QUANTUM MECHANICS

1. Show an understanding that the photoelectric effect provides evidence for a particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation while phenomena such as interference and diffraction provide evidence for a wave nature. In photoelectric effect, a weak UV light produces a current flow (releases electrons) but a strong red light does not release electrons no matter how intense the red light. As light is exists in a particle like state, packets of energy called photons, there is no current flow for red light because packets of energy carried by each individual red photo is too weak to knock electrons off the atoms no matter how many red photons you beam onto the cathode. But the individual UV photons are strong enough to release the electron and cause a current flow. 2. Explain photoelectric phenomena in terms of photon energy and work function energy. When photons(electromagnetive waves) with energy more than or equals to work function energy of the metal are incident on the metal, photoelectrons are released from the metal. Max. KE and the ejection of electrons is dependant on light frequency of incoming photons. Below a threshold frequency, f0, the energy of incident photons is less than work function energy and no photoelectric effect occurs.
When a photon collides with an electron in the surface of the metal, it must either impart all its energy to the electron and the photon cease to exist, or it must be reflected with no reduction in energy. Only electrons ejected form the surface and not making any collisions with other metal atoms emerge with max. KE.

3. Explain why the maximum photoelectric energy is independent of intensity whereas the photoelectric current is proportional to intensity. The max. KE of any electron depends only on light frequency and the work function energy. For a certain metal, there is a certain mim, frequency f0, of radiation below which, no emission occurs irrespective of radiation intensity. The emission of photoelectrons starts with no observable lag at f>f0, even for very low intensity. The frequency f and accelerating p.d Vac are fixed, the values of current Ip are now plotted against the intensity I of the incident light, a straight line is obtained. This shows that the photoelectric current is proportional to intensity.

4. Show an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) and deduce how this leads to spectral lines. Line spectral consists of lines, rather than one continuous band of colours. This shows that only specific frequencies of radiation are emitted. Since E=hf, where E is the energy of photon and f, frequency of radiation. The existence of only specific frequencies of radiation shows that only photons of certain discrete energies can be emitted form the de-excitation of isolated atoms. The energy E of the photons emitted is equal to the difference in energy levels across which, the de-excitation transition takes place. Hence, the fact that only certain photon energies are permissible proves that the energy levels in isolated atoms can take on only discrete values. 5. Explain the origins of the features of a typical X-ray spectrum using quantum theory. X-rays are emitted when high-energy electrons or any other charged particles bombard a metal target. The x-ray spectrum of a metal target typically consists of a broad continuous band plus a number of sharp lines which, are due to characteristic x-rays. The x-rays are the result of the slowing down of high-energy electrons as they strike the metal target. It is this general slowing down of the electrons that provides the continuous curve. The amount of kinetic energy lost in any given interaction varies from zero to the entire kinetic energy of the electron. The kinetic energy lost by the electrons during the collision emerges as the energy, E = hf, of the x-ray photons radiated from the target. Thus the wavelength of radiation from these interactions lies in a continuous range from some minimum value up to infinity. There is also a minimum wavelength value of x-rays produced, depending on the kinetic energy of the incoming electrons. The sharp lines superimposed on the continuous spectrum are known as characteristic x-rays because they are characteristic of the target material. Characteristic x-ray emission occurs when a bombarding electron that collides with a target atom has sufficient energy to remove an inner-shell electron from the atom. The vacancy created in the shell is filled when an electron from a higher energy level drops down into it. This transition is accompanied by the emission of a photon whose

energy equals the difference in energy between the two levels. Conditions and state for atoms to be sufficiently isolated -Atoms must be at gaseous form -Electrons at high energy states implies gas at high temperature 6. Show an understanding of the concept of a potential barrier and explain qualitatively the phenomenon of quantum tunnelling of an electron across such a barrier. When a particle with energy E approaching a rectangular potential barrier of height U and width L, where E < U. Classical mechanics forbid the particle to penetrate the barrier but quantum mechanics allow all regions, I, II and III, to be accessible to the incoming particle. Hence there is a probability of locating the particle in region II and region III. The probability is proportional to ||2 of the particle in each respective region. The possibility of the particle penetrating the barrier is called tunnelling or barrier penetration. Detailed analysis shows that if tunnelling takes place, the barrier must be sufficiently narrow that the time of passage t is very short. 7. Describe the application of quantum tunnelling to the probing tip of a scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) and how this is used to obtain atomic-scale images of surfaces. A Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM) allows us to obtain highly detailed images of surfaces at resolutions comparable of the size of a single atom. An electronically conducting probe with a very sharp tip is brought near the surface under study. The empty space between the tip and surface represents the barrier and the tip and surface are the two walls of the potential well. Under an applied voltage, electrons in the atoms of the surface material can be made to tunnel from the surface to tip thereby producing a tunnelling current. In this way, the tip samples the distribution of electrons just above the surface. By monitoring the tunnelling current as the tip is scanned over the surface, we can obtain a sensitive measure of the topography of the electron distribution of the surface. The result of this scan can be made into images of the surface. The limitation of the STM is that it depends on the electrical conductivity of the sample and tip.

LASERS

AND

SEMICONDUCTORS

1. Recall and use the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated

emission and population inversion in related situations. Spontaneous emission is a process by which an atom or molecule in an excited state(E2) drops to a lower state(E1) by emitting a photon with energy(E2-E1) without external provocation/stimulation. Stimulated emission is the process by which, when irradiated by a photon with energy(E2-E1), an atom in the excited state(E2) loses energy to return a lower state(E1), resulting in the creation of another photon(E2-E1). The incident photon is not absorbed. Population inversion is a state in where there are more(than half of the total) atoms in the excited state than in the lower/ground state. 2. Explain the action of a laser in terms of population inversion and stimulated emission. A laser makes use of stimulated emission process to amplify the intensity of light. The system must first be in a state of population inversion to ensure that the rate of stimulated emission is higher than absorption for amplification to occur. A state of population inversion can be achieved by irradiating the lasing medium by an enormously intense light beam or by passing an electric current through gas.
The excited state must last for a relatively long time so that spontaneous emission will not occur before stimulated emission, hence it has to be a metastable state. Also, the emitted photons must be confined in the system long enough to allow them to stimulate further emission(chain reaction) from other excited atoms and this is achieved by using reflecting mirrors.

3. Describe the formation of energy bands in a solid, with reference to conduction electrons and holes. An isolated atom can exist in only a discrete set of energy levels. As atoms come together to form a solid, the levels of the individual atoms merge to form the discrete energy bands of the solid. These energy bands are separated by energy gaps, each of which corresponds to a range of energies that no electron can possess. Any energy band is made up of enormous number of closely spaced levels. The Pauli exclusion principle exerts that only one electron may occupy each of these levels. 4. Use band theory to account for the electrical properties of metals, insulators and intrinsic semiconductors.

Insulator Filled VB and vacant CB separated by a large FB. In practice, it is not possible for an electron in the VB to acquire sufficient applied energy to move into the CB. Hence an insulator is a poor conductor of electricity. Semiconductor Small FB. At low temperature, the valence band remains full, conduction band empty and the semiconductor is an insulator. Conductivity increases with temperature because some valence electrons acquire thermal energy greater than energy gap and hence move into the conduction band to become free conducting electrons. These electrons leave behind holes (absence of electrons) in the VB. Both free electrons and holes are the charge carriers of electricity. This type of semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. Metal Overlapping of VB and CB. Contains a partly filled band structure. Electrons may acquire additional energy and move into higher states under the influence of an applied E-field to become free electrons. Hence a metal is a good conductor of electricity. 5. Analyse qualitatively how n- and p-type doping change the conduction properties of semiconductors. N-type silicon Doped with phosphorus (pentavalent atom) Has free electrons rather than positive holes as charge carriers P-type silicon Doped with boron (trivalent atom) Has positive holes rather than free electrons as charge carriers

6. Discuss qualitatively the origin of the depletion region at a pn junction and use this to explain how a p-n junction can act as a rectifier. When an n-type and a p-type semiconductor are fused together, electrons on the n-side diffuse across the junction to the p-side while holes from the p-side diffuse across the junction to the n-side. As diffusion takes place, a potential barrier builds up at the region of the junction. Diffusion stops when the potential barrier is large enough to prevent further charges from crossing the junction. The region of the junction is depleted of mobile charges is called the depletion region. In forward bias, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type of the junction and the negative terminal to the n-type. The

height of the potential barrier at the junction will be lowered (by the applied forward voltage). Holes cross the junction to the n-type and the electrons to the p-type and this constitutes a current. The width of depletion region will decrease. In reverse bias, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type of the junction and the positive terminal to the n-type. The height of the potential barrier at the junction will be raised (by the applied voltage). Hence majority carriers cannot cross the junction resulting in no current. The width of the depletion region will increase.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1. Show an understanding of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay. Radioactive decay processes are spontaneous as they occur on their own and are not triggered by external action. They will not be affected by external factors. Radioactive decay is a random process as we cannot predict which particular nucleus will decay and when it will decay. Particles are not

emitted at equal time interval and it is impossible to know the direction os emission of particles.

2. Explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear fission Nuclear fission is the process whereby an original nucleus splits into two lighter product nuclei of similar sizes. There is an increase in the binding energy per nucleon which implies that energy is released. Nuclear fusion is the process whereby two light nuclei join together to form a large nucleus. Energy is released. Method 1: Energy released = Final total BE of products nuclei Initial total BE of reactants nuclei Method 2: Energy released = (Total initial mass total final mass) c2

3. Sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number.

The rising part of the binding energy curve shows that elements with low mass number can produce energy by fusion. The falling part of the curve shows that very heavy elements such as uranium can produce energy by fission of their nuclei to nuclei of smaller mass number. The rising part of the curve is also steeper than that of the falling part of the curve. This shows that the increase in binding energy per nucleon for fusion processes is more than fission processes. Hence energy released in fusion is greater than that in fission.