High Voltage Electrical Power Substation:

This type of Substation associated with operating voltages between 11kV and 66kV.
Extra High Voltage Electrical Power Substation:

This type of Substation is associated where the operating voltage is between 132kV and 400kV.
Ultra High Voltage Electrical Power Substation:

Substations where Operating Voltages are above 400kV is called Ultra High Voltage Substation

 Active power (P) watt Reactive power (Q) var Apparent power (s) VA Cosph = p/s S^2= p^2+ Q^2 Pf = 0 , energy flow is reactive , stored energy is returned to load after each cycle Pf = 1 , energy supllied is consumed by load Inductive loads :-> transformers, motors & all wound coils ,current wave lag wr to voltage Capactivie laods such as capactive banks & buried cables, current lead wr to voltage Synchronous condenser behaves like a electrically variable capacitor. Reactive power supplied propotional to voltage Square to voltage in case of capacitor (RP) Hvdc project & steel mills (Sync.condensor apps)

flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) Power electronic based system & other static equipments provides control of one or more ac parameters to enhance power controlabilty & increase power transfer

Transmission systems Bundled conductor used in scenerios like to avoid , skin effect & corona discharge Adv of al ova cu conductor is , cost &LOWER IN WEIGHT Transmission level voltage 110kv and above Subtransmission voltage is 33,66kv Voltage less than 33kv distribution purpose Extra high transmission voltage 230kv and above Transmission lines when inter connected becomes grid, powergrid (us),national grid (uk) Conductor sizes range from 12 mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circular mils area), Such facilities might be nuclear or coal-fired power stations, or hydroelectric,baseload Renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal are, due to their intermittency, not considered "base load" At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit.

The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the transmission system and by country) for transmission over long distances. For communication they are usin g 1 .micro waves 2.plc3.optic fibres Merchant transmission is an arrangement where a third party constructs and operates electric transmission lines through the franchise area of an unrelated utility

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM Distribution networks are of two types radial & interconnected A radial network leaves the station and passes through the network area with no normal connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with isolated load areas. An interconnected network is generally found in more urban areas and will have multiple connections to other points of supply. These points of connection are normally open but allow various configurations by the operating utility by closing and opening switches. Operation of these switches may be by remote control from a control center or by a lineman. The benefit of the interconnected model is that in the event of a fault or required maintenance a small area of network can be isolated and the remainder kept on supply. . Also, Japan normally supplies residential service as two phases of a three phase service, with a neutral. These work well for both lighting and motors.

SUBSTATION Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard 61850. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or subtransmission lines Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility. COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, A switching substation is a substation which does not contain transformers and operates only at a single voltage level. The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram which shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. There are two main reasons: a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and it tends to destabilize the whole system. For example, a transmission line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down; similarly, a transformer left in a faulted condition will eventually blow up.[

Standardized communication protocols such as DNP3, IEC 61850 and Modbus, to list a few, are used to allow multiple intelligent electronic devices to communicate with each other and supervisory control centers. SCADA SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) generally refers to industrial control systems industrial control systems (ICS): computer systems that monitor and control industrial, infrastructure, or facility-based processes, as described below: Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes. Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution, wind farms, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems. Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and energy consumption.

A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:

A humanmachine interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the process. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. Remote terminal units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system. Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs. Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the remote terminal units. Various process and analytical instrumentation Generally speaking, a SCADA system always refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control processes in real time DCS VS SCADA

D CS is process oriented, while SCADA is data acquisition oriented. DCS is process driven, while SCADA is event driven. DCS is commonly used to handle operations on a single locale, while SCADA is preferred for applications that are spread over a wide geographic location.
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input or output value monitored or controlled by the system.

The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken A standardized control programming language, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of 5 programming languages including Function Block, Ladder, Structured Text, Sequence Function Charts and Instruction List), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs there are two distinct threats to a modern SCADA system. First is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it be human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Second is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that interfaces objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA

BUS BAR The size of the bus bar determines the maximum amount of current that can be safely carried Bus bars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm2 but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm2) or more as bus bars

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM In power engineering, a one-line diagram or single-line diagram is a simplified notation for representing a three-phase power system.

SHORT CIRCUIT Between two phase Neutral & phase Phase & earth Can, between neutral & earth and between twophases To help reduce the negative effects of short circuits, power distribution transformers are deliberately designed to have a certain amount of leakage reactance. Leakage reactance would be 5-10% AERIAL BUNDLED CONDUCTOR Note that bundled cables are used only for low voltages (1000 V or less), ELECTRICAL GRID An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers Threee main components 1. Power stations ( combustion & Non combustiable fuels) 2.tranmission line s 3 . transformers In the power industry, electrical grid is a term used for an electricity network which includes the following three distinct operations: 1. Electricity generation 2 . Electric power transmission 3 . Electricity distribution Day-ahead scheduling and real time grid management in the short-term planning which involves forecasting demand and dispatch schedule became asset management as power plants and grid equipment were assets to be scheduled and dispatched Usually, a longer lines capacity is less than a shorter lines capacity Strucuture of distribution grid The cheapest and simplest topology for a distribution or transmission grid is a radial structure Mesh .looped system,tied ring structure . Aging Infrastructure 1. Aging power equipment 2. Obselute system layout 3.otdated engineering 4.old cultural value

Thomas Edison invented the first electric utility system which supplied energy through virtual mains to light filtration as opposed to gas burners

Load factor 0r capacity factor

load factor is the ratio of actual output of a powerplant to potential output if it had operated at full name plate capacity the entire time. Depends on fuel BASELOAD plant , hydroelectric & nuclear,geothermal example.just like a powersource giving a base power or constant ouput

HIGH VOLTAGE o o 2 Factors for classifications , 1. Electrical arching ,2. Electrical shock high voltage is usually considered any voltage over approximately 35,000 volts

o o o Voltage above

50 can cause dangerous amounts of currents to flow through

An average bolt of negative lightning carries a current of 30 to 50 kiloamperes, transfers a charge of 5 coulombs, and dissipates 500 megajoules of energy (enough to light a 100-watt light bulb for approximately 2 months)

SKIN EFFECT Tendency of a conductor of an ac to redistribute itself with in a conductor with its density being larger near the surface Ac will flow between outer surface and a level called skin depth Skin effect in creases with frequency , there by reducing overall crossection of conductor, there by resisistance increases As frequency increases the resistance also increase so decrease in area of cross section of current flow Skin effect arises from opposing eddy current induced by changing magnetic field resulting from ac For good conductors skin effect varies as the inverse square root of conductivity & permiablity Permiablity is the degree of magnitization that a material obtains when subjected to a magnetic field Non magnetic rods are used for high resistance welding Litz wire is often used in the windings of high-frequency transformers to increase their efficiency by mitigating both skin effect and proximity effect. Iron cannot be used as ac transmisiion because of low skin depth

. Formula to find skin depth Cause of skin effect is counter emf or back emf Which in turn causes eddy curents Counter emf is strong at the centre of the conductor The increased resistance due to the skin effect can be offset by changing the shape of conductors from a solid core to a braid of many small (isolated) wires

HALL EFFECT Current consist of many charge ions like electrons,holes,ions When magnetic field is not parell to direction of these charge they experience Lorentz force If there is no magnetic force they straight line If there is a magnetic field with perpendicular component is applied their paths between collisions are curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential is established for as long as the charge is flowing.

LORENTZ FORCE the Lorentz force is the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.

PROXIMITY EFFECT When an alternating current (AC) flows through an isolated conductor, it creates an associated alternating magnetic field around it. The alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents in adjacent conductors, altering the overall distribution of current flowing through them. The result is that the current is concentrated in the areas of the conductor furthest away from nearby conductors carrying current in the same direction.

SINGLE WIRE EARTH RETURN

Single wire earth return (SWER) or single wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power from an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. distinguishing feature is that the earth (or sometimes a body of water) is used as the return path for the current, to avoid the need for a second wire (or neutral wire) to act as a return path swer uses phantom loop Lloyd Mandeno OBE (1888-1973) fully developed SWER in New Zealand around 1925 for rural electrification.

TRACTION wind and solar power TRACTION SUNSTAION DO NOT EXIST For railways which run on direct current (DC), which run on single-phase AC of decreased frequency, DC traction was the easier transmission with single copper wires to the feeder points. AC traction is the easier transmission over long distances to the feeder points A flat slide-pantograph was invented in 1895 at the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad[1] and in Germany in 1900 by Siemens & Halske messenger wire (US & Canada) or catenary (UK

NEUTRAL WIRE Neutral wires are usually connected together at a neutral bus within panelboards or switchboards, and are "bonded" to earth ground at either the electrical service entrance, or at transformers within the system For electrical installations with three-wire single phase service, the neutral point of the system is at the center-tap on the secondary side of the service transformer For larger electrical installations, such as those with polyphase service, the neutral point is usually at the common connection on the secondary side of delta/wye connected transformers.

THREE PHASE Thus the three-phase system transmits 73% more power but uses only 50% more wire. In the very early days of commercial electric power, some installations used two-phase fourwire systems for motors. The chief advantage of these was that the winding configuration was the same as for a single-phase capacitor-start motor and, by using a four-wire system,

PEAKING POWER PLANTS Peaking power plants, also known as peaker plants, and occasionally just "peakers," are power plants that generally run only when there is a high demand, known as peak demand, for electricity.

Peaker plants are generally gas turbines that burn natural gas. A few burn petroleumderived liquids, such as diesel oil and jet fuel,

INTERMEDIATE POWER PLANT S Intermediate load following power plants operate between these extremes, curtailing their output in periods of low demand, such as during the night. THEYare examples of load following powerplants

LOAD FOLLOWING POWERPLANTS A load following power plant is a power plant that adjusts its power output as demand for electricity fluctuates throughout the day.[1] Load following plants are typically in-between base load and peaking power plants in efficiency, speed of startup and shutdown, construction cost, cost of electricity and capacity factor. Base load power plants operate at maximum output Load following power plants run during the day and early evening Peaking power plants operate only during times of peak demand Boiling water reactors (BWR) and Advanced Boiling Water Reactors can use a combination of control rods and the speed of recirculation water flow to quickly reduce their power level down to under 60% of rated power, making them useful for overnight load-following. In markets such as Chicago, Illinois where half of the local utility's fleet is BWRs, it is common to load-follow

SPILL WAY Spillways release floods so that the water does not overtop and damage or even destroy the dam

FREQUENCY places that now use the 50 Hz frequency tend to use 220-240 V, and those that now use 60 Hz tend to use 100-120 V. Both frequencies coexist today (Japan uses both) Converters for production of DC from alternating current were available in larger sizes and were more efficient at 25 Hz compared with 60 Hz , so 400 Hz power systems are usually confined to a building or vehicle Frequency of the system will vary as load and generation change Automatic generation control (AGC) is used to maintain scheduled frequency and interchange power flows. In an electric power system, automatic generation control is a system for adjusting the power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in response to changes in the load

The balance can be judged by measuring the system frequency; if it is increasing, more power is being generated than used, and all the machines in the system are accelerating. If the system frequency is decreasing, more load is on the system than the instantaneous generation can provide, and all generators are slowing down.

VOLTAGE DROP The dc resistance of the conductor depends upon the conductor's length, cross-sectional area, type of material, and temperature. A principle known as Kirchhoff's circuit laws states that in any circuit, the sum of the voltage drops across each component of the circuit is equal to the supply voltage.

BASE LOAD CURRENT

o Baseload (also base load, or baseload demand) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company must make available to its customers, o or the amount of power required to meet minimum demands based on reasonable expectations of customer requirements. o Baseload values typically vary from hour to hour in most commercial and industrial areas.[1]
o o o o o o o o Examples of baseload plants using nonrenewable fuels include nuclear and coal-fired plants Among the renewable energy sources, hydroelectric, geothermal,[3] biogas, biomass, solar thermal with storage and ocean thermal energy conversion can provide baseload power Baseload plants typically run at all times through the year except in the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance The base load power is determined by the load duration curve of the system Peaks or spikes in customer power demand are handled by smaller and more responsive types of power plants called peaking power plants, typically powered with gas turbines. The baseload can equally well be met by the appropriate quantity of intermittent power sources and peaking power plant.[5][6] Nuclear and coal power plants may take many hours, if not days, to achieve a steady state power output.[8] On the other hand, they have low fuel costs.[9] Because they require a long period of time to heat up to operating temperature, these plants typically handle large amounts of baseload demand.

o o

A load duration curve (LDC) is used in electric power generation to illustrate the relationship between generating capacity requirements and capacity utilization.

AMPACITY Ampacity is defined as the maximum amount of electrical current a conductor or device can carry before sustaining immediate or progressive deterioration. Also described as current rating or current-carrying capacity, ampacity is the RMS electric current which a device or conductor can continuously carry while remaining within its temperature rating.

The ampacity of a conductor depends on:

its insulation temperature rating; the electrical resistance of the conductor material; frequency of the current, in the case of alternating current; ability to dissipate heat, which depends on conductor geometry and its surroundings; ambient temperature. Cables run in wet or oily locations may carry a lower temperature rating than in a dry installation. In cables different conditions govern, and installation regulations normally specify that the most severe condition along the run will govern each cable conductor's rating. Ac & dc Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas most computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digita

except the wind energy conversion process take advantage of the synchronous AC generator The transmission system may be subdivided into the bulk transmission system and the subtransmission system. The functions of the bulk transmission are to interconnect generators, to interconnect various areas of the network, and to transfer electrical energy from the generators to the major load centers. The function of the sub-transmission system is to interconnect the bulk power system with the distribution system. A relay is functionally a level-detector; they perform a switching action when the input voltage (or current) meets or exceeds a specific and adjustable value. . A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit There are three possible causes for power flow limitations to a transmission line. These causes are1. thermal overload, 2.voltage instability, and 3.rotor angle instability. Thermal overload is caused by excessive current flow in a circuit causing overheating Voltage instability is said to occur when the power required to maintain voltages at or above acceptable levels exceeds the available power Rotor angle instability is a dynamic problem that may occur following faults, such as short circuit, in the transmission system POWER OUTAGE o o A power outage (also power cut, blackout or power failure) is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area Telephone exchange rooms usually have arrays of lead-acid batteries for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage.

Power outages are categorized into three different phenomena, relating to the duration and effect of the outage:
o o o o o o o o A transient fault is a momentary (a few seconds) loss of power typically caused by a temporary fault on a power line. Power is automatically restored once the fault is cleared. A brownout or sag is a drop in voltage in an electrical power supply . The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by lighting when the voltage sags. Brownouts can cause poor performance of equipment or even incorrect operation. A blackout refers to the total loss of power to an area and is the most severe form of power outage that can occur. Blackouts which result from or result in power stations tripping are particularly difficult to recover from quickly. Outages may last from a few minutes to a few weeks depending on the nature of the blackout and the configuration of the electrical network.

BOOTSTRAPPING MAINLY DONE TO INCREASE THE IMPEDENCE AT THE INPUT FOR A STALITY In the field of electronics, a bootstrap circuit is one where part of the output of an amplifier stage is applied to the input, so as to increase the input impedance of the amplifier. [1] Generally, any technique where part of the output of a system is used at startup is described as bootstrapping.

BLACKSTART o o o A black start is the process of restoring a power station to operation without relying on the external electric power transmission network. If all of the plants main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plants transmission line. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to bootstrap the power grid into operation.

A typical sequence (based on a real scenario) might be as follows:

o o o o o o TURBOCHARGER A turbocharger is a centrifugal compressor driven by the flow of exhaust gasses Superchargers can be found as different types of compressors but are all powered by the rotation of the engine, usually through a belt drive. ROTARY CONVERTER A rotary converter is a type of electrical machine which acts as a mechanical rectifier or inverter They were commonly used to provide DC power for commercial, industrial and railway electrification from an AC power source. The basic construction of the rotary converter consists of a DC generator (dynamo) with a set of slip rings tapped into its rotor windings at evenly spaced intervals A battery starts a small diesel generator installed in a hydroelectric generating station. The power from the diesel generator is used to bring the hydroelectric generating station into operation. Key transmission lines between the hydro station and other areas are energized. The power from the hydro dam is used to start one of the coal-fired base load plants. The power from the base load plant is used to restart all of the other power plants in the system including the nuclear power plants.

AUTO TRANSFORMER

An autotransformer (sometimes called autostep down transformer)[1] is an electrical transformer with only one winding.
In an autotransformer portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary. The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input, allowing equipment from a 100 or 120V region to be used in a 230V region The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns In an autotransformer part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding[3]. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the entire winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding In a step-up transformer, conversely, the load is attached across the full winding while the source is connected to a tap across a portion of the winding. For example, connecting the load between the middle and bottom of the autotransformer will reduce the voltage by 50% An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings as an ordinary transfomer does; if the neutral side of the input is not at ground voltage, the neutral side of the output will not be either. Also, a break in the part of the winding that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer acting as an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may result in near full input voltage being applied to the output). In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of not suppressing harmonic currents and as acting as another source of ground fault currents APPLICATION S o Power distribution o Audio o Railways

RELAY A relay is an electrically operated switch

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor

METERS Reactive power is measured in "thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours", (kvarh) A purely resistive load (such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle) For larger loads, more than about 200 ampere of load, current transformers are used, so that the meter can be located other than in line with the service conductors