (o) (Ben) ieri gir-e-bil-e-/y/im diye
NP sentence used as a noun postp postpositional phrase of purpose VP | V | NP | adverbial clause of purpose VP
kap-/y/ a-t.
| NP | V
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(ge*le*cek / di*ye / bek*le*dim) I waited hoping that he would come. Herkes anla-m-tr diye szm-e devam et-ti-im. (liaison) (her*kes / an*la*m*tr / di*ye ~/ s*z*me / de*va:*met*tim ) I went on talking thinking that everybody must have understood me.
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(hi / yan*l*lk / yap*ma*sn / di*ye~ / o*nu / dik*kat*le / yaz*d ) He wrote it carefully so that he shouldnt make a mistake. Gzel gr-n-sn diye yeni elbise-/s/i-/n/i giy-di. (g*zel / g*rn*sn / di*ye / ye*ni / el*bi*se*si*ni / giy*di ) She put her new dress on so that she might (should) look beautiful. Ka-ma-sn diye at-m- bir aa-a bala-d-m. (ka*ma*sn / di*ye / a*t*m / bir / a*a*ca / ba*la*dm ) I fastened my horse to a tree so that it shouldnt escape. Hi parmak iz-i brak-ma-sn diye hrsz eldiven tak-m-t. (hi / par*mak / i*zi / b*rak*ma*sn / di*ye~/ hr*sz / el*di*ven / tak*m*t ) The thief wore gloves so that he shouldnt leave any fingerprints. ngilizcemi uygula-/y/m diye baba-am ben-i ngiltere/y/e gtr-e.cek. (in*gi*liz*ce*mi / uy*gu*la*ym / di*ye / ba*bam / be*ni / in*gil*te*re*ye / g*t*re*cek) My father will take me to London so that I may practice my English. If the subject of the main clause, and that of the adverbial phrase are the same, an infinitive + iin postpositional phrase can be used:
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PLACE
To produce an adverbial concept of place in Turkish, one can use istedik-in yer-e (to the place where you wish), or nere-/y/e istersen (where you wish) expressions. (Sen) istedik-in yer-e git-e.bil-ir-sin. You can go (to the place) where you wish.
NP determiner noun -[e] adverbial V NP V prep phrase determiner adverbial clause of place
yer-e koy.
V
(You) put the book (in the place) where you found it.
NP V prep phrs (adv) determiner adverbial clause of place
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MANNER
To transform a simple English sentence into an adverbial clause of manner, the conjunction as is put in the beginning of a sentence. In Turkish, gibi postposition is used after a noun + infinitive compound:
AS
The mental development of an adverbial phrase of manner is as follows: Ben sana dyledim + gibi ben-im sana dyle-dik-im gibi" I told you + as "as I told you" (Sen) onu, (ben-im) sana syle-dik-im gibi yap.
NP | NP noun compound + postp postp adverbial phrase of manner VP | V
/ gi*bi / ya*za*rm)
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In Turkish, it is impossible to use only the pronoun without using the personal suffix at the end of a sentence. One has to say either Ben gelecek hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um, or Gelecek hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um. It is incorrect to say *Ben Ankaraya gidiyor, or *Ben Trke bilmiyor.
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( bir / so*ru / so*ra*cak*m / gi*bi / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look as if you are going to ask a question. (It seems that you are going to ask a question.) Bana kz-m (gibi) gr-n-.yor-sun. (ba*na / kz*m / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look (sound) as if you are angry with me. (It seems that you are angry with me.) Bu kuma pamuk-tan yap-l-m his-/s/i ver-i.yor. (bu / ku*ma ~ / pa*muk*tan / ya*pl*m / his*si / ve*ri*yor ) This material feels as if it is made of cotton. Komu-da bir-i-ler-i bir parti ver-i.yor-lar-m gibi ses-ler gel-i.yor. (kom*u*da / bi*ri*le*ri / bir / par*ti / ve*ri*yor*lar*m / gi*bi / ses*ler / ge*li*yor ) It sounds as if some people are giving a party next door. (I hear that the neighbors are giving a party.) Bir ey yan-.yor-mu gibi bir koku al-.yor-um. (bi*ey / ya*n*yor*mu / gi*bi / bir / ko*ku / a*l*yo*rum ) I smell as if something is burning. (Something is burning.) The same mi gibi is also used for the unreal past, but in such sentences, nouns, determiner + noun, or sentences used as nominal phrases take part. The mental development of such sentences may be as follows: Ben ocuk-um + gibi ben ocuk-mu-um gibi I am a child + as if as if I were a child (Sen) (ben) bir ocuk-mu-um gibi ben-im-le konu-ma.
NP nominally used sentence + postp postp adverbial phrase of manner VP | adverbial | V
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RESULT
In place of so or therefore, bylece, bu yzden, bu nedenle, bu sa:yede, or bu ekilde conjunctions may be used to supply a simple sentence with a result concept: Sabah-le.yin erken kalktm, ve bylece ev dev-im-i bitir-e.bil-di-im. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*tm ~/ ve / by*le*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim ) I got up early, and so I was able to finish my homework.
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SO THAT
SUCH THAT
Such result clauses are formed by an o kadar + adjective (adverb) [time] + ki + sentence structure in Turkish as it is used in English. Consider the following: Sorular o kadar g-t ki sadece birka renci cevap ver-e.bil-di
NP adverbial VP V conj adv adj NP noun NP VP sentence of result V
The questions were so difficult that only few students were able to answer.
NP VP conj adv adj NP noun V NP (inf) VP
sentence of result
Yk o kadar ar-d ki, iki at bile araba-/y/ ek-e.me-di. (yk / o*ka*dar / a*r*d / ki ~/ i*ki / at / bi*le / a*ra*ba*y / e*ke*me*di ) The load was so heavy that even two horses could not pull the cart. O kadar hzl konu-ur ki onu anla-/y/a.maz-sn. (o*ka*dar / hz*l / ko*nu*ur / ki~ / o*nu / an*l*ya*maz*sn ) She speaks so fast that you cant understand her.
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ok yal-/y/m.
| V
I am too old to play basketball. Kzm araba sr-mek iin ok gen-ti. (k*zm~ / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / gen*ti ) My daughter was too young to drive. Olum araba sr-mek iin ok yal ol-duk-um-u syle-.yor. (o*lum~ / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / ya*l / ol*du*u*mu / sy*l*yor) My son says that I am too old to drive. As an alternative to the sentences above oyna-/y/a.ma-/y/a.cak kadar, sr-e.me-/y/e.cek kadar expressions may also be used: Hava dar k-a.ma-/y/a.cak kadar souk. (ha*va / d*a*r / *ka*m*ya*cak / ka*dar / so*uk ) It is too cold to go out. Sorular cevap ver-il-e.me-/y/e.cek kadar g. (so*ru*lar / ce*vap / ve*ri*le*me*ye*cek / ka*dar / g ) The questions are too difficult to answer. Sen ben-i anla-/y/a.ma-/y/a.cak kadar gen-sin. (sen ~/ be*ni / an*l*ya*m*ya*cak / ka*dar / gen*sin ) You are too young to understand me. Bu araba satn al-n-a.ma-/y/a.cak kadar eski. (liaison) (bu / a*ra*ba / sa*t*na*l*na*ma*ya*cak / ka*dar / es*ki ) This car is too old to be bought (to buy). al-ma-/y/a devam et-e.me-/y/e.cek kadar yorgun-um. (a*l*ma*ya / de*vam / e*de*me*ye*cek / ka*dar / yor*gu*num ) I am too tired to go on working.
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DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE (COMPARISON OF INEQUALITY) To compare something with another, at least two nominals should exist in a sentence. These nominals may be nouns, pronouns, infinitives or noun compounds. To add comparison to a sentence noun / noun - [den, dan, ten, tan] + daha (az) + adjective (adverb) + V structure is used. Follow the example sentences: (Ben) sen-den (daha) yal-/y/m.
NP comparative adverbial VP adj -V
I am
NP V
than you.
pron
Besides nouns and pronouns, noun compounds and infinitives can be compared:
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Traveling by bus is cheaper than traveling by air. Ben-im araba-am sen-in araba-an-dan (daha) iyi. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / se*nin / a*ra*ban*dan / da*ha / i*yi ) My car is better than your car. Ben-im ta-dk-m sen-in ta-dk-n-dan daha ar-d. (be*nim / ta**d*m~ / se*nin / ta**d*n*dan / da*ha / a*r*d ) What I carried was heavier than what you did. Daha salk-l gr-n-.yor-sun. (da*ha / sa*lk*l / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look healthier. (then you were before) As the expression in parentheses is already in the minds of both the speaker and the listener, it is not generally put into words. (deletion) (Sen) ben-den daha salk-l gr-n-.yor-sun. (ben*den / da*ha / sa*lk*l / g*r*n*yor*sun ) You look healthier than I. (than I am healthy). (Sen) bugn daha erken kalk-t-n. (bu*gn / da*ha / er*ken / kalk*tn ) You got up earlier today. (than before). Kz karde-in sen-den daha ok al-.yor. (kz*kar*de*in / sen*den / da*ha / ok / a*l**yor ) Your sister works harder than you. (than you work). Biz-im rn-ler-i.miz ithl rn-ler-den daha ucuz-dur. (bi*zim / *rn*le*ri*miz~/ it*h:l / *rn*ler*den / da*ha / u*cuz*dur ) Our products are cheaper than imported ones. Bekle-dik-im-den daha abuk ren-i.yor-sun. (bek*le*di*im*den / da*ha / a*buk / *re*ni*yor*sun ) You are learning faster than I expected. Sen gr-n-dk-n-den daha akll-sn. (sen~ / g*rn*d*n*den / da*ha / a*kl*l*sn ) You are cleverer than you look. Film-i um-duk-um-dan daha ilgin bul-du-um. (fil*mi / um*du*um*dan / da*ha / il*gin / bul*dum ) I found the film more interesting than I expected.
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SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
The superlative degree of an adjective or an adverb is made by putting the adverb en before an adjective or an adverb: Ben-im araba-am ehir-de-ki en ekonomik araba-dr. (be*nim / a*ra*bam~ / e*hir*de*ki / en / e*ko*no*mik / a*ra*ba*dr ) My car is the most economical car in town. Fatma dnya/n/n en gzel kadn--dr. (fat*ma ~/ dn*ya:*nn / en / g*zel / ka*d*n*dr ) Fatma is the most beautiful woman of the world. ita dnya-da-ki en hzl hayvan-dr. (i*ta~ / dn*ya:*da*ki / en / hz*l / hay*van*dr ) The cheetah is the swiftest animal in the world. ita en hz-l ko-ar. (i*ta / en / hz*l / ko*ar ) The cheetah runs the swiftest.
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ok
intens
hzl
adv VP
A cat can run as fast as a dog. Kar-m ben-im (yz-dk-m) kadar hzl yz-e.bil-ir.
NP noun compound + postp postp phrase of comparison VP | adv | V
My wife can swim as fast as I can (swim). As all noun compounds are nominal phrases NP, the last sentence above can be written as NP + NP + kadar + adv + V. Jack kz karde-i kadar
NP noun comp + postp postp phrs of comparison VP
akll-dr.
| V
Jack is as clever as her sister is. Ben sen-in san-dk-n kadar akll deil-im. (san*d*n)
NP (noun comp) NP postp postp adv phrs of comparison VP | adj- V
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adj-V
Hava dn-k (hava) kadar souk deil. (ha*va~ / dn*k / ka*dar / so*uk / de*il ) It is not as cold as it was yesterday. Kz ocuklar, erkek ocuklardan daha fazla anne ve babalarna dkndr. Daughters are more devoted to their parents than sons. PARALLEL PROPORTION (KOUT UYUM) A parallel proportion can be built up using the following sentence structure: ne + kadar + adverb (adjective) + V - [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar, ] - [se, sa][pers] o + kadar + adverb (adjective) + V Compare and consider the following sentences: (Sen) ne kadar erken kalk-ar-sa-an, o kadar iyi (dir)
NP intens (adv) adv verb (cond) adverbial phrase of condition VP | intensifier | adj-V
Ne kadar erken kalk-ar-sa-an o kadar iyi. (ne*ka*dar / er*ken / kal*kar*san ~/ o / ka*dar / i*yi ) The earlier you get up, the better. nsan-lar ne kadar kolay yksel-ir-ler-se, o kadar kt d-er-ler. (in*san*lar / ne*ka*dar / ko*lay / yk*se*lir*ler*se~ / o*ka*dar / k*t / d*er*ler ) The easier they (the people) rise, the harder they fall.
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WISH
WISH + WOULD The above expression is used when the speaker wishes something to happen, or when he is complaining about the present situation. I wish is generally translated into Turkish as keke, which may sometimes be misleading when it is used with would. In Turkish, this sort of expression is called dilek kipi, which means, wish mood". The structure of this expression is as follows: V-([me, ma])-[se, sa]- [pers] or V - [e.bil, a.bil]-[se, sa]-[pers]: Compare and consider the following sentences: u adam eki grlt-/s/-/n/ bir durdur-sa! (u / a*dam / e*ki / g*rl*t*s*n / bir / dur*dur*sa~) I wish that man would stop hammering. Biri-/s/i u televizyon-un ses-i-/n/i bir ks-sa! (bi*ri*si / u / te*le*viz*yo*nun / se*si*ni / bir / ks*sa~) I wish someone would turn down that TV.
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CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are two parts in a conditional sentence: if clause and the main clause. In an if clause, the supposition is either real or unreal. These real and unreal suppositions in Turkish are also classified according to their times: 1 (a): present real supposition. 1(b): present unreal supposition. 2 (a): past real supposition. 2 (b): past unreal supposition. 1 (a): If the supposition is real at present, V - [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar]-[se, sa]-[pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and The Simple Present (Geni Zaman) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 1 (b): If the supposition is unreal at present, V-[se] or [sa]-[pers] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (Geni Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence. 2 (a): If the supposition is real in the past, V-[di/y/, d/y/, d/y/, du/y/, ti/y/, t/y/, t/y/, tu/y/]-[se, sa]-[pers] is used in the condition part, and V [mi, m, m, mu] -[tir, tr, tr, tur] verb composition is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
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(ya*mur / ya*ar*sa ~ / ev*de / o*tu*ru*ruz ) If it rains, we will stay at home. We will stay at home if it rains. (Sen) al-r-sa-an snav- ge-er-/s/in. (a*l*r*san ~ / s*na*v / ge*er*sin ) If you study, you will pass the exam. ok al-r-sa-an baar-a-bil-ir-sin. (ok / a*l*r*san ~ / ba*a*ra*bi*lir*sin ) If you work hard, you can succeed. Onu dr-r-se-en kr-l-r. (o*nu / d**rr*sen ~ / k*r*lr ) If you drop it, it will break. Onu tekrar yap-ar-sa-an tokat- yer-sin. (o*nu / tek*rar / ya*par*san ~ / to*ka*d / yer*sin ) If you do that again, you will be slapped. Bulak-lar- yka-ar-sa-an sana ev dev-i/n/-de yardm et-er-im. (bu*la*k*la*r / y*kar*san ~/ sa*na / ev / *de*vin*de / yar*dm / e*de*rim) If you wash the dishes, I will help you with your homework. Dikkat-li sr-er-se-en kaza yap-maz-sn. (dik*kat*li / s*rer*sen~ / ka*za: / yap*maz*sn ) If you drive carefully, you wont have an accident. Hazr-sa-an dar k-a-bil-ir-iz. (ha*zr*san~ / d*a*r / *ka*bi*li*riz ) We can go out if you are ready. Seyret-me-i.yor-sa-an televizyon-u kapat. (sey*ret*mi*yor*san ~/ te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat ) Turn it off if you are not watching television. Onlar gel-ir-ler-se memnun ol-ur-uz. (on*lar / ge*lir*ler*se ~/ mem*nun / o*lu*ruz ) We will be happy if they come. (In the third person plural [se] and [ler] allomorphs change places.)
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(ev*de / ol*sa ~ / ka*p*y / a*ar*d ) If he were at home, he would open the door. (He is not at home now.) Cevap- bil-se-em sana syle-er-di-im. (ce*va:*b / bil*sem ~/sa*na / sy*ler*dim ) If I knew the answer, I would tell you. (I don't know the answer.) Sen-in yer-in-de ol-sa-am byle davran-maz-d-m. (se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam ~ / by*le / dav*ran*maz*dm ) If I were you, I wouldnt behave like that. (advice) Yap-a.cak bir sr i-im ol-ma-sa sen-in-le dar k-ar-d-m. (ya*pa*cak / bir*s*r / i*im / ol*ma*sa ~/ se*nin*le / d*a*r / *kar*dm) If I didnt have a lot of things to do, I would go out with you. (Sorry, I have a lot of things to do.) Baba-an-n yer-i/n/-de ol-sa-am, araba kullan-ma-an-a izin ver-mez-di-im. (ba*ba*nn / ye*rin*de / ol*sam ~ / a*ra*ba / kul*lan*ma*na / i*zin / ver*mez*dim) If I were your father, I wouldnt let you drive ) The present unreal suppositions can also be used to express future disappointment: Yarn tatil ol-sa piknik-e git-er-di-ik. (ya*rn / ta:*til / ol*sa ~/ pik*ni*e / gi*der*dik ) If tomorrow were a holiday, we would go for a picnic.
If we want to add certainty to the result part of the conditional sentence above, ve use verb-[M]-tir verb composition:
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(ka*p*y / al*d*n*da / ev*de / ol*say*d ~ / a*ar*d ) If he had been at home when you knocked at the door, he would have opened it. (He was not at home, so he didnt open the door.) Yarn tatil ol-sa sinema-/y/a git-er-di-ik. (ya*rn / ta:*til / ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik ) If tomorrow were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal) Bugn tatil ol-sa sinema-/y/a git-er-di-ik. (bu*gn / ta:*til /ol*sa ~/ si*ne*ma*ya / gi*der*dik ) If today were a holiday, we would go to the cinema. (unreal)
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POLITE REQUESTS
3. Kap-/y/ a, ol-ur mu? ( ka*p*y / a / o*lur / mu ) Open the door, will you? Televizyon-u kapat, ol-ur mu? (te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat / o*lur / mu ) Turn the TV off, will you? Syle-dik-im-i yap, ol-ur mu? (sy*le*di*i*mi / yap / o*lur / mu ) Do what I tell you, will you? Ev-e ge gel-me, ol-ur mu ? (e*ve / ge / gel*me / o*lur / mu ) Dont come home late, will you? 4. Lutfen kap-/y/ a-ar m-sn? (lut*fen / ka*p*y / a*ar / m*sn ) Will (would) you open the door, please? Lutfen bana yardm et-er mi-sin? (lut*fen / ba*na / yar*dm / e*der / mi*sin ) Will (would) you help me, please? Lutfen radyo-/y/u ks-ar m-sn? (lut*fen / rad*yo*yu / k*sar / m*sn ) Will (would) you turn down the radio, please? Lutfen bana bir fincan kahve yap-ar m-sn? (lut*fen / ba*na / bir / fin*can / kah*ve / ya*par / m*sn ) Will (would) you please make me a cup of coffee? 5. Televizyon-u kapatma-am-n siz-ce bir saknca-/s/ var m? (te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat*ma*mn / siz*ce / bir / sa*kn*ca*s / var / m ) Do (would) you mind my turning the TV off?
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POLITE REFUSALS
To accept an offer or a request is easy. You may just say Evet, memnuniyet-le (e*vet / mem*nu:*ni*yet*le) (Yes, with pleasure); Bayl-rm (ba*y*l*rm ) (Yes, Id love to), or Elbet-te (el*bet*te) (Certainly). When you have to refuse a request or an offer, however, you have to be politer than ever in order not to offend the person who asks for permission: Televizyon-u a-a.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I turn on the TV? A-ma-sa-an iyi ol-ur; nk bir i mektup-u zeri/n/-de odaklan-ma-/y/a al-.yor-um. (a*ma*san / i*yi / o*lur / n*k / bir / i / mek*tu*bu / *ze*rin*de / o*dak*lan*ma*ya / a*l**yo*rum ) Youd better not, because Im trying to concentrate on a business letter. Oda-a.nz- imdi temizle-/y/e.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I clean your room now? Temizle-me-se-en (yapmasan) iyi ol-ur, nk bu oda-da yap-a.cak bir sr i-im var. Id rather you didnt because I have got a lot of things to do in this room. ste-er-se-en ma-a git-e.li-im. Lets go to the match, if you wish. Kork-ar-m git-e.me-em; ev dev-im-i bit-ir-mek zorunda-/y/m. Im afraid I cant because I have to finish my homework.
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V - [ip, p, p, up]
When two actions are carried out one after the other, the first verb stem is suffixed with one of the [ip, p, p, up] allomorphs before the final verb composition is used in all tenses:
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(o*tu*rup / d*n*dm ) I sat down and thought. Bekle-/y/ip gr-e.cek-iz. (bek*le*yip / g*re*ce*iz ) Well wait and see al-p baar-a.bil-ir-sin. (a*l*p / ba*a*ra*bi*lir*sin ) You can work and succeed. ocuk-lar bahe-de ko-up oyna-u.yor-lar-d. (o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*up ~/ oy*nu*yor*lar*d ) The children were running and playing in the garden. Hayalet-i gr-p bayl-d. (ha*ya:*le*ti / g*rp / ba*yl*d ) She saw the ghost and fainted.
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Aslnda : in fact
Mary ev iini kendisinin yaptn syyor. Ama aslnda, iin ounu kocas yapyor. Mary says that she does the housework herself. In fact, her husband does most of the housework.
baka bir deyile: in other words, bilhass: in particular, particularly, specifically, above all bir yandan: on the one hand
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en nihayet : after all esasen: in fact, as a matter of fact fakat: but, yet, however
Btn yl alt fakat bir araba satn almak iin yeterince para biriktiremedi. He worked hard all the year long, but he could not save enough money to buy a car.
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Hari: excluding, except for, apart from hatta, stelik : even, moreover, besides, even more, furthermore
Kzm be yl nce evlendi; hatta (stelik) iki olu bile var. My daughter got married five years ago; besides, she has got two sons.
Her ey gz nne alnd takdirde : all things considered ile (le, la): and
Ahmetle Mehmet ayn brada alyorlar. Ahmet and Mehmet work in the same office.
ki: that
Korkarm (ki) pastan kedi yedi. Im afraid (that) the cat has eaten up your cake. nanrm (ki) haklsn. I believe (that) you are right.
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sonra: then
Eve geldi, sonra mutfaa dald ve yemek hazrlamaya balad. She came home, then hurried into the kitchen, and started preparing dinner.
sonu olarak: as a result, as a consequence sonuta: in conclusion stelik : furthermore, in addition, what is more, even, besides,
moreover En kolay problemleri bile zemiyor; stelik kendini bir dh sanyor. He cant solve even the simplest problems, besides he thinks he is a genius.
phesiz ki: undoubtedly tam aksine: in contrast tam tersine: on the contrary tm bunlara ramen: for all that tmyle: on the whole ve: and velhasl: after all, in conclusion ve saire: etc. veya: or
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"Come back home before it gets dark," Mary's father said to her.
(sentence) NP NP adverbial NP (sentence) NP (obj) VP V adverbial V
2: In both English and Turkish, one can report what one heard by transforming it: Mary said that she disliked boring people.
NP V noun clause NP VP (infinitive) NP (obj of syle) VP V
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RATIONAL SEQUENCING
The best way to see whether a proposal, a plan, or a theory is applicable is to put it into practice. Thinking that Chomsky's Transformational Generative theory is the best approach to describe the grammar of a language, I dared to write this Turkish Grammar. Chomsky asserts that natural languages have two levels of representations, a deep logical structure, and a phonetic or verbal structure, which function together with the vocal organs. The deep structure represents the logical production of a sentence in which thought is shaped and separated into two logical components called subject and predicate (NP and VP). The mind also separates the predicate (VP) into two components called verb and object (V and NP). If the verb is intransitive, it does not have an object, so the VP (predicate) is composed of only a verb. The sequencing of these logical parts of a sentence is learned through the experiences of an individual because their sequencing changes from language to language. All these activities are rationally performed by the mind. The mind inserts these rational phrases into a sentence according to the learned sequence of an individual. This shows us that subject, verb and object components innately exist in a person's mind, but these components are sequenced by the mind appropriate to a learned sequence. There exist three kinds of sentences in a language: 1. A subject, a transitive verb and an object: Jack killed a mouse.
S NP V Obj VP
The language producing system of the mind uses two different systems to produce meaningful sentences. One of these systems is the inherent logical
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However, if the same person knows Turkish, he arranges and places his morphemized set of thought into a different sentence pattern and words: ocuk-lar le-den sonra okul bahe-/s/i/n/-de futbol oyna-u.yor-lar-d.
subject adverbial of time adverbial of place object inflected verb
The morphemized simple sentences above can be transformed into nominal phrases (nominalized) so that they could be used in the basic logical phrase structure pattern NP + VP. If you imagine a person who has no people living around and talking to each other, you should admit that he cannot learn a language, but as he innately has the ability of learning a language, and the ability of thinking, he will start learning a language when he is exposed to the phonemes and morphemes of a language. As soon as he learns some words and stores them in his memory, he begins to express his thoughts using several words instead of shouting, murmuring or crying when he wants to communicate with other people. This useful device is called language. All languages are learned skills. Nobody is born speaking a language, but all human beings are born with the faculty of learning a language, which possesses some fundamental common patterns upon which all natural languages are built. Additionally, the mind possesses a number of speech intentions which influence language production. The words and the intonation patterns that a speaker chooses to express himself reveal his spiritual condition, as well. When we hear a person speak, we can guess whether he is angry, happy, nervous, bored, sad, and even whether he is kind, polite, rude, bossy, or affectionate. Although all animals can hear people well, and store some words in their memories, they cannot systemize what they hear and use them as humans do. The mind of a human being is capable of composing the set of thought written above in a linear logical structure, transforming them into the mophemes, words and some other specific rules of a target language, and producing vocalized sentences.
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2.
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The Turkish nominalized phrases above can be used in the "NP + VP" phrase structure pattern as a "NP" as follows: 1a. (Ben) ocuk-lar-n leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oyna-dk-lar--/n/ gr-d-m.
NP (subj) NP (object) verb
1b. ocuk-lar-n leden sonra okul bahesinde fuybol oyna-ma-/s/ kimse-/y/i ilgilen-dir-mez. 2. leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oynayan ocuklar benim rencilerimdir. 3. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde oynadklar futbol izlemeye deerdi. 4. ocuklarn leden sonra futbol oynadklar okul bahesi futbol oynamaya uygun deildi. 5. ocuklarn okul bahesinde futbol oynamalarnn zaman okul mdrn kzdrd. 6. Kim-ler-in leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oyna-d- hl bilinmiyor. 7. Kimlerin leden sonra nerede futbol oynadn bilmiyorum. 8. ocuklarn oleden sonra okul bahesinde niin futbol oynadklarn tahmin edebilir misin? 9. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde ne yaptklarn biliyor musun? 10. ocuklarn leden sonra okul bahesinde futbol oynayp oynamadklarn bilmiyorum. The nominalizations of the simple Turkish sentences seem more difficult than nominalizing the English ones. This difficulty arises when someone whose native language is different from Turkish begins learning Turkish as a second language because while he is trying to learn the transformational rules of a second language, the transformational rules of his/her native language always interfere with the rules of the second language. Therefore, when teaching a second language, this difficulty should be taken into account by the second language teachers. While a child is learning his native tongue, however, he does not have to overcome such difficulty because transformational rules are learned through the experiences of a person.
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MORPHEMIC SEQUENCING
Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful units that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts in a language. These morphemes are of two kinds; the free morphemes that carry meaning by themselves, the bound morphemes that can carry meaning only when they are attached to free morphemes. The bound morphemes are also two kinds: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. When derivational morphemes attach to free morphemes they produce new words or change the part of speech that they belong. However, when the inflectional morphemes attach to free morphemes or words, they create changes in the function of these free morphemes or words in sentences. Turkish harmonic system produces allomorphs for both derivational and inflectional morphemes. A list of the derivational morphemes and their allomorphs can be seen at page 17. The term morpheme represents the meaning of a word root or a suffix. All the suffixes of the Turkish language have alternative variants called allomorphs created by the Turkish harmonic system. Therefore, when articulating the allomorphs of these morphemes, they are vocalized according to the harmonic system of the Turkish language. The inflectional allomorphs attach to both nouns and verbs in Turkish:
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[i, , , u]
ev-i the house, arslan- the lion, gz- the eye, okul-u the school, renci-/y/i the student, sorun-u the problem, uyku-/y/u the sleep, onun bize kzmas-/n/ his getting angry with us, oda-/n/n kap-/s/-/n/ the door of the room, o-/n/un gel-dik-i-/n/i that he came
[e, a]
ev-e to the house, ay-a to the moon, gz-e to the eye, at-a to the horse, oda-/y/a to the room, biz-e to us, onlar-a to them, o-/n/un anne/s/i-/n/e to his mother.
[le, la]
otobs-le by bus, benim-le with me, balta/y/-la with an axe, acele/y/-le hastily, sayg/y/-la with respect, eki-le with a hammer, dikkat-le carefully, tela-la in a hurry, istek-le eagerly, fke/y/-le angrily
[ler, lar]
sepet-ler baskets, ku-lar birds, kitap-lar books, eekler donkeys, balk-lar fish, ocuk-lar children, adam-lar men, kadn-lar women
The allomorphs attached to both parts of the possessor + possessed noun compounds:
ben-im baba-am, sen-in anne-en, o-/n/un teyze-/s/i, Ahmet-in araba-/s/, okul-un kap-/s/, biz-im ev-i.miz, siz-in okul-u.nuz, onlar-n bahe-/s/i, Hasan-n git-tik-i okul, Aye-/n/in okul-a ge gel-me-/s/i.
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The allomorphs [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar] indicate the simple present:
gel-ir-im, kal-r-m, yr-r-m, otur-ur-um, bekle-er-im, bak-ar-m gel-ir-sin. kal-r-sn, yr-r-sn, otur-ur-sun, bekle-er-sin, bak-ar-sn gel-ir, kal-r, yr-r, otur-ur, bekle-er, bak-ar gel-ir-iz, kal-r-z, yr-r-z, otur-ur-uz, bekle-er-iz, bak-ar-z gel-ir-si.niz, kal-r-s.nz, yr-r-s.nz, otur-ur-su.nuz, bekle-er-si.niz, bak-ar-s.nz gel-ir-ler, kal-r-lar, yr-r-ler, otur-ur-lar, bekle-er-ler, bak-ar-lar
The allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] indicate the simple past:
gel-di-im, kal-d-m, yr-d-m, otur-du-um, i-ti-im, sat-t-m, l-t-m gel-di-in, kal-d-n, yr-d-n, otur-du-un, i-ti-in, sat-t-n, l-t-n gel-di, kal-d, yr-d, otur-du, i-ti, sat-t, l-t, u-tu, yat-t, git-ti, bit-ti gel-di-ik, kal-d-k, yr-d-k, otur-du-uk, i-ti-ik, sat-t-k, l-t-k gel-di-i.niz, kal-d-.nz, yr-d-.nz, otur-du-u.nuz, i-ti-i.niz, sat-t-.nz, gel-di-ler, kal-d-lar, yr-d-ler, otur-du-lar, i-ti-ler, sat-t-lar, l-t-ler, The allomorphs [i.yor, .yor, .yor, u.yor] indicate the present continuous: gel-i.yor-um, kal-.yor-um, yr-.yor-um, otur-u.yor-um, bekle-i.yor-um gel-i.yor-sun, kal-.yor-sun, yr-.yor-sun, otur-u.yor-sun, bekle-i.yor-sun gel-i.yor, kal-.yor, yr-.yor, otur-u.yor, bekle-i.yor gel-i.yor-uz, kal-.yor-uz, yr-.yor-uz, otur-u.yor-uz, bekle-i.yor-uz gel-i.yor-su.nuz, kal-.yor-su.nuz, yr-.yor-su.nuz, bekle-i.yor-su.nuz gel-i.yor-lar, kal-.yor-lar, yr-.yor-lar, otur-u.yor-lar, bekle-i.yor-lar The double underlined e and vowels drop, and the single underlined consonants preceding them attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs. The allomorphs [e.cek, a.cak] indicate the simple future: gel-e.cek-im, kal-a.cak-m, yr-/y/e.cek-im, otur-a.cak-m, bala-/y/a.cak-m gel-e.cek-sin, git-e.cek-sin, yr-/y/e.cek-sin, otur-a.cak-sn, sat-a.cak-sn gel-e.cek, kal-a.cak, yr-/y/e.cek, otur-a.cak, bala-/y/a.cak, ka-a.cak gel-e.cek-iz, kal-a.cak-z, yr-/y/e.cek-iz, otur-a.cak-z, git-e.cek-iz gel-e.cek-si.niz, git-e.cek-si.niz, yr-/y/e.cek-si.niz, a-a.cak-s.nz, at-a.cak-s.nz, gl-e.cek-si.niz, tan-a.cak-s.nz, bekle-e.cek-si.niz git-e.cek-ler, at-a.cak-lar, unut-a.cak-lar, uyu-/y/a.cak-lar, unutul-a.cak-lar
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The inflectional time allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu] attached to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbials that indicate simple past. O ben-di-im. Ma geyecanl/y/-d. O-/n/un orap-lar- masa-/n/n st-/n/de/y/-di. retmen-in gz- ben-de/y/-di. (Biz) hazr-d-k. O bir kahramand. (Biz) zgn-d-k. Ahmet snav iin hazrlkl m/y/-d? The inflectional allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu] indicate rumor:
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The [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs may also be attached to [e.cek, a.cak] allomorphs: Hava yarn gzel ol.acak-m. They say that it will be fine tomorrow. Herkes hazr ol-a.cak-m. They say that everybody will be ready.
[me.li, ma.l]
The inflectional allomorphs [me.li, ma.l] indicate obligation imposed by the speaker when they are used with action verbs, and they indicate certainty or necessity when they are used with stative verbs be: (Ben) sabah-le.yin erken kalk-ma.l-/y/m. I must get up early in the morning.
subj NP | | adverbial adverb predicate VP | verb subj NP | verb | | adverb adverbial predicate VP
Bu kz lgn ol-ma.l. This girl must be crazy. (I am certain that she is crazy.)
subj NP adjective verb predicate VP subject NP verb adj predicate VP
Hemen hazr ol-ma.l-sn. You must be ready soon. (obligation) ok al-ma.l-sn. You must work hard. (obligation) If the verbs are negative when [me.li, ma.l] allomorphs are used, they indicate prohibition:
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[e.bil, a.bil]
The inflectional allomorphs [e.bil, a.bil] indicate ability and permission: Mary piyano al-a.bil-ir. Mary can play the piano. (ability) Dar-/y/a k-a.bil-ir-sin. You can (may) go out. (permission) (Ben) siz-e yardm et-e.bil-ir mi-/y/im? Can I help you? (permission) Th negative forms of [e.bil, a.bil] allomorphs are [e.me(z), a.ma(z)] allomorphs, which indicate impossibility, inability or prohibition: (ben) toplant-/y/a gel-e.me-em. I cant come to the meeting. (impossibility) Mary piyano cal-a.maz. Mary cant play the piano. (inability) Bu saat-te diar-ya k-a.maz-sn. You cant go out at this hour.(prohibition) Fatma ev-de ol-a.maz. Fatma cant be at home. (impossibility) The [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs may also be attached to the [e.bil, a.bil], and [e.me(z), a.ma(z)] allomorphs to indicate rumor: Ahmet biz-e yardm et-e.bil-ir-mi. They say that Ahmet can help us. (O) toplant-/y/a gel-e.mez-mi. They say that he cant come to the meeting. The time inflectional modal allomorphs [di], [ir-di], [ir-mi] can follow the [e.bil, a.bil], [e.mez, a.maz], [me.li, ma.l]. [me.me.li, ma.ma.l] modal inflectional allomorphs:
[e.bil-di, a.bil-di]
The [e.bil-di, a.bil-di] allomorphs indicate a past success: (Biz) ma- kazan-a.bil-di-ik. We were able to win the match. (Ben) baar-a.bil-di-im. I was able to succeed. (Biz) baar a.ma-d-k. We couldnt succeed. (We werent able to succeed.) (Onlar) bitir-e.me-di-ler. Thy couldnt finish. (They werent able to finish.)
[e.bil-ir-di, a.bil-ir-di]
(Biz) ma- kazan-a.bil.ir.di-ik. We could have won the match. (Ben) baar-a.bil-ir-di-im. I could have succeeded. (Sen) bir kaza yap-a.bil-ir-di-in. You might have had an accident. (biz) bir yanllk yap-a.bil-ir-di-ik. We might have made a mistake. (Onlar) ma- ertele-/y/e.bil-ir-ler-di. They might have postponed the match. (Biz) bir yanllk yap-a.bil-ir-mi-iz. He says that we might have made a mistake. (O) biz-e kz-a.bil-ir-mi. He says that he might be angry with us.
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[me.li/y/-di, ma.l/y/-d]
(Bz) ma- kazan-ma.l/y/-d-k. We should have won the match. (Sen) hzl sr-me-me.li/y/-di-in. You shouldnt have driven fast. (Onlar) ma- ertele-me-me.li/y/-di-ler.They shouldnt have postponed the match. (Biz) ok soru sor-ma-ma.l/y/-m-z. He says that we shouldnt ask so many questions.
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*c.v.c*
syntactic conditional Verbal Phrase Nominal Phrase predicate sentence determiner verb stem, verb frame, or verb composition a verb that ends with a consonant a verb that ends with a vowel consonant. vowel. consonant
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Language is a treasure owned by all human beings, which separates them from animals. This treasure is hidden in the minds of all people. Therefore, it is very difficult for the human mind to understand the activity of this complicated mechanism that the mind itself operates
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