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John Wiloy 8 Sons, lnc.

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John Wiloy 8 Sons, lnc.
Copyright 2005 ly DaviJ Wolls. All rights rosorvoJ
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Wolls, D. G. (DaviJ G.)
Primo numlors: tho most mystorious liguros in math DaviJ Wolls.
p. cm.
lncluJos lilliographical roloroncos anJ inJox.
lSBN-13 98-0-41-46234- (cloth)
lSBN-10 0-41-46234-9 (cloth)
1. Numlors, Primo. l. Titlo.
QA246.W35 2005
512.'23-Jc22 200401994
PrintoJ in tho UnitoJ Statos ol Amorica
10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 1
-
- xi
K- xiii
1
-
alc conjocturo 6
alunJant numlor
AKS algorithm lor primality tosting 8
aliguot soguoncos (sociallo chains) 9
almost-primos 11
amicallo numlors 11
amicallo curiositios 12
AnJrica`s conjocturo 13
arithmotic progrossions, ol primos 13
Aurilouillian lactorization 14
avorago primo 15
Bang`s thoorom 16
Batoman`s conjocturo 16
Boal`s conjocturo, anJ prizo 16
BonlorJ`s lav 1
Bornoulli numlors 19
Bornoulli numlor curiositios 20
BortranJ`s postulato 20
Bonso`s inoguality 21
Brior numlors 21
BrocarJ`s conjocturo 22
Brun`s constant 22
Buss`s lunction 23
Carmichaol numlors 23
Catalan`s conjocturo 24
Catalan`s Vorsonno conjocturo 25
Champornovno`s constant 26
champion numlors 26
Chinoso romainJor thoorom 26
cicaJas anJ primo porioJs 2
circlo, primo 2
circular primo 28
Clay prizos, tho 28
compositorial 29
concatonation ol primos 29
conjocturos 30
consocutivo intogor soguonco 32
consocutivo numlors 32
consocutivo primos, sums ol 32
Convay`s primo-proJucing machino 33
cousin primos 33
Cullon primos 34
Cunningham projoct 34
Cunningham chains 35
Jocimals, rocurring (porioJic) 36
tho porioJ ol 113 36
cyclic numlors 3
Artin`s conjocturo 38
tho ropunit connoction 38
magic sguaros 39
Joliciont numlor 40
Jolotallo anJ truncatallo primos 40
Domlo numlors 40
Joscriptivo primos 41
Dickson`s conjocturo 41
Jigit proportios 42
Diophantus (c. AD 200, J. 284) 42
Dirichlot`s thoorom anJ primos in arithmotic sorios 44
primos in polynomials 45
JistrilutoJ computing 45
Jivisilility tosts 48
Jivisors (lactors) 48
hov many Jivisors? hov lig is ()? 49
rocorJ numlor ol Jivisors 50
curiositios ol () 50
Jivisors anJ congruoncos 51
tho sum ol Jivisors lunction 51
tho sizo ol () 52
{ -
a rocursivo lormula 52
Jivisors anJ partitions 53
curiositios ol () 53
primo lactors 54
Jivisor curiositios 54
oconomical numlors 55
Eloctronic lrontior lounJation 55
olliptic curvo primality proving 56
omirp 5
Eratosthonos ol Cyrono, tho siovo ol 58
P

orrors 63
EucliJ (c. 330-20 BC) 64
uniguo lactorization 65
2 is irrational 65
EucliJ anJ tho inlinity ol primos 66
consocutivo composito numlors 6
primos ol tho lorm 4 3 6
a rocursivo soguonco 6
EucliJ anJ tho lirst porloct numlor 68
EucliJoan algorithm 68
Eulor, IoonharJ (10-183) 69
Eulor`s convoniont numlors 0
tho Basol prollom 2
Eulor`s constant 3
Eulor anJ tho rociprocals ol tho primos 3
Eulor`s totiont (phi) lunction 4
Carmichaol`s totiont lunction conjocturo 5
curiositios ol ()
Eulor`s guaJratic
tho Iucky Numlors ol Eulor 8
lactorial 80
lactors ol lactorials 80
lactorial primos 80
lactorial sums 81
lactorials, Joullo, triplo . . . 82
lactorization, mothoJs ol 82
lactors ol particular lorms 84
lormat`s algorithm 85
IogonJro`s mothoJ 86
- {
congruoncos anJ lactorization 8
hov Jillicult is it to lactor largo numlors? 8
guantum computation 88
loit-Thompson conjocturo 89
lormat, Piorro Jo (160-1665) 89
lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom 91
lormat guotiont 92
lormat anJ primos ol tho lorm
2

2
92
lormat`s conjocturo, lormat numlors, anJ lormat primos 94
lormat lactorization, lrom
5
to
30
95
GonoralizoJ lormat numlors 9
lormat`s Iast Thoorom 9
tho lirst caso ol lormat`s Iast Thoorom 99
Wall-Sun-Sun primos 99
lormat-Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo 100
lilonacci numlors 101
Jivisilility proportios 102
lilonacci curiositios 103
JouarJ Iucas anJ tho lilonacci numlors 104
lilonacci composito soguoncos 105
lormulao lor primos 106
lortunato numlors anJ lortuno`s conjocturo 108
gaps lotvoon primos anJ composito runs 109
Gauss, Johann Carl lrioJrich (1-1855) 110
Gauss anJ tho Jistrilution ol primos 111
Gaussian primos 112
Gauss`s circlo prollom 113
Gillroath`s conjocturo 113
GlVPS-Groat lntornot Vorsonno Primo Soarch 115
Giuga`s conjocturo 116
Giuga numlors 116
GolJlach`s conjocturo 11
gooJ primos 119
Grimm`s prollom 119
HarJy, G. H. (18-194) 119
HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos 121
houristic roasoning 123

Hillort`s 23 prolloms 124
homo primo 125
hypothosis H 126
{ -
illogal primo 126
inconsummato numlor 128
inJuction 128
jumping champion 131
-tuplos conjocturo, primo 131
knots, primo anJ composito 132
IanJau, EJmunJ (18-1938) 134
lolt-truncatallo primo 134
IogonJro, A. V. (152-1833) 134
Iohmor, Dorrick Norman (186-1938) 135
Iohmor, Dorrick Honry (1905-1991) 135
Iinnik`s constant 13
Iiouvillo, Josoph (1809-1882) 13
IittlovooJ`s thoorom 138
tho primo numlors raco 138
Iucas, JouarJ (1842-1891) 139
tho Iucas soguonco 142
primality tosting 144
Iucas`s gamo ol calculation 145
tho Iucas-Iohmor tost 146
lucky numlors 14
tho numlor ol lucky numlors anJ primos 148
ranJom` primos 148
magic sguaros 149
Vatijasovic anJ Hillort`s 10th prollom 150
Vorsonno numlors anJ Vorsonno primos 151
Vorsonno numlors 152
hunting lor Vorsonno primos 152
tho coming ol oloctronic computors 153
Vorsonno primo conjocturos 155
tho Nov Vorsonno conjocturo 156
hov many Vorsonno primos? 156
Elorhart`s conjocturo 15
lactors ol Vorsonno numlors 15
Iucas-Iohmor tost lor Vorsonno primos 158
Vortons constant 159
Vortons thoorom 159
Vills` thoorom 160
Wright`s thoorom 161
mixoJ lag 161
multiplication, last 162
- {
Nivon numlors 163
oJJ numlors as 2
2
164
Opporman`s conjocturo 164
palinJromic primos 164
panJigital primos 165
Pascal`s trianglo anJ tho linomial coollicionts 165
Pascal`s trianglo anJ Siorpinski`s gaskot 16
Pascal trianglo curiositios 16
patonts on primo numlors 168
K
porloct numlors 10
oJJ porloct numlors 12
porloct, multiply 12
pormutallo primos 14
, primos in tho Jocimal oxpansion ol 14
Pocklington`s thoorom 15
Polignac`s conjocturos 15
Polignac or olstinato numlors 15
povorlul numlors 16
primality tosting 1
prolalilistic mothoJs 19
primo numlor graph 180
primo numlor thoorom anJ tho primo counting lunction 181
history 181
olomontary prool 182
rocorJ calculations 183
ostimating () 185
calculating () 185
a curiosity 185
primo protonJor 186
primitivo primo lactor 18
primitivo roots 18
Artin`s conjocturo 188
a curiosity 188
primorial 188
primorial primos 189
Proth`s thoorom 189
psouJoporloct numlors 190
psouJoprimos 190
lasos anJ psouJoprimos 192
{ -
psouJoprimos, strong 192
pullic koy oncryption 193
pyramiJ, primo 194
Pythagoroan trianglos, primo 195
guaJratic rosiJuos 195
rosiJual curiositios 196
polynomial congruoncos 196
guaJratic rociprocity, lav ol 19
Eulor`s critorion 198
Pamanujan, Srinivasa (188-1920) 198
highly composito numlors 199
ranJomnoss, ol primos 200
Von Stornach anJ a primo ranJom valk 202
rocorJ primos 203
somo rocorJs 203
ropunits, primo 204
PhonJa numlors 206
Piomann hypothosis 206
tho laroy soguonco anJ tho Piomann hypothosis 209
tho Piomann hypothosis anJ (), tho sum ol Jivisors
lunction 210
sguarolroo anJ lluo anJ roJ numlors 210
tho Vortons conjocturo 211
Piomann hypothosis curiositios 211
Piosol numlor 212
right-truncatallo primo 212
PSA algorithm 212
Vartin GarJnor`s challongo 214
PSA lactoring Challongo, tho Nov 215
Puth-Aaron numlors 216
Schork`s conjocturo 21
somi-primos 21
soxy primos 218
Shank`s conjocturo 218
Siamoso primos 219
Siorpinski numlors 219
Siorpinski strings 219
Siorpinski`s guaJratic 219
Siorpinski`s () conjocturo 219
Sloano`s - 220
- {
Smith numlors 221
Smith lrothors 222
smooth numlors 222
Sophio Gormain primos 223
salo primos 224
sguarolroo numlors 224
Storn primo 225
strong lav ol small numlors 225
triangular numlors 228
trivia 228
tvin primos 229
tvin curiositios 230
Ulam spiral 232
unitary Jivisors 233
unitary porloct 234
untouchallo numlors 235
voirJ numlors 235
Wiolorich primos 235
Wilson`s thoorom 236
tvin primos 23
Wilson primos 23
Wolstonholmo`s numlors, anJ thooroms 238
moro lactors ol Wolstonholmo numlors 239
WooJall primos 240
zota mystorios: tho guantum connoction 241
- - 245
- 249
-- 251
253
265
{ -
-
l am JolightoJ to thank, onco again, DaviJ Singmastor lor his assis-
tanco anJ tho uso ol his lilrary: on this occasion l can also noto that
his thosis suporvisor vas D. H. . l am happy to acknovloJgo
tho lolloving pormissions:
Tho Amorican Vathomatical Socioty lor pormission to roproJuco,
slightly moJilioJ, tho illustration on pago 133 ol primo knots vith
sovon crossings or loss lrom Pasolov anJ Sossinsky (199), -
- - -, Translations ol Vathomatical Vono-
graphs 154:33, liguro 3.13.
Chris CalJvoll lor pormission to roproJuco, slightly moJilioJ, tho
graph on pago 156 shoving tho Vorsonno primos, lrom his Primo
Pagos Wol sito.
Tho graph on pago 184 comparing various historical ostimatos ol
tho valuos ol () is in tho pullic Jomain, lut l am happy to noto that
it is aJaptoJ lrom tho Jiagram on pago 224 ol Boilor (1966),
- -, pullishoJ ly Dovor Pullications.
K-
Torms in , throughout tho look, rolor to ontrios in alphalotical
orJor, or to ontrios in tho list ol contonts, anJ in tho inJox.
Throughout this look, tho vorJ vill rolor to a positivo into-
gor or vholo numlor, unloss statoJ othorviso.
Iottors stanJ lor intogors unloss othorviso inJicatoJ.
Notico tho Jilloronco lotvoon tho Jocimal point that is on tho lino,
as in
1
8 0.125, anJ tho Jot inJicating multiplication, alovo tho lino:
20 2 2 5
- anJ lactor: thoso aro almost synonymous. Any Jilloroncos aro
puroly convontional. As Hugh Williams puts it, il JiviJos , thon
vo call a - (or ) ol . Sinco 1 anJ aro alvays Jivisors
ol , vo call thoso lactors tho Jivisors (or lactors) ol .`
(Williams 1998, 2)
On tho othor hanJ, vo alvays talk alout tho primo lactorization
ol a numlor, locauso no vorJ liko - oxists! lor this
roason, vo also talk alout linJing tho lactors ol a largo numlor such
as 2
31
1.
Similarly, ly convontion, tho Jivisor lunction (), vhich is tho
numlor ol Jivisors ol , is novor calloJ tho lactor lunction. AnJ so on.
Tho moanings ol (), (), anJ () aro oxplainoJ in tho glossary.
Tho natural logarithm ol , tho log to laso , is vritton as log . This
Joos moan tho usual logarithm to laso 10, vhich voulJ lo vrit-
ton log
10
.
Tho oxprossion 8 5 moans that 8 is groator than 5. Similarly, 5 8
moans that 5 is loss than 8.
Tho oxprossion 5 (5 ) moans that is groator than or ogual to
5 (5 is loss than or ogual to ).
Tho oxprossion 4 12 moans that 4 JiviJos 12 oxactly.
Tho oxprossion 4 13 moans that 4 Joos JiviJo 13 oxactly.
linally, instoaJ ol saying, Whon 30 is JiviJoJ ly it loavos a
romainJor 2,` it is much shortor anJ moro convoniont to vrito,
30 2 (moJ )
This is a congruonco, anJ vo say that 30 is congruont to 2, moJ .`
Tho oxprossion stanJs lor -, locauso this is an oxamplo
ol moJular arithmotic. Tho iJoa vas invontoJ ly that groat matho-
matician --, anJ is moro or loss iJontical to tho clock arithmotic
that many roaJors vill havo mot in school.
ln clock (or moJular) arithmotic you count anJ aJJ numlors as il
going arounJ a clocklaco. ll tho clocklaco goos lrom 1 to only, thon
8 is tho samo as 1, 9 2, 10 3, anJ so on.
ll, hovovor, tho clocklaco goos lrom 1 to 16 (lor oxamplo), thon
1 1, 2 18, anJ 3 9 11.
ll you count in (say) 8s arounJ tho traJitional clocklaco shoving
12 hours, thon your count vill go: 8, 4, 12, 8, 4, 12, ropoating onJ-
lossly anJ missing all tho hours 4, 8, anJ 12. ll you count in
5s, hovovor, it goos liko this: 5, 10, 3, 8, 1, 6, 11, 4, 9, 2, , 12, 5, anJ
ly tho timo you start to ropoat you havo visitoJ ovory hour on tho
clock. This is locauso 8 anJ 12 havo a common lactor 4, anJ lut 5
anJ 12 havo no common lactor.
Vathomaticians uso tho sign instoaJ ol , tho ogual sign, to inJi-
cato that thoy aro using moJular arithmotic. So instoaJ ol saying that
primo numlors aro alvays ol tho lorm 6 1 or 6 1, locauso
6 2 anJ 6 4 aro ovon anJ 6 3 is Jivisillo ly 3, vo can vrito
6 1 (moJ 6).
Vost statomonts maJo in this look havo no roloronco. Eithor thoy aro
voll-knovn, or thoy can lo lounJ in sovoral placos in tho litoraturo.
Evon il l Jo knov vhoro tho claim vas lirst maJo, a roloronco is not
nocossarily givon, locauso this is a popular look, not a vork ol
scholarship.
Hovovor, vhoro a rosult appoars to lo Juo to a spocilic author or
collaloration ol authors anJ is not viJoly knovn, l havo givon thoir
{ K-
namos, such as (lung anJ Williams). ll a Jato is aJJoJ, as in (lung
anJ Williams 1990), that moans tho roloronco is in tho lilliography.
ll this roloronco is lounJ in a particular look, it is givon as (lung anJ
Williams: Guy).
Tho soguoncos vith roloroncos to Sloano` anJ an A numlor aro
takon lrom Noil Sloano`s -,
at vvv.rosoarch.att.com-njassoguoncos. Soo also tho ontry in this
look lor Sloano`s -, as voll
as tho Somo Primo Wol Sitos` soction at tho onJ ol tho lilliography.
Tho inJox is vory lull, lut il you como across an oxprossion such as
() anJ vant to knov vhat it moans, tho glossary starting on pago
251 vill holp.
K- {

Primo numlors havo alvays lascinatoJ mathomaticians. Thoy

appoar among tho intogors soomingly at ranJom, anJ yot not
guito: thoro sooms to lo somo orJor or pattorn, just a littlo lolov
tho surlaco, just a littlo out ol roach.
-Uuccrtccc Dvclc, /17S1
Small chilJron vhon thoy lirst go to school loarn that thoro aro tvo
things you can Jo to numlors: aJJ thom anJ multiply thom. AJJi-
tion sums aro rolativoly oasy, anJ aJJition has nico simplo propor-
tios: 10 can lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo numlors to mako this protty
pattorn:
10 1 9 2 8 3 4 6
5 5 6 4 3 8 2 9 1
lt is also oasy to vrito ovon largo numlors, liko 3440251, as a sum:
3440251 3440194 5. Tho invorso ol aJJition, sultraction, is
protty simplo also.
Vultiplication is much trickior, anJ its invorso, Jivision, is roally
guito harJ, tho simplo pattorn Jisappoars, anJ vriting 3440251 as a
jrccvct is, voll, lionJishly Jillicult. SuJJonly, simplo arithmotic has
turnoJ into Jillicult mathomatics!
Tho Jilliculty is oasy to unJorstanJ lut harJ to rosolvo. Tho lact is
that somo numlors, tho ccjcsitc numlors, can lo vritton as a
proJuct ol tvo othor numlors, as vo loarn lrom our multiplication
tallos. Thoso numlors start vith: 2 I 2 is 4, 2 I 3 is 6, anJ 2 I 4 is 8,
lollovoJ lator ly 3 I 3 is 9 anJ 6 I is 42, anJ so on.
Othor numlors cannot lo vritton as a proJuct, oxcopt ol thom-
solvos anJ 1. lor oxamplo, 5 5 I 1 1 I 5, lut that`s all. Thoso aro
tho mystorious jric numlors, vhoso soguonco starts,
2, 3, 5, , 11, 13, 1, 19, 23, 29, 31,
3, 41, 43, 4, 53, 59, 61, 6, 1, . . .
Notico that 1 is an oxcoption: it is not countoJ as a primo numlor,
nor is it composito. This is locauso many proportios ol primo num-
lors aro oasior to stato anJ havo lovor oxcoptions il 1 is uct primo.
(Zoro also is noithor primo nor composito.)
Tho primo numlors soom so irrogular as to lo ranJom, although thoy
aro in lact Jotorminato. This mixturo ol almost-ranJomnoss anJ pat-
torn has onticoJ mathomaticians lor conturios, prolossional anJ ama-
tour aliko, to mako calculations, spot pattorns, mako conjocturos, anJ
thon (attompt) to provo thom.
Somotimos, thoir conjocturos havo loon lalso. So many conjocturos
alout primos aro as ologant as thoy aro simplo, anJ tho tomptation to
loliovo thom, to loliovo that you havo JiscovoroJ a jcttcru in tho
primos, can lo ovorvholming-until you Jiscovor tho countoroxamplo
that Jostroys your iJoa. As Honri Poincar vroto, Whon a suJJon
illumination invaJos tho mathomaticians`s minJ, . . . it somotimos
happons . . . that it vill not stanJ tho tost ol vorilication . . . it is to lo
olsorvoJ almost alvays that this lalso iJoa, il it haJ loon corroct,
voulJ havo llattoroJ our natural instincts lor mathomatical ologanco.`
(Poincar n.J.)
Somotimos a conjocturo has only loon provoJ many yoars lator. Tho
most lamous prollom in mathomatics toJay, ly common consont, is
a conjocturo, tho Ricmann hypothcsis, vhich Jatos lrom a lrilliant
papor pullishoJ in 1859. Whoovor linally provos it vill locomo moro
lamous than AnJrov Wilos, vho vas splashoJ across tho lront pagos
vhon ho linally provoJ Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm in 1994.
This lortility ol spoculation has givon a spocial rolo to tho moJorn
oloctronic computor. ln tho gooJ olJ laJ olJ Jays, computor` actu-
ally moant a porson vho computoJ, anJ a long anJ Jillicult task it
coulJ lo lor tho mathomatician vho vas not a human calculator liko
Fulcr or Gauss.
ToJay, computors can gonorato Jata lastor than it can lo roaJ, anJ
can comploto calculations in soconJs or hours that voulJ havo takon
a human calculator yoars-anJ tho computor makos no caroloss mis-
takos. (Tho programmor may orr, ol courso!) Computors also put you
in touch vith actual numlors, in a vay that an alstract prool Joos
not. As John Vilnor puts it:
ll l can givo an alstract prool ol somothing, l`m roasonally happy. But il l
can got a concroto, computational prool anJ actually proJuco numlors l`m
much happior. l`m rathor an aJJict at Joing things on tho computor. . . . l
{
havo a visual vay ol thinking, anJ l`m happy il l can soo a picturo ol vhat
l`m vorking vith. (Bailoy anJ Borvoin 2000)
lt has ovon loon soriously arguoJ that mathomatics is locoming
moro ol an oxporimontal scionco as a rosult ol tho computor, in
vhich tho rolo ol prool is JovaluoJ. That is nonsonso: it is only ly
ponotrating lolov tho surlaco glittor that mathomaticians gain tho
Joopost unJorstanJing. Why JiJ Gauss pullish six prools ol tho lav
ol quauratic rcciprocity (anJ loavo a sovonth among his papors)?
Bocauso oach prool illuminatoJ tho phonomonon lrom a Jilloront
anglo anJ JooponoJ his unJorstanJing.
Computors havo haJ tvo othor ollocts. Tho porsonal computor has
oncouragoJ thousanJs ol amatours to got stuck in anJ to oxploro tho
primo numlors. Tho rosult is a mass ol matorial varying lrom tho
amusing lut trivial to tho novol, sorious, anJ important.
Tho soconJ olloct is that vory complox calculations nooJoJ to
provo that a largo numlor is primo, or to linJ its lactors, havo suJ-
Jonly locomo vithin roach. ln 186 JouarJ Iucas provoJ that
2
12
1 is primo. lt romainoJ tho largost knovn primo ol that lorm
until 1951. ToJay, a primo ol this sizo can lo provoJ primo in a lov
soconJs, though tho prollom ol lactorization romains intractallo lor
largo numlors, so public kcy cncryption anJ mothoJs such as tho
RSA algorithm havo rocontly maJo primo numlors vitally important
to lusinoss (anJ tho military).
Dospito tho thousanJs ol mathomaticians vorking on proportios ol tho
primo numlors, numorous conjocturos romain unrosolvoJ. Computors
aro vonJorlul at croating Jata, anJ not laJ at linJing countoroxam-
plos, lut thoy provo nothing. Vany prolloms anJ conjocturos alout
primo numlors vill only lo ovontually solvoJ through Joopor anJ
Joopor insight, anJ lor tho timo loing soom to lo loyonJ our unJor-
stanJing. As Gauss put it, lt is charactoristic ol highor arithmotic that
many ol its most loautilul thooroms can lo JiscovoroJ ly inJuction
vith tho groatost ol oaso lut havo prools that lio anyvhoro lut noar at
hanJ anJ aro olton lounJ only altor many lruitloss invostigations vith
tho aiJ ol Joop analysis anJ lucky comlinations.` Soo our ontry on zcta
mystcrics: thc quantum conncction! Gauss aJJoJ, rolorring to his ovn
mothoJs ol vorking as voll as thoso ol lormat anJ Eulor anJ othors:
|llt olton happons that many thooroms, vhoso prool lor yoars vas sought
in vain, aro lator provoJ in many Jilloront vays. As soon as a nov rosult is
{
JiscovoroJ ly inJuction, ono must consiJor as tho lirst roguiromont tho
linJing ol a prool ly cu, jcssi/lc moans |omphasis aJJoJl. But altor such
gooJ lortuno, ono must not in highor arithmotic consiJor tho invostigation
closoJ or viov tho soarch lor othor prools as a suporlluous luxury. lor
somotimos ono Joos not at lirst como upon tho most loautilul anJ simplost
prool, anJ thon it is just tho insight into tho vonJorlul concatonation ol
truth in highor arithmotic that is tho chiol attraction lor stuJy anJ olton
loaJs to tho Jiscovory ol nov truths. lor thoso roasons tho linJing ol nov
prools lor knovn truths is olton at loast as important as tho Jiscovory itsoll.
(Gauss 181)
Tho stuJy ol tho primos lrings in ovory stylo anJ ovory lovol ol
mathomatical thinking, lrom tho simplost pattorn spotting (olton mis-
loaJing, as vo havo notoJ) to tho uso ol statistics anJ aJvancoJ
counting tochniguos, to sciontilic invostigation anJ oxporimont, all
tho vay to tho most alstract concopts anJ most sultlo prools that
JoponJ on tho unparalloloJ insight anJ intuitivo porcoptions ol tho
groatost mathomaticians. Primo numlors ollor a vonJorlul liolJ lor
oxploration ly amatours anJ prolossionals aliko.
This is not a troatiso or an historical account, though it contains
many lacts, historical anJ othorviso. Pathor, it is an introJuction to
tho lascination anJ loauty ol tho primo numlors. Horo is an oxam-
plo that l havo occasionally usoJ to, succosslully, porsuaJo nonlo-
liovors vith no mathomatical lackgrounJ that mathomatics can
inJooJ lo Jolightlul. lirst vrito Jovn tho sguaro numlors, 1 1 1,
2 2 4, 3 3 9, anJ so on. (Notico that to avoiJ using tho I lor
multiplication, locauso is also usoJ in algolra, vo uso a Jot alovo
tho toxt lasolino.)
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 . . .
This soguonco is ospocially simplo anJ rogular. lnJooJ, vo Jon`t
ovon nooJ to multiply any numlors to got it. Wo coulJ just as voll
havo startoJ vith 1 anJ aJJoJ tho oJJ numlors. 1 3 4, 4 5 9,
9 16, anJ so on.
Nov vrito Jovn tho primo numlors, tho numlors vith no lactors
oxcopt thomsolvos anJ 1:
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 29 . . .
No such simplicity horo! Tho jumps lrom ono numlor to tho noxt
vary irrogularly lrom 1 to 6 (anJ voulJ ovontually locomo much
largor). \ot thoro is a concoaloJ pattorn connocting thoso tvo
soguoncos. To soo it, striko out 2, vhich is tho only ovon primo, anJ
{
all tho primos that aro cuc lcss than a multiplo ol 4, so vo Joloto 3,
, 11, 19, anJ 23 . . . Tho soguonco ol romaining primos goos,
5 13 1 29 3 41 53 5 61 3 . . .
AnJ tho connoction? Evory ono ol thoso primos is tho sv cf ttc
sqvcrcs, ol tvo ol tho numlors in tho lirst soguonco, in a uniguo vay:
5 1 4, 13 4 9, 1 1 16, 29 4 25, 3 1 36
anJ so on. This oxtraorJinary lact is rolatoJ to Pythagoras`s thoorom
alout tho siJos ol a right-angloJ trianglo, anJ vas knovn to Dio-
phantus in tho thirJ contury. lt vas oxploroJ lurthor ly Icrmat, anJ
thon ly Fulcr anJ Gauss anJ a host ol othor groat mathomaticians.
Wo might justly say that it has loon tho montal springloarJ anJ tho
mystorious origin ol a largo portion ol tho thoory ol numlors-anJ
yot tho lasic lacts ol tho caso can lo oxplainoJ to a school pupil.
Thoro lios tho lascination ol tho primo numlors. Thoy comlino tho
maximum ol simplicity vith tho maximum ol Jopth anJ mystory.
On a plaguo attachoJ to tho NASA Joop spaco prolo vo aro Jo-
scriloJ in symlols lor tho lonolit ol any alions vho might moot tho
spacocralt as lilatorally symmotrical, soxually JillorontiatoJ lipoJs
locatoJ on ono ol tho outor spirals ol tho Vilky Way, capallo ol roc-
ognizing tho primo numlors anJ movoJ ly ono oxtraorJinary gual-
ity that lasts longor than all our othor urgos-curiosity.`
l hopo that you vill Jiscovor (or lo rominJoJ ol ) somo ol tho lasci-
nation ol tho primos in this look. ll you aro hookoJ, no Joult you
vill vant to look at othor looks-thoro is a soloction ol rocom-
monJoJ looks markoJ in tho lilliography vith an astorisk-anJ
you vill also linJ a vast amount ol matorial on tho lntornot: somo ol
tho lost sitos aro listoJ at tho Somo Primo Wol Sitos` soction at tho
onJ ol tho lilliography. To holp you vith your ovn rosoarch,
ApponJix A is a list ol tho lirst 500 primos, anJ ApponJix B lists tho
lirst 80 valuos ol tho most common arithmotic lunctions.
Actc. As this look vont to pross, tho rocorJ lor tho largost knovn
primo numlor vas lrokon ly Dr. Vartin Novak, a Gorman oyo spo-
cialist vho is a momlor ol tho vorlJviJo GIVPS (Groat lntornot
Vorsonno Primo Soarch) projoct, altor lilty Jays ol soarching on his
2.4GHz Pontium 4 porsonal computor. His rocorJ primo is 2
25,964,951
1
anJ has ,816,230 Jigits.
{

Tho alc conjocturo vas lirst proposoJ ly Josoph Oostorl anJ DaviJ
Vassor in 1985. lt concorns tho proJuct ol all tho cistiuct primo lactors
ol u, somotimos calloJ tho rcciccl ol u anJ vritton r (u). ll u is squarc-
frcc (not Jivisillo ly any porloct sguaro), thon r (u) u. On tho othor
hanJ, lor a numlor such as 60 2
2
3 5, r (60) 2 3 5 30.
r (u) is smallost vhon u is a povor ol a primo: thon r ( j
q
) j. So
r (8) r (32) r (256) 2, anJ r (6561) r (3
8
) 3.
Tho moro JuplicatoJ lactors u has, tho largor u vill lo comparoJ to
r (u). lor oxamplo, il u 992 2
2
3
2
2, thon r (992) 1662,
anJ r (u)
1
4u.
Tho alc conjocturo says, roughly, that il c anJ / aro tvo numlors
vith no common lactor, anJ sum c, thon tho numlor c/c cannot lo
vory composito. Voro procisoly, DaviJ Vassor provoJ that tho ratio
r (c/c)c can lo as small as you liko. Ioss than
1
100? \os! Ioss than
0.00000001? \os! AnJ so on.
Hovovor-anJ this is Vassor`s claim anJ tho alc conjocturo-this
is cul, jvst jcssi/lc. ll vo calculato r (c/c)
u
c instoaJ, vhoro u is cu,
numlor groator than 1, thon vo can`t mako r (c/c)c as small as vo
liko, anJ this is truo ovon il u is only slightly groator than 1. So ovon
il u is as small as 1.00001, r (c/c)
u
c has a lovor limit that isn`t zoro.
Why is this conjocturo alout numlors that aro not sguarolroo so
important? Bocauso, incroJilly, so many important thooroms coulJ
lo provoJ guito oasily, if it tcrc trvc. Horo aro just livo ol tho many
consoguoncos ol tho alc conjocturo loing truo:
- Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm coulJ lo provoJ vory oasily. Tho prool
ly AnJrov Wilos is oxtromoly long anJ complox.
- Thoro aro inlinitoly many Wicfcrich primcs.
- Thoro is only a linito numlor ol sots ol throo consocutivo pov-
crful numbcrs.
- Thoro is only a linito numlor ol solutions satislying Brocaru`s
cquation, u! 1
2
.
- All tho polynomials (
u
1)( 1) havo an inlinity ol sguaro-
lroo valuos. (Brovkin 2000, 10)
{

A numlor is alunJant il tho sum ol its jrcjcr Jivisors (or aliguot
parts, moaning all its Jivisors oxcopt tho numlor itsoll) is groator than
tho numlor. Poughly spoaking, numlors aro alunJant vhon thoy
havo sovoral Jilloront small primo lactors. Thus 12 2
2
3 is alun-
Jant, locauso 1 2 3 4 6 16 12.
AlunJant numlors voro prosontoJ ly Nicomachus (c. AD 100) in
his Iutrccvcticu tc Arit/ctic, vhich incluJoJ Jolinitions ol primo
numlors (ho JiJ not consiJor 1, or unity, anJ 2 to lo numlors) anJ
also ucficicnt anJ pcrfcct numlors, oxplaining that,
Among simplo ovon numlors, somo aro suporalunJant, othors aro Joli-
ciont: thoso tvo classos aro as tvo oxtromos opposoJ to ono anothor, as lor
thoso that occupy tho miJJlo position lotvoon tho tvo, thoy aro saiJ to lo
porloct. AnJ thoso vhich aro saiJ to lo opposito to oach othor, tho supor-
alunJant anJ tho Joliciont, aro JiviJoJ in thoir conJition, vhich is inogual-
ity, into tho too much anJ tho too littlo.
ln tho caso ol tho too much, is proJucoJ oxcoss, suporlluity, oxaggora-
tions anJ aluso, in tho caso ol too littlo, is proJucoJ vanting, Jolaults, pri-
vations anJ insullicioncios. AnJ in tho caso ol thoso that aro lounJ lotvoon
tho too much anJ tho too littlo, that is in oguality, is proJucoJ virtuo, just
moasuro, proprioty, loauty anJ things ol that sort-ol vhich tho most
oxomplary lorm is that typo ol numlor vhich is calloJ porloct. (O`Connor
anJ Polortson n.J.)
Ho also vroto, in tho stylo ol tho porioJ, that ovon alunJant num-
lors` aro liko an animal vith too many parts or limls, vith ton
tonguos, as tho poot says, anJ ton mouths, or vith nino lips, or throo
rovs ol tooth,` vhoroas porloct numlors aro linkoJ to voalth, moJ-
oration, proprioty, loauty, anJ tho liko.` (Iauritzon, Vorsatilo Num-
lors)
Nicomachus claimoJ that all oJJ numlors aro Joliciont. Vost
alunJant numlors aro inJooJ ovon. Tho smallost oJJ alunJant is
945 3
3
5 . Thoro aro only tvonty-throo oJJ alunJant numlors
loss than 10,000.
Evory multiplo ol an alunJant numlor is alunJant. Thoroloro, thoro
is an inlinito numlor ol alunJant numlors. Tho soguonco starts:
12 18 20 24 30 36 40 42 48 54 56 . . .
{
Tho pair 54 anJ 56 is tho lirst alunJant numlors vith tho samo sum
ol propor Jivisors, 120. Tho noxt pairs aro 60 anJ 8 (sum 168) anJ
66 anJ 0 (sum 144).
Poughly 24.8 ol tho positivo intogors aro alunJant.
Tho sum ol all tho uivisors ol u, incluJing u itsoll, is calloJ (u).
Whon u 12, (u)u 2812 3, vhich is a rocorJ lor numlors
up to 12. Any numlor that sots a rocorJ lor (u)u is calloJ svjcr-
c/vuccut. Thoso aro tho lirst lov rocorJ-lroaking valuos ol (u)u:
u 1 2 6 12 24 36 48 60
(u)u 1 32 2 3 52 9136 3112 145
ll u is ovon anJ (u)u 9, thon it has at loast lilty-livo Jistinct primo
lactors.
Evory numlor groator than 20161 is tho sum ol tvo alunJant numlors.
Scc Joliciont numlor, Jivisors, porloct numlor
-
Our vorlJ rosonatos vith pattorns. Tho vaxing anJ vaning ol
tho moon. Tho changing ol tho soasons. Tho microscopic coll
structuro ol all living things havo pattorns. Porhaps that oxplains
our lascination vith primo numlors vhich aro uniguoly vithout
pattorn. Primo numlors aro among tho most mystorious phonom-
ona in mathomatics.
-Mcuiucrc Agrctcl /2uu1
Tho iJoal primality tcst is a Jolinito yos-no tost that also runs guickly
on moJorn computors. ln August 2002, VaninJra Agraval ol tho
lnJian lnstituto ol Tochnology in Kanpur, lnJia, anJ his tvo lrilliant
PhD stuJonts Nooraj Kayal anJ Nitin Saxona, vho voro loth in tho
199 lnJian Vathomatics OlympiaJ SguaJ, announcoJ just such a
tost, using his ovn novol vorsion ol Icrmat`s IittlcThcorcm, in a short
papor ol only nino pagos that vas also oxtromoly simplo anJ ologant.
ln a sign ol tho timos, Agraval sont an o-mail to a numlor ol
prominont mathomaticians vith tho suljoct hoaJor PPlVES is in P,`
anJ also put it on his Wol sito. lt vas JovnloaJoJ moro than thirty
thousanJ timos in tho lirst tvonty-lour hours, anJ tho sito vas visitoJ
{ -
moro than tvo million timos in tho lirst ton Jays. (Earlior, AKS haJ
roachoJ a gap in thoir attomptoJ prool, vhich thoy lilloJ ly soarch-
ing tho Wol anJ linJing just tho mathomatical rosult thoy nooJoJ.)
PPlVES is in P` moans that a numlor can lo tostoJ to JociJo
vhothor or not it is primo in a timo that is roughly proportional to its
numlor ol Jigits. This moans that it is last lor vory largo numlors lut
not so last lor tho kinJ ol numlors that olton havo to lo tostoJ in prac-
tical applications. lortunatoly, in anothor sign ol tho timos, vithin
hours ol its pullication othor mathomaticians voro linJing variations
on tho original AKS algorithm that maJo it much lastor. Currontly, tho
most-improvoJ vorsions vill run alout tvo million timos lastor. This
noarly makos it compotitivo vith tho most olliciont curront algorithm-
lut Agraval vill novor lonolit linancially, locauso ho JociJoJ against
trying to patont tho rosult.
Tho algorithm is so simplo that it has promptoJ many mathomaticians
to vonJor vhat othor prolloms might havo unoxpoctoJly simplo solu-
tions: lor oxamplo, tho prollom ol lactorizing largo numlors. Agraval`s
algorithm is no holp horo: tho most it can Jo is shov that a numlor is
composito, vithout saying anything alout its lactors, so it vill havo no
olloct on cncryption using primo numlors. (Agraval 2002)
Scc primality tosting
-- - -
Tho cliqvct jcrts (tho oxprossion is olJ-lashionoJ) ol a numlor aro
its propor uivisors, moaning its Jivisors apart lrom tho numlor itsoll.
Any intogor is tho start ol an aliguot soguonco. Simply calculato tho
sum ol its propor Jivisors anJ thon ropoat. Starting vith 10 vo soon
roach 1: tho propor Jivisors ol 10 aro 1, 2, anJ 5, summing to 8, ol 8
thoy aro 1, 2, anJ 4, summing to , vhich is primo, so its only propor
Jivisor is 1.
lor 24 vo got this soguonco:
24 36 55 1 1
Hovovor, 28 immoJiatoly ropoats, locauso 1 2 4 14 28,
anJ so 28 is a pcrfcct numbcr, vhilo 220 anJ 284 oach loaJ at onco
to tho othor, so thoy lorm an amicablc pair.
lor roasons that aro not unJorstooJ, many aliguot soguoncos onJ
in Paganini`s amicallo pair, 1184 anJ 1210.
-- - - {
Tho thirJ possilility is that tho soguonco ropoats through a cyclo, tho
lirst tvo oxamplos ol such sociallo chains or aliguot cyclos voro
lounJ ly Poulot in 1918. Tho smallor is:
12496 14288 1542 14536 14264
Tho soconJ chain is ol tvonty-oight numlors: 14316, 19116, 3104,
4616, 83328, 192, 295488, 62902, 58986, 294896, 358336,
418904, 366556, 24924, 25444, 24360, 3636, 381028, 2858,
152990, 122410, 9946, 4896, 45946, 2296, 2244, 19916, 116,
(14316). lt is romarkallo hov littlo oscillation thoro is in this
soguonco. Dravn as a graph thoro voulJ lo just lour poaks, at
62902, 418904, 25444, anJ 381028. (Boilor 1966, 29)
No moro chains voro JiscovoroJ until 1969 vhon Honri Cohon
chockoJ all aliguot soguoncos starting unJor 60,000,000 anJ lounJ
sovon chains ol lour links oach. No chain ol throo links-nicknamoJ
a crovJ`!-has ovor loon lounJ, though no ono has a roason vhy
thoy shoulJ not oxist.
Catalan in 1888 anJ thon Dickson conjocturoJ that no aliguot
soguonco goos oll to inlinity-thoy all onJ in a cyclo or in 1. A
soguonco starting vith an alunJant numlor vill initially incroaso,
hovovor, thoro aro lar moro Joliciont than alunJant numlors, vhich
suggosts that most soguoncos vill inJooJ Jocroaso moro than
incroaso.
Thoro aro just sovontoon numlors loss than 2000 lor vhich tho
prollom is unsolvoJ: 26, 552, 564, 660, 966, 104, 1134, 1464, 146,
1488, 1512, 1560, 158, 1632, 134, 1920, anJ 1992. Notico that thoy
aro all ovon. lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho aliguot soguoncos lor
most ovon numlors Jo not onJ in 1 or a cyclo.
Tho lirst livo ol thoso numlors aro tho so-calloJ Iohmor livo. Orig-
inally tho list vas tho Iohmor six, lut thon tho lato ol 840 vas sot-
tloJ. lt ovontually roachos 1, altor poaking at:
3 463982 260143 2501 42994 136098 02146 586526 240388
D. N. Ichmcr shovoJ that 138 risos altor 11 stops to 19,931,895,322
anJ thon onJs in 1 altor 1 stops. (Guy 1981, B6)
Wollgang Croyaulmuollor lounJ tho longost knovn torminating
soguonco in 2002. lt starts at 446580 anJ onJs 4,36 stops lator vith
tho primo 601, lollovoJ ly 1. (Croyaulmuollor 2002)
{ -- - -
Vanuol Bonito anJ Juan Varona lounJ tho soguonco vith tho highost
knovn poak: it starts vith 3630 anJ has a maximum longth ol 100
Jigits, onJing altor 2,624 stops vith tho primo 59, anJ thon 1. (Bon-
ito anJ Varona 2001)
--
Tho almost-primo numlors havo a limitoJ numlor ol primo lactors.
Tho 2-almost-primos havo tvo primo lactors (incluJing JuplicatoJ
lactors) anJ aro also calloJ scmiprimcs: tho 3-almost-primos havo
throo, anJ so on.
Tho soguonco ol 3-almost-primos starts 8, 12, 18, 20, 2, 28, 30, 42,
44, 45, 50, . . .
Tho soguonco ol u-almost-primos starts vith 2
u
, 3 2
u 1
, . . .
-
A pair ol numlors is amicallo (or somiporloct) il oach is tho sum ol
tho propor Jivisors ol tho othor. Tho smallost pair is 220 anJ 284. Tho
propor Jivisors ol 220 2
2
5 11 sum to,
1 2 4 5 10 11 20 22 44 55 110 284
anJ similarly: 284 2
2
1 anJ 1 2 4 1 142 220.
AccorJing to tho philosophor lamllichus (c. AD 250-330), tho lol-
lovors ol Pythagoras call cortain numlors amicallo numlors, aJopt-
ing virtuos anJ social gualitios to numlors, such as 284 anJ 220,
lor tho parts ol oach havo tho povor to gonorato tho othor,` anJ
Pythagoras JoscriloJ a lrionJ as ono vho is tho othor l, such as aro
220 anJ 284.`
ln tho Billo (Gonosis 32:14), Jacol givos 220 goats (200 lomalo anJ
20 malo) to Esau on thoir rounion. Thoro aro othor lillical roloroncos
at Ezra 8:20 anJ 1 Chroniclos 15:6, vhilo 284 occurs in Nohomiah
11:18. Thoso roloroncos aro all to tho trilo ol Iovi, vhoso namo
Jorivos lrom tho vish ol Iovi`s mothor to lo amically rolatoJ to his
lathor. (Aviozri anJ lraonkol: Guy 1994)
Thoy voro also usoJ in magic anJ astrology. lln KhalJun (1332-
1406) vroto that tho art ol talismans has also maJo us rocognizo tho
marvolous virtuos ol amicallo (or sympathotic) numlors. Thoso
numlors aro 220 anJ 284. . . . Porsons vho occupy thomsolvos vith
- {
talismans assuro that thoso numlors havo a particular inlluonco in
ostallishing union anJ lrionJship lotvoon inJiviJuals.` (Oro 1948, 9)
Thalit iln Qurra (c. AD 850) in his Pcck cu t/c Dctcriucticu cf
Aicc/lc Av/crs notoJ that il you chooso u so that oach ol tho
oxprossions c 3 2
u
1, / 3 2
u 1
1, anJ c 9 2
2u 1
1 is
primo, thon 2
u
c/ anJ 2
u
c aro amicallo numlors. Unlortunatoly, it
isn`t oasy to mako thom all primo at onco, anJ in lact it only vorks
lor u 2, 4, anJ anJ no othor u loss than 20,000.
A soconJ pair, 1,296 anJ 18,416, vas JiscovoroJ ly lln al-Banna
(1256-1321) anJ roJiscovoroJ ly Icrmat in 1636. Doscartos lounJ
tho thirJ pair, 9,363,584 anJ 9,43,056, vhich is tho caso u in
Thalit`s lormulao. Fulcr thon JiscovoroJ no loss than sixty-tvo moro
oxamplos, vithout lolloving Thalit`s rulo.
Paganini`s amicallo pair, 1184 anJ 1210, is namoJ altor Nicolo
Paganini, vho JiscovoroJ thom in 1866 vhon ho vas a sixtoon-yoar-
olJ schoolloy. Thoy haJ proviously loon missoJ ly lormat, Dos-
cartos, Eulor, anJ othors.
Voro than ,500 amicallo pairs havo loon lounJ, using computors,
incluJing all pairs up to 10
14
. ls thoro an inlinito numlor ol amicallo
pairs? lt is gonorally loliovoJ so, partly locauso Horman to Piolo has a
mothoJ ol constructing Jaughtor` pairs lrom somo mothor` pairs. To
Piolo has also pullishoJ all ol tho 1,42 amicallo pairs loss than 10
10
.
X no. ol pairs vith smallor no. X
10
3
1
10
4
5
10
5
13
10
6
42
10

108
10
8
236
10
9
586
10
10
142
(Gupta)
--
- Thoro is no knovn amicallo pair in vhich ono numlor is a
sguaro.
- Tho numlors in amicallo pairs onJ in 0 or 5 surprisingly olton,
lor no knovn roason.
{ --
- Vost amicallo numlors havo many Jilloront lactors. Can a
povor ol a primo, j
u
, lo ono ol an amicallo pair? ll so, thon
j
u
10
1500
anJ u 1400.
- lt is not knovn vhothor thoro is a pair ol coprimo amicallo
numlors. ll thoro is, tho numlors must oxcooJ 10
25
anJ thoir
proJuct must havo at loast tvonty-tvo Jistinct primo lactors.
K-
Dorin AnJrica conjocturoJ that j
u 1
j
u
1 lor all u. This is
roally a conjocturo alout tho gaps lotvoon primo numlors anJ is not
ovon a vory strong conjocturo, yot it has novor loon provoJ. Tho
largost valuo ol tho Jilloronco lor u loss than 1000 is 11
0.6083 . . . vhich is voll lolov 1.
lmran Ghory has usoJ Jata on largost primo gaps to conlirm tho
conjocturo up to 1.3002 10
16
.
--- -
ln an arithmotic progrossion (or soguonco) tho Jilloroncos lotvoon
succossivo torms aro constant, lor oxamplo:
3 11 15 19 23 2 31 35 39 43 . . .
vith constant Jilloronco 4. This happons to alroaJy contain sovon
primos, vith ono soguonco ol throo consocutivo primos.
Tho curront rocorJ lor tho largost numlor ol ccusccvtitc primos in
arithmotic progrossion has ton primos. lt vas sot 11:56 a.m. on Varch
2, 1998, ly VanlroJ Toplic ol Klagonlurt, Austria, in a typical oxamplo
ol uistributcu computing. Tho lirst torm is tho primo 100 9969 2469
1424 638 66555 8969 84032 95093 24689 19004 18036 0341 5890
4341 03348 88215 9062 2919, anJ tho common Jilloronco is 210.
Tho samo toam also sot tho provious rocorJ ol nino consocutivo
primos, on January 15, 1998. Tho toam vas loJ ly Harvoy Dulnor anJ
Tony lorlos. Voro than sovonty pooplo, using alout tvo hunJroJ
machinos, soarchoJ noarly lilty rangos ol a trillion numlors oach.
Tho longost knovn arithmotic progrossion ol nonconsocutivo
primos vas JiscovoroJ ly PritcharJ, Voran, anJ Thysson in 1993. lt
is tvonty-tvo torms long, starting vith tho primo 1141033850553
--- - {
anJ vith common Jilloronco 4609098694200. On April 22, 2003,
anothor tvonty-tvo-torm soguonco vas lounJ ly Varkus lrinJ.
Tho largost triplo ol primos in arithmotic progrossion is tho 13,44-
Jigit soguonco starting 459645 2
44640
1 vith common Jilloronco
459645 2
44639
2, JiscovoroJ ly Horranon anJ Gallot in 1998.
Tho largost guaJruplo ol primos in arithmotic progrossion is tho
1,815-Jigit soguonco starting 14499605 2
6000
1 vith common Jil-
loronco 20510280 2
6000
, lounJ ly Poonguthai anJ Gallot in 1999.
Tho sot ol smallost primo progrossions starts:
no. ol torms minimum Jilloronco smallost progrossion
2 1 2, 3
3 2 3, 5,
4 6 5, 11, 1, 23
5 6 5, 11, 1, 23, 29
6 30 , 3, 6, 9, 12, 15
150 , 15, 30, . . .
8 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
9 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
10 210 199, 409, 619, . . .
11 2310 6085819, . . .
Tho longost knovn arithmotic progrossion ol primos is tvonty-
tvo torms long, starting lrom 11,410,33,850,553 vith Jilloronco
4,609,098,694,200.
ln 1939 van Jor Corput provoJ that an inlinity ol triplos ol primos
in arithmotic progrossion oxists. Bon Groon ol tho Univorsity ol
British Columlia anJ Toronco Tao ol tho Univorsity ol Calilornia at
Ios Angolos provoJ in 2004 that primo arithmotic progrossions ol any
longth Jo oxist, though thoir prool, liko so many prools, is noncon-
structivo, so thoy cannot actually gonorato any oxamplos.
Scc Dickson`s conjocturo, Dirichlot, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos

Sinco c
2
/
2
cannot lo lactorizoJ into tvo algolraic lactors, unliko
c
2
/
2
(c /)(c /), vo might assumo that u
4
1, vhich is also
tho sum ol tvo sguaros, cannot lo lactorizoJ. Not so!
u
4
1 (u
2
u 1)(u
2
u 1)
{
Nov vo can soo a connoction: c
2
/
2
(c /)
2
4c/ (c c/
/)(c c/ /), vhich normally Joosn`t count` locauso ol tho
sguaro roots. lt lollovs that u
4
1 is alvays composito, oxcopt vhon
u
2
u 1 1 anJ u 0 or 1.
This is an oxamplo ol an Avrifcvillicu lactorization, namoJ altor Ion
lranois Antoino Aurilouillo, vho JiscovoroJ a spocial caso in 183:
2
4 2
1 (2
2 1
2

1)(2
2 1
2

1)
KnovloJgo ol this lactorization voulJ havo savoJ tho many yoars ol
his lilo that lortun IanJry spont lactoring 2
58
1, linally linishing in
1869. IanJry`s gargantuan lactorization is just a trivial spocial caso!
2
58
1 (2
29
2
15
1)(2
29
2
15
1)
JouarJ Iucas lator lounJ moro Aurilouillian lactorizations, vhich aro
rolatoJ to tho complox roots ol unity. Horo aro tvo moro oxamplos:
3
6k 3
1 (3
2k 1
1)(3
2k 1
3
k
1)(3
2k 1
3
k
1)
5
5/
1 (5
/
1)IM, vhoro I 1
2
15
k
5
/
anJ
M 1
2
15
k
5
/
anJ 1 5
/
1, / 2k 1.
Aurilouillian lactors havo othor usos. lor oxamplo, il I
u
is tho uth
Iucas numbcr, anJ u is oJJ, thon
I
5u
I
u
A
5u
P
5u
vhoro A
5u
5P
u
2
5P
u
1 anJ P
5u
5P
u
2
5P
u
1

ll S(k) is tho sum ol tho lirst k primo numlors, thon tho avorago ol
tho lirst k primos is S(k)k. This is an intogor lor thoso valuos ol k:
k j
k
S( j
k
) S( j
k
)k
1 2 2 2
23 83 84 38
53 241 5830 110
853 6599 2615298 3066
11869 126551 123380 60020
1126 15449 86810649294 40282
339615 4864121 941200530 2340038
3600489 606863 1058453431438 29380602
9664328 196619431 9254230121204102 9556546
(Pivora, Puzzlo 31)
{
K-
Doos ovory torm in a soguonco contain at loast ono primo lactor that
has not appoaroJ loloro in tho soguonco? Such a primo lactor is
calloJ primitivc.
ll c 1 is lixoJ, thon ovory numlor c
u
1 has a primitivo primo
lactor, vith tho solo oxcoption ol 2
6
1 63. Similarly, il c 1, thon
ovory numlor c
u
1 has a primitivo primo lactor, vith tho solo
oxcoption ol 2
3
1 9. This vas provoJ ly Bang in 1886, anJ inci-
Jontally ollors anothor vay to provo that thoro is an inlinity ol primo
numlors.
ZsigmonJy provoJ tho samo thoorom lor tho moro gonoral lunctions
c
u
/
u
anJ c
u
/
u
, vith tho samo conJition anJ tho samo oxcop-
tions. Tho soguonco lor 1 2
u
3
u
starts:
u 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
1 5 13 35 9 25 93 2315 681 20195 6003
5 13 5 9 5
2
11 13 61 5 463 1 401 5 5 13 4621
K-
1 2 2
2
2
3
2
4
1 5 5
2
31
ls this tho only sum ol this kinJ, using jric numlors? No ono
knovs. ll composito numlors aro allovoJ, thoro is at loast ono othor
solution:
1 2 2
2
2
3
. . . 2
12
1 90 90
2
8191
K-
Tho Toxas millionairo AnJrov Boal, tho lilty-ono-yoar-olJ lounJor ol
tho Boal Bank anJ Boal Aorospaco Tochnologios that luilJs rockots
lor satollito launchos, anJ a numlor onthusiast, is olloring a rovarJ
to tho lirst porson to provo (or Jisprovo) this conjocturo, vhich is a
gonoralization ol Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm:
{ K-
ll

,
u
.
r
vhoro , ,, ., , u, anJ r aro all positivo intogors, anJ
, u, anJ r aro groator than 2, thon , ,, anJ . havo a common lactor.
Without tho conJition that , u, anJ r must lo groator than 2, thoro
aro many solutions, incluJing all Pythagoroan triplos starting vith
3
2
4
2
5
2
anJ 5
2
12
2
13
2
, anJ tho solutions to tho Icrmat-Catalan
conjccturc. lt lollovs, lrom a thoorom ol lalting, that lor any partic-
ular choico ol , u, anJ r, thoro can only lo a linito numlor ol solu-
tions, lut aro thoro any at all?
Tho conjocturo anJ prizo voro originally announcoJ in 199 in tho
prostigious Acticcs cf t/c Acriccu Mct/ccticcl Sccict,, originally
vith a prizo ol $5,000 rising ly $5,000 a yoar to a maximum ol
$50,000. Sinco thon tho prizo has loon incroasoJ to $100,000 lor
oithor a prool or a countoroxamplo. Tho prizo monoy has loon
hanJoJ to tho Amorican Vathomatical Socioty lor salokooping anJ
tho intorost is loing usoJ to lunJ tho annual ErJos Vomorial Iocturo.
Just in caso anyono thinks that thoy can vork out tho ansvor on a
scrully pioco ol papor, tho avarJ vill lo givon only vhon tho solu-
tion has loon rocognizoJ ly tho mathomatics community. This
incluJos that oithor a prool has loon givon anJ tho rosult has
appoaroJ in a roputallo rolorroJ journal or a countoroxamplo has
loon givon anJ vorilioJ.` (vvv.loalconjocturo.com)
Tho solution is suro to lo Jillicult locauso tho conjocturo is lasoJ
on oxtonsivo numorical tosts. Boal anJ a colloaguo spont thousanJs
ol hours soarching lor solutions lor various valuos ol tho oxpononts,
only to linJ that vhon solutions appoaroJ, a pair out ol , ,, anJ .
alvays haJ a common lactor. Honco tho conjocturo, vhich is sur-
prisingly novol. (A similar lut not iJontical iJoa vas conjocturoJ ly
Viggo Brun in 1914.)
ll tho abc conjccturc is truo, thon thoro aro no solutions to Boal`s
oguation vhon tho oxpononts aro largo onough, anJ Darmon anJ
Granvillo shovoJ in 1995 that in olloct thoro aro at most a linito num-
lor ol solutions. But aro thoro any?
Scc lormot-Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo.
K-
ll numlors in gonoral voro ogually likoly to start vith any ol tho Jig-
its 1 to 9, thon out ol tho 8,498 primo numlors loss than 1,000,000
K- {
vo voulJ oxpoct alout ono-ninth ol thom to login vith tho Jigit 1,
or alout 8,00, lut no, thoro aro 9,585 such primos starting vith tho
Jigit 1. ln lact, lrom lirst Jigit 1 to lirst Jigit 9, tho numlor ol primos
in oach catogory Jocroasos.
Why this Jilloronco? Bocauso in vory many circumstancos (not all)
numlors login vith tho Jigit 1 moro olton than vith othor Jigits.
This vas lirst noticoJ ly tho ninotoonth-contury astronomor Simon
Novcoml, vho claimoJ, That tho ton Jigits Jo not occur vith ogual
lroguoncy must lo oviJont to anyono making uso ol logarithm tallos,
anJ noticing hov much lastor tho lirst pagos voar out than tho last
onos. Tho lirst signilicant liguro is oltonor 1 than any othor Jigit anJ
tho lroguoncy Jiminishos up to 9.`
His conclusion vas takon up again ly BonlorJ, a physicist vork-
ing lor tho Gonoral Eloctric Company in 1938. Ho concluJoJ that tho
lirst Jigit is c vith prolalility log
10
(1 1c), vhich lor c 1 is ap-
proximatoly 0.30103.
initial Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
BonlorJ`s lav .301 .16 .125 .09 .09 .06 .058 .051 .046
Thoso aro tho lroguoncios ol lirst Jigits among tho lirst 100 Iibonacci
numbcrs, closoly matching BonlorJ`s lav:
initial Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
lroguoncy 30 18 13 9 8 6 5 4
lt is somotimos assumoJ, vithout any sounJ roason, that Bon-
lorJ`s lav is univorsal, that it applios to ovory sot ol numlors, any-
vhoro, as il it voro a luilt-in charactoristic ol our numlor systom.`
This isn`t so. A countoroxamplo is tho povors ol 2, at loast lor lov
povors. Horo aro tho lroguoncios ol tho lirst Jigits ol 2
u
lrom u 0
to 60:
Jigit 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
lroguoncy 19 12 6 6 6 4 2 5 1
BonlorJ`s lav 18 11 6 5 4 3 3 3
Tho match is gooJ to start vith, lut thon poor, vith a markoJ spiko
at 8. (Paimi 196)
{ K-
-
Tho Bornoulli numlors aro JolinoJ ly this oguation:
P
0
. . .
Tho lirst lov valuos aro:
P
0
1 P
1

1
2 P
2

1
6 P
3
P
5
P

. . . P
2u 1
0
P
4

1
30 P
6

1
42 P
8

1
30 P
10

5
66 P
12

691
230
P
14


6 P
16

361
510 P
18

4386
98
P
4

4
4!
P
3

3
3!
P
2

2
2!
P
1

1!

1
- {
-
ln 1840 Charlos Ballago askoJ his collalorator AJa Iovolaco,
Jaughtor ol IorJ Byron, to aJJ hor ovn notos to a manuscript on his
Analytical Engino. Tho machino usoJ carJs lasoJ on thoso usoJ to
control tho JacguarJ loom (anJ vhich voro lororunnors ol tho
Holorith carJs usoJ in oarly moJorn computors).
ln hor notos Iovolaco omphasizoJ (as vo voulJ put it toJay) tho
intorplay lotvoon programming anJ machinory, soltvaro anJ harJ-
varo:
ln onalling mochanism to comlino togothor gonoral symlols in succos-
sions ol unlimitoJ varioty anJ oxtont, a uniting link is ostallishoJ lotvoon
tho oporations ol mattor anJ tho alstract montal procossos ol tho most
alstract lranch ol mathomatical scionco. A nov, a vast, anJ a povorlul lan-
guago is JovolopoJ lor tho luturo uso ol analysis.
Sho concluJoJ ly oxplaining hov tho ongino coulJ computo tho
Bornoulli numlors, anJ maJo anothor commont that toJay`s com-
putor programmor vill rocognizo at onco:
Wo may horo romark, that tho avorago ostimato ol throo Variallo-carJs com-
ing into uso to oach oporation, is not to lo takon as an alsolutoly anJ
litorally corroct amount lor all casos anJ circumstancos. Vany spocial cir-
cumstancos, oithor in tho naturo ol a prollom, or in tho arrangomonts ol tho
ongino unJor cortain contingoncios, inlluonco anJ moJily this avorago to a
groator or loss oxtont.
This is gonorally consiJoroJ to lo tho lirst account ol a computor
algorithm. (Vonalroa 1842)
Bornoulli numlors can also lo calculatoJ using tho linomial coolli-
cionts lrom Pascal`s trianglc:
P
0
1
2P1 1P0 0 so P1
1
2
3P
2
3P
1
P
0
0 so P
2

1
6
4P
3
6P
2
4P
1
P
0
0 so P
3
0
5P
4
10P
3
10P
2
5P
1
P
0
0 so P
4

1
30
anJ so on.
Thoro is also a connoction lotvoon tho Bornoulli numlors anJ tho
Piomann zota lunction:
P
u
(1)
u 1
u (1 u)
--
- Tho Jonominator ol P
u
is alvays squarcfrcc.
- Tho Jonominator ol P
2u
oguals tho proJuct ol all tho primos j
such that j 1 2u.
- Tho lractional part ol P
u
in tho Jocimal systom has a Jocimal
porioJ that JiviJos u, anJ thoro is a singlo Jigit loloro that
porioJ. (Convay anJ Guy 1996, 10-10)
- G. J. loo anJ S. Ploullo havo computoJ P
200,000
, vhich has
alout 800,000 Jigits.
K- -
Josoph BortranJ (1822-1900) vas a prococious stuJont vho pul-
lishoJ his lirst papor, on oloctricity, at tho ago ol sovontoon, lut
thon locamo moro notallo as a toachor than as an original matho-
matician.
BortranJ`s postulato statos that il u is an intogor groator than 3, thon
thoro is at loast ono primo lotvoon u anJ 2u 2. (This is tho prociso
thoorom. lt is olton claimoJ that thoro is a primo lotvoon u anJ 2u,
vhich is a voakor claim.)
Strangoly, although it continuos to lo calloJ a postulato, it is actu-
ally a thoorom: it vas provoJ ly Tcholycholl in 1850 altor BortranJ
in 1845 haJ vorilioJ it lor u loss than 3,000,000. lt is also a rathor
voak thoorom that can lo strongthonoJ in sovoral vays:
{ K- -
- ProviJoJ u is largo onough, thoro aro at loast k primos
lotvoon u anJ 2u, hovovor largo tho valuo ol k.
- ll u is at loast 48, thon thoro is at loast ono primo lotvoon u
anJ 9u8.
- ll u is groator than 6, thon thoro is at loast ono primo ol tho
lorm 4k 1 anJ at loast ono ol tho lorm 4k 3 lotvoon u anJ
2u.
- ll u is groator than or ogual to 118, thon tho intorval u to 4u3
inclusivo contains a primo ol oach ol tho lorms 4u 1, 4u 1,
6u 1, anJ 6u 1.
- ll u is groator than 15, thon thoro is at loast ono numlor
lotvoon u anJ 2u that is tho proJuct ol throo Jilloront primos.
lt also lollovs lrom BortranJ`s postulato that:
- Thoro is at loast ono primo ol any givon Jigit longth loginning
vith tho Jigit 1, in any laso, not just laso 10.
- Tho lirst 2k intogors can alvays lo arrangoJ in k pairs so that
tho sum ol tho ontrios in oach pair is a primo.
- Thoro is a numlor c such that tho intogral parts ol 2
c
, 2
2
c
,
2
2
2
c
, . . . aro primos. Tho constant c is approximatoly
1.2516459905. Tho lirst lour primos aro 2, 5, 3,
13438953481. Tho numlor c is not sulliciontly accuratoly
knovn to calculato tho noxt primo in tho soguonco. (P. I. Gra-
ham, D. E. Knuth, 8 O. Patashnik)
-K-
This statos that il j
u
is tho uth primo, thon
j
u 1
2
j
1
j
2
j
3
. . . j
u
proviJoJ u 3.
-
A Ricscl numbcr is an intogor k such that k 2
u
1 is composito lor
any intogor valuo ol u, anJ a Sicrpinski numbcr is an intogor k such
that k 2
u
1 is composito lor any intogor valuo ol u.
- {
What alout tho Pricr uv/crs, vhich aro simultanoously Piosol
anJ Siorpinski? Eric Brior vas tho lirst to linJ ono:
2936469566012354328115025405114452910889
\vos Gallot lounJ throo smallor Brior numlors in January 2000.
Tho smallost is tvonty-sovon-Jigits: 8850312234924101526292
469. (Pivora, Prollom 29)
Scc Piosol numlor, Siorpinski numlors
K-
BrocarJ conjocturoJ in 1904 that tho only solutions ol
u! 1
2
aro u 4, 5, anJ . Thoro aro no othor solutions vith u 10
9
. (BornJt
anJ Galvay n.J.)
Anothor ol BrocarJ`s conjocturos is that thoro aro at loast lour
primos lotvoon tho sguaros ol any tvo consocutivo primos, vith tho
oxcoption ol 2 anJ 3. This is rolatoJ to Schinzol`s conjocturo that, pro-
viJoJ is groator than 8, thoro is a primo lotvoon anJ (log )
2
.
Scc Opporman`s conjocturo
K- -
ln 1919 Viggo Brun (1885-198) provoJ that tho sum ol tho rocipro-
cals ol tho tvin primcs convorgos to Brun`s constant:
1
3
1
5
1
5
1

1
11
1
13
1
1
1
19 . . . 1.9021605 . . .
lt vas in 1994, vhilo ho vas trying to calculato Brun`s constant,
that Thomas P. Nicoly JiscovoroJ a lamous llav in tho lntol Pontium
microprocossor. Tho Pontium chip occasionally gavo vrong ansvors
to a lloating-point (Jocimal) Jivision calculations Juo to orrors in livo
ontrios in a lookup tallo on tho chip. lntol spont millions ol Jollars
roplacing tho laulty chips.
Voro rocontly, Nicoly has calculatoJ that tho valuo ol Brun`s con-
stant lasoJ on all tho pairs ol tvin primos loss than 5 10
15
is
1.902160582582 0.000000001620. (Nicoly 2004a) Thoso aro tho lirst
lov approximato sums:
{ K-
limit no. ol tvin primo pairs approx. sum ol rociprocals
1,000 35 1.5180
10,000 205 1.6169
100,000 1,224 1.628
1,000,000 8,169 1.108
10,000,000 58,980 1.384
Viggo Brun`s mothoJs havo loon usoJ to stuJy Golubach`s conjcc-
turc anJ tho tvin primos conjocturo anJ to provo that thoro oxist inli-
nitoly many intogors u such that u anJ u 2 havo at most nino primo
lactors, anJ that all largo ovon intogors aro tho sum ol tvo intogors
oach having at most nino primo lactors.
Scc Vortons constant
--K-
lrank Buss has JolinoJ a lunction, P(u), that sooms to gonorato only
primos. lt is calculatoJ liko this:
f (1) 1
P(u) |noxt primo to ( f (u) 1)l f (u)
f(u) f(u 1) P(u 1)
Tho soguonco starts:
u 1 2 3 4 5 6
f(u) 1 2 6 30 210 230 30030
noxt-primo` 3 5 11 3 223 241 3004
P(u) 2 3 5 13 11 1
Tho conjocturo has loon tostoJ succosslully up to u 603. Hovovor,
liko so many such conjocturos, it sooms likoly that this is a caso ol tho
tho strong lav of small numbcrs. (Pivora, Conjocturo 29)
-
AccorJing to Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm, il j is primo anJ u anJ j aro
coprimo (thoy havo no common lactor), thon u
j 1
1 (moJ j).
Hovovor, somo composito numlors satisly this oguation also, anJ
Jo so lor ctcr, valuo ol u. Thoso aro tho Carmichaol numlors,
- {
namoJ altor Polort Daniol Carmichaol (189-196). Thoy aro somo-
timos calloJ c/sclvtc jscvccjrics locauso thoy aro pscuuoprimcs
to ovory laso.
Thoy aro an annoyanco il you aro using lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom to
tost lor primality, locauso il your numlor just happons to lo a
Carmichaol numlor, it vill pass tho tost lor any laso-anJ still lo
composito.
lortunatoly, tho Carmichaol numlor is guito raro. Thoso loss than
100,000 aro: 561, 1105, 129, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911, 10585, 15841,
29341, 41041, 4665, 52633, 6245, 6393, anJ 5361.
Thoro aro only 2,163 loss than 25,000,000,000, anJ 105,212 loss
than 10
15
, oach vith at most nino primo lactors.
ll u is a Carmichaol numlor, thon it is squarcfrcc, tho proJuct ol at
loast throo Jistinct primos, anJ lor ovory primo j Jivisor ol u,
j 1 JiviJos u 1, anJ convorsoly. lor oxamplo, 561 is tho smallost
Carmichaol numlor anJ 561 3 11 1, anJ 2, 10, anJ 16 all JiviJo
560. Tho largost knovn Carmichaol numlor vith throo primo lactors
vas lounJ ly Harvoy Dulnor. lt has 10,200 Jigits.
Tho smallost vith lour Jistinct lactors is 41041 11 13 41,
anJ 41040 is Jivisillo ly 6, 10, 12, anJ 40. Tho smallost vith livo Jis-
tinct primo lactors is 825265 anJ tho smallost vith six Jistinct primo
lactors is 32119185.
Carmichaol conjocturoJ in 1910 that thoro is an inlinito numlor ol
Carmichaol numlors. AllorJ, Granvillo, anJ Pomoranco provoJ this
in 1994 ly shoving hov suitallo smooth numbcrs coulJ lo multi-
plioJ togothor to lit tho Carmichaol Jolinition.
Whothor thoro is an inlinity ol Carmichaol numlors vith a givon
numlor ol lactors (at loast throo) is not knovn, hovovor, nor
vhothor Carmichaol numlors can lo lounJ vith an arlitrarily largo
numlor ol lactors.
K-
Anyono might notico as a curiosity that 8 anJ 9 aro 2
3
anJ 3
2
, rospoc-
tivoly, anJ that othor small povors, such as 25 anJ 2, aro not con-
socutivo. Eugno Charlos Catalan (1814-1894) conjocturoJ in 1844
that 8 anJ 9 aro inJooJ tho only consocutivo povors.
{ K-
Iovi lon Gorson (1288-1344) haJ shovn that thoso aro tho only
povors ol 2 anJ 3 Jilloring ly 1, anJ Fulcr provoJ that 9 anJ 8 aro
tho only sguaro anJ culo Jilloring ly 1.
Polort TijJoman provoJ in 196 that tho oguation
j
,
q
1 has
at most a linito numlor ol solutions: il thoro is a solution, thon j anJ
q aro loss than a cortain (unknovn!) constant, c.
Computor chocks shov that il
j
,
q
1, thon j anJ q must
oxcooJ 10

. lt is also knovn that il

j
,
q
1, anJ il j anJ q aro
primo, thon j, anJ q.
ln 2000, ProJa Vihailoscu provoJ that il any solutions apart lrom 8
anJ 9 oxist, thon j anJ q must loth lo Joullo Wicfcrich primcs:
j
(q 1)
must loavo a romainJor ol 1 vhon JiviJoJ ly q
2
, anJ q
(j 1)
must loavo a romainJor ol 1 vhon JiviJoJ ly j
2
. Tho only knovn
oxamplos aro: 2 anJ 1093, 3 anJ 1006003, 5 anJ 164533350, 83 anJ
481, 911 anJ 31891, anJ 2903 anJ 188.
lt has also loon provoJ ly Hyyro anJ Vakovski that it is impossi-
llo to havo throo consocutivo povors.
K- -
Whon Iucas provoJ in 186 that 2
12
1 is primo, Catalan noticoJ
that 12 2

1 anJ conjocturoJ that this soguonco, vhoro M

j
is tho
jth Vorsonno numlor, contains only primos:
c
1
2
2
1 3 M
2
c
2
2
c
1
1 2
3
1 M
3

c
3
2
c
2
1 2

1 M

12
c
4
2
c
3
1 2
12
1 M
12

101411834604692313168303158841052
anJ so on . . .
Unlortunatoly, c
5
has moro than 10
38
Jigits anJ so cannot lo tostoJ
Jiroctly, though Curt Noll has vorilioJ that c
5
has no primo Jivisor
loss than 5 10
50
. Iiko so many conjocturos ol this kinJ, it is likoly
that a composito torm appoars guito soon.
Scc Vorsonno numlors anJ Vorsonno primos, strong lav ol small
numlors
K- - {
K- -
DaviJ Champornovno (1912-2000) JiscussoJ c/cjcructucs ccu-
stcut in 1933: 0.1234568910111213 . . . lt is transconJontal (Vahlor
1961: Mct/Wcrlc) anJ normal in laso 10, moaning that oach Jigit 0
to 9 occurs ono-tonth ol tho timo, oach pair ol Jigits lrom 00 to 99
occurs ono-hunJroJth ol tho timo, anJ so on.
-
Convay anJ OJlyzko call tho Jilloronco j
u 1
j
u
a champion lor
,` JonotoJ ly c(), il it happons that it occurs most lroguontly lor
all tho consocutivo primos loss than .
c() sooms to tako only tho valuo 4, plus tho valuos 2, 6, 30, 210,
2310, . . . vhich aro tho primorials, tho rosult ol multiplying tho con-
socutivo primos togothor. ls this truo? Varok Woll, OJlyzko, anJ
Pulinstoin say yos. (Pivora, Conjocturo 10)
-
Sun Tsu Suan-ching (lourth contury AD) posoJ this prollom: Thoro
aro cortain things vhoso numlor is unknovn. DiviJoJ ly 3, tho
romainJor is 2, ly 5 tho romainJor is 3, anJ ly tho romainJor is 2.
What vill lo tho numlor?` Tho solution is 23. (Wolls 1992, 23)
This is an oxamplo ol tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom, vhich says
that il you knov tho romainJors vhon A is JiviJoJ ly u numlors,
t/ic/ crc ccjric iu jcirs, thon you can linJ a uniguo smallost
valuo ol A, anJ an inlinity ol othor solutions, ly aJJing any intogral
multiplo ol tho proJuct ol tho u numlors (or sultracting il you aro
satislioJ vith nogativo solutions).
ln Sun Tsu Suan-ching`s puzzlo, 3 5 105, so tho solutions aro
23, 23 105, 23 210, 23 315, anJ so on, anJ 23 105 82 is tho
smallost nogativo solution.
Tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom can also lo oxprossoJ in torms ol
congrucnccs: il
{ K- -
r
1
(moJ
1
)
r
2
(moJ
2
)
r
3
(moJ
3
)
. . .
r
u
(moJ
u
)
thon thoro is a uniguo solution, X, lor lying lotvoon 0 anJ

2
. . .
u
, anJ tho gonoral solution is congruont to X (moJ

2
. . .
u
).
Ono uso ol tho Chinoso romainJor thoorom is to Jo arithmotic on
largo numlors ly choosing a sot ol moJuli
1
,
2
, . . .
u
anJ thon
troating oach numlor as a sot ol romainJors, r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, . . . r
u
, rathor
than as a soguonco ol Jocimal or linary Jigits. Thon you Jo tho
arithmotic on tho romainJors anJ rocovor tho solution ly using tho
Chinoso romainJor thoorom.
- -
CicaJas ol tho gonus Mcgicicccc appoar onco ovory , 13, or 1
yoars. ls it just a coinciJonco that thoso aro primo numlors? Eric
Golos, Olivor Schulz, anJ Vario Varkus havo lounJ ovolutionary
proJator-proy moJols that havo primo porioJs-vhich thoy thon
usoJ to gonorato largo primo numlors. (SugJon 2001, 1)

ls it alvays possillo to arrango tho numlors lrom 1 to 2u in a circlo
so that oach aJjacont pair sums to a primo?
Antonio lilz calls such an arrangomont a primo circlo. lor oxamplo,
thoso aro tho ossontially uniguo primo circlos lor u 1, 2, anJ 3:
1 4 1 6
1 2 4 5
2 3 3 2
Thoro aro tvo primo circlos lor u 4 anJ lorty-oight lor u 5. lt is
not knovn il thoro aro primo circlos lor all valuos ol u.
{

A primo is circular il all tho cyclic pormutations ol its Jigits aro primo.
Thoso primos anJ thoir cyclic pormutations aro circular, in laso 10:
2, 3, 5, , P
2
, 13, 1, 3, 9, 113, 19, 199, 33, 1193,
39, 11939, 1993, 193939, 199933, P
19
, P
23
, P
31
, P
1031
vhoro P
u
stanJs lor tho uth rcpunit primc.
Waltor SchnoiJor has chockoJ that thoro aro no moro up to 10
22
.
Scc pormutallo primos
-
ln Paris at tho Collgo Jo lranco on Vay 24, 2000, almost oxactly ono
hunJroJ yoars sinco DaviJ Hilbcrt`s 23 problcms voro prosontoJ to
tho vorlJ, sovon nov Villonnium Prizo Prolloms` voro announcoJ,
lor vhich tho Clay Vathomatics lnstituto ol CamlriJgo, Vassachusotts,
is olloring prizos ol $1 million to tho lirst solvor ol oach prollom.
All tho Clay prolloms aro, ol courso, oxtromoly Jillicult, anJ havo
rosistoJ tho attompts ol mathomaticians lor many yoars, lut ono
prollom is outstanJing: tho only ono lrom Hillort`s original 23 that
appoars in tho Clay list is tho Ricmann hypothcsis.
As a protoction against tho naivo or lrivolous claims that such a
largo prizo is suro to provoko, solvors must not sonJ thoir claims
Jiroctly to tho Clay lnstituto lut must got thom pullishoJ in a math-
omatics journal ol vorlJviJo roputo anJ tho claimoJ solution must
thon lo accoptoJ ly tho mathomatics community. Tvo yoars is
allovoJ lor this procoss. ll tho solution survivos scrutiny, only thon
vill it lo consiJoroJ ly tho Sciontilic AJvisory BoarJ ol tho Clay
Vathomatics lnstituto.
Tho procoJuro is slightly Jilloront il tho claim is lor a countoroxam-
plo, so il you think you havo lounJ a zoro ol tho Piomann zota lunc-
tion that Joos not havo roal part
1
2, soo tho Clay lnstituto Wol sito lor
vhat to Jo. Hovovor, sinco AnJrov OJlyzko has calculatoJ a million
zoros noar zoro numlor 10
20
anJ tcu /illicu zoros noar zoro numlor
10
22
, anJ tho ZotaGriJ uistributcu computing notvork is calculating
moro than a lillion zoros a Jay, you`J lottor got your skatos on!
{
Thoro is a soconJ Clay prizo challongo that is rolovant to tho
primos: tho P vorsus AP prollom. lt is currontly vory harJ to lactor-
izo largo numlors lut guick anJ oasy to chock tho lactorization onco
it is lounJ. ls thoro roally no vay to lactorizo largo numlors guickly?
ll you Jo Jiscovor a mothoJ, you might plausilly oarn lar moro
than tho Clay lnstituto`s $1 million ly solling your Jiscovory to com-
morcial organizations-or govornmonts-vho uso numlors that aro
tho proJuct ol tvo largo primos lor public kcy cncryption anJ voulJ
lo vory intorostoJ to hoar that thoir socuro communications can lo
lrokon using your mothoJ!
Scc AKS algorithm, JistrilutoJ computing, lactorization, pullic koy
oncryption, Piomann hypothosis
-
Tho proJuct ol all tho composito numlors loss than or ogual to u is
u! (u-factorial) JiviJoJ ly tho proJuct ol tho primos loss than or
ogual to u, or u-primorial, JonotoJ ly u=. lago Camloa has sug-
gostoJ calling this u-ccjcsitcricl. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs) Just as u!
anJ u= havo many lactors, so Joos u!u=, so u!u= 1 is rolativoly
likoly to lo primo.
u!u= 1 is primo lor u 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 14, 20, 26, 34, 56, . . .
u!u= 1 is primo lor u 4, 5, 6, , 8, 14, 16, 1, 21, 34, 39, . . .
Scc clsc lactorial, primorial
-
Tho concatonation ol tho primos givos tho soguonco:
2, 23, 235, 235, 23511, . . .
Tho uth torm is primo lor u 1, 2, 4, 128, 14, 342, 435,
1429, . . . vith no othors loss than 83. (Woisstoin, 2001)
Tho CopolanJ-ErJos constant is tho Jocimal 0.235111311923 . . .
CopolanJ anJ ErJos (1946) shovoJ that it is normal in laso 10. lt is
also irrational, as is tho Jocimal numlor .0110101000101000101 . . .
in vhich tho uth Jigit is 1 il u is primo anJ 0 othorviso.
Scc Champornovno`s constant
- {
-
Tho thoory ol numlors, moro than any othor lranch ol puro
mathomatics, has logun ly loing an ompirical scionco. lts most
lamous thooroms havo all loon conjocturoJ, somotimos a hun-
JroJ yoars or moro loloro thoy havo loon provoJ, anJ thoy havo
loon suggostoJ ly tho oviJonco ol a mass ol computation.
-G. H. Hcrc, /12u, 511
Ono ol tho Jolights ol primo numlors is that thoir comlination ol
strict Jolinition vith apparont irrogularity amounting almost to ran-
Jomnoss invitos mathomaticians loth prolossional anJ amatour to
proposo moro anJ moro prolloms anJ conjocturos, tho lost-knovn
namoJ altor thoir proposors.
Vany ol thoso conjocturos aro oxtromoly Jillicult to sottlo. Tho
primo numlors aro just tcc mystorious anJ Jillicult!
Whon a suJJon illumination invaJos tho mathomatician`s minJ . . . it somo-
timos happons . . . that it vill not stanJ tho tost ol vorilication . . . it is to lo
olsorvoJ that almost alvays this lalso iJoa, il it haJ loon corroct, voulJ
havo llattoroJ our natural instincts lor mathomatical ologanco. (Honri Poin-
car n.J.)
Thoy aro also too tompting. As Poincar`s commont suggosts, it is
oh so oasy to spot an ologant pattorn anJ assumo that it goos on lor-
ovor. Hov olton it Joosn`t! Hov olton vo aro JisappointoJ!
As G. H. HarJy also notoJ, Somo lranchos ol mathomatics havo
tho ploasant charactoristic that vhat sooms plausillo at lirst sight is
gonorally truo. ln |analytic primo numlorl thoory anyono can mako
plausillo conjocturos, anJ thoy aro almost alvays lalso.` (HarJy
1915, 18)
Tho simplost conjocturos aro oasy to mako anJ may lo oasy to provo,
though not as oasily as in tho joko alout a physicist vho noticos that
3 is primo, 5 is primo, is primo, 9 is not-lut that`s an oxporimon-
tal orror!-11 is primo, 13 is primo . . . anJ so concluJos that all oJJ
numlor aro primo!
Tho most important conjocturos tonJ to lo maJo ly tho most
lrilliant mathomaticians vho havo lookoJ oxtraorJinarily Jooply
into tho suljoct anJ vhoso intuition tolls thom that a cortain lact`
{ -
is likoly to lo truo, although thoy cannot provo it. Such Joop con-
jocturos havo contrilutoJ onormously to tho progross ol matho-
matics.
Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm, laloloJ a thoorom` only locauso lormat
claimoJ to havo provoJ it, vas lor conturios a plausillo conjocturo
until it vas linally provoJ ly AnJrov Wilos.
ToJay`s most lamous anJ harJost mathomatical prollom is ly
common consont tho Ricmann hypothcsis, a conjocturo alout tho
Jistrilution ol tho primo numlors.
Conjocturos alout primo numlors havo anothor loaturo that can lo
loth intriguing anJ inluriating. Bocauso tho primos aro guito lro-
guont among tho small` intogors, thoro aro many tompting conjoc-
turos that lail as soon as vo got out a moJorn oloctronic calculator or
a povorlul computor.
Icrmat`s conjccturc that 2
2
u
1 is alvays primo must havo soomoJ
vory tompting to lormat, lut tho vory lirst valuo that ho JiJ not cal-
culato, locauso it vas so largo, turnoJ out to lo composito! lt is
inJooJ oasy to linJ lunctions that soom to proJuco many primos lor
small valuos ol u, lut vhich start to proJuco compositos as u
incroasos. Hov tompting to conjocturo that vo havo JiscovoroJ a for-
mula for primcs anJ hov Jisappointing vhon tho lormula lails!
PicharJ Guy has rolorroJ to this phonomonon as tho strong lav of
small numbcrs.
On tho othor hanJ, somo conjocturo may soom vory voll lounJoJ
inJooJ, locauso tho lirst countoroxamplo is so vory largo. ln 1919,
Goorgo Plya, author ol Mct/ccticcl Discctcr, anJ Mct/cctics
cuc Plcvsi/lc Rccscuiug, conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol intogors
A vith an oJJ numlor ol primo lactors is novor loss than tho num-
lor ol intogors A vith an ovon numlor ol primo lactors. (lor tho
purposos ol this conjocturo, ropoatoJ lactors aro countoJ, A 1 is
countoJ as having no primo lactor, anJ a primo is countoJ as having
ono primo lactor.)
lor noarly lorty yoars this vas loliovoJ to lo truo, though no ono
coulJ provo it. Thon in 1958 it vas provoJ that it is lalso lor inlinitoly
many A, anJ in 1980 V. Tanaka shovoJ that tho smallost countorox-
amplo is vhon A 906,150,25. (Haimo 1995)
\ou may voll linJ yoursoll making a conjocturo or tvo as you roaJ
this look: moanvhilo, many voll-knovn conjocturos havo thoir ovn
ontrios or aro listoJ in tho inJox.
Scc inJuction, Piomann hypothosis, strong lav ol small numlors
- {
- -
Tho consocutivo intogor soguonco goos: 1, 12, 123, 1234, 12345, . . .
Thoro aro no primos among tho lirst 13,500 torms. (Woisstoin, Mct/-
Wcrlc)
- -
Sylvostor provoJ in 1892 that ovory proJuct ol u consocutivo intogors
groator than u is Jivisillo ly a primo groator than u.
ln lact, although tho proJuct ol livo consocutivo intogors 6 8
9 10 is Jivisillo ly just ono primo, , groator than 5, tho proJuct
200 201 202 203 204 is Jivisillo ly livo primos, 6, 101, , 29,
anJ 1. This suggosts that Sylvostor`s rosult is rathor gonorous:
inJooJ, tho proJuct ol just tvo consocutivo numlors is alvays Jivis-
illo ly a primo groator than A, il tho proJuct is largo onough.
Sinco tho triangular numlors havo tho lormula
1
2u(u 1), vo coulJ
rophraso this to say that lor cu, numlor A, all tho triangular numlors
lrom a cortain point onvarJ aro Jivisillo ly a primo groator than A.
Bolov oach ol thoso nino composito numlors is ono ol its primo
lactors, anJ all thoso lactors aro Jilloront:
1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 180 1808 1809 1810
53 601 41 19 43 139 113 6 181
ln gonoral, givon u consocutivo intogors groator than u
u 1
1, thon
oach ol thom has a primo lactor that JiviJos nono ol tho othors.
(Grimm 1969)
- - --
ln hov many vays can a numlor, u, lo vritton as tho sum ol cuc cr
crc consocutivo primos? ll vo call it f (u), thon f (5) 2, locauso
5 5 anJ 2 3, anJ f(41) 3, locauso 41 11 13 1 2 3
5 11 13.
Ioo Vosor has provoJ that tho avorago valuo ol f (u) lrom u 1 to
A is log 2 as A tonJs to inlinity. (Guy 1981, C2)
Scc clsc GolJlach`s conjocturo
{ - -
K-
This cunning Jovico consists ol a rov ol lractions, vhich aro laloloJ
lor oasy roloronco:
A B D H E l l P P S T I V N
\ou alvays start vith tho numlor 2. A stop involvos multiplying tho
curront numlor ly tho oarliost lraction in tho machino that makos tho
ansvor a vholo numlor.
Tho machino pausos vhonovor a povor ol 2 is roachoJ, anJ tho
output is tho oxponont ol that povor ol 2. Horo is hov it starts:
2 15 825 25 1925 225 425 390 330
V N E l T A B S E
290 0 910 10 156 132 116 308 364 68 4
l T A B S E l T A P
lt takos 19 stops lor tho numlor 4 2
2
to appoar, anJ 2 is tho lirst
primo! Continuing, altor anothor 50 stops, 8 2
3
appoars, anJ 3 is tho
soconJ primo. Altor anothor 211 stops, tho noxt povor ol 2 is 32 2
5
,
anJ 5 is tho thirJ primo. AnJ so on. (Convay anJ Guy 1996, 130,
14) (Guy 1983)
- -
Cousin primos aro pairs Jilloring ly 4, so thoy aro rathor moro Jis-
tant than tvin primcs lut loss Jistant than scxy primcs. Thoro aro
lourtoon pairs ol tvin primos loss than 200, anJ also lourtoon pairs
ol cousin primos: 3-, -11, 13-1, 19-23, 3-41, 43-4, 6-1, 9-83,
9-101, 103-10, 109-113, 12-131, 163-16, anJ 193-19. Thoro aro
tvonty-six moro pairs lolov 1000.
ll tho lirst ol tho Haruy-Iittlcvoou conjccturcs is truo, thon tho tvin
anJ cousin primos havo tho samo Jonsity, as vo movo to inlinity.
55
1
15
2
15
14
13
11
11
13
1
1

19
95
23

29
29
33
23
38
19
51
8
85
1
91
- - {
BasoJ on tho cousin primos up to 2
42
, anJ omitting tho oxcoptional
initial pair, 3-, locauso 3 is not ol tho lorm 6u 1, tho sorios,
1

1
11
1
13
1
1
1
19
1
23
1
3
1
41
has tho sum 1.190449 . . . (Woll 1996)
Scc soxy primos, tvin primos
-
Numlors ol tho lorm c
u
u 2
u
1 aro namoJ altor tho PovoronJ J.
Cullon, vho noticoJ in 1905 that apart lrom c
1
3 anJ ono othor
possillo oxcoption, thoy aro all composito lor u 1 to 100. Tho
oxcoption vas c
53
, vhich vas lounJ ly Cunningham to lo Jivisillo
ly 5591.
Although lor lov valuos ol u, Cullon primos aro raro, it has loon
conjocturoJ that thoro is an inlinito numlor ol thom.
Tho knovn Cullon primos occur vhon u 1, 141, 413, 595, 6611,
18496, 32292, 32469, 59656, 90825, 262419, 36125, anJ 481899.
Numlors ol tho lorm u /
u
1, calloJ gonoralizoJ Cullon numlors,
aro also raroly primo.
Whon / 3, u 3
u
1 is primo lor u 2, 8, 32, 54, 114, 414, 1400,
1850, 2848, 484, 268, 19290.
Tho largost knovn Cullon primo is c
481899
ol 145,02 Jigits, Jiscov-
oroJ ly Vasakatu Vorii in 1998.
Scc WooJall primos

Iioutonant Colonol Allan Josoph Cunningham (1842-1928) rotiroJ
lrom tho British army in 1891 anJ JovotoJ himsoll to numlor thoory,
ospocially tho lactorization ol numlors ol tho lorm c
u
/
u
.
ln 1925 ho got togothor vith H. J. WooJall to pullish a look ol
all that thoy haJ JiscovoroJ alout tho lactors ol such numlors.
D. H. Iohmor JovotoJ much timo to oxtonJing thoir rosults, in vhat
is nov calloJ tho Cunningham projoct. Ol courso, thoro voro many
numlors in thoir tallos that at tho timo coulJ not lo lactoroJ vith
{ -
tho oguipmont availallo. D. H. Iohmor anJ Emma Iohmor lactoroJ
many ol thom. Tho last numlor in tho original look vas lactoroJ
in 1992.
Tho projoct is continuing. Tho rosults ol tho Cunningham projoct
voro originally colloctoJ in J. Brillhart ot al., Pcctcri.cticus cf /
u
1,
/ 2, , 5, , 7, 1u, 11, 12 vj tc /ig/ jctcrs, pullishoJ ly tho Amor-
ican Vathomatical Socioty in 1988. Tho rosults aro nov on tho Wol,
vhoro thoy aro rogularly upJatoJ at this sito run ly Stan Wagstall:
vvv.corias.purJuo.oJuhomosssvcun. This sito incluJos a calcu-
lator that givos tho knovn primo lactors ol tho numlors /
u
1
(vhoro / 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 11, 12).
Scc GlVPS, Vorsonno primos
-
ll j anJ 2j 1 aro loth primo, thon j is a Sophic Gcrmain primc. A
Cunningham chain is a chain ol Sophio Gormain primos, apart lrom
tho last primo in tho chain. Tvo small oxamplos: 2, 5, 11, 23, 4, anJ
89, 19, 359, 19, 1439, 289.
Thoso aro somotimos calloJ Cunningham chains ol tho lirst kinJ, to
Jistinguish thom lrom Cunningham chains ol tho soconJ kinJ, in
vhich all tho torms aro primo anJ oach is Joullo tho provious primo,
lcss 1: lor oxamplo, 2, 3, 5, or 19, 3, 3.
ll tho strong primo -tuplcs conjccturc is truo, thon Cunningham
chains can roach any longth.
Tony lorlos lounJ on Docomlor 5, 199, tho longost Cunningham
chain ol tho lirst kinJ, vith 14 torms, anJ tho longost ol tho soconJ
kinJ, ol longth 16, starting vith 3203000195902981.
Tho largost chain ol tho lirst kinJ ol longth 3 starts at
11556629.2
4319
1, anJ tho largost ol tho soconJ kinJ ol longth 3
starts at 3425203.2
5000
1, loth JiscovoroJ ly Warut Poonguthai. lt
is no coinciJonco that loth loaturo numlors ol tho lorm k 2
u
1.
Although any oJJ numlor can lo oxprossoJ in thoso lorms, il k 2
u
thon tho numlor can lo tostoJ lor primality vory olliciontly. Sinco
2(k 2
u
1) 1 k 2
u 1
1, a Cunningham chain may consist ol
a soguonco ol torms ol this lorm. Similarly, 2(k 2
u
1) 1 k
2
u 1
1, loaJing naturally to chains ol tho soconJ kinJ.
- {
-
Tho lraction 1 as a Jocimal is 0.14285 14285 . . . Tho numlor
14285 has many curious proportios, olton sharoJ (moro or loss) vith
tho porioJs ol othor primos. lor oxamplo, splitting tho porioJ in tvo
halvos or throo thirJs:
142 85 999, anJ 14 28 5 99
Sguaro anJ split into halvos anJ aJJ: 14285
2
20,408,122,449, anJ:
20,408 122,449 14285
Vultiplying 14285 ly any numlor lrom 2 to 6 rosults in a pormuta-
tion ol its Jigits:
14285 2 28514
14285 3 42851
14285 4 51428
14285 5 14285
14285 6 85142
But, 14285 999999

Tho lraction 113 0.06923 06923 . . . has porioJ longth 6 (13
1)2. Thoso proportios match thoso ol 1:
06 923 999 0 69 23 99
Tho soconJ proporty nooJs only to lo slightly aJjustoJ:
06923
2
005,91,14,929, anJ aJJing tho six-Jigit split halvos vo got,
005,91 14,929 153,846 2 06923
Tho thirJ proporty is also somovhat Jilloront. Vultiplying 06923 ly
tho numlors 2 to 12:
06923 2 153846 06923 3 23069
06923 4 30692 06923 5 384615
06923 6 461538 06923 538461
06923 8 615384 06923 9 69230
06923 10 69230 06923 11 846153
06923 12 92306
{ -
livo ol tho proJucts aro cyclic pormutations ol 06923 lut tho othor
six aro cyclic pormutations 153846.
Wo can put thom into a simplor soguonco il vo start vith 06923
anJ just Joullo anJ Joullo again, roJucing moJulo 13, so that 16 3
(moJ 13) anJ 32 6 (moJ 13) anJ so on. Tho soguonco ol multiplos
lrom 2 to 12 thon roaJs: 2, 4, 8, 3, 6, 12, 11, 9, 5, 10, , anJ tho proJ-
ucts aro cyclic pormutations ol 0923 anJ 153846 cltcructcl,.
Tho Jocimal rociprocals ol composito numlors aro, naturally, moro
complicatoJ anJ loss olviously ologant. lor oxamplo, 121
0.04619 anJ 04619 21 999999 anJ 04 6 19 Joos ogual 99-
lut 04 619 666, not 999.
-
Tho porioJs ol tho rociprocals ol tho primos aro also knovn as c,clic
uv/crs. Thoso aro tho porioJs ol tho othor primos lolov 100,
oxcluJing 2, 3, 5, anJ 11:
porioJ 1j
13 06923
1 05882352941164
19 0526315894368421
23 04348260869565213913
29 0344825862068965512413931
31 032258064516129 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)2l
3 2
41 02439 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)8l
43 02325581395348832093
4 02126595446808510638298234042553191489361
53 018869245283 |tho smallost vith porioJ (j 1)4l
59 0169491525423288135593220338983050844562118644
069661
61 016393442622950819621311454098360655304918032
868852459
6 0149253313432835820895522388059
1 014084500422535211266056338028169
3 01369863
9 012658228481
83 012048192108433349395903614458313253
- {
ccutiuvcc cu uct jcgc
89 011235955056195280898864044943820224191
9 01030928350515463915253195862886599381443298
ll tho porioJ ol a primo j is ol longth j 1, it is a fvll jcricc jric
(also calloJ a rcjtcuc or lcug jric). ln all othor casos tho porioJ
longth is a lactor ol u 1, as Iamlort noticoJ in 169.
K-
Thirty-oight ol tho lirst hunJroJ primos aro lull porioJ, starting vith
, 1, 19, 23, 29, 4, 59, 61, . . . lut no gonoral mothoJ is knovn lor
JociJing vhich primos aro lull porioJ.
Thoro is a connoction horo vith primitivo roots: il j is a primo loss
than 5, thon tho Jocimal oxpansion ol 1j has tho maximum possi-
llo porioJ ol j 1 in laso 10 il anJ only il 10 is a primitivc root
moJulo j.
Poughly, it sooms ly calculation that 3 ol all primos in laso 10
aro lull porioJ. Emil Artin conjocturoJ that tho oxact liguro shoulJ lo,
fcr cu, /csc ct cll:
I . . . 0.339558 . . . C
Tho lractions aro ( j
2
j 1)( j
2
j) lor oach primo, 2, 3, 5, . . .
D. H. anJ Emma Iohmor thon JiscovoroJ oxporimontally that Artin`s
conjocturo is not guito right. lt roguiros a corrocting lactor that
JoponJs on tho laso. ln laso , lor oxamplo, tho proportion is con-
jocturoJ to lo 42C41.

Thoro is a simplo connoction lotvoon rociprocal primo porioJs anJ
tho rcpunits, numlors vhoso Jigits aro all 1, vhich vo can illustrato
vith tho casos ol 1 anJ 113:
1 0.14285 14285 . . .
anJ 1 1 0.999999 999999 . . .
so, 14285 999999 9 111111
Similarly, 113 0.06923 06923 . . .
anJ 13 113 1 0.999999 999999 . . .
so, 13 06923 999999 9 111111
1 I 5 I 19 I 41 I 109 I 155 I 21
2 I 6 I 20 I 42 I 110 I 156 I 22
{ -
ln othor vorJs, all tho intogors vhoso rociprocals havo porioJ 6 must
JiviJo 999999 3
3
11 13 3. As it happons, 3, 11, anJ 3 havo
porioJs loss than 6, so only 1 anJ 113 actually havo porioJ 6. Sim-
ilarly, sinco 111,111,111 3 3 3 33366, tho only primo vith ro-
ciprocal porioJ longth 9 is 33366. Thoso primos havo uniguo porioJ
longths: 3, 11, 3, 101, 33366, 9091, 9901, 909091, P19, P23, 99990001,
999999000001, 909090909090909091, . . . (Sloano V2890)
--
Tho porioJs ol 1, 2, . . . 6 lorm an imporloct magic sguaro,
locauso although tho rovs anJ columns havo tho samo sum, tho
Jiagonals Jo not:
1 4 2 8 5
2 8 5 1 4
4 2 8 5 1
5 1 4 2 8
1 4 2 8 5
8 5 1 4 2
Tho Jocimal porioJs ol 119, 219, . . . , 1819, hovovor, Jo lorm a
truo magic sguaro.
119 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1
219 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2
319 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3
419 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4
519 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5
619 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6
19 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4
819 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8
919 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9
1019 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0
1119 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1
1219 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2
1319 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3
1419 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4
1519 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5
1619 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8 9 4 3 6
119 8 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5
1819 9 4 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 8
- {
Tho rov, column, anJ Jiagonal sums aro all 81. Notico tho pattorns
in tho lirst anJ last columns. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)

A numlor is Joliciont il tho sum ol its jrcjcr Jivisors, moaning all its
Jivisors oxcopt tho numlor itsoll is loss than tho numlor: so all primo
numlors aro Joliciont.
Tho numlor 8 is Joliciont, locauso 1 2 4 . ln lact, all pov-
ors ol 2 aro Joliciont just locauso tho propor lactors ol 2
u
aro 1, 2, 4,
8, . . . , 2
u 1
anJ 1 2 4 . . . 2
u 1
2
u
1. Tho povors ol primos
groator than 2 aro ovon moro Joliciont.
Tho opposito ol a Joliciont numlor is an abunuant numbcr.
Scc alunJant numlor, porloct numlor
-
Chris CalJvoll Jolinos a cclctc/lc jric to lo ono that romains
primo as tho Jigits aro JolotoJ in somo choson orJor. This is his
oxamplo: 41025693, 4125693, 412563, 41563, 4563, 456, 46,
6, . lt is not knovn vhothor thoro is an inlinity ol such primos.
-
A right-truncatallo numlor is primo anJ romains primo as tho Jigits
aro romovoJ lrom tho right. lt thoroloro contains no zoro Jigit, anJ
tho Jigits 2 anJ 5 can only lo tho loltmost Jigit.
Thoro aro oighty-throo right-truncatallo primos in laso 10, starting,
2, 3, 5, , 23, 29, 31, 3, 53, 59, 1, 3, 9, 233, 239, 293, 311, 313,
31, 33, . . .
Thoro is an inlinity ol lolt-truncatallo primos il zoros aro allovoJ,
lor oxamplo, 108. ll zoros aro JisallovoJ, thoro aro 4,260 lolt-
truncatallo primos in laso 10, starting 2, 3, 5, , 13, 1, 23, 3, 43, 4,
53, 6, 3, 83, 9, 113, 13, 16, 13, . . .
-
Tho original Domlo numlors aro tho palinJromos 1, 121, 12321,
1234321, 123454321, . . . , 123456898654321. Tho prollom is thon,
{
-K- {
hov to continuo tho soguonco?-anJ tho usual solution is to notico
that tho Domlo numlors aro tho sguaros ol tho lirst lov rcpunits:
11
2
121
111
2
12321
1111
2
1234321
. . .
P
9
2
111111111
2
123456898654321
This suggosts that Domlo-10 shoulJ lo JolinoJ as,
P
10
2
1111111111
2
12345690098654321
anJ so on.
- -
ln a Joscriptivo (or soll-Joscriptivo or Iook anJ Say) soguonco, oach
torm ccscri/cs tho provious torm. lor oxamplo,
2 12 1112 3112
ono 2 ono 1, ono 2 throo 1s, ono 2 . . .
Starting vith 1, tho soguonco continuos 1, 11, 21, 1211, 111221,
312211, 13112221, . . . Tho lirst tvo primos aro 11 anJ 312211.
Aro thoro Joscriptivo soguoncos vhoso torms aro all primo? G. I.
Honakor Jr. lounJ this ono: 33, 13113, 11131111113, 31133113113.
Unlortunatoly, tho noxt torm is composito. Carlos Pivora, Viko Koith,
anJ Waltor SchnoiJor havo sulsoguontly lounJ six-torm soguoncos,
anJ SchnoiJor has lounJ a sovon-torm soguonco starting vith
19,92,66,609. (SchnoiJor 2003) (Pivora, Puzzlo 36)
-K-
IoonarJ Eugono Dickson (184-1954) is lost knovn toJay lor his
oxtraorJinarily JotailoJ throo-volumo Histcr, cf t/c 1/ccr, cf Av-
/crs, vhoso lirst volumo is on Ditisi/ilit, cuc Priclit,. Ho conjoc-
turoJ in 1904 that il vo havo a soguonco ol linoar oxprossions vith
intogor coollicionts, vith all tho c
i
positivo,
c
1
u /
1
, c
2
u /
2
, c
3
u /
3
, . . . , c
k
u /
k
thon thoro is inlinito numlor ol valuos ol u lor vhich ovory ono ol thoso
oxprossions vill lo primo simultanoously (apart lrom casos vhoro
thoro is a numlor vhich JiviJos at loast ono tho oxprossions lor ovory
valuo ol u). Tho gualilication is nocossary to oxcluJo casos such as,
2u 3 2u 5 2u
ono ol vhich must alvays lo Jivisillo ly 3: tho lirst il 3u, tho soc-
onJ il 3u 1, tho thirJ il 3u 1.
Dickson`s gonoral conjocturo incluJos many othors: tho tvin primcs
conjocturo is tho caso lor u anJ u 2. ll it is truo lor u anJ 2u 1,
thon thoro is an inlinity ol Sophic Gcrmain primos. lt also implios, il
truo, tho primo -tuplcs conjccturc, that thoro aro inlinitoly many
triplos ol consocutivo scmiprimcs, anJ that thoro is an inlinity ol
composito Vcrscnnc numbcrs.
Scc hypothosis H
-
Tho largost primo using tho Jigits 1 to 9 is 9865431. ll 0 can lo usoJ
as voll, it is 98654103.
- 85193191 is tho largost primo such that tho lirst u Jigits aro
Jivisillo ly tho uth primo, lor u 1 to 10. (Viko Koith: CalJ-
voll, Pric Pcgcs)
- 113 is tho smallost throo-Jigit primo such that all roarrangomonts
ol its Jigits aro also primo. Tho othors aro 33 anJ 199. Tho
rcpunits P
19
anJ P
23
aro tho noxt numlors vith this proporty.
- 200 is tho loast numlor that cannot locomo a primo ly chang-
ing ono Jigit. With 202, 204, 206, anJ 208 it lorms an arith-
motic progrossion ol numlors vith tho samo proporty.
Scc Jolotallo anJ truncatallo primos
-
Diophantus vas ono ol tho groat lato Grook mathomaticians. Six
looks ol his Arit/cticc, out ol thirtoon, aro oxtant. Ho also vroto
Ou Pcl,gcucl Av/crs.
{ -
Tho Arit/cticc is a colloction ol solvoJ prolloms, incluJing
this ono: vhich numlors can lo tho hypotonuso ol a right-angloJ
trianglo?
AccorJing to Pythagoras`s thoorom, in a right-angloJ trianglo c
2

/
2
c
2
. Tho simplost oxamplo is 3
2
4
2
5
2
anJ tho noxt simplost is
5
2
12
2
13
2
. Tho gonoral lormula lor solutions to Pythagoras`s
oguation is:
c
2
u
2
/ 2u c
2
u
2
ll anJ u havo no common lactor, thon c, /, anJ c vill lo coprimo
also.
lrom tho spocilic oxamplos that Diophantus choso in solving his
prolloms, critics havo concluJoJ that ho knov that any primo num-
lor ol tho lorm 4u 1 is a possillo hypotonuso, moaning that it is ol
tho lorm
2
,
2
.
Ho also knov that no numlor ol tho lorm 4u 3 is tho sum ol tvo
sguaros, anJ numlors ol tho lorm 8u aro not tho sum ol throo
sguaros, though any numlor is tho sum ol up to lour sguaros.
His Arit/cticc incluJos tho prollom ol roprosonting numlors as tho
sum ol tvo sguaros, vhich voro rational rathor than intogral, lor
oxamplo:

2
,
2
13, vith
2
anJ ,
2
groator than 6
Ho linJs tho solution is (25101)
2
anJ (258101)
2
, vhich is oguiva-
lont to 25
2
258
2
13 101
2
, an improssivo loat! (ToJay, ironically,
Diophantino` moans solullo in intogors only.)
Ho also usoJ rolationships such as 8 timos a triangular numlor 1
a sguaro numlor,
2
u
2
2u is a sguaro, tho sum ol tvo culos
is also tho Jilloronco ol tvo culos (rational rathor than intogral), anJ
(
2
u
2
)
2
(2u)
2
(
2
u
2
)
2
. This last roprosonts tho siJos ol a
right-angloJ Pythagoroan trianglo.
Ho also usoJ tho lormulao,
(c
2
/
2
)(c
2
c
2
) (cc /c)
2
(cc /c)
2
anJ (c
2
/
2
)(c
2
c
2
) (cc /c)
2
(cc /c)
2
- {
vhich ho usoJ to linJ lour right-angloJ trianglos vith tho samo
hypotonuso. lor oxamplo,
(1
2
2
2
)(3
2
1
2
) (1 3 2 1)
2
(1 1 2 3)
2
5
2
5
2
50
anJ so
(1
2
2
2
)(3
2
1
2
) (1 3 2 1)
2
(1 1 2 3)
2
1
2

2
50
Thoso algolraic iJontitios aro moro than a curiosity. Thoy mako a
crucial anJ Joop link lotvoon loing a sum ol tvo sguaros` anJ lac-
tors anJ proJucts, anJ thoy suggost guostions such as:
A. Can tho lactors ol cu, ccjcsitc numlor that is tho sum ol
tvo sguaros lo vritton thomsolvos as tho sum ol tvo sguaros?
B. Can a primo numlor that has no propor lactors lo vritton
as tho sum ol tvo sguaros?
C. ln hov many vays can a numlor vith throo lactors, oach ol
vhich is tho sum ol tvo sguaros, lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo
sguaros?
Tho vorks ol Diophantus voro pullishoJ ly, among othors, Bachot
Jo Vziriac in 1621, vhoso look vas stuJioJ ly Icrmat.
Tho guostions proposoJ anJ ansvoroJ ly Diophantus proviJo a link
lrom Pythagoras anJ tho oarliost Grook mathomatics to lormat anJ
othor mathomaticians ol tho sovontoonth anJ oightoonth conturios
vho maJo thoso tho lirst Joop prolloms in moJorn numlor thoory.
Scc clsc EucliJ, lormat
K- -
--
Gustav Potor Iojouno Dirichlot (1805-1859) vas a proJigy vho as a
young man carrioJ vith him on his travols his Jog-oaroJ copy ol
Gauss`s Disqvisiticucs Arit/cticcc. At tho ago ol only tvonty, ho
prosontoJ to tho lronch AcaJomy ol Scioncos a papor on oguations
ol tho lorm,

5
,
5
A .
5
A lov vooks lator ho provoJ that Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm vhon u 5
has no solution.
Fucliu provoJ that thoro is an inlinity ol primos among tho positivo
intogors, lut hov many aro thoro in arithmotic progrossions such as
{ K- - --
1 5 9 13 1 21 25 29 . . .
or 2 12 1 22 2 32 3 . . . ?
Dirichlot provoJ in 183, a conjocturo maJo ly Gauss: il c anJ / aro
coprimo positivo intogors, thon tho arithmotic progrossion c, c /,
c 2/, c 3/, . . . contains inlinitoly many primos. Ho JiJ so ly prov-
ing that il j is a primo ol tho lorm cu /, vith c anJ / coprimo, thon
tho sum ol all tho primos j ol this lorm loss than is approximatoly,
log log
as tonJs to inlinity. ln othor vorJs, it incroasos vithout limit, alloit
vory slovly, anJ so tho primos ol that lorm cannot lo linito in num-
lor. Ho also provoJ that tho numlor ol primos in tho soguonco loss
than u tonJs to
as u incroasos.
This prool roprosontoJ tho lirth ol cucl,tic numlor thoory, vhich
usos calculus to Jrav conclusions alout tho intogors.
Whoro Joos tho lirst primo occur in an arithmotic soguonco? Soo Iin-
nik`s constant lor a partial ansvor.
- -
Dirichlot also provoJ that il c, 2/, anJ c havo no common primo lac-
tor, thon tho guaJratic oxprossion c
2
2/, c,
2
takos an inlinity
ol primo valuos.
Scc HarJy, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos
-
Hov much ol tho povor ol your computor Jo you actually uso?
Almost cortainly, vory littlo. Ono vay to uso tho vastoJ` povor is to
got togothor vith othor computor usors, tako a vory Jillicult prollom
that can lo split into many smallor prolloms-anJ cistri/vtcc via tho
lntornot-anJ tacklo ono small prollom oach. That`s JistrilutoJ
computing!
u
(c) log u
1
(c)
- {
\ou might lo allo to crack a vory Jillicult coJo, analyzo goologi-
cal Jata, or calculato tho shapos ol moloculos-or you coulJ attompt
to communicato vith an alion civilization ly joining tho SETl4homo
projoct soarching lor signs ol lilo in signals lrom tho raJio toloscopo
at tho Arocilo Olsorvatory in Puorto Pico: so lar moro than 0,000
onthusiasts havo signoJ up.
Tho liggost numlor-thoorotic opportunitios incluJo lactoring vory
largo numlors anJ linJing rocorJ-lroaking primo numlors. Arjon
Ionstra anJ Vark Vanasso organizoJ tho lirst lntornot lactoring proj-
oct in 1988. Soon thoir voluntoors voro lactoring 100-Jigit numlors
vith oaso, anJ in 1993 a toam ol six hunJroJ succosslully lactoroJ
PSA-129 lor a prizo ol $100, anJ rathor moro glory.
Among tho many projocts nov running, tho JistrilutoJ computing
soarch lor Icrmat numbcr Jivisors has its Wol aJJross vvv
.lormatsoarch.orgparticip. Tvonty-oight rosoarchors lrom Brazil, lin-
lanJ, Gormany, Grooco, lran, ltaly, Japan, Spain, SvoJon, Pussia,
anJ tho USA aro taking part, incluJing Tony lorlos, author ol tho
VlAC program that vas usoJ to linJ a lactor ol P
31
.
Tony lorlos is also organizing an intornational soarch lor a lactor
ol MM61 2
M61
1. This is a Vcrscnnc numbcr vith a Vorsonno
primo oxponont, anJ tho smallost vhoso primality has not loon
JociJoJ.
Tho Sicrpinski numbcrs ollor anothor challongo. ln Varch 2002 thoro
voro only sovontoon canJiJato valuos ol k lolt to chock: 484, 5359,
10223, 19249, 21181, 22699, 243, 2653, 28433, 33661, 44131,
4615, 546, 55459, 6556, 660, anJ 69109. So Iouis K. Holm anJ
DaviJ A. Norris startoJ thoir Sovontoon or Bust` projoct. By tho onJ
{ -
ln rounJ orJors ol magnituJo, a typical porsonal computor vill soon
oxocuto 100 million instructions por soconJ, it vill havo 100 moga-
lytos ol momory anJ a gigalyto ol Jisk storago, it vill consumo
100 vatts ol oloctricity anJ cost $1,000, 100 million ol thoso machinos
vill lo attachoJ to tho lntornot. Vultiply it out: 10 guaJrillion instruc-
tions por soconJ, 10 lillion mogalytos ol momory, 100 million giga-
lytos ol Jisk storago, 10 gigavatts ol oloctric-povor JomanJ, a prico
tag ol $100 lillion. lt`s prolally vorth rovriting your soltvaro to
gain accoss to such a machino. (Hayos 1998)
ol 2002 thoy haJ oliminatoJ livo canJiJatos. On Novomlor 2, 2002,
Stophon Gilson roportoJ that 4615 2
u
1 is a primo vhon u
69820. On Doc. 2, 2002, Jamos Burt JiscovoroJ that 6556 2
u
1
is a primo vhon u 1013803.
Throo Jays lator (!) tho computor ol an anonymous participant
shovoJ that 44131 2
u
1 is a primo vhon u 99592. On Docom-
lor , Soan DiVicholo roportoJ that 69109 2
u
1 is a primo vhon
u 115446, anJ Potor Cools has JiscovoroJ that 546 2
u
1 is a
primo vhon u 13382. This primo has 402,569 Jigits, making it
tho sovonth largost knovn primo.
Tho goal ol ZotaGriJ, organizoJ ly Solastian WoJonivski ol lBV, is
to calculato zoros ol tho Ricmann zota lunction. So lar thoy havo cal-
culatoJ noarly 400 lillion. Currontly, ZotaGriJ links moro than 10,000
vorkstations, has a porlormanco rato ol alout 5649 GlIOPS, anJ
calculatos moro than 1 lillion zota lunction zoros ovory Jay.
Not surprisingly, JistrilutoJ computing can lo highly compotitivo!
AccorJing to tho ZotaGriJ Wol sito, tho Top Toam lor tho last
Jays` on SaturJay, Novomlor 6, 2004, vas Dolian Iinux Usors
Evoryvhoro,` vith tvo activo momlors, anJ thirty-six computors that
calculatoJ 321,992,600 zoros.
ll moro glory Joosn`t gral you, thon thoro aro prizos. ZotaGriJ is
olloring tho lolloving lour prizos in accorJanco vith |thosol rulos:
- $10 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscovors
tho lirst tvo zoros that havo a Jistanco loss than 10
6
, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ.
- $100 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscovors
tho lirst tvo zoros that havo a Jistanco loss than 10

, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ.
- $1,000 (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst porson vho Jiscov-
ors a nontrivial zoro that is not on tho critical lino, using tho
soltvaro proviJoJ ly ZotaGriJ, lut only il this constitutos tho
lirst Jisprool ol tho Ricmann hypothcsis ly any mothoJ.
- Up to $1 million (USD) vill lo avarJoJ to tho lirst 100 top
proJucors ol ZotaGriJ il Solastian WoJonivski vins tho $1
million prizo lor tho prool ol tho Piomann hypothosis lrom
Clay Vathomatics lnstituto ly using tho rosults ol tho statistical
summarios ol ZotaGriJ.
Scc Eloctronic lrontior lounJation, GonoralizoJ lormat numlors,
GlVPS, PSA lactoring Challongo
- {
- --
An intogor in laso 10 is Jivisillo ly 2 il tho last Jigit is ovon, ly 3 il
3 JiviJos tho sum ol tho Jigits, ly 9 il 9 JiviJos tho sum ol tho Jig-
its, anJ ly 5 il tho last Jigit is 5 or 0.
Thoro aro many tosts lor Jivisilility ly , nono ol thom vory short.
Horo aro tvo:
1. Vultiply tho lolt-hanJ Jigit ly 3 anJ aJJ to tho noxt Jigit.
PoJuco tho ansvor moJulo (moaning, tako only tho romainJor
vhon it is JiviJoJ ly ). Popoat. ll tho linal ansvor is Jivisillo ly
, so vas tho original numlor.
Examplo: 645: 6 3 4 22, vhich roJucos to 1, thon 3 1 10, roJuc-
ing to 3, thon 3 3 5 14, vhich is a multiplo ol .
2. Doullo tho last Jigit anJ sultract it lrom tho romaining
numlor. Popoat. ll tho linal rosult is 0 or , tho original numlor
is Jivisillo ly .
Examplo: 1106 110 12 98 9 16
Examplo: 3989 398 18 380 38 3 16 21
So loth numlors aro Jivisillo ly .
Thoro aro simplo tosts lor somo othor numlors. lor oxamplo, 100c
/ is Jivisillo ly 19 il anJ only il c 4/ is, locauso 4(100c /)
400c 4/ c 4/ (moJ 19). ll you tost a numlor that cyclos, such as,
1064 10 256 266 2 4 66 266 . . .
ropoating, onJlossly, thon you`ro okay, tho original numlor is Jivisi-
llo ly 19 (1064 19 56).
-- -
Van has long loon avaro that somo numlors aro moro roaJily
JiviJoJ into parts than othors, anJ that this can lo a sourco ol con-
vonionco. Tho Balylonians JiviJoJ tho sky anJ tho circlo into 360
Jogroos-suggostoJ, plausilly, ly tho 365
1
4 Jays in tho yoar-tho
Jay into 12 hours, tho hour into 60 minutos, anJ thoy countoJ in 60s.
Plato in Book V ol his Icts claims, Thoro is no Jilliculty in por-
coiving that tho tvolvo parts aJmit ol tho groatost numlor ol Jivi-
sions ol that vhich thoy incluJo, or in sooing tho othor numlors
{ - --
vhich aro consoguont upon thom,` anJ ho vont on to arguo that in
his iJoal ropullic,
Tho numlor ol our citizons shall lo 5040, this vill lo a convoniont num-
lor. . . . Evory logislator ought to knov so much arithmotic as to lo allo to
toll vhat numlor is most likoly to lo usolul to all citios, anJ vo aro going
to tako that numlor vhich contains tho groatost anJ most rogular anJ
unlrokon sorios ol Jivisions. Tho vholo ol numlor has ovory possillo Jivi-
sion, anJ tho numlor 5040 can lo JiviJoJ ly oxactly lilty-nino Jivisors
|sixty incluJing itsolll, anJ ton ol thoso procooJ vithout intorval lrom ono
to ton, this vill lurnish numlors lor var anJ poaco, anJ lor all contracts anJ
Joaling, incluJing taxos anJ Jivisions ol tho lanJ.
Whon tho anciont Grooks lirst consiJoroJ alunJant, porloct, anJ
Joliciont numlors, thoy tonJoJ to think ol Jivisors as loing loss than
tho numlor, so tho numlor itsoll vas oxcluJoJ: 28 vas porloct
locauso 28 1 2 4 14.
Hovovor, thoro is a vory gooJ anJ typically logical roason lor
incluJing u vhon calculating c(u). Tho lunction c(u) is vltijlicc-
titc, moaning that proviJoJ c anJ / aro coprimo, thon c(c/)
c(c)c(/). So c(u) can oasily lo calculatoJ lor any numlor vhoso
primo lactors aro knovn. ll vo oxcluJo tho numlor itsoll, so vo aro
consiJoring c(u) u, this is not multiplicativo, anJ all our calcula-
tions locomo moro complicatoJ.
-- -
A primo numlor, j, has tvo Jivisors, 1 anJ j. Povors ol 2, 2
u
, havo
u 1 Jivisors, 1, 2, 4, . . . , 2
u
, anJ tho proJuct ol throo Jistinct
primos, jqr, has oight lactors: 1, j, q, r, qr, rj, jq, jqr.
ln gonoral, il u is vritton as tho proJuct ol primo lactors: u
j
a
q
l
r
c
. . . thon tho numlor ol Jivisors, c(u) (c 1)(/ 1)(c 1) . . .
Sinco hall ol all intogors aro Jivisillo ly 2, anJ a thirJ ly 3, anJ so on,
vo might think that most intogors havo guito a lov Jivisors. This is
lalso. Tho opposito, corroct argumont is that hall ol all intogors aro
ovon, 1 in 6 is Jivisillo ly 2 anJ 3, 1 in 12 ly 2, 3, anJ 4, only 1 in 30
is Jivisillo ly 2, 3, anJ 5, anJ only 1 in 210 is Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, anJ
. So numlors vith ovon a hanJlul ol scll Jivisors aro inlroguont.
ln lact, G. H. HarJy provoJ that a typical` numlor, u, has alout log
log u Jivisors. Only a tiny proportion has many moro Jivisors than this.
Tho typical intogor rounJ alout 10
8
has just throo primo lactors, anJ you
havo to go up to alout 10
0
to got an avorago ol livo primo lactors.
-- - {
Tho sum ol tho numlor ol Jivisors ol all tho numlors up to u, c(1)
c(2) c(3) . . . c(u) is approximatoly u log u. Voro procisoly it
oguals u(log u 2 1) as utonJs to inlinity, vhoro is Fulcr`s constant.
- --
Wo roach a rocorJ vith c(u) vhonovor vo got to tho smallost num-
lor vith a givon numlor ol Jivisors. This, apart lrom 1, is alvays ol
tho lorm 2
a
3
l
5
c

J
. . . vhoro c / c c . . . Tho soguonco ol
such numlors starts,
u 2
a
3
l
5
c
. . . c(u)
2 2
1
2
4 2
2
3
6 2 3 4
16 2
4
5
12 2
2
3 6
64 2
6

24 2
3
3 8
36 2
2
3
2
9
48 2
4
3 10
1024 2
10
11
60 2
2
3 5 12
4096 2
12
13
192 2
6
3 14
144 2
4
3
2
15
120 2
3
3 5 16
--
- Tho lirst pair ol consocutivo numlors vith tho samo numlor ol
Jivisors is 2 anJ 3, vith tvo oach. Tho sulsoguont pairs start,
u 14, 15 21, 22 26, 2 33, 34, 35 38, 39 44, 45
c(u) 4 4 4 4 4 6
Iargor oxamplos aro 242 to 245, all vith c(u) 6, anJ 11605
to 11609, vith c(u) 8. (Pivora: CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Tho proJuct uc(u) has ogual valuos lor oach ol tho triplot 168,
192, anJ 224. Thoro aro throo smallor pairs lor vhich uc(u)
has tho samo valuos: 18 anJ 2, 24 anJ 32, 56 anJ 64. (Guy
1981, 68)
{ -- -
- Tho proJuct ol tho harmonic moan anJ arithmotic moan ol
tho Jivisors ol a numlor is tho numlor itsoll. lor oxamplo, 20
has Jivisors 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20. Tho harmonic moan is tho roc-
iprocal ol (11 12 14 15 110 120)6 2
1
106
20. So tho harmonic moan is 20. Tho arithmotic moan is
426 .
- Call tho maximum povor ol a primo that JiviJos A a principal
Jivisor ol A. So 3 anJ 4 aro principal Jivisors ol 12. Thon any
oJJ intogor Agroator than 15 that is not a primo povor is groator
than tvico tho sum ol its principal Jivisors. (Alspach 2004)
-- -
Tho simplost conclusions alout Jivisilility como lrom looking at
romainJors. lor oxamplo, tho romainJors vhon 2
u
is JiviJoJ ly aro
only ovor 1, 2, or 4. ln othor vorJs,
2
u
1, 2, or 4 (moJ )
lt lollovs that 2
u
k can only lo Jivisillo ly vhon k 6, 5, or 3.
lor oach valuo ol u, only ono ol thoso vill apply. lor oxamplo, 2

128 anJ JiviJos 128 5 133.

Similarly, tho lirst sovon valuos ol
2
3 5 aro:
1 2 3 4 5 6

2
3 5 9 15 23 33 45 59 5
2 1 2 5 3 3 5 (moJ )
So
2
3 5 1, 2, 3, or 5 (moJ ) anJ its valuos aro novor Jivis-
illo ly .
- --
Tho sum ol all tho c(u) Jivisors ol u is vritton (u). Iiko c(u), (u)
is multiplicativo: il j anJ q aro coprimo, thon (jq) (j) (q).
ll j is primo, thon (j) j 1, so il u j
c
q
/
r
c
. . . thon,
(u) ( j
c 1
1)(q
/ 1
1)(r
c 1
1) . . . (j 1)(q 1)(r 1) . . .
Tho soguonco ol intogors that aro novor valuos ol (u) starts:
2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 16, 1, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 2, 29,
33, 34, 35, 3, 41, 43, 45, 46, 4, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, . . .
(Sloano A00369)
(u) is oJJ il anJ only il u is a sguaro or Joullo a sguaro.
-- - {
- -
lor all u 1, 1
anJ lor all u oxcopt u 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, anJ 12, 6
2
(Annapurna 1938)
As u tonJs to inlinity, (u) is ol tho orJor ol u log log u. Tho uppor
limit ol (u)u log log u as u tonJs to inlinity is c , vhoro is Fulcr`s
constant.
Tho sum ol tho Jivisors (u) Joos not jump arounJ as much as
c(u), anJ tho sum (1) (2) (3) (4) . . . (u) is ovon
smoothor: it is approximatoly ogual to
2
u
2
12 plus a lactor that is
proportional to u log u.
lor oxamplo, tho sum (1) (2) (3) . . . (1000) 823081
anJ
2
1000
2
12 82246 to tho noarost intogor. (Iohmor 1940)
-
Eulor JiscovoroJ an oxtraorJinary anJ oxguisito rocursivo lormula
lor calculating (u):
(u) (u 1) (u 2) (u 5) (u ) (u 12)
(u 15) (u 22) (u 26) (u 35) (u 40) . . .
\ou stop vhon you roach nogativo valuos, sinco () is not JolinoJ.
ll you roach c(0), thon (0) u lor tho sako ol this lormula.
Eulor lounJ tho soguonco involvoJ, 1, 2, 5, , 12, 15, 22, 26, 35, 40,
51, 5, 0, . . . ly multiplying out,
(1 )(1
2
)(1
3
)(1
4
) . . .
1
2

5

12

15
. . .
Tho soguonco can also lo JorivoJ lrom tho jcutcgcucl uv/crs.
Thoir lormula is
1
2u(3u 1), anJ thoir valuos lor positivo anJ noga-
tivo valuos ol u go liko this:
u 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
2u(3u 1) 40 26 15 2 0 1 5 12 22 35
Tho soguonco can also lo constructoJ ly noting its lirst Jilloroncos:
(u)
u u
(u)
u u
{ -- -
1 2 5 12 15 22 26 35 40 51 5 0
1 3 2 5 3 4 9 5 11 6 13
in vhich tho counting numlors anJ tho oJJ numlors lrom 3 altor-
nato.
Horo`s an oxamplo ol hov it vorks:
(10) (10 1) (10 2) (10 5) (10 )
(9) (8) (5) (3)
13 15 6 4
18
lt is thought-provoking that although (u) apparontly JoponJs on
tho lactors ol u, it can also lo calculatoJ via tho lactors ol a soloction
ol numlors loss than u.
-- -
Evon moro surprisingly, almost oxactly tho samo lormula, vith tho
samo conJition on stopping, givos tho numlor ol partitions ol u:
j(u) j(u 1) j(u 2) j(u 5) j(u ) j(u 12)
j(u 15) j(u 22) j(u 26) j(u 35) j(u 40) . . .
Tho only Jilloronco is that il you roach j(0) this is givon tho valuo 1.
Horo is anothor connoction: tako any numlor, anJ vrito Jovn its par-
titions into an ccc numlor ol ciffcrcut positivo intogors, lor oxamplo,
11 1 2 8 1 3 1 4 6 2 3 6 2 4 5 11
AJJ tho lirst torms: 1 1 1 2 2 11 18.
Nov partition 11 into ovon numlors ol Jilloront positivo intogors:
11 1 10 2 9 3 8 4 5 6 1 2 3 5
AJJ tho lirst torms: 1 2 3 4 5 1 16. Tho Jilloronco, 18
16 2, vhich is c(11). This is a gonoral rosult. (Bing, lokkink, anJ
lokkink 1995)
-- -
- Tho oguation (u) (u 1) has only nino solutions in pos-
itivo intogors loss than 10,000. Thoy aro u 14, 206, 95, 1334,
1364, 1634, 2685, 294, anJ 4364.
-- - {
- Tho oguation (u) 2 (u 2) is satislioJ vhonovor u anJ
u 2 aro a primo pair, lut thoro aro throo othor solutions lor
u unJor 9998: u 434, 855, anJ 8825. (Vakovski 1960)
- Tho valuos ol (u) poak at thoso u that havo many small lac-
tors. Tho poak at (60) 168 loats tho provious poak ol
(48) 124 ly 44. Tho noxt rocorJ-lroaking Jilloronco is
lotvoon tho poaks at (108) 280 anJ (120) 360.
-
- Tho prolalility that tho groatost primo lactor ol a ranJom into-
gor u is groator than u is log 2.
- Tho prolalility that a numlor A, choson at ranJom, has a
primo lactor lotvoon A
c
anJ A
c (1 c)
is approximatoly ogual to
c, inJoponJontly ol tho sizo ol c, proviJoJ that c is small.
(Piosol 1994, 161)
- Tho group 64, 65, 66 is tho smallost triplo ol intogors vith,
rospoctivoly, ono, tvo, anJ throo Jistinct primo lactors. Tho noxt
is 103, 104, 105, lollovoJ ly 163, 164, 165 anJ 193, 194, 195.
- ll u is groator than 239, thon tho largost primo lactor ol u
2
1
is at loast 1. (CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Tho numlor 140 is tho start ol tho smallost soguonco ol sovon
consocutivo intogors oach vith an ovon numlor ol primo lactors.
- Tho numlor 10 is tho start ol tho samo rocorJ lor an oJJ
numlor ol primo lactors. (Honakor: CalJvoll, Pric Pcgcs)
- Six consocutivo intogors, loginning vith 88, aro Jivisillo ly
tho lirst six primo numlors, rospoctivoly.
- Tho triplos 3, 4, 5 anJ 8, 9, 10 aro tho smallost non-ovorlapping
sots ol consocutivo numlors sharing tho samo sot ol primo lac-
tors: 2, 3, anJ 5. ErJos has conjocturoJ that thoro is only a
linito numlor ol such sots.
- --
Tho pair 230 2 5 23 anJ 231 3 11 aro tho lirst pair ol con-
socutivo intogors vith throo primo Jistinct lactors oach. Tho noxt pair
is 285 3 5 19 anJ 286 2 11 13. Tho lirst triplo ol such con-
socutivo intogors is 1309 11 1, 1310 2 5 131, anJ 1311
3 19 23.
Scc ApponJix B |arithmotic lunctionsl, lactors ol givon lorm, lac-
tors, primo, prolalility, |Pamanujan`sl highly composito numlors,
sguarolroo numlors
{ -- -
-
ll a numlor vritton as tho proJuct ol its primo lactors has no moro
Jigits than tho numlor itsoll, tho numlor is laloloJ oconomical. Tho
soguonco ol oconomical numlors starts: 2, 3, 5, , 10, 11, 13, 14, 15,
16, 1, . . .
ll it roguiros lovor Jigits, it is lrugal, il it roguiros tho samo numlor,
oguiJigital, anJ il it roguiros moro, it is oxtravagant.
lrugal numlors, not surprisingly, aro rolativoly scarco. AccorJing
to Santos anJ Pinch tho numlors ol oach kinJ lor 2
500,000,000 aro:
lrugal 1,455,952
oguiJigital 86,441,85
oxtravagant 412,102,13
livo soguoncos ol sovon oconomical numlors start at 15, 10849,
10999, 121981, anJ 143421. Thoro is a soguonco ol longth nino start-
ing at 1034429199538124. Pinch has chockoJ up to 10
6
anJ only
lounJ - ol consocutivo lrugal numlors, incluJing 434 2 3

anJ 435 5
4
.
Hovovor, Pinch has also provoJ that il -K- is cor-
roct, thon thoro aro soguoncos ol consocutivo lrugal numlors ol any
spocilioJ longth. (CalJvoll, -)

Tho Eloctronic lrontior lounJation, colounJoJ ly John Gilmoro,
ollors largo cash prizos in its Ell Cooporativo Computing AvarJs,`
vhich aro olloroJ to oncourago orJinary lntornot usors to collalo-
rato to solvo hugo sciontilic prolloms.` Tho omphasis is on coop-
oration.
Thoy havo alroaJy avarJoJ $50,000 lor tho lirst primo numlor ol
moro than ono million Jigits, avarJoJ on April 6, 2000, lor tho Jis-
covory ly Nayan Hajratvala ol tho 38th - , 2
692593
1,
vhich actually has moro than tvo million Jigits, as part ol tho
projoct.
Iargor prizos aro olloroJ lor largor rocorJ-lroaking primos:
{
10,000,000 Jigits $100,000
100,000,000 Jigits $150,000
1,000,000,000 Jigits $250,000
Tho Ell loarJ vill avarJ tho prizos lasoJ on tho rocommonJa-
tion ol tho computing avarJ aJvisory panol, incluJing Curt Noll
anJ Chris CalJvoll. Thoro aro rulos lor Jistriluting tho prizo
monoy lotvoon tho momlors ol a collalorativo group, such as
GlVPS.
ll you vant to tako part, visit vvv.oll.orgavarJscoop.html.
GlVPS, Vorsonno primos

Tho olliptic curvo mothoJ lor lactorization anJ primality tosting
JoponJs on an unusual proporty ol a spocial typo ol curvo. Elliptic
curvos voro lirst stuJioJ in attompts to linJ tho arc-longth ol an
ollipso. Thoir oguations havo tho lorm,

2

3

ProviJoJ 4
3
2
2
is not zoro, tho curvo looks liko tho liguro on pago
5, cutting tho -axis at throo points, tho roal roots ol
3
0.
Tho unusual proporty is that vo can aJJ` any tvo points on tho
curvo to got a thirJ point. Wo Jo it ly Jraving a lino through tho
points vo vish to aJJ, such as anJ , anJ linJing vhoro this lino
moots tho curvo again, at . Wo thon rolloct in tho -axis to
oltain tho sum` .
Thoro sooms to lo an oxcoption to this possilility vhon tho points
anJ lio on a vortical lino. Hovovor, vo got arounJ that apparont
Jilliculty ly tho typically mathomatical tactic ol Jolining a
, JonotoJ ly .
This procoss ol aJJition` has all tho proportios ol a
, so vo can Jrop tho guotation marks anJ simply think ol
JolinoJ on tho points ol tho curvo, vith thoso group
proportios:
1. ll anJ aro points on tho curvo, thon is on tho
curvo.
{
2. ( ) ( ). This is tho -- proporty.
3. Thoro is an olomont such that vhon aJJoJ to any
point , tho rosult is . ln this caso tho iJontity is tho point
at inlinity, , locauso accorJing to our Jolinition,
.
4. Thoro is an invorso lor oach point, so that givon vo can
linJ such that . This is so locauso is simply tho
point vhoro tho vortical lino through cuts tho curvo again.
Tho proportios ol this group can nov lo usoJ to tost primality anJ to
linJ lactors. PoaJors vho vish to go lurthor into this romarkallo
mothoJ vill linJ oxcollont accounts in BrossouJ (1989) anJ CranJall
anJ Pomoranco (2001).

An omirp is a primo numlor that givos a Jilloront primo vhon tho

orJor ol tho Jigits is rovorsoJ. PalinJromic primos aro not incluJoJ.
Tho soguonco ol omirps starts: 13, 1, 31, 3, 1, 3, 9, 9, 10, . . .
{
-- -
Eratosthonos (21-194 BC) vas chiol lilrarian at tho lamous Iilrary
ol AloxanJria. Ho calculatoJ tho circumloronco ol tho oarth-252,000
staJia or alout 24,662 milos, vhich vas amazingly (anJ somovhat
lortuitously) accurato-anJ invontoJ his lamous - lor linJing tho
primo numlors.
This is tho most olliciont vay to list all tho primos up to a lov mil-
lion: simply list thom, anJ thon striko out ovory soconJ numlor, 3 is
tho lirst numlor missoJ out, so loavo 3 lut striko out ovory thirJ
numlor thoroaltor, 5 is tho noxt numlor still missoJ out, so loavo 5
anJ striko out ovory lilth numlor, anJ so on.
By arranging tho numlors in this array, tho numlors struck out
lorm straight linos, vhich savos timo spont on counting lorvarJ, anJ
is a chock that you havo not maJo an orror. Tho soguonco ol primo
numlors appoars, vithout any Jivision anJ almost no multiplication.
To siovo all tho primos up to , you stop vhon you roach tho largost
primo loss than or ogual to , vhich Joos nooJ ono multiplication.
Tho procoss ol striking out also rovoals at loast ono ol tho lactors ol
oach composito numlor.
Basically tho samo mothoJ can lo usoJ to linJ all tho primos in any
intorval.
{ -- -
Schulor has calculatoJ that 90.003183 ol all numlors groator than
25
2
aro composito, vith a smallost primo lactor loss than or ogual
to 25.
By cunning variations on Erastosthonos`s lasic iJoa, much moro
sophisticatoJ siovo mothoJs can lo usoJ. Viggo Brun introJucoJ
moJorn siovos in 1920, in a papor titloJ Tho Siovo ol Erastosthonos
anJ tho Thoorom ol GolJlach.` Ho provoJ all thoso rosults:
1. ll is sulliciontly largo, thon lotvoon anJ thoro
is a numlor vith at most olovon primo lactors.
2. Evory sulliciontly largo ovon numlor can lo oxprossoJ as
tho sum ol tvo numlors oach having no moro than nino primo
lactors.
3. Thoro oxists inlinitoly many pairs ol numlors, having Jillor-
onco 2, ol vhich tho numlor ol primo lactors Joos not oxcooJ
nino.
4. lor sulliciontly largo , tho numlor ol primo tvins not
oxcooJing Joos not oxcooJ 100log
2
.
Thoso rosults aro vory lar lrom loing tho lost possillo, lut as so
olton in numlor thoory, voak rosults aro (mathomaticians hopo) a
stop in tho right Jiroction. Tho strongost vorsion ol (1.) is that thoro
is a primo lotvoon anJ . Chon provoJ in 195 that thoro is
a - lotvoon anJ . Point (2.) is a voak vorsion ol
K- , anJ (3.) is a voak vorsion ol tho -
conjocturo. (Groavos 2001)
lucky numlors
P
GoJ may not play Jico vith tho univorso, lut somothing strango
is going on vith tho primo numlors.
O
Evory human activity, gooJ or laJ, -, must
como to an onJ.
O
Paul ErJos vas ono ol tho groatost mathomaticians ol tho tvontioth
contury anJ ono ol tho most prolilic ol all timo, vriting moro than
P {
liltoon hunJroJ papors, vith noarly livo hunJroJ collalorators, vhom
ho mot as ho vanJoroJ across tho mathomatical anJ goographical
vorlJ, stopping vith lrionJs or lavoroJ univorsitios vhoro ho voulJ
announco, Vy lrain is opon!` Ho contrilutoJ ospocially to numlor
thoory, sot thoory, graph thoory, anJ comlinatorics, vhich littoJ his
cast ol minJ, anJ to prolalilistic numlor thoory, vhoro tho primos
aro troatoJ as il thoy voro .
Ho claimoJ, A mathomatician is a machino lor turning colloo into
thooroms,` anJ ho spont his aJult lilo Joing just that, vorking on
prolloms up to vithin hours ol his Joath. Ho JiJn`t limit himsoll to
colloo, hovovor. Ho also, in lator lilo, took amphotaminos. ErJos
olton stayoJ vith his closo lrionJ PonalJ Graham anJ his vilo, tho
mathomatician Voi lang, anJ Graham onco lot him $500 that ho
coulJ not givo up amphotaminos lor a month. Graham lost. As Paul
Hollman tolls tho story, ErJos tolJ him, \ou`vo shovoJ mo that l`m
not an aJJict. But l JiJn`t got any vork Jono. l`J got up in tho morn-
ing anJ staro at a llank pioco ol papor. l`J havo no iJoas, just liko an
orJinary porson. \ou`vo sot mathomatics lack a month,` anJ ho
vont lack to his pills. (Hollman 1998, 16)
ErJos vas also, porhaps, tho most prolilic prollom posor ovor. Not
inlroguontly ho olloroJ prizo monoy, lrom a lov Jollars up to $1,000
or moro lor tho solution to prolloms that intriguoJ him, tho valuo ol
tho prizo inJicating his juJgmont ol its Jilliculty. lor oxamplo, ho
olloroJ a prizo ol $10 lor an ansvor to tho guostion: can () lor
a lo as largo as vo chooso?
lor harJor prolloms ho olloroJ moro monoy. ln 1936, ErJos anJ
Turn conjocturoJ that any incroasing soguonco ol intogors that tonJs
to inlinity no lastor than somo arithmotic progrossion contains arli-
trarily long arithmotic progrossions. SzomorJi provoJ that this is
truo, in 194, anJ von ErJos`s prizo ol $1,000, tho largost sum ho
ovor haJ to actually pay out. (Bollols 1998, 232)
Horo is a rolatoJ lut harJor prollom. Supposo you havo an inlinito
soguonco ol intogors, 1
1

2

3

4
. . . anJ supposo that tho
sum ol thoir rociprocals, 1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
. . . Joos con-
vorgo. This moans, vory roughly spoaking, that thoro aro guito a lot
ol` tho numlors. Vust tho soguonco contain arlitrarily long arith-
motic progrossions?
Sinco tho sum ol tho rociprocals ol tho primo numlors convorgos,
an ansvor yos` to this conjocturo voulJ provo, as a ly-proJuct, that
thoro aro arithmotic progrossions ol primos as long as vo chooso. No
{ P
vonJor that ErJos olloroJ a prizo ol $3,000 in 1983, or that tho con-
jocturo has still not loon sottloJ, or that ho romarkoJ ol tho harJor
JomanJ that tho primos shoulJ lo consocutivo, This conjocturo is
unJoultoJly truo lut is complotoly unattackallo ly tho mothoJs at
our Jisposal.` (ErJos anJ DuJloy 1983)
ln 1990, in , ho prosontoJ Somo ol my
lavourito unsolvoJ prolloms,` incluJing this ono: il

is
tho Jilloronco lotvoon succossivo primos, aro thoro an inlinity ol
lor vhich

1

2
? ErJos vas so cortain this conjocturo,
vhich ho coulJ not provo, vas truo that ho olloroJ $100 lor a prool
lut $25,000 lor a Jisprool! (Bakor, Bollols, anJ Hajnal 1990, 469)
Ono Jay, Holmut Vaior vas giving ErJos a lilt into tovn anJ mon-
tionoJ a thoorom ho haJ just provoJ. Vaylo l olloroJ a prizo lor
that,` saiJ ErJos, so ol courso thoy haJ to go to tho lilrary to chock.
\os, inJooJ, ErJos haJ olloroJ $100 lor a prool, anJ ho paiJ up at
onco. That`s a protty oxponsivo taxi riJo,` romarkoJ Vaior, anJ ErJos
roaroJ vith laughtor.` (Pomoranco, guotoJ in Soilo 2002)
ErJos vas also a supportor ol olomontary mothoJs: this Joos
moan - mothoJs, lut mothoJs that Jo not uso calculus. His vory
lirst papor, pullishoJ vhon ho vas ninotoon, usoJ olomontary moth-
oJs that an unJorgraJuato coulJ unJorstanJ to provo K- -
.
ln 1949 ho anJ Atlo Sollorg lounJ an olomontary prool ol tho
that JiJ vithout tho analytical tools usoJ ly
HaJamarJ anJ Vall Poussin. G. H. HarJy haJ proviously saiJ that
such a prool sooms to mo oxtraorJinarily unlikoly.` Tho primo num-
lor thoorom, HarJy thought, vas oxtromoly Joop,` lut an olomon-
tary prool voulJ shov that this vas lalso, anJ in consoguonco it
voulJ lo nocossary lor tho looks to lo cast asiJo anJ lor tho tho-
ory to lo rovritton.` Curiously, tho prool ly ErJos anJ Sollorg JiJ
not havo this olloct at all. (HarJy 1966)

Bocauso ho collaloratoJ vith so many colloaguos, tho iJoa ol ErJos
numlors vas invontoJ. Vathomaticians vho havo thomsolvos col-
laloratoJ vith ErJos in vriting a papor havo ErJos numlor 1. Thoso
vho havo collaloratoJ vith an ErJos numlor 1 colloaguo havo
ErJos numlor 2, anJ so on.
ln 1996, 462 coauthors voro listoJ, starting vith Goorgo Szokoros
in 1934 vith livo joint papors anJ Paul Turn, also 1934, vith thirty.
P {
By lolruary 1999 tho list haJ grovn to 492 coauthors, anJ in lolru-
ary 2004 it vas 509, partly locauso, liko Eulor, his papors havo con-
tinuoJ to lo pullishoJ altor his Joath.
lt is a voll-knovn claim, somotimos calloJ Six Dogroos ol Kovin
Bacon,` that anyono can lo connoctoJ to anyono olso in tho vorlJ
ly at most six links, so it is no surpriso that many lamous matho-
maticians anJ ovon physicists, somo nov JoaJ, can lo connoctoJ
to ErJos anJ havo thoir ovn ErJos numlor. PicharJ DoJokinJ
(1831-1916) has ErJos numlor , Allort Einstoin is a 2, Wornor
Hoisonlorg anJ Paul Dirac aro loth 4, tho oconomist Konnoth Arrov
is a 3, Noam Chomsky is 4, Stophon Havking is also 4, anJ Bill Gatos
is a 4. AhmaJ Chalali, vho holpoJ` Bush anJ Blair to justily` tho
attack on lrag, is a 6.
Horo aro just a hanJlul, litorally, ol ErJos`s many rosults anJ conjoc-
turos rolatoJ to primo numlors:
Thoro aro inlinitoly many pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors, lut
ErJos conjocturoJ that thoro cannot lo throo consocutivo
-.
ErJos`s 2

conjocturo: il you sultract lrom all tho povors ol 2

loss than , vhon aro tho rosults all primo? ErJos conjocturoJ that
must lo 4, , 15, 21, 45, 5, or 105. Uchiyama anJ \orinaga havo vor-
ilioJ this up to 2

.
ErJos also conjocturoJ that tho samo sot ol intogors, 2

, aro
- lor inlinitoly many .
Thoro aro inlinitoly many primos, , such that ovory ovon numlor
loss than 2 can lo oxprossoJ as tho Jilloronco ol tvo primos loss
than or ogual to . lor oxamplo, il 23,
2 19 1 4 1 13 6 1 11 8 19 11 10 1
12 19 14 19 5 16 19 3 18 23 5 20 23 3
This is a caso vhoro it voulJ guito nico il 1 voro countoJ as a primo:
thon 22 23 1, olviously!
ll

is tho th primo, as usual, this soguonco convorgos:

1
2
2
3
3
5
4

5
11
6
13

1
8
19
9
23 . . .
conjocturos, gooJ primos, ranJomnoss
{ P
-
ln tho oightoonth contury, iJoas ol mathomatical rigor voro not voll
JovolopoJ, anJ a mathomatician as lrilliant as coulJ uso, lor
oxamplo, Jivorgont sorios anJ Jrav conclusions that voro usually
corroct, locauso his intuition vas so povorlul, lut also somotimos
vrong. So ho claimoJ to havo provoJ a vorsion ol tho
, lut orroJ locauso a sorios vas not alsolutoly convorgont.
(ErJos anJ DuJloy 1983)
Vaking conjocturos alout tho primos is ospocially oasy anJ ospo-
cially tompting, so in tho history ol tho primos many - havo
turnoJ out to lo lalso. Thoro havo also loon orrors ol calculation.
thought in 1906 that ho haJ provoJ that tho valuos ol
K- , (), novor occur onco only, lut tho prool`
containoJ an orror, so in 1922 ho pullishoJ a corroction anJ pro-
sontoJ tho prollom as a conjocturo-unprovoJ to this Jay. Thon in
1948 ho pullishoJ a corroction ol anothor claim in his original papor,
anJ in 1949 ho pullishoJ a list ol misprints in tho 1948 papor! (Kloo
1969)
Tallos ol primos prior to tho aJvont ol moJorn computors
inovitally containoJ orrors. Kulik constructoJ a tallo ol tho lactors ol
numlors up to 100,330,200, oxcluJing multiplos ol 2, 3, anJ 5, titloJ
- - - -
-- -
- - - Ho spont tvonty yoars
ol lilo on this mammoth task, anJ vhon ho JioJ tho manuscript vas
JopositoJ in tho AcaJomy ol Scioncos in Vionna. Unlortunatoly,
lounJ many mistakos in Kulik`s vork. To aJJ insult to injury,
tho soconJ ol tho oight volumos vas alroaJy missing vhon D. N.
Iohmor chockoJ tho manuscript, anJ has novor loon lounJ.
Tho Danish mathomatician Bortolson claimoJ in 1893 that thoro aro
50,84,48 primos loss than 10
9
. ln 1959, gavo tho cor-
roct liguro, 50,84,534.
Eulor`s many volumos ol colloctoJ papors contain a numlor ol
orrors. Ho onco announcoJ that 1000009 vas primo, only to roalizo
his mistako lator. Wo shoulJ sympathizo: Eulor vas sovonty at tho
timo, anJ haJ loon llinJ lor yoars. (CalJvoll, -)
Stioltjos claimoJ in 1885 that ho haJ provoJ tho --,
lut ho JiJn`t pullish his prool anJ JioJ soon altor in 1894 vithout
- {
Joing anything lurthor to support his claim. lt is likoly that his
prool containoJ an orror-or JiJ ho soo somothing that ovoryono
sinco has missoJ? (Apolstol 2000, 10)
Carmichaol anJ Vason listoJ lilty multiporloct numlors, lut thoy
mistakonly thought that 13561 151 911 anJ 485581 2 153
voro primo. (Guy 1994, 49)
Voro rocontly, a numlor ol claimoJ rosults anJ prools havo turnoJ
out to lo vrong. \ou might think that mathomaticians voulJ lo just
too carolul to oxposo thomsolvos to pullic humiliation, lut, to lo
lair, curront prools aro gotting moro anJ moro complox anJ vith tho
lost vill in tho vorlJ, mistakos aro oasy to mako.
AnJrov Wilos announcoJ in 1994 that ho haJ provoJ K- -
. Tho lrilliant solution ol a conturios-olJ prollom maJo tho
lront pagos-only lor a gap to lo spottoJ, vhich ho anJ his col-
loaguo PicharJ Taylor took moro than a yoar to lill.
Carmichaol`s totiont lunction conjocturo montionoJ alovo claims
that tho valuos ol tho () aro novor uniguo.
lilip SaiJak claimoJ to havo provoJ tho conjocturo in 199, lut his
prool vas orronoous.
Pogorzolski in 19 thought ho haJ provoJ K- ,
lut his prool is not gonorally accoptoJ` ly othor numlor thoorists.
(Woisstoin, : GolJlach Conjocturo`)
Dan GolJston anJ Com \ilJirim announcoJ in 1985 that thoy haJ
maJo a giant stop tovarJ solving tho - conjocturo. Soon
altor, AnJrov Granvillo anJ K. SounJararajan lounJ an orror. GolJ-
ston anJ \ilJirim`s conclusion JoponJoJ on tho sizo ol tho orror
torm in ono ol thoir lormulao. Thoy haJ loliovoJ that tho orror torm
vas lounJ to lo ospocially small, making tho lormula ospocially
accurato. lt vasn`t.
Vorsonno primos, lormat, Polignac or olstinato numlors, Wilos
P
Tho Grook mathomatician EucliJ is most lamous lor vriting his
-, vhich systomatically prosontoJ tho olomontary goomotry ol
his Jay, starting vith axioms anJ postulatos anJ thon proving a long
soguonco ol thooroms. lt vas so popular that it vas still loing usoJ
as a school toxtlook in tho oarly tvontioth contury. Hovovor, tho
- also incluJoJ lasic numlor thoory, in Book Vll, proposi-
{ P
tions 22-32, on primo numlors, anJ propositions 33-39, on loast
common multiplos, anJ in looks Vlll anJ lX.

Tho lunJamontal thoorom ol arithmotic statos that oach positivo intogor
can lo oxprossoJ as tho proJuct ol primos in ossontially ono vay only.
lor oxamplo, 43 3 3 43
anJ, 6111 3
2
9
This conclusion is not as olvious as it sooms. Supposo that vo con-
siJor only tho ovon intogors,
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .
Wo can lactorizo 8 into 2 4, anJ similarly, 20 2 10. Hovovor, 10
has no lactors vithin tho sot, locauso 1 anJ 5 aro not in tho sot. Tho
primos` vithin tho sot ol ovon numlors aro 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . (Joullo
tho usual primos) anJ tho compositos aro 4, 8, 12, . . .
lt nov turns out that 60 2 30 anJ 60 6 10, tvo Jistinct lac-
torizations into primo` numlors!
Anothor oxamplo consists ol tho orJinary intogors vith multiplos ol
6 aJJoJ. So somo samplo intogors in tho sot aro 1 6, 2 6,
4 3 6, anJ so on.
ln this systom ol numlors it can lo provoJ that 2 anJ 5 aro primo,
anJ so 10 2 5 is a primo lactorization ol 10. But vo might also
notico that 10 (4 6)(4 6), vhich is anothor lactorization, in
vhich noithor 2 nor 5 JiviJo 4 6 or 4 6.
Tho lunJamontal thoorom vas ovontually statoJ, cloarly anJ oxplic-
itly anJ rathor lato in tho Jay, ly --, lut EucliJ got vory closo.
Book lX, proposition 14, statos, ll a numlor lo tho loast that is moa-
suroJ ly primo numlors, it vill not lo moasuroJ ly any othor primo
numlor oxcopt thoso originally moasuring it.` A numlor vas moa-
suroJ` ly anothor il tho othor JiviJoJ it vithout romainJor, so this
sounJs liko tho lunJamontal thoorom ol arithmotic. Proposition 30 ol
Book Vll claims that il a primo moasuros tho proJuct ol tvo intogors,
thon it must moasuro at loast ono ol tho intogors. (Collison 1980)
-
No mattor hov many primo lactors an intogor has,
2
vill havo an
numlor. So tho ratio ol any tvo sguaros ol intogors also has an
P {
ovon numlor ol primo lactors, anJ sinco lactorization into primos is
uniguo, thoro is no vay that this can lo changoJ to an oJJ numlor
ol primo lactors.
So intogor vith an numlor ol primo lactors can lo tho
sguaro ol a rational numlor. ln particular, 2, 3, 5, , 11,
13, anJ 1 aro all , as aro all tho sguaro roots ol tho lol-
loving primos. (AnJ so aro tho culo roots, 4th roots, 5th roots, otc.)
Strangoly, tho Grook ThooJorus, Plato`s tutor, lollovoJ EucliJ anJ
provoJ that tho roots lrom 3 up to 1 voro irrational-anJ thon
stoppoJ!
-
EucliJ in Book Vll ol his - JolinoJ a primo numlor as that
vhich is moasuroJ ly unity alono.` ln Book lX ho provoJ that tho
numlor ol primos is inlinito, liko this: start vith tho primos lrom 2 to
11, anJ calculato,
2 3 5 11 1 2311
Tho ansvor cannot lo Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, , or 11, anJ so it is
oithor primo itsoll or has at loast tvo primo lactors. (ln lact it is
primo.) Eithor vay, vo havo proJucoJ at loast ono primo groator
than 11.
Nov assumo that thoro aro only a linito numlor ol primos. Do tho
samo, multiplying thom all togothor anJ aJJing 1. Onco again vo
shall croato at loast ono nov primo-vhich contraJicts tho assump-
tion that tho numlor ol primos is linito. Thoroloro it is inlinito.
Tho samo iJoa can lo usoJ to start lrom any sot ol primos anJ linJ
a primo not in tho sot. lor oxamplo, vo can calculato that,
2 5 11 1 21
Thon oithor 21 is primo, or it has a primo lactor that is not 2, 5, 11,
or 1. ln lact 21 31.
Or vo coulJ tako tho lirst lour primos, 2, 3, 5, anJ , anJ lorm
thoso sums anJ Jilloroncos:
2 3 5 23, 3 3 5 2 103, 10
5 2 3 6, 3 2 3 5 3, 4
5 2 3 29, 41 3 2 5 11, 31
3 5 2 1, 29
Sinco 8, 9, anJ 10 aro olviously Jivisillo ly oithor 2 or 3, any ansvor
that is loss than 11
2
must lo primo, or unity.
{ P
Tho samo calculation using 2
2
, 3, 5, anJ proJucos unity, plus tho
primos 13, 23, 41, 43, 4, 53, 6, 9, 89, 101, 109, 13, anJ tho proJ-
uct ol tvo nov primos, 143 11 13.
- - -
EucliJ`s iJoa also suggosts hov vo can linJ strings ol consocutivo
composito numlors as long as vo liko. This oxprossion,
1 2 3 4 5 6 . . .
vill lo composito il is any numlor lrom 2 to . So il vo vant 100
consocutivo composito numlors, 101! , 2 to 101 vill Jo.
-
Wo can uso EucliJ`s mothoJ slightly aJaptoJ to provo that thoro is an
inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm 4 3.
Tho proJuct ol sovoral numlors ol tho lorm 4 1 is alvays ol tho
samo lorm, anJ tho proJuct ol an numlor ol numlors ol tho
lorm 4 3 is also ol tho lorm 4 3: lut tho proJuct ol an
numlor ol numlors ol tho lorm 4 3 is ol tho lorm 4 1.
Thoroloro, il vo multiply, say, tho lirst six torms in tho 4 3
soguonco,
3 11 19 23 31 43 4 . . .
anJ aJJ : 3 11 19 23 31 2
vo got a numlor ol tho lorm 4 3 that is not Jivisillo ly 3, , 11,
19, 23, or 31. lts primo lactors cannot all lo ol tho lorm 4 1, so at
loast ono lactor must lo a nov` primo ol tho lorm 4 3. Call it ,
anJ lorm tho oxprossion,
3
2
11 19 23 31 2
Onco again vo havo a proJuct ol an ovon numlor ol numlors, 4
3, vith a lactor ol that lorm. So thoro is an inlinity ol 4 3 primos.
Vatching mothoJs shov that thoro is an inlinity ol primos ol tho
lorm 5 4, 8 3, 8 5, anJ 8 . (Siorpinski)
- -
Starting vith any sot ol primos, vo can multiply thom togothor anJ
aJJ 1, vo thon linJ tho smallost primo lactor ol tho rosult anJ aJJ it
to tho original list. Do this starting vith 2 anJ vo got this soguonco:
2 3 43 13 53 5 . . .
P {
Which primos ovontually appoar in this soguonco? Tho lirst primo
that has not yot appoaroJ in any calculation ol tho soguonco is 31.
Anothor vay ol shoving that thoro is an inlinity ol primos is to pro-
Juco an inlinito soguonco ol rolativoly primo numlors. Ono oxamplo
is tho -, 2
2

1. Ono ol thoir proportios is that

2
0

3
. . .
1
. Sinco all

aro oJJ,

has no lactor in com-

mon vith any ol its proJocossors, anJ so has a nov` primo lactor.
-
EucliJ shovoJ in tho -, Book lX proposition 36, that il 2

1
is primo thon 2
1
(2

1) is a , ogual to tho sum ol

all its propor Jivisors.

This is a mothoJ ol linJing tho - or -
(GCD) ol tvo numlors. ll tho algorithm onJs in 1, tho original num-
lors aro coprimo. EucliJ JoscriloJ it in his -, Book Vll.
Iot`s start vith tho numlors 4334 anJ 2838. By Jivision, vhich in
this caso is just sultraction,
4334 2838
Continuing vith 2838 anJ 1496,
2838 1496
AnJ so on: 1496 1342
1342 8 I 154
154 110
110 2 I 44
44 2 I 22
Tho linal romainJor is 0, so tho provious romainJor, 22, is tho groat-
ost common lactor. ln lact, 4334 2 I 11 I 19 anJ 2 I 3 I 11 I 43,
lrom vhich vo soo that tho common primo lactors aro 2 anJ 11.
Tho algorithm vorks locauso tho GCD JiviJos all tho romainJors
lrom 1496 onvarJ. ll tho smallost romainJor is 1, thon tho numlors
aro coprimo. lor oxamplo:
50 6 I 813 199
813 4 I 199 1
{ P
199 11 I 1 12
1 12 5
12 2 I 5 2
5 2 I 2 1
Sinco vo onJ up vith tho unit, 1, thoy aro rolativoly primo. Wo coulJ
havo stoppoJ as soon as vo noticoJ that 1 anJ 12 aro rolativoly
primo.
Iam provoJ in 1844 that tho EucliJoan algorithm takos longost
vhon tho inputs aro consocutivo -
P
Till nov mathomaticians havo trioJ in vain to this Jay to Jiscovor
somo orJor in tho soguonco ol primo numlors, anJ vo havo roa-
son to loliovo that it is a mystory into vhich tho human minJ vill
novor ponotrato. To convinco onosoll, ono has only to glanco at
tho tallos ol primos vhich somo pooplo took tho troullo to com-
puto loyonJ a hunJroJ thousanJ, anJ ono porcoivos that thoro is
no orJor anJ no rulo.
O
IoonharJ Eulor vas ono ol tho groatost mathomaticians ol all timo,
up thoro vith ArchimoJos, Novton, anJ Gauss. Iiko thom, ho ox-
colloJ in puro anJ applioJ mathomatics anJ croatoJ concopts anJ
mothoJs ol onJuring signilicanco.
Ho stuJioJ at tho Univorsity ol Basol vhoro tho lrilliant Johann
Bornoulli vas a prolossor. Eulor vas allovoJ to visit him on SaturJay
altornoons to guiz him on anything ho lounJ puzzling.
Eulor pullishoJ his lirst mathomatical vork at ago oightoon, tho
prococious start ol an astonishing output that ovontually lilloJ
Jozons ol volumos, anJ incluJoJ acoustics, algolra, artillory anJ lal-
listics, astronomy, incluJing lunar motion anJ tho calculation ol
orlits, calculus, incluJing Jillorontial oguations anJ tho calculus ol
variations, cartography anJ gooJosy, Jomography, oloctricity anJ
magnotism, goomotry, incluJing Jillorontial goomotry, hyJraulics
anJ hyJroJynamics, insuranco, mochanics, music, navigation anJ
shipluilJing, numlor thoory, optics, prolalility, anJ statistics.
P {
Ho also contrilutoJ to vhat vo call rocroational mathomatics. Ho
vroto throo momoirs on --, anJ solvoJ tho voll-knovn
prollom ol tho BriJgos ol Konigslorg.
Duo to a romarkallo momory-ovon in olJ ago ho romomloroJ
tho vholo ol Vorgil`s ly hoart, pago ly pago-ho proJucoJ
noarly hall ol his vork altor locoming llinJ altor a cataract opora-
tion in 11. His vorks voro still loing pullishoJ ly tho St. Potors-
lurg AcaJomy noarly lilty yoars altor his Joath.
Eulor vas a univorsal mathomatician comlining lrillianco ol calcula-
tion incluJing uso ol olsorvation anJ inJuction vith Jazzling lormal
manipulation anJ tho croation ol many novol concopts anJ mothoJs
that haJ a lasting impact: lor oxamplo, ho championoJ tho potontial
uso ol Jivorgont sorios, vhich Jo not convorgo to a linito sum, anJ
ho JiscovoroJ tho lamous lormula

1, vhich links complox

numlors anJ tho trigonomotrical lunctions.
Tho thoory ol numlors vas a porloct arona lor his gonius. ll lor-
mat luilt tho initial lounJations ol tho moJorn thoory ol numlors,
Eulor oxtonJoJ thom anJ aJJoJ sovoral storios.
Ho provoJ K- - lor tho caso 3, anJ lounJ
many nov -. Ho gavo nov prools ol K-
anJ gonoralizoJ it ly introJucing K- ,
ho JiscovoroJ tho lav ol , though ho coulJ not
provo it. Ho stuJioJ tho roprosontation ol primos in tho lorm
2

2
, anJ lounJ a mothoJ ol -.
Eulor oxtonJoJ lormat`s Jiscovorios on tho lorms ol lactors ol cor-
tain numlors. Ho shovoJ that il
2

, thon all its primo lac-

tors aro oithor 2, or ol tho lorm 2
1
1. A spocial caso is that ovory
primo lactor ol tho 2
2
5
1 must lo ol tho lorm 64
1. Using this lact, ho provoJ that 641 JiviJos
5
, anJ so JomolishoJ
K- that all tho lormat numlors aro primo.
K- -
ln his soarch lor lottor vays to provo primality, Eulor invontoJ in
18, vhon ho vas alroaJy sovonty yoars olJ anJ noarly llinJ, tho
iJoa ol a convoniont numlor or - - Thoso aro tho
numlors such that ll can lo roprosontoJ in tho lorm
2

2
in
just ono vay, vith , , anJ coprimo, tho must lo primo.
Vorsonno anJ lroniclo Jo Bossy haJ loth roalizoJ that thoro vas a
connoction lotvoon a numlor loing composito anJ loing ropro-
sontallo as tho sum ol tvo sguaros in moro than ono vay.
{ P
lor oxamplo, lroniclo Jo Bossy in a lottor JatoJ August 2, 1641,
challongoJ lormat to lactorizo 221 ly using tho lact that 221 10
2

11
2
anJ 5
2
14
2
.
Eulor vas tho lirst to Jovolop a spocilic mothoJ. Ho lounJ a total
ol sixty-livo convoniont numlors, incluJing all tho intogors 1 to 13,
anJ oxprossoJ his loliol that thoro voulJ lo an inlinito numlor ol
thom, anJ soarchoJ lor thom up to 10,000, though tho largost ho
coulJ linJ vas 1848, lrom vhich ho provoJ that
18518809 19
2
1848 100
2
is primo, a romarkallo loat lor that timo. Evon moro romarkally, vo
nov knov that Eulor`s list ol convoniont numlors vas vory likoly
comploto: thoro is at most ono moro to lo JiscovoroJ, anJ il it oxists
it is groator than 10
65
-a triluto to Eulor`s oxtraorJinary povors ol
calculation.
Eulor lounJ his sot ol convoniont numlors ly using tho thoorom that
is a convoniont numlor il anJ only il ovory intogor
2
4 is
oithor an oJJ primo or Joullo an oJJ primo, or tho sguaro ol an oJJ
primo or a povor ol 2. (Actually, it is nov knovn that this critorion
is nocossary lut may not lo sulliciont.)
Ho gavo thoso liguros to shov that 13 is a convoniont numlor:
13 1
2
14 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 2
2
1 oJJ primo
13 3
2
22 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 4
2
29 oJJ primo
13 5
2
38 Joullo an oJJ primo
13 6
2
49 sguaro ol an oJJ primo
Ho also claimoJ many proportios lor his convoniont numlors,
though ho JiJ not provo thom all, incluJing thoso truo lacts:
- Tho lorm
2

2
is convoniont il anJ only il
2

2
is.
- ll an intogor 4 1 is convoniont, thon so is 4(4 1), anJ il
3 1 is convoniont, thon so is 9(3 1).
- ll
2
is convoniont, thon so is .
- Tho only sguaro convoniont numlors aro 1, 4, 9, 16, anJ 25.
Thoro is anothor connoction lotvoon Eulor`s convoniont numlors
anJ a thomo that appoars ropoatoJly lrom Diophantus anJ lormat
onvarJ: tho iJoa that a primo is ol tho lorm
2

2
il anJ only il it
is ol tho lorm 4 1, anJ similarly lor othor lorms.
P {
lt turns out that primos ol tho lorm
2

2
can lo charactorizoJ
ly a conJition such as 4 1 il anJ only il is a convoniont
numlor. (Oro 1948, 61-63) (lroi 1985)
-
Eulor locamo immoJiatoly lamous in 135 vhon ho solvoJ tho Basol
prollom, so namoJ locauso Jacol Bornoulli, vriting lrom Basol, haJ
loggoJ in ono ol his looks lor a solution to a prollom that so many
groat mathomaticians, incluJing Jacol, Johann, anJ Daniol Bornoulli
anJ Ioilniz anJ Jo Voivro haJ trioJ anJ lailoJ to solvo. Eulor
shovoJ that tho sum ol tho sorios,
11
2
12
2
13
2
14
2
15
2
. . .
is ogual to
2
6. Ho also shovoJ that,
11
4
12
4
13
4
14
4
15
4
. . .
4
90
anJ 11
6
12
6
13
6
14
6
15
6
. . .
6
945
Ho lator calculatoJ that,
1 13
2
15
2
1
2
19
2
. . .
2
8
anJ 11
26
12
26
13
26
14
26
15
26
. . .
Eulor also haJ tho lrilliant iJoa ol stuJying tho gonoral sorios,
1 12

13

14

15

18

19

. . .
Ho noticoJ that this is tho proJuct ol all thoso inlinito sorios, ono lor
oach primo:
(1 12

12
2
12
3
. . .)(1 13

13
2
13
3
. . .)(1 15

15
2
15
3
. . .)(1 1

1
2
1
3
. . .) . . .
Summing oach ol thoso goomotric sorios, tho sum original sum
oguals
. . .
an inlinito proJuct ol torms, 1(1 1

), vhoro rangos ovor all tho

primo numlors lrom 2 onvarJ.
This is an oxtraorJinary connoction, lotvoon a - involving all
tho intogors, to a involving only tho primo numlors! What is
1
1

1
1
5
1

1
1
3
1

1
1
2
1

2
24
2! 6992
26
{ P
moro, loth tho sum anJ tho proJuct aro - that can lo
manipulatoJ liko any othor lunctions-so horo, in this romarkallo
translormation, Eulor vas croating a lriJgo lotvoon tho primo num-
lors as Jiscroto intogors, anJ analysis that Joals vith continuous
guantitios, anJ so taking tho thoory ol primo numlors into ontiroly
nov torritory.
ToJay, mathomaticians consiJor tho sorios:
(-) 11
-
12
-
13
-
14
-
15
-
. . .
Tho lamous -- rolatos to this sorios, in vhich tho
intogor has locomo tho complox numlor -.
K- -
Tho sorios
1
1
1
2
1
3 . . .
1
Jivorgos as tonJs to inlinity. Eulor
shovoJ not only that it is approximatoly log , lut also that
1
1
1
2
1
3 . . .
1
log
tonJs to a constant, Eulor`s constant, JonotoJ ly tho Grook lottor
gamma, , vhich ho calculatoJ to sixtoon Jocimal placos in 181. lt
is approximatoly 0.5215664901532860 . . . lt is not knovn vhothor
it is rational. ll it is, anJ

F, thon 10
244662
.
This is ono ol tho most mystorious constants in mathomatics, vhich
turns up in somo unoxpoctoJ placos. lor oxamplo: il a largo intogor
is JiviJoJ ly oach intogor , 1 , thon tho avorago lraction ly
vhich tho guotionts lall short ol tho noxt intogor is not
1
2, lut .
lt has loon conjocturoJ that il () is tho numlor ol primos ,
such that tho Vorsonno numlor 2

1 is primo, thon ()log

tonJs to tho constant log 2 2.56954 . . . as tonJs to inlinity.
(linch 2003, 29)
Thoro aro many othor sorios lor . This is Dr. Vacca`s:
(
1
2
1
3) 2(
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
) 3(
1
8
1
9
1
10
1
11 . . .
1
15) . . .
- -
Eulor provoJ in 13 that tho sum ol tho rociprocals ol tho primos
1
2
1
3
1
5
1

1
11
1
13
1
1 . . .
Jivorgos. Ho also claimoJ, in moJorn notation, that it JivorgoJ liko
tho lunction log log . This is so slov that moro than 360,000 torms
aro nooJoJ lor tho sum to oxcooJ 3.
P {
Tho altornating sum ol tho primo rociprocals convorgos, sinco its
valuo alvays lios lotvoon
1
2 anJ 0:
1
2
1
3
1
5
1

1
11
1
13 . . . 0.2696063519 . . .
Tho sum ol tho sguaroJ rociprocals ol tho primos also convorgos, to
0.452244200 . . . (linch 2003, 95)
K-
This is is tho numlor ol intogors loss than anJ primo to it, JonotoJ
ly (). (By convontion, (1) 1.) lt is thoroloro also knovn as tho
phi lunction. lts lirst lov valuos aro:
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12
() 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 4 6 4 10 4
ll is primo, () 1, anJ (

)
1
( 1).
Iiko tho tvo Jivisor lunctions, J() anJ (), () is multiplicativo,
moaning that il anJ aro coprimo, thon () () (), so il
vo can vrito as tho proJuct ol its primo lactors, vo can at onco
calculato (). ln particular, il is tho proJuct ol Jistinct primos ,
, , thon () ( 1)( 1)( 1), . . . , lor oxamplo,
(105) (3 5 ) 2 4 6 48
Thoro is a rolatoJ Jivisilility proporty: il JiviJos , thon ()
JiviJos ().
Apart lrom (1) anJ (2), () is alvays ovon. ll has Jistinct oJJ
primo lactors, thon 2

JiviJos ().
Not all ovon numlors, hovovor, aro valuos ol (). lor oxamplo,
2

is novor a valuo. (Schinzol: Pilonloim 1995) On tho othor

hanJ, ovory lactorial ! is a valuo ol (). (Gupta: Pilonloim 1995)
Othor numlors occur lroguontly as valuos ol (). Tho numlor 12
occurs six timos, lor 13, 21, 26, 28, 36, anJ 42. Tho numlor 16
also occurs six timos, anJ 24 occurs ton timos.
Tho soguonco ol ovon non-valuos ol () starts:
14, 26, 34, 38, 50, 62, 68, 4, 6, 86, 90, 94, 98, 114, 118, . . .
(Sloano A0052)
Tho sum ol () ovor ovory that JiviJos , is . lor oxamplo, tho
Jivisors ol 30 aro 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, anJ 30, anJ,
{ P
(1) (2) (3) (5) (6) (10) (15) (30)
1 1 2 4 2 4 8 8 30
ll a numlor has many small primo lactors, it vill havo vory many
Jivisors anJ () vill lo rolativoly largo anJ () vill lo rolativoly
small. So it is not surprising that () anJ () havo tho samo
orJor ol magnituJo, 6
2
() ()
2
1 il 1. (Annapurna 1938)
Tho sum (1) (2) (3) (4) . . . () is vory roughly 3
2

2
vhon is largo.
D. H. Iohmor conjocturoJ that il is composito, thon () novor
JiviJos 1. No countor-oxamplo is knovn. ll it oxists it is groator
than 10
20
anJ has moro than thirtoon primo lactors. (Pilonloim 1995,
3) Hovovor, () JiviJos il anJ only il tho only primo lactors ol
aro 2 or 3, or loth.
ll is primo, thon () 1 anJ () 1 anJ so () ()
2. This is also a sulliciont conJition: no composito numlor has this
proporty. What alout tho oguation () () 3? This has solu-
tions, 312, 560, 588, 1400, 85632, . . .
Tho oguation () () 4 has solutions 2360, 59400, 15320,
anJ 4563000.
PicharJ Guy also notos that il is primo, thon () () is 1 loss than
a porloct sguaro, anJ this also occurs lor 6, 22, 33, 44, 69,
6, . . . (Guy 199)
K-
Wo havo alroaJy notoJ among lamous - that con-
jocturoJ that, il () , thon thoro is anothor numlor, , such that
() also, anJ loliovoJ that ho haJ provoJ this. His prool vas
laulty, lut tho conjocturo is nov knovn to lo truo lor all valuos ol
() up to 10
1360000
.
ErJos JiJ provo that il thoro is an intogor , lor vhich ()
has solutions, thon thoro aro inlinitoly many intogors vith tho samo
proporty. (ErJos anJ DuJloy 1983)
HarolJ Donnolly provoJ that il () Joos havo a uniguo solution,
thon 2
2
3
2

2
43
2
JiviJos . (Donnolly 193)
P {
lt isn`t knovn vhothor thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol pairs, such as
15 anJ 16, such that () ( 1). Hovovor, Siorpinski provoJ
that thoro is at loast ono solution to tho oguation,
() ( )
lor ovory valuo ol . Tho lirst lov solutions aro:
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
1 4 3 8 5 24 5 16 9 20
lt vas provoJ ly D. J. Novman that thoro must lo a valuo ol lor
vhich (30 1) (30), lut actual tosts shovoJ that thoro is no
such 20,000,000. Thon Grog Vartin lounJ tho smallost that sat-
islios tho inoguality. lt is
232 909 810 15 496 93 814 049 684 205 233 80 004 859 885 966
051 235 363 345 322 05 888 344 528 23 154 52 984 260 16 895
854 182 634 802 90 109 21 610 432 28 652 96 90 46 54 362
400 134 090 318 355 962 121 46 85 12 891 544 538 210 966 04
036 990 885 292 446 155 135 69 1 565 808 063 66 383 846 220
120 606 143 826 509 433 540 250 085 111 624 90 464 541 380 934
486 35 688 208 918 50 640 64 629 942 465 499 369 036 58 640
331 59 035 99 369 302 685 31 156 22 245 466 396 22 865 621
951 101 808 240 692 259 960 203 091 330 589 296 656 888 011 91
011 416 062 631 565 320 593 2 28 118 913 28 608 99 901 91
216 356 108 665 46 306 080 40 121 528 236 888 680 120 152 49
138 32 451 088 404 280 929 048 314 912 122 84 89 58 304 016
832 436 51 532 255 185 640 249 324 065 492 491 511 02 521 585
980 54 438 48 689 30 159 363 481 233 965 802 331 25 033 663
862 618 95 168 94 043 54 448 89 663 21 91 081 445 619 618
89 985 42 04 303 100 303 636 08 82 23 695 551 162 089 25
435 110 246 01 964 021 045 849 081 811 604 42 331 22 553 83
590 821 510 091 60 56 18 842 569 56 699 548 038 21 63 11
895 383 249 326 800 66 432 993 531 186 43 659 910 632 865 419
892 30 95 22 154 266 351 039 808 548 150 828 868 968 820 65
198 820 381 135 523 646 361 202 383 915 218 51 01 801 463 011
491 108 84 343 253 284 393 511 650 254 506 59 923 969 653 616
813 89 10 621 56 693 82 41 154 01 151 222 320 443 34 408
180 04 964 860
{ P
Onco again, tho conjocturo lasoJ on ompirical oviJonco that a solu-
tion to a prollom Joos not oxist is ovorturnoJ ly a solution that takos
a vory long timo to appoar! (Vartin 1999)
--
- 30 is tho largost intogor vith tho proporty that ovory smallor
intogor that is primo to it is itsoll a primo.
- () is novor ogual to 10. Tho soguonco ol valuos novor
takon ly () continuos: (10) 26 34 50 52 58 86 100 . . .
- () unloss 2 or 6.
- Carl Pomoranco noticoJ that 210 is primo lor all primos
lotvoon 105 anJ 210. lt vas provoJ in 1993 that this is tho
only numlor vith this proporty.
orrors, lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, strong lav ol small numlors,
IittlovooJ`s thoorom, Siorpinski`s () conjocturo
K-
O`Toolo novor lully comprohonJoJ vhat oxactly vas moant ly
tho oxprossion guaJratic primo.` Hovovor ho JiJ unJorstanJ,
anJ vas lascinatoJ ly, tho lact that tho string 41, 43, 4, 53, 61,
1, 83, 9, . . . , vhoro oach succossivo numlor vas computoJ ly
incroasing tho Jilloronco lrom tho provious numlor ly 2, rosultoJ
in oxactly lorty consocutivo primo numlors. Tho soguonco onJoJ
only vhon tho lorty-lirst numlor in tho string turnoJ out to lo a
non-primo, namoly 41 I 41 1681.
O
Eulor JiscovoroJ in 12 that tho lormula
2
41 is primo lor
1 to 40, anJ lor many valuos thoroaltor. Thon noticoJ
in 198 that tho guaJratic
2
41 is primo lor 0 to 39, anJ
this is, ironically, nov knovn as Eulor`s polynomial. ln lact it is com-
posito lor 40, 41, 44, 49, 56, 65, 6, 81, 82, 84, 8, 89, 91, anJ 96
(Sloano A00634) anJ primo lor all othor valuos up to 100 inclusivo.
Ol tho lirst 1,000 valuos, 581 aro primo. (CalJvoll, -)
IogonJro also noticoJ that 2
2
29 is primo lor 0, 1, . . . , 28.
ln gonoral, tho polynomial 2
2
, vith 3, 5, 11, or 29, givos
primo valuos lor 0, 1, . . . , 1.
Eulor`s lormula vas usoJ ly Charlos Ballago to Jomonstrato tho
capalilitios ol his Dilloronco Engino. As ho oxplainoJ in a lottor to Sir
Humphroy Davy in 1822, tho machino coulJ calculato lut not print,
P {
so an assistant haJ to vrito Jovn tho numlors as thoy voro pro-
JucoJ:
|Tho Dilloronco Enginol procooJoJ to mako a tallo lrom tho lormula
2

41. ln tho oarlior numlors my lrionJ, in vriting guickly, rathor moro

than kopt paco vith tho ongino, lut as soon as lour liguros voro roguiroJ,
tho machino vas at loast ogual in spooJ to tho vritor. (Williams anJ Shallit
1994, 488)
Tho valuos 40 to 1 proJuco tho samo sot ol primo valuos. By
sulstituting 40 lor in tho original lormula, vo got tho guaJratic

2
9 1601, vhich proJucos oighty primos in soguonco lrom
0 to 9, lut thoy aro JuplicatoJ.
Thoro is a Joop roason vhy tho lormula
2
41 givos a primo lor
all valuos ol lotvoon 0 anJ 39, anJ a simplor roason vhy vo might
oxpoct it to givo an unusually largo numlor ol primos lor any valuo
ol . Horo is tho simplo roason.
lirst,
2
is ovon, so vo aro not surprisoJ that 41 is oJJ. Simi-
larly,
2
0 or 2 (moJ 3), anJ vo notico that 41 2 (moJ 3),
so
2
41 1 or 2 (moJ 3). Iikoviso,
2
0, 1, or 2 (moJ
5), anJ vo notico that 41 1 (moJ 5), so
2
41 1, 2, or 3
(moJ 5). Continuing vith , anJ comlining tho rosults, vo linJ that

2
41 is novor Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, or . Voro gonorally, il
11, 1, 41, 101, 13, or 16 (moJ 210), thon
2
vill novor lo
Jivisillo ly oithor 2, 3, 5, or .
Tho numlor ol primos ol tho lorm
2
lor 0 1000, anJ
thoso valuos ol aro:
11 1 41 101 13 16
primo valuos ol
2
288 366 582 453 339 285
(Primo ProJucing Polynomials,` vvv.glasgovg43.lroosorvo.co
.ukprimpoly.htm)
-
lt is a thoorom that no polynomial, (), vith intogor coollicionts can
lo a primo lor all or lor all sulliciontly largo , unloss it is a con-
stant. Hovovor, somo polynomials Jo proJuco oxcoptionally high
proportions ol primos.
Primo numlors, , such as 41, lor vhich tho guaJratic
2

proJucos many primos havo loon calloJ ly Io Iionnais tho Iucky
{ P
Numlors ol Eulor. lor instanco,
2
2999 2248541 proJucos
oighty Jilloront primos lrom 1460 to 1539. (Boilor 1966, 220)
As a rosult ol computor soarchos, othor lorms ol guaJratics aro
knovn that givo moro primos. Boogor in 1938 JiscovoroJ that
2

2941 proJucos moro primos among its lirst million valuos, lrom
0 onvarJs, than Joos
2
41, 286128 to 261080. Gillort lung
JiscovoroJ,
103
2
3945 34381 lor 0 to 45
Pussoll Puly lounJ: 36
2
810 253, vhich is primo lor 0,
1, . . . , 44.
AccorJing to ono ol tho -, tho Jonsity ol
primos among tho valuos ol thoso guaJratic oxprossions as tonJs
to inlinity vill alvays lo log , vhoro vill vary vith tho
oxprossion. Eulor`s lormula has 3.31932, vhoroas tho lormula

2
1328429528931 has 5.080883.
Puly anJ lung also lounJ tho soconJ rocorJ polynomial, 4
2

101 10181, vhich proJucos lorty-throo Jistinct primo valuos lor

0 42. (lung anJ Williams 1990)
Tho polynomial 41
2
33 43321 givos primo valuos lor ninoty
valuos ol , 0 99, lut at most tvonty-six ol thoso aro consocu-
tivo.
ll ono ol tho HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos is truo, thon tho guaJratic

2
112,32986,61656,081
has a rocorJ-lroaking asymptotic Jonsity, moaning that as tonJs to
inlinity, it has tho largost knovn proportion ol primos among its
valuos.
Siorpinski has provoJ that lor any intogor , you can linJ a numlor
such that
2
has at loast primo valuos. lt has sinco loon
provoJ that this holJs lor any polynomial ol Jogroo groator than 1,
vith intogral coollicionts. (Alol anJ Siolort 1993)
Eulor`s constant, Eulor anJ tho rociprocals ol tho primos, Eulor`s
totiont (phi) lunction, Piomann hypothosis
P {

Tho lactorial ol an intogor, , vritton !, is tho proJuct ol all tho into-

gors up to anJ incluJing , so 8! 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 40,320.
An approximato lormula lor largo lactorials JiscovoroJ ly Jamos
Stirling (1692-10) is ono ol tho most romarkallo in olomontary
mathomatics:
! 2

1
2

lt is guito improssivo ovon lor small valuos ol . lor oxamplo, 20!

2,432,902,008,16,640,000, anJ using an orJinary pockot calculator,
tho proJuct on tho right oguals 2.4226 10
18
.
- -
What povor ol (lor oxamplo) 11 JiviJos 203! ? JiscovoroJ
tho ansvor in 1808. Poprosont 203 as tho sum ol povors ol 11:
203 1 11
2
11 5
so that 203
11
15. Thon tho ansvor is (203 (1 5))(11 1)
19.
Tho highost povor ol 2 that JiviJos 2

! is 2
2

1
. (Iarivioro)
Tho proJuct ol any consocutivo positivo intogors is Jivisillo ly ! .
- Pascal`s trianglo, Wilson`s thoorom
-
lactorial primos aro ol tho lorm ! 1. Both lorms havo loon tostoJ
to 10,000:
- ! 1 is primo lor 1, 2, 3, 11, 2, 3, 41, 3, , 116, 154,
320, 340, 399, 42, 82, 14, 6380, 26951, . . .
- ! 1 is primo lor 3, 4, 6, , 12, 14, 30, 32, 33, 38, 94, 166,
324, 39, 469, 546, 94, 1963, 350, 3610, 691, 21480,
3490, . . .
Thoso aro tho livo largost knovn lactorial primos, vith tho yoar ol
thoir Jiscovory, anJ thoir Jiscovoror. (CalJvoll, -)
{
3490! 1 142,891 Jigits 2002 Varchal, CarmoJy, Kuosa
26951! 1 10,0 Jigits 2002 Davis, Kuosa
21480! 1 83,2 Jigits 2001 Davis, Kuosa
691! 1 23,560 Jigits 1998 CalJvoll
6380! 1 21,50 Jigits 1998 CalJvoll
Thoso lactorial primos aro also tho suljoct ol an lntornot-lasoJ soarch,
soo tho lox on this pago.
--
Tho sums in this soguonco,
3 3! 2! 1! 5
4 4! 3! 2! 1! 19
5 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 101
6 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 619
! 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 4421
-- {

(lrom http:povorsum.Jhis.org)
Tho purposo ol this pago is to coorJinato ollort to soarch lor tho
noxt primos ol tho lorm n! 1 anJ n! 1.
At tho momont our purposo is to soarch tho rango lotvoon 30,000
100,000.
All numlors in tho rango havo loon trial lactoroJ ly Phil CarmoJy
up to 6,320,124,029. Tho noxt stop is porlorm a prolallo primality
tost lor ovory romaining numlor. Tho numlor 35,000! is 143,845 Jig-
its long anJ tho numlor 100,000! is 456,54 Jigits.
Ploaso join us in tho soarch!
- -
On Vay 16, 2002, Ioon Varchal lounJ 3490! 1 is primo!
This primo is 142891 Jigits long.
- -
On Vay 22, 2002, Kon Davis lounJ 26951! 1 is primo!
This primo is 100 Jigits long.
aro all primo. Also 8 anJ 10 loaJ to primos, lut vhon 9,
tho sum is 326981 9 4139.
lrom 11 to 28 thoro aro just tvo moro primos, so this looks
liko anothor caso ol tho - - -.
Kollor has lounJ that 160! 159! 158! . . . 3! 2! 1! is primo.
(Kollor: CalJvoll, -)
Tho sum 1! 2! 3! 4! . . . ! is only a sguaro lor 1 or 3.
(Koshy 2002)
-
Tho Joullo lactorial ol is !! ( 2)( 4) . . . anJ tho triplo
lactorial is !!! ( 3)( 6) . . . anJ so on, stopping loloro tho
lirst torm that is oithor nogativo or zoro.
Tho lunction !! 1 is ovon vhon is oJJ, anJ contains vory lov
primos vhon is ovon. Tho primo valuos ol !! 1 up to 5898
aro just 1, 2, anJ 518. Tho lourth anJ lilth primos ol this lorm aro
33416!! 1 anJ 3310!! 1. (Harvoy: CalJvoll, -) Curi-
ously, !! 1, to tho samo limit, is primo lor all tho valuos 2, 4,
6, 8, 16, 26, 64, 82, 90, 118, 194, 214, 28, 842, 888, anJ 2328. (Pilon-
loim 1995, 2)
Tho largost knovn primo ol tho lorm !! 1 is 9682!! 1. (Jo Wator:
CalJvoll, -)
Tho largost knovn triplo lactorial primo is 3406!!! 1. (Harvoy: CalJ-
voll, -)
-
Pick up a calculator, koy in tvo numlors, anJ multiply thom to-
gothor, say, 10 I 3463 329651. Nov ask a lrionJ to toll you vhat
numlors you multiplioJ! Tricky! Vory tricky!
lt isn`t Jillicult locauso you usoJ a calculator-il you voro taught
to Jo long multiplication in school you coulJ vork tho proJuct out
{ -
lor yoursoll on a scrap ol papor in a lov minutos at most. But to
vork -! Ah! Thoro`s tho rul!
lt is ono ol tho curiositios ol arithmotic that it is so oasy to multiply
numlors togothor, yot to lactorizo ovon guito a small numlor is lar
harJor anJ cannot lo Jono ly any roally guick anJ simplo mothoJ.
Vultiplication vith a hanJ calculator is so oasy it`s trivial: lut orJi-
nary calculators Jo not havo a lactor` koy, anJ linJing lactors on a
calculator is long-vinJoJ anJ toJious, or ovon impossillo.
A corrosponJont onco askoJ vhothor 100,895,598,169 is primo,
anJ lormat roplioJ immoJiatoly that it is composito, tho proJuct ol
898,423 anJ 112,303. HovJiJ ho Jo it? No ono knovs, anJ tho numlors
aro so largo-prior to tho ago ol oloctronic calculators-that it has loon
spoculatoJ that lormat haJ a socrot mothoJ ol lactorization, sinco lost.
Olivor Sacks Joscrilos in his look - -
- tho tvins John anJ Vichaol, vho,
givon a numlor ol up to tvonty Jigits, coulJ say oxtromoly guickly
vhothor it vas primo, though thoy haJ Jilliculty vith olomontary
arithmotic. (Sacks 1985)
- {
- P
Ono ol tho most oxtraorJinary mootings in tho history ol mathomat-
ics vas JoscriloJ ly E. T. Boll in -
:
At tho Octolor, 1903, mooting in Nov \ork ol tho Amorican Vathomatical
Socioty, Colo haJ a papor on tho programmo vith tho moJost titlo, On tho
lactorization ol Iargo Numlors.` Whon tho chairman calloJ on him lor his
papor, Colo-vho vas alvays a man ol lov vorJs-valkoJ to tho loarJ
anJ, saying nothing, procooJoJ to chalk up tho arithmotic lor raising 2 to
its 6th povor. Thon ho carolully sultractoJ 1. Without a vorJ ho movoJ
ovor to a cloar spaco on tho loarJs anJ multiplioJ out, ly longhanJ:
193,0,21 I 61,838,25,28
Tho tvo calculations agrooJ. . . . Colo took his soat vithout uttoring a vorJ.
NoloJy askoJ him a guostion.
Only lator JiJ Colo aJmit that ho haJ loon vorking on this prol-
lom lor tho provious tvonty yoars.
Tho simplost mothoJ is tho siovo ol ---, vhich can lo
implomontoJ vory olliciontly on a computor to linJ primo lactors ol
numlors up to sovoral million. ln moJorn lactorization mothoJs, tho
iJoa ol a siovo has loon rovivoJ. Tho lost-knovn algorithm lor lac-
toring largo numlors is tho gonoral numlor liolJ siovo.
Tho soconJ mothoJ is trial Jivision, vhich is tho natural approach
vith a hanJ calculator. \ou notico lrom tho last Jigit anJ tho sum ol
Jigits that tho numlor is not Jivisillo ly 2, 5, or 3, anJ thon you start
JiviJing ly , 11, 13, 1, . . . Sinco at loast ono ol tho primo lactors ol
must lo at most , you nooJ only mako a limitoJ numlor ol tri-
als-lut that numlor coulJ lo vory largo. To tost 2053, lor oxamplo,
you nooJ to JiviJo ly all tho primos up to 2053 45.3 . . .
lor a largo numlor, this vill tako a long timo! lt voulJ lo simplor
il you coulJ knov in aJvanco vhat ol lactors you voro look-
ing lor, in orJor to oliminato tho rost. This can somotimos lo Jono.
- -
provoJ that il a primo JiviJos
2

2
lut Joos not JiviJo
loth anJ , thon is tho lorm
2

2
. Similarly, il JiviJos
2

2
2
or
2
3
2
, thon unJor tho samo conJition it must lo ol tho lorms

2
2
2
or
2
3
2
, rospoctivoly.
lormat JiscovoroJ that tho primo lactors ol 2

1 aro all ol tho lorm

2 1, vhoro is a positivo intogor. So to lactorizo tho -
2
11
1 204 vo nooJ only try tho lactors 22 1 that aro
loss than 204 or roughly 45.
Tho soguonco 22 1 starts, 23, 45, 6, 89, . . . As it happons, tho
vory lirst vorks: 204 ) 23 89.
Iator, Eulor provoJ that any primo lactor ol a ,

2
2

1, il 2, is ol tho lorm 2
2
1.
Sinco primos ol tho lorm 4 1 can lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo
sguaros in ono vay only, anJ primos ol tho lorm 4 3 not at all,
you can provo that a numlor is composito ly vriting it as a sum ol
tvo sguaros in at loast tvo vays. Eulor provoJ that 1,000,009 is com-
posito ly shoving that it coulJ lo vritton as:
1,000,009 1000
2
3
2
235
2
92
2
Tho samo lact also allovs tho lactors to lo calculatoJ.
{ -
Convorsoly, somo lorms aro alvays composito. Evory torm ol tho
soguonco ol numlors 855 2

1 is Jivisillo ly ono ol tho primos

3, 5, , 13, 19, 3, or 3. Tho numlor 855 is prolally tho smallost
vith this proporty.
K-
lormat also introJucoJ in 1643 anothor mothoJ, tho lirst vorkallo
iJoa lor lactorizing largo numlors that havo no spocial lorm. Ho sug-
gostoJ aJJing porloct sguaros to tho numlor, , to lo lactoroJ anJ
tosting to soo il tho rosult vas a porloct sguaro. ll it is, thon ho haJ
numlors anJ such that,

2

2
or
2

2
( )( )
- {
-
Tho primo lactors ol 2

1 aro shovn in this tallo:

2

1 2

1
1 9 3
3

2 10 5
2

3 3
2
11 3
4 12 1
5 3 13 3
6 5 14 5
3 15 3
2
11
8 16
Tho primo lactor 3 appoars lirst at 1 (markoJ in lolJ) anJ thon
at 3, 5, , 9, . . . Tho primo lactor 5 appoars lirst at 2 (markoJ
in lolJ) anJ thon at 6, 10, 14, 18, . . . Tho primo lactor 11 appoars
at 5 anJ thon at intorvals ol 10, anJ tho primo lactor 1 appoars
lirst at 4 anJ thon at intorvals ol 8, vhich is
1
2(1 1).
ll appoars lor tho lirst timo as a lactor ol 2

1, thon 1 (moJ
). ll 2

1, thon 2
1
(2

1) 2
1
2
1
2
1
1
(2
1
1) anJ sinco 2
1
1 ly K- , 2
1
1. Thoroloro is a lactor at intorvals ol - 1. (VcIoan 2002,
466-6)
Voroovor, this mothoJ vill linJ ovory pair ol lactors in thoory. Wo
simply calculato hall tho sum anJ hall tho Jilloronco ol tho lactors.
lor oxamplo, 11,983 12 929:
1
2(12 929) 528 anJ
1
2(929 12) 401
anJ 528
2
401
2
11,983.
This illustratos, hovovor, tho Jilliculty vith this mothoJ. \ou havo
to aJJ a lot ol sguaros in soguonco to 11,983 loloro you aJJ 401
2
.
This mothoJ is only roally olliciont vhon you aro conliJont that tho
lactors aro protty ogual in sizo. Hovovor, tho samo lasic iJoa is usoJ
in moro moJorn anJ sophisticatoJ mothoJs such as tho guaJratic
siovo anJ tho continuoJ lraction algorithm.
K-
(152-1833) consiJoroJ a rolatoJ iJoa. Givon a numlor, ,
that ho vantoJ to lactor, ho took a primo, , anJ soarchoJ lor solu-
tions ol tho congruonco,

2
(moJ )
{ -
-
Whon l givo talks on lactoring, l olton ropoat an inciJont that hap-
ponoJ to mo long ago in high school. l vas involvoJ in a math con-
tost, anJ ono ol tho prolloms vas to lactor tho numlor 8051. A timo
limit ol livo minutos vas givon. lt is not that vo voro not allovoJ to
uso pockot calculators, thoy JiJ not oxist in 1960, arounJ vhon this
ovont occurroJ! Woll, l vas lairly gooJ at arithmotic, anJ l vas suro
l coulJ trial JiviJo up to tho sguaro root ol 8051 (alout 90) in tho
timo allovoJ. But on any tost, ospocially a contost, many stuJonts try
to got into tho minJ ol tho porson vho maJo it up. Suroly thoy
voulJ not givo a prollom vhoro tho only roasonallo approach vas
to try possillo Jivisors lrantically until ono vas lounJ. Thoro must lo
a clovor altornato routo to tho ansvor. So l spont a couplo ol minutos
looking lor tho clovor vay, lut grov vorrioJ that l vas vasting too
much timo. l thon lolatoJly startoJ trial Jivision, lut l haJ vastoJ
too much timo, anJ l missoJ tho prollom.
Tho trick is to vrito 8051 as 8100 49 vhich is 90
2

2
, so vo may
uso algolra, namoly, lactoring a Jilloronco ol sguaros, to lactor 8051.
lt is 83 timos 9.` (Pomoranco 1996)
ln othor vorJs, ho chockoJ vhothor vas a -
(moJ ). ll it is, thon it is also a guaJratic rosiJuo moJulo any primo
lactor ol , anJ this inlormation roJucos tho numlor ol possillo
primo lactors that nooJ to lo consiJoroJ. By linJing moro anJ moro
primos that aro guaJratic rosiJuos ol , moro anJ moro possillo lac-
tors aro oliminatoJ, il ho coulJ oliminato all possillo lactors up to
, thon ho knov that vas primo.
-
Vaurico Kraitchik suggostoJ an ingonious variation on lormat.
lnstoaJ ol solving
2

2
you only try to solvo tho congruonco,

2

2
(moJ )
This moans that JiviJos
2

2
( )( ), so that il JiviJos
noithor nor thon must sharo lactors vith loth or
.
Hov Jo you linJ likoly valuos ol anJ , hovovor? That`s tho Jil-
liculty. ll thoro voro a simplo anJ guick mothoJ ol linJing anJ ,
thon lactorization voulJ lo guick anJ oasy altor all, lut thoro isn`t.
So an olomont ol luck comos in anJ tho moJorn povorlul mothoJs
lor lactorization that aro lasoJ on lormat`s original iJoa all uso ran-
Jom numlors. Tho rosult-ironically-allovs largo numlors to lo
lactorizoJ moro guickly, anJ thoso lactorizations, Jospito tho uso ol
ranJom numlors, aro : thoy aro guito Jilloront lrom tho
- algorithms that aro usoJ to toll you
that a numlor is primo (or composito).
- -
VoJorn mothoJs ol lactorization JoponJ on aJvancoJ mathomatical
tochniguos, such as tho mothoJ, vhich can lo usoJ to
lactor as voll as provo primality.
Such povorlul mothoJs aro nocossary, locauso it takos alout tvico
as much vork to lactorizo 1000 as it Joos to lactor , so lactorizing
a 100-Jigit numlor is lar, lar harJor than lactorizing ovon an 80-Jigit
numlor.
ln 190 it vas still vory Jillicult to lactorizo 20-Jigit numlors that
JiJ not havo any ospocially convoniont lorm, such 2

1. By 1980,
tho Brillhart-Vorrison allovoJ 50-Jigit
numlors to lo lactorizoJ oasily.
ln 1984 tho Association lor Computing Vachinory prosontoJ a
plaguo to tho lnstituto ol Eloctrical anJ Eloctronics Enginoors on tho
- {
occasion ol tho lEEE contonnial. lt vas inscriloJ vith tho primo lac-
torization ol tho numlor 2
251
1 that vas complotoJ that yoar vith
tho rocontly JovolopoJ -
ln 1990 Carl Pomoranco`s guaJratic siovo algorithm haJ JoulloJ
tho longth ol lactorizallo numlors up to a rocorJ 116 Jigits, anJ ly
1994 tho guaJratic siovo haJ loon usoJ to lactorizo tho lamous 129-
Jigit PSA challongo numlor that Vartin GarJnor in a 196
column haJ juJgoJ voulJ lo salo lor 40 guaJrillion yoars.
ln spring 1996, PollarJ`s numlor liolJ siovo locamo tho nov cham-
pion, lactorizing a 130-Jigit PSA challongo numlor in alout 15 ol
tho timo roguiroJ ly tho guaJratic siovo. (Pomoranco 1996)
PicharJ Vollin romarks that thoro has loon a history ol soriously
ovorostimating tho Jilliculty ol lactorizing intogors. Tho surprising
succoss ol tho - suggosts that por-
haps much moro povorlul mothJs ol lactorization aro avaiting Jis-
covory. ll thoy aron`t, thoro is alvays tho possilility ol moro povorlul
machinory in tho lorm ol guantum computors.

Tosting lor primality anJ lactorization ol largo numlors voulJ lo
almost incomparally lastor il guantum computation locomos a roal-
ity. lnstoaJ ol calculating on a string ol numlors, lasically linary
lits, a guantum computor coulJ oporato simultanoously on an -
Jimonsional culo` ol 2

linary lits.
{ -
P
Vaurico Kraitchik vas a Pussian-lorn Bolgian mathomatician vho
vroto on tho thoory ol numlors anJ (liko -) on rocroational
mathomatics, incluJing knight`s tours, rational trianglos anJ tho Eulor
lrick, --, anJ magic tricks, incluJing that knovn toJay
as Total Dostiny. Botvoon 1931 anJ 1939 ho oJitoJ tho journal,
anJ ho pullishoJ
- - anJ - (1943
1960).
Kraitchik conjocturoJ that il 2 1 is primo, thon (2 1)3 is also
primo, lut this lails vhon 89. Hovovor, Kraitchik`s conjocturo
has loon improvoJ to lorm tho -
Tho rosults aro thoorotically amazing. lor oxamplo, Shor in 1994 Jis-
covoroJ a polynomial timo algorithm lor lactorizing intogors, lor a
guantum computor. ll it coulJ lo roalizoJ, tho PSA cryptosystom anJ
all similar systoms voulJ locomo usoloss. AccorJing to AJloman a
DNA computor coulJ porlorm 10
20
oporations por soconJ, or 100 mil-
lion timos lastor than a curront suporcomputor. (Vollin 2001, 26, 269)
olliptic curvo primality proving, lactors ol particular lorms, lor-
mat, GlVPS, Vorsonno numlors, primality tosting
-
Tho conjocturo that thoro aro no primos anJ lor vhich (

1)
( 1) anJ (

1)( 1) havo a common lactor. Hovovor, tho

countoroxamplo 1, 3313 vith a common lactor ol 112,643
vas sulsoguontly lounJ ly Stophons (191). Thoro aro no othor such
pairs vith loth valuos loss than 400,000. (Wolls 1986)
P
l havo lounJ a vory groat numlor ol oxcooJingly loautilul thoo-
roms.
O
lormat vas a lavyor ly prolossion lut also somothing ol a classical
scholar, lluont in Grook anJ Iatin as voll as ltalian anJ Spanish, anJ
a poot in Iatin.
lormat anJ Blaiso Pascal lounJoJ tho moJorn thoory ol prolalil-
ity, in thoir corrosponJonco Juring tho summor ol 1654. lormat also
vroto on optics, anJ lormat`s principlo, that light alvays lollovs tho
path that takos tho shortost timo, is namoJ altor him.
Ho JovolopoJ a mothoJ ol solving oguations ol tho lorm
2

2
1, nov incorroctly calloJ a Poll oguation.
Ho also porlormoJ many intogrations anJ Jillorontiations, though
ho novor roJucoJ his argumonts to a mothoJ, anJ so Joos not sharo
vith Novton anJ Ioilniz tho honor ol croating tho calculus.
His vorks voro not pullishoJ Juring his lilotimo locauso ho haJ
an inoxplicallo avorsion to pullication, though ho roaJily sont his
P {
rosults to lrionJs. Explaining ono ol his Jiscovorios to Vorsonno, ho
vroto, l voulJ sonJ you a prool, il l JiJ not loar its loing too long.`
Whon ho croatoJ his ovn lorm ol analytic goomotry (ly 1636), it
vasn`t pullishoJ, vhilo Doscartos pullishoJ his in 163, anJ lor-
mat`s vork in tho thoory ol numlor vas approciatoJ ly almost no
ono until roJiscovoroJ it.
lormat vas tho lirst moJorn numlor thoorist. Ho roaJ Viota, vho
haJ introJucoJ a nov symlolic algolra, anJ ho stuJioJ tho
ol -. Somo ol his most important conclusions,
incluJing his statomont ol K- - , voro only pro-
sorvoJ locauso his olJost son Samuol pullishoJ an oJition ol Dio-
phantus to vhich ho aJJoJ his -- - lasoJ
on his lathor`s marginal annotations.
lronically, although ho claimoJ to havo a gonoral mothoJ that lay
lohinJ his many rosults, lormat novor rovoaloJ it, apart lrom his ono
iJoa ol inlinito Joscont.` Ho also claimoJ to lo allo to provo vhat
Diophantus haJ conjocturoJ, that all positivo intogors aro tho sum ol
at most lour sguaros. Unliko Diophantus, ho only sought lor solu-
tions in intogors, not lractions, vhich loJ him to omphasizo primo
numlors anJ Jivisilility.
ln tho alsonco ol loarnoJ journals in vhich to sharo thoir rosults,
mathomaticians ol that ora haJ a custom ol challonging oach othor to
solvo cortain prolloms. ln 1640, lroniclo Jo Bossy challongoJ lormat
to linJ a ol tvonty Jigits or tho noxt ono lolloving
it.` ln tackling this prollom, vhich vas roally alout -
-, ol tho lorm 2

1, lormat maJo throo Jiscovorios: that il

2

1 is primo, thon is primo also, that il is an oJJ primo, thon

2 JiviJos 2

2, anJ that il is primo, tho primo lactors ol 2

1 aro
all ol tho lorm 2 1, vhoro is a positivo intogor. (Williams 1998,
36)
Thoso voro oxtromoly signilicant Jiscovorios. Tho lirst typically
shovs that il a numlor involving a povor has a cortain proporty, tho
inJox has a proporty also.
Tho thirJ shovs that vo can say somothing vory rostricting alout
tho lactors ol cortain numlors, vhich at onco makos thom much oas-
ior to lactorizo. lormat usoJ it to shov that 223 JiviJos 2
3
1.
Tho soconJ conclusion is tho lasis lor K- (to
Jistinguish it lrom K- - ).
{ P
lormat`s vork ovontually haJ a prolounJ inlluonco. Whon Eulor
JiscovoroJ lormat`s rosults, ho vas promptoJ to try to provo many ol
thom, vith lrilliant succoss, anJ vhon Augustin-Iouis Cauchy`s lathor,
vriting in 1812, vantoJ to oncourago him in his ollorts to locomo
accoptoJ, ho vroto, \our last papor on polyhoJra maJo a Joop
improssion on tho AcaJmio |Jos Scioncosl. ll you provo ono ol lor-
mat`s thooroms, |on polygonal numlorsl tho vay vill lo viJo opon
lor you. Tho momont is lavourallo lor you. Do not lot it slip ly.`
Cauchy JiJn`t. ln 1815 ho prosontoJ a sonsational papor in vhich
ho provoJ lormat`s claim in a lottor to Vorsonno ol 1636, that Evory
numlor is tho sum ol throo culos, ol lour sguaros, anJ so on, inJol-
initoly.`
K-
ll is primo thon,

(moJ )
Wo can provo this ly linking it to tho , vhich says
that ( 1)

is ogual to

1

2
. . . 1

Sinco is primo, all tho linomial coollicionts aro Jivisillo ly , anJ

this oxprossion is congruont to 1 (moJ ).
( 1)

1 (moJ )
anJ so, ( 1)

( 1)

(moJ )
So tho valuo ol (

) Joos not JoponJ on , proviJoJ is primo.

So it must lo ogual to tho valuo ol 1

1 0. That is,

(moJ
), vhich is vhat vo vantoJ to shov.
ll anJ aro coprimo, thon vo can JiviJo ly anJ concluJo that

1
1 (moJ )
This looks liko a promising lasis lor a primality tost-cortainly much
lottor than -K- , locauso
1
is oasior to calculato than a
lactorial. Unlortunatoly thoro is a snag: thoro aro many numlors, , that
aro primo lut that satisly tho oguation. Thoso aro calloJ -
- anJ it is thoir oxistonco that makos primality tosting so much
harJor. To tost a numlor, , lor primality using lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom,
( 1)
2
P {
vo can calculato
1
lor somo valuo ol , JiviJo ly , anJ soo il tho
romainJor is 1. ll it is not, thon is composito. ll tho oguation is satis-
lioJ, hovovor, thon coulJ still lo primo or composito.
What alout trying Jilloront valuos ol ? \os, vo can Jo that, anJ
tho chancos aro that il is actually composito, soonor or lator vo vill
linJ a valuo ol that provos this. Unlortunatoly-yot again-thoro is
a snag. Somo numlors aro composito anJ yot thoy satisly lormat`s
critorion lor ovory valuo ol vithout oxcoption. Thoso aro tho
-.
gonoralizoJ lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom (in 160), vhich only
applios to primo numlors. Ho provoJ that il is composito, anJ il
anJ aro coprimo, thon

()
1 (moJ )
lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom implios that il is primo thon JiviJos
2

2. Tho convorso claim, that il JiviJos 2

2 thon must lo
primo, has loon attrilutoJ, guito vrongly, to tho anciont Chinoso,
Juo to a mistranslation lrom tho Chinoso classic -

Tho Gorman philosophor anJ mathomatician Ioilniz, vho
invontoJ tho calculus at tho samo timo as Novton, JiJ loliovo tho
convorso vas truo, unJorstanJally, locauso tho lirst oxcoption Joos
not occur until 341.
- AKS algorithm lor primality tosting, primality tosting,
Eulor`s totiont (phi) lunction

By lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, tho guotiont (
1
1) is an intogor il
is primo anJ anJ aro coprimo. lt is usually JonotoJ ly

() anJ
lohavos a lit liko a logarithm:
ll Joos not JiviJo or , thon

()

()

()
-

lormat also JiscovoroJ ono ol tho most loautilul anJ oxtraorJinary

proportios in tho thoory ol numlors, vhich vo JoscriloJ in tho intro-
Juction. lt connocts tho vory rogular soguonco ol porloct sguaros
vith tho apparontly irrogular primos.
{ P
Bachot Jo Vziriac, vhoso oJition ol - lormat roaJ anJ
annotatoJ, haJ claimoJ that almost all` primos ol tho lorm 4 1
aro tho sum ol tvo intogral sguaros, anJ Allort GirarJ statoJ that
primos 4 1 havo this proporty. lormat provoJ that it vas so.
ll is tho primo 2 or a primo ol tho lorm 4 1, groator than 3,
thon it is tho sum ol tvo intogral sguaros in a uniguo vay. Tho lirst
lov oxamplos aro:
2 1
2
1
2
5 1
2
2
2
13 2
2
3
2
1 1
2
4
2
29 2
2
5
2
3 1
2
6
2
41 4
2
5
2
53 2
2

2
lt lollovs that il a numlor cannot lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo into-
gral sguaros, or can lo so vritton in moro than ono vay, thon it is
not primo.
Eulor ostallishoJ in 138 tho conJition that an intogor is tho sum ol
tvo sguaros: its primo lactors ol tho lorm 4 3 must all occur to an
ovon povor:
1
2
3
2
10 2 5
1
2
5
2
26 2 13
2
2
4
2
20 2
2
5
3
2
4
2
25 5
2
3
2
5
2
34 2 1
3
2
6
2
45 3
2
5
ll is not a primo thoro is a lormula lor tho numlor ol vays, (),
in vhich it is tho sum ol tvo intogral sguaros:
() 4(
1
()
3
())
vhoro
1
() is tho numlor ol Jivisors ol tho lorm 4 1 anJ
3
()
is tho numlor ol Jivisors ol tho lorm 4 3. Tho lunction ()
counts trivial` variations, so that 1 ( 1)
2
0
2
0
2
( 1)
2
anJ
(1) 4.
This implios that
3
() can novor oxcooJ
1
(). ll this sooms sur-
prising, notico that vo aro talking alout all tho -- ol a numlor,
P {
not moroly its primo lactors. So il our numlor is 3689 1 31,
thon although anJ 31 aro ol tho lorm 4 3 anJ only 1 is a 4
1, vhon vo vrito Jovn all its Jivisors, thoy aro:
1 1 31 119 21 52 3689
anJ
1
()
3
() locauso 1 counts as a Jivisor (though not as a
primo) anJ tho proJuct ol anJ 31 21 is ol tho lorm 4 1.
Tho romaining primos, vhich apart lrom 2 must lo ol tho lorm 4
3, cannot lo tho sum ol tvo sguaros.
lormat corroctly claimoJ that a numlor is tho sum ol throo sguaros
unloss it is ol tho lorm 4

(8 ).
Ho also knov that all primos ol tho lorm 8 1 or 8 3 aro ol tho
lorm
2
2
2
, all primos ol tho lorm 3 1 can lo oxprossoJ as

2
3
2
, anJ il a numlor is tho proJuct ol tvo primos ol tho lorm
20 3 or 20 , thon it is ol tho lorm
2
5
2
. Ho also noticoJ
that thoro voro no matching proportios lor somo lorms such as

2
5
2
.
Thoro aro othor rolationships ol this kinJ, ol vhich tho simplost is:
any primo ol tho lorm 3 1 is also ol tho lorm
2

2
. lor
oxamplo, 1
2
1 1 2
2
, 13 1
2
1 3 3
2
, 19 2
2
2 3 3
2
.
Similarly, any primo ol tho lorm 6 1 can lo vritton as
2
3
2
,
anJ ovory primo ol tho lorm 8 1 is also ol tho lorm
2
2
2
. Sinco

2
2
2
(3 4)
2
2(2 3)
2
, it lollovs that thoro is an inlinity
ol such roprosontations. lor oxamplo,
1 5
2
2 2
2
23
2
2 16
2
133
2
2 94
2
. . .
K- -
-
lormat also stuJioJ tho soguonco ol numlors 2
2

1. Thoy aro nov

knovn as lormat numlors. Tho lirst lov aro:
0 1 2 3 4 5

3 5 1 25 6553 composito
lormat knov that tho lirst livo aro all primo, anJ ho lamously con-
jocturoJ that thoy all aro: vhich turnoJ out to lo an ogually lamous
mistako. Eulor provoJ in 132 that 641 is a lactor ol
5
, using tho lact
that ho haJ alroaJy provoJ that any primo lactor ol

, il 2, is ol
{ P
tho lorm 2
1
1. (- lator shovoJ that must lo ovon, so this
locomos 2
2
1.) So all its primo lactors aro ol tho lorm 128
1, anJ tho tvo smallost primos ol this lorm aro 25 anJ 641. As it
happons, 25
3
anJ ovory pair ol lormat numlors is coprimo,
locauso ol this iJontity:

2
. . .
1
2

lnciJontally, this also provos that tho numlor ol primos is inlinito!

Eulor thon spottoJ that 16 641 5
4
anJ that 641 1 5 I 2

, anJ
so provoJ that 641 JiviJos
5
:

5
2
32
1 (16)2
28
1 (641 5
4
)2
28
1 641 (5 2

)
4

1 641 (641 1)
4
1 641 1 1 641
Tho simplost - lor lormat numlors is K- -.
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol lormat primos is linito:
lut also that it is inlinito.
Tho lamous unrosolvoJ casos usoJ to lo (2
148
1)1 (iJontilioJ in
1951 ly A. lorrior ly using a hanJ-computing mothoJ), anJ 180
(2
12
1)
2
1 (sottloJ in 1951 ly Villor anJ Whoolor). ToJay all tho
lormat primos up to 2 lillion Jigits aro knovn.
Anothor unrosolvoJ conjocturo is that all lormat numlors aro
-. lt is knovn that il

has a sguaroJ primo lactor

2
, thon
is a , moaning that 2
1
1 (moJ
2
), anJ such
primos aro vory raro.

lormat numlors aro knovn to lo composito lrom 5 to 30, lut

only
5
to
11
havo loon complotoly lactorizoJ:
lormat
numlor yoar provor

5
132 Eulor lounJ tvo lactors: 641 anJ 60041.

6
1856 Iucas provoJ that it vas composito vithout
shoving tho lactors-tho lirst such achiovo-
mont.

6
1880 IanJry (agoJ oighty) complotoly lactorizoJ it:
2
64
1 24,1 6,280,421,310,21.

1905 VorohoaJ anJ Wostorn inJoponJontly

shovoJ that it is composito.
P {

195 Brillhart anJ Vorrison lactorizoJ it into thoso
tvo primo lactors: 2
128
1 34028236692093
846346334604316821145 59649589124
921 50468920068512905421.

8
1981 Bront anJ PollarJ complotoly lactorizoJ it.
9 1993 A. K. Ionstra, H. W. Ionstra Jr., V. S. Vanasso
anJ J. V. PollarJ complotoly lactorizoJ it.

10
1999 PicharJ P. Bront complotoly lactorizoJ it, lour
lactors ol 8, 10, 40, anJ 252 Jocimal Jigits.

11
1899 Cunningham provoJ it to lo composito.

11
1988 Bront anJ Vorain complotoly lactorizoJ it.
Thoso mathomaticians provoJ that
12
to
30
aro composito:
lormat
numlor yoar provor

12
18 l. V. Porvushin anJ E. Iucas

13
1960 G. A. Paxson

14
1961 A. Hurvitz anJ J. I. SollriJgo

15
1925 V. Kraitchik

16
1953 J. I. SollriJgo

1
1980 G. B. Gostin

18
1903 A. E. Wostorn

19
1962 H. Piosol

20
198 Buoll anJ \oung

21
1963 C. P. Wrathall

22
1993 CaranJall, Doonias, Norrio, anJ \oung

23
188 l. V. Porvushin

24
1999 CranJall, Vayor, anJ PapaJopoulos

25
1963 C. P. Wrathall

26
1963 C. P. Wrathall

2
1963 C. P. Wrathall

28
199 Taura

29
1980 G. B. Gostin anJ P. B. VcIaughlin

30
1963 C. P. Wrathall
To Jato, 21 lormat numlors aro knovn to lo composito. WillriJ
Kollor koops an oxtromoly JotailoJ account ol lormat numlors, thoir
lactors, lactoring status, novly lounJ lactors, anJ so on, at vvv
.prothsoarch.notlormat.html. His latost Novs llash (as ol Novomlor
5, 2004) is:
{ P
- -
On Octolor 5, 2004, Payam SamiJoost JiscovoroJ this nov lactor ol a lor-
mat numlor: 89 2
42099
1 JiviJos l4209.
Kollor`s tvo provious llashos announcoJ that a nov largost knovn
composito lormat numlor haJ loon JiscovoroJ ly John Cosgravo
anJ his Proth-Gallot Group at St. Patrick`s Collogo (Dullin, lrolanJ)
on Octolor 10, 2003: 3 2
24885
1 JiviJos l
24882
, anJ that on
Novomlor 1, 2003, Craig Kitchon lounJ anothor nov lactor ol a lor-
mat numlor: 105405 2
8300
1 JiviJos l
8298
, lringing to 250 tho total
numlor ol thon knovn primo lactors.
-
Thoso aro numlors ol tho lorm,
2

. Tho GonoralizoJ lormat

Primo Soarch is organizoJ ly Phil CarmoJy using a nov anJ povor-
lul tost, vhich onallos GonoralizoJ lormat primos to lo lounJ as
guickly as - - ol tho samo sizo. ll you lancy joining in,
horo aro somo ol tho rocorJs you havo to loat!
- \vos Gallot on January 8, 2004 JiscovoroJ tho lilth Gonoral-
izoJ lormat primo ol tho lorm
2
1
1, vhich is 52186 2
1
,
vith 54,652 Jigits.
- On August 22, 2003, Daniol Houor JiscovoroJ tho largost
knovn GonoralizoJ lormat primo: 116694 2
1
1. This has
95,695 Jigits anJ locamo tho lilth largost knovn primo.
- A month lator, on Soptomlor 22, 2003, Daniol Houor loat his
ovn rocorJ anJ lounJ tho nov largost knovn GonoralizoJ
lormat primo: 132930 2
1
1. This has 804,44 Jigits anJ is
nov tho lilth largost knovn primo.
- Tho lour largost primos lounJ ly tho GonoralizoJ lormat
Primo Soarch, all JiscovoroJ in 2003-4, havo moro than
600,000 Jigits.
- Tho lactor 641, vhich Eulor provoJ JiviJos
5
, also JiviJos all
tho GonoralizoJ lormat numlors ol tho lorm (2

)
2
5
1,
vhoro ono ol anJ is oJJ anJ tho othor ovon. (\vos Gallot,
soo http:porso.vanaJoo.lryvos.gallotprimosinJox.html)
K- -
l think it`s vory important that pooplo aro oncouragoJ to vork on
vory harJ prolloms. Tho tonJoncy toJay is to vork on short anJ
immoJiato prolloms.
O -
P {
lormat haJ his ovn copy ol tho vorks ol - as translatoJ
ly Bachot Jo Vziriac in 1621. ln tho margin ho vroto, in 163, orig-
inally in Iatin:
To JiviJo a culo into tvo othor culos, a lourth povor or in gonoral any
povor vhatovor into tvo povors ol tho samo Jonomination alovo tho soc-
onJ is impossillo, anJ l havo assuroJly lounJ an aJmirallo prool ol this,
lut tho margin is too narrov to contain it.
To vhich ho aJJoJ, AnJ porhaps, postority vill thank mo lor hav-
ing shovn it that tho ancionts JiJ not knov ovorything.` (Burton
196)
lormat`s only pullishoJ prool, in 1659, vas ol lormat`s Iast Thoo-
rom lor tho caso 4, in vhich ho usoJ his lamous mothoJ ol
-, shoving that il ono solution oxistoJ, thon anothor,
smallor, solution must also oxist, anJ thon a smallor solution
still . . . anJ so on, roJucing tho prollom to alsurJity.
lov loliovo lormat haJ such a prool, anJ AnJrov Wilos lounJ tho
lirst accoptoJ prool in 1994, somo 350 yoars lator, lut only altor oight
yoars ol vorking socrotly, Juring vhich ho pullishoJ occasional
minor papors to put colloaguos oll tho scont anJ allay any suspicions
as to vhat ho vas roally up to.
ErJos, tho groat collalorator, not surprisingly oljoctoJ to Wilos`s
socrocy anJ claimoJ that tho prollom voulJ havo loon solvoJ
soonor il Wilos haJ loon opon: maylo yos, lut maylo not ly Wilos!
Vathomaticians aro as compotitivo as anyono-anJ ErJos himsoll
haJ an unlortunato oxporionco vith Atlo Sollorg ovor thoir olomon-
tary prool ol tho , lor vhich Sollorg lut not
ErJos von tho liolJs VoJal in 1950. (Hollman 1998, 183)
{ P
Tho philosophor anJ logician W. V. Quino pointoJ out that lormat`s
Iast Thoorom is oguivalont to this claim alout sorting oljocts into
lins:
Supposo that thoro aro lins in total, anJ that lins aro not
paintoJ roJ, anJ lins aro not paintoJ lluo. Tho romaining lins aro
uncoloroJ. \ou havo oljocts to sort into tho lins.
Thon lormat`s Iast Thoorom is oguivalont to tho statomont that:
Tho numlor ol vays ol sorting thom that shun loth colors is ogual
to tho numlor ol vays that shun noithor.` (Quino 1988)
- - K- -
Primo numlors havo appoaroJ moro than onco in attompts to sottlo
lormat`s Iast Thoorom, ly Kummor, , anJ .
Tho lirst caso is vhon , , , anJ aro coprimo. Tho soconJ caso
is vhon JiviJos at loast ono ol , , anJ . Tho Jistinction vas lirst
maJo ly Sophio Gormain in 1832, vho provoJ that lor a primo ,

has no solution il 2 1 is also primo.

Anothor tost lor tho lirst caso, ly Virimanoll in 1910, says that in
tho lirst caso, il thoro aro solutions, thon
1
1 (moJ
2
) is truo
lor 2 anJ 3. No such primos aro knovn.
Ernst EJuarJ Kummor roalizoJ in 1843 that curront attompts to provo
lormat`s Iast Thoorom JiJ not vork locauso -- - might
lo lactorizoJ in sovoral Jilloront vays: thoir lactorization vas not
uniguo. So ho invontoJ iJoal numlors, ono ol tho many Jovolop-
monts in mathomatics that havo loon promptoJ ly attompts to solvo
lIT.
Kummor provoJ lormat`s Iast Thoorom lor all primos,
vhoro an primo is an oJJ primo that JiviJos tho numor-
ator ol ono ol tho -
2
vith 2 1 . Tho lirst
irrogular primo to appoar in tho soguonco ol numorators is 691 at

12
.
Kummor provoJ lormat`s Iast Thoorom lor all oJJ primo oxpo-
nonts loss than 165, oxcopt lor thoso oight irrogular primos: 3, 59,
6, 101, 103, 131, 149, anJ 15.
Tho soguonco ol rogular primos starts, 3, 5, , 11, 13, 1, 19, 23, 29,
31, 41, 43, 4, 53, 61, 1, 3, 9, 83, 89, 9, . . . lut it is not knovn il
thoro is an inlinity ol thom.
Tho proportion ol rogular primos among tho primos loss than 10
6
is
462849 0.606 . . . vhich lits tho conjocturo that tho Jonsity
tonJs to
12
0.6065 . . . ( is tho laso ol natural logarithm).
Jonson provoJ in 1915 that thoro is an inlinity ol irrogular primos, anJ
all tho irrogular primos up to 12,000,000 havo nov loon calculatoJ.
-
D. D. Wall, Z. H. Sun, anJ Z. W. Sun provoJ in 1992 that il tho lirst caso
ol K- - is lalso lor , thon
2
JiviJos ( ( 5))th
, vhoro 5 is tho IogonJro symlol usoJ to oxpross
P {
tho lav ol . (This notation is to Jo vith
5 moaning JiviJos 5 oxactly`!)
Wo nov knov that lormat`s Iast Thoorom is novor lalso, lut it still
romains an unknovn guostion vhothor any Wall-Sun-Sun primos
oxist.
- Boal`s conjocturo, Bornoulli numlors, lactorization, lormat-
Catalan oguation anJ conjocturo, psouJoprimos, Sophio Gormain
primos, Wiolorich primos

K- anJ K- - aro loth spocial
casos ol tho lormat-Catalan oguation:

p

g

r
Horo , , anJ aro positivo, coprimo intogors anJ tho oxpononts aro
all primos vith 1 1 1 1.
Tho lormat-Catalan conjocturo is that thoro aro only linitoly many
solutions to this systom. Thoso solutions incluJo:
1 2
3
3
2
1
3
2

1
2

2
2
5
3
4
11
4
3
5
122
2
13
2

3
2
9
Voro rocontly, l. Boukors anJ D. Zagior havo lounJ thoso solutions,
making a total ol ton knovn solutions:
1549034
2
33
8
15613
3
2213459
2
1414
3
65

15312283
2
9262
3
113

621
3
1

21063928
2
96222
3
43
8
3004290
2
(CranJall anJ Pomoranco 2001, 383)
Boal`s conjocturo
{
-
IoonarJo Pisano (c. 115-1250), nicknamoJ lilonacci, in his
lrought tho HinJu-Aralic numoral systom to Wostorn Europo
in 1202. Ho also listoJ tho primos lrom 10 to 100 anJ pointoJ out that
to chock vhothor a numlor vas primo you only nooJoJ to JiviJo it
ly tho primos loss than its sguaro root. Ho also incluJoJ prolloms
similar to -, such as hov to linJ a sguaro that romains a
sguaro vhon 5 is aJJoJ or sultractoJ. His ansvor, in lractions, is,
(4112)
2
5 (4912)
2
(4112)
2
5 (3112)
2
lilonacci is nov romomloroJ lor this prollom:
A cortain man put a pair ol rallits in a placo surrounJoJ on all siJos ly a
vall. Hov many pairs ol rallits can lo proJucoJ lrom that pair in a yoar
il it is supposoJ that ovory month oach pair logots a nov pair vhich lrom
tho soconJ month on locomos proJuctivo?
Assuming that tho rallits aro immortal, this is tho numlor ol nov
pairs oach month:
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 . . .
Each torm is tho sum ol tho provious tvo torms.
This oxtraorJinary soguonco has so many proportios that thoro is a jour-
nal, , JovotoJ ontiroly to it. lor oxamplo, tho
ratio ol succossivo torms,
1

tonJs to tho GolJon Patio, 1.618 . . .

To Jato,

' is knovn to lo primo lor 3, 4, 5, , 11, 13, 1, 23, 29,

43, 4, 83, 131, 13, 359, 431, 433, 449, 509, 569, 51, 291, 423, 538,
9311, 96, 14431, 25561, 305, 35999, anJ 81839. All valuos ol up
to 100,000 havo loon tostoJ ly Harvoy Dulnor anJ WillriJ Kollor.
lt isn`t knovn il thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol lilonacci primos.
Hovovor, it is knovn that consocutivo pairs aro coprimo, locauso ol
tho iJontity,

2
1

2
(1)

- {
'lor simplicity anJ momoralility, vo aro using lor loth tho th lormat numlor anJ tho th
lilonacci numlor. This shoulJ not causo conlusion as thoy novor soom to occur togothor!
Thoro aro many othor lormulao connocting tho lilonacci numlors,
such as:

2
1

2 1

1
(1)

proviJoJ 1

2
(1)

proviJoJ 2

3
2
2
(1)

proviJoJ 3

4
3
2
(1)

proviJoJ 4

5
5
2
(1)

proviJoJ 5
anJ so on. Tho coollicionts ol (1)

aro tho lilonacci sguaros.

Thoso lormulao shov that
2
is novor aJjacont to a primo, oxcopt
possilly vhon 3.

2
(1)

1
(
2

2
(1)

1
(

2
)
Thoro aro similar lormulao lor
2 1
.
Vornon Hoggatt Jr. anJ Varjorio Bicknoll-Johnson provoJ much
moro: tho - noighlor ol ovory povor ol a lilonacci numlor is
composito, vith tho oxcoption ol
3
2
4.
Tho noighlors ol all povors ol

aro also composito, unloss

tho povor itsoll is a povor ol 2 anJ is a multiplo ol 3, in vhich
caso it may lo primo. lor oxamplo,
9
4
1 133633 anJ
15
8
1 aro
loth primo. (Hoggatt anJ Bicknoll-Johnson 19)
- -
A lasic lact is that

JiviJos

, so il

is primo, thon must lo

primo, vith tho solo oxcoption ol 4, sinco
2
1. Hovovor, this
is a nocossary lut not sulliciont conJition. Thus
19
4181 3 113,
anJ
3
3 149 2221.
Tho groatost common Jivisor ol tvo lilonacci numlors,

anJ

,
is alvays anothor lilonacci numlor vhoso inJox is tho groatost
common Jivisor ol anJ .
A rolatoJ thoorom is that il anJ only il thon

, so you can
stuJy tho Jivisilility ol tho lilonacci numlors ly stuJying thoir
inJox numlors, anJ Jrav conclusions such as:
{ -
2 il anJ only il 3
3

il anJ only il 4
5 il anJ only il 5 anJ so on . . .
Wo can also provo that thoro is at loast ono lilonacci numlor Jivis-
illo ly any givon numlor : in lact, it can lo lounJ among tho lirst

2
numlors in tho soguonco. lt thon lollovs that thoro aro an inlinity
ol such numlors. ln particular, lor ovory numlor, , thoro is a
lilonacci torm that is Jivisillo ly , anJ it occurs among tho lirst
1 torms.
Chooso 1 lilonacci numlors lrom tho sot
1
,
2
,
3
, . . . ,
2
: thon
ono ol tho choson numlors JiviJos anothor, oxactly. (Woinstoin
1966)
ll is a primo groator than 2 (moJ 5) or 4 (moJ 5)
2 1 is also primo (a conJition rominiscont ol tho
conJition), thon (2 1)

, vhich is thoroloro com-

posito.
Vihly Bonczo provoJ an ologant Jivisilility proporty lor vhat might
lo calloJ a vory gonoralizoJ lilonacci soguonco. ln tho soguonco,
tho lirst lour valuos aro givon, anJ tho rulo thon is that
( 4) ( 1) ():
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
() 4 0 0 3 4 0 3 4 3
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 18 19
() 10 11 13 21 18 20 34 39 38
() is alvays Jivisillo ly , vhon is primo. (Bonczo 1998)
ll is primo, thon

may lo primo or composito, lut il it is com-

posito, thon its lactors vill novor havo appoaroJ oarlior in tho
lilonacci soguonco as lactors ol any torm.
--
- Tho largost knovn lilonacci primo is
81839
.
- lor ovory , it is possillo to linJ consocutivo composito
lilonacci numlors. lor 4,

1 is alvays composito.
- {
- Evory positivo can lo vritton as a sum ol Jistinct lilonacci
numlors.
- Tho primo numlor 1 is tho only primo that is tho avorago ol
tvo consocutivo lilonacci numlors. (Honakor: CalJvoll,
-)
- ll is primo, thon

is sguaro-lroo, unloss 5, in vhich

caso
5

vhoro is sguaro-lroo.
-
1
,
2
,
6
8 anJ
12
144 aro tho only lilonacci numlors that
aro povors.
- ll

is primo, thon is primo also, lut tho convorso is occa-

sionally lalso. Tho smallost countoroxamplo is
19
4181
3 113.
- Tho only lilonacci porloct culos aro 1 anJ 8.
- Tho only numlors that aro simultanoously lilonacci anJ
- aro 1 anJ 3.
- A. W. l. EJvarJs JolinoJ an - as ono
in vhich any pair ol torms aro coprimo. A simplo sot ol such
soguoncos is givon ly:

2
1

1
1, lor
1
1. lor
oxamplo, il
1
2, tho soguonco starts 1, 3, , 43, 180,
3263443, . . . (EJvarJs 1964)
- - - satisly a lilonacci-liko oguation:
1

3

2
1
- -
Iucas lactorizoJ all tho lirst sixty lilonacci numlors, anJ lirst notoJ
that il , thon

. Ho thon olsorvoJ a romarkallo lact alout

thoir -, moaning thoso lactors that JiviJo

lut Jo
not JiviJo any smallor lilonacci numlor. A primitivo lactor ol

is
congruont to 1 (moJ ), vith tho oxcoption 5.

lactors primitivo lactors (moJ )

1 1
2 1
3 2 2 3 1
4 3 3 4 1
5 5 (oxcoptoJ lrom rulo)
6 8 2
3
13 13 2 1
8 21 3 8 1
9 34 2 1 2 9 1
{ -
10 55 5 11 10 1
11 89 89 8 11 1
12 144 2
4
3
2
13 233 233 13 18 1
14 3 13 29 14 2 1
15 610 2 5 61 15 4 1
16 98 3 4 16 3 1
1 159 159 1 94 1
18 2584 2
3
1 19 18 1
19 4181 3 19 2 1 anJ 113 19 6 1
20 665 3 5 11 41 20 2 1
BasoJ on such olsorvations-ho haJ no prool, provoJ
tho rosult much lator in 1913-Iucas proposoJ as a thoorom that:
ll 3 (moJ 10) anJ is a primitivo Jivisor ol ( 1), thon
is primo. ll 1 (moJ 10) anJ is a primitivo Jivisor ol ( 1),
thon is primo.
On tho lasis ol this thoorom, anJ vith an ostimatoJ 10 to 300 hours
ol vork, Iucas Jrov a romarkallo conclusion: that tho onormous
numlor 2
12
1 is primo. As Iucas olsorvoJ, his thoorom allovs us
to Jotormino vhothor a numlor is primo or composito vithout mak-
ing uso ol a tallo ol primo numlors,` anJ so ho inauguratoJ tho
moJorn ora ol primality tosting.
- lilonacci composito soguoncos
- --
Although it`s not knovn il thoro is an inlinity ol lilonacci primos,
thoro aro -- in vhich oach torm is tho
sum ol tho provious tvo torms, vhich contain no primo numlors:
ovory torm is composito.
ln 1964 P. I. Graham loliovoJ ho haJ constructoJ an oxamplo ol
such a soguonco, lor vhich:
(1) 186 20 19288 02632 2681 51304 5593
(2) 1059 68322 50539 15111 05816 51416 86995
Tho soguonco thon continuos vith (3) (1) (2), anJ so on.
But ho maJo a mistako that vas corroctoJ ly DonalJ Knuth (1990),
vho gavo thoso corroct starting numlors:
- {
(1) 331 63563 59982 43 4220 06564 3063
(2) 1510 02891 10884 0191 18959 03054 9885
Knuth thon proJucoJ his ovn smallor starting pair:
(1) 49 46343 5432 05655
(2) 62 63828 00042 3985
(Graham 1964) (Knuth 1990)
-
A lormula, a magic rulo, lor proJucing primos! Hov Jolightlul!
Unlortunatoly, no - anJ - lormula oxists, though no ono
has ovor provoJ that a lormula is impossillo. Wo Jo, hovovor, havo
somo gooJ trios, somo ol thom moroly amusing, somo ol thom amaz-
ing, anJ somo ol thom Joop.
Tho torm lormula` itsoll is amliguous. lt coulJ moan a lormula
that proJucos all tho primos in orJor, as a lunction ol . So you
simply apply tho lormula to linJ tho th primo. An oxact lormula lor
() voulJ lo olloctivoly as gooJ.
A much voakor JomanJ is that tho lormula proJucos only primo
numlors, novor composito. This is vhat lormat thought, mistakonly,
ol his -, anJ many othor conjocturos that a cortain lor-
mula proJucoJ only primos havo also loon shot Jovn, though thoro
aro many lormulao that proJuco primos anJ thon lail,
illustrating PicharJ Guy`s - - -.
Convorsoly, tho oxprossion
6
1091 is - lor 1 to 3905
(Shanks), anJ 2
2

5 2

is composito lor all 2 anJ 2.

(Crockor 1961)
An ovon voakor intorprotation is a lunction that proJucos sur-
prisingly many primos. Tho polynomial 30 13 proJucos
411 primos among tho lirst 1,000 valuos ol . (CalJvoll,
-) Bottor-knovn oxamplos aro K- anJ its
rolativos.
Tho vory vorJ lormula` is also uncloar. ln HollyvooJ movios, any
mathomatical lormula, stolon ly a lionJish spy or croatoJ ly a maJ
prolossor, is likoly to lo a polynomial, vith maylo a lov sguaro root
signs or intograls throvn in. Wo can allov moro lunctions than this:
lor oxamplo, lactorial, sullactorial, tho intogral part ol a non-intogor,
anJ many othors.
{ -
K- is oxtraorJinarily improssivo at
lirst glanco, lut it turns out to lo a cunningly JisguisoJ siovo.
No polynomial can proJuco only primos, lut in solving K-
, - shovoJ that thoro aro polynomials in
many variallos vhoso positivo valuos aro tho primo numlors-
though most ol thoir valuos aro nogativo anJ usually not primo.
ll (moJ ) is an allovallo lunction, this lunction gonoratos all
tho primos, il is any non-nogativo intogor:
() 2 (2(!) moJ ( 1))
ll 1 is primo, thon ly -K-
! 1 (moJ 1)
anJ so 2(!) 2 (moJ 1)
anJ so () 1.
But il 1 is primo, thon its primo lactors vill lo loss than anJ so
2(!) 0 (moJ 1), anJ () 2.
C. P. Willans ostallishoJ a lormula to tost vhothor any numlor, , is
primo. lt is
( )
1
2( 1)
2
() 1 (
2
( ) 1) 2
vhoro () ( 1) (! 1) anJ is tho lloor lunction, ogual
to tho groatost intogor
This lunction also gonoratos oach oJJ primos onco, anJ othorviso
oguals 2. (Honslorgor 196, 33) lor oxamplo,
(1,2) 3
(5,4) 5
(103,6)
No othor primo is gonoratoJ lor valuos ol loss than 1000.
Willans thon usoJ this lunction to Jorivo a complox anJ typically
usoloss lormula lor tho th primo numlor. (Willans 1964, 413-15)
Horo is anothor trick: Jolino tho numlor - to lo tho Jocimal in vhich
oach primo is lollovoJ ly zoros:
- 0.20030005000000000000110000000000013 . . .
Thon tho lormula
- {

10
2
- 10
2 1
10 oxp ( 1)
2
-
rocovors thom, lut tolls you nothing you JiJn`t alroaJy knov --
thoro voro a moans ol calculating - inJoponJontly, vhich no ono
oxpocts.
G. H. HarJy managoJ to linJ an oxact lormula lor (), tho largost
primo lactor ol a numlor . Without making tho slightost attompt to
oxplain it, horo it is!

() lim. lim. lim. |1 (cos (!)

)
2
l
0
(DuJloy 1983)
- Eulor`s guaJratic, Vills` thoorom
- K-
Tako tho soguonco ol -, tho proJucts ol tho primos in
soguonco:
2 6 30 210 2310 30030 . . .
aJJ 1 3 31 211 2311 30031 . . .
tako tho noxt primo 5 11 3 223 2333 3004 . . .
tako tho Jilloronco 2 4 6 12 22 16 . . .
aJJ 1 3 5 13 23 1 . . .
Tho longths somo pooplo vill go to proJuco primo numlors! Poo
lortuno, vho vas an anthropologist anJ onco marrioJ to Vargarot
VoaJ, thought up this ono anJ conjocturoJ, naturally, that all tho
- aro primo.
Tho soguonco goos: 3, 5, , 13, 23, 1, 19, 23, 3, 61, 6, 61, 1, 4,
10, 59, 61, 109, 89, 103, 9, 151, 19, 101, 103, 233, 223, 12, 223,
191, 163, 229, 643, . . .
Tho conjocturo may voll lo truo, sinco tho th lortunato numlor
is not Jivisillo ly any ol tho lirst primos, anJ yot is rolativoly small.
Thus tho lourth lortunato numlor is not Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, or , anJ
is only 13, so it must lo primo (ovon il vo JiJn`t knov that alroaJy!).
lnJooJ, vo coulJ roplaco tho noxt primo` ly tho noxt primo-lut-
ono` anJ still oxpoct to got primos:
{ - K-
2 6 30 210 2310 . . .
aJJ 1 3 31 211 2311 . . .
tako tho noxt primo 13 41 22 23339 . . .
tako tho Jilloronco 4 6 10 16 28 . . .
aJJ 1 5 11 1 29 . . .
Tho conjocturo coulJ only lail il thoro is a sulliciontly largo gap
lotvoon tvo primos, so that tho noxt primo,` on at loast ono occa-
sion, is vory largo inJooJ, anJ this is thought unlikoly. (Goloml
1981)
- - - -
Tho gap () lotvoon tho primos () anJ ( 1) is usually
JolinoJ to lo tho numlor ol composito numlors lotvoon thom, so
() is 1 loss than tho Jilloronco.
Sinco tho primos slovly locomo scarcor anJ scarcor, () must
incroaso on avorago. ln lact, vo can linJ gaps ovontually as largo as
vo ploaso. Hovovor, thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol lor vhich
( 1) ().
Wo say that () is a maximal gap il () () lor all . A
maximal gap is a rocorJ-lroaking gap, tho lirst occuronco ol a gap
that largo, up to that point.
Tho soguonco ol maximal gaps starts vith 1, 2, 4, 9, 24, 30, 99,
154, 189, 21, 1183, 1831, 2225, 3385, 1435, 30802, . . .
Cramr`s conjocturo is that tho largost gap lotvoon primos rounJ
alout is alvays loss than (log )
2
. ll Cramr`s conjocturo is truo,
thon so is K- , at loast lor largo valuos ol .
ll 48, thon thoro is a primo lotvoon anJ 98, inclusivo.
ll 11, thon tho intorval to 43 inclusivo contains a primo
numlor ol oach ol tho lorms 4 1, 4 3, 6 1, anJ 6 5.
Thoso thooroms roguiro Jillicult prools. ln contrast, computors havo
loon usoJ to Jiscovor many curious statistics, such as:
- Among tho lirst six million primos (up to 104,395,289), tho
largost Jilloronco lotvoon consocutivo primos is 220, anJ tho
- - - - {
smallost Jilloronco that Joos not appoar in this rango is 186.
(Gruonlorgor anJ ArmorJing)
- Tho lirst pair ol consocutivo primos Jilloring ly 100 aro
396,33 anJ 396,833.
- Tho lirst gap ol at loast 1,000 is tho surprisingly largo gap ol
1,132 lolloving tho primo 16931823184631, JiscovoroJ ly
Thomas Nicoly anJ Bortil Nyman.
- Harvoy Dulnor has lounJ a gap ol at loast 50,206 noar 3
10
1883
.
-- P
Vathomatics is tho guoon ol tho scioncos anJ numlor thoory is
tho guoon ol mathomatics.
O--
Gauss vas a gonius vho contrilutoJ to almost all liolJs ol puro anJ
applioJ mathomatics, ospocially calculus, goomotry, algolra, prola-
lility, gooJosy, anJ ol courso numlor thoory, as voll as-liko Nov-
ton-astronomy anJ optics.
As a chilJ ho vas a calculating proJigy, lut unliko most proJigios
ho rotainoJ this usolul alility all his lilo. lt contrilutoJ to tho pattorn
ol his vork, vhich comlinoJ oxtonsivo ompirical invostigations vith
Joop insight anJ an omphasis on prool, not moroly to conlirm vhat
ho vas alroaJy convincoJ vas truo, lut as a sourco ol illumination.
Ho pullishoJ six prools ol tho lav ol (a sov-
onth vas lounJ among his papors), oach ono aJJing to his-anJ
othor mathomaticians`-unJorstanJing ol this Joop prollom.
Ho shovoJ at tho ago ol ninotoon that a rogular -siJoJ polygon
can lo constructoJ vith a rulor anJ compassos il anJ only il is tho
proJuct ol a povor ol 2 anJ ono or moro Jistinct -. Just
as EucliJ haJ onJoJ his - vith tho construction ol tho Jo
JocahoJron anJ icosahoJron, Gauss onJoJ his oarly mastorpioco,
--- , pullishoJ in 1801 vhon ho vas tvonty-
lour, vith tho solution to this prollom anJ a list ol possillo numlors
ol siJos up to tho limit ol 300.
ln tho samo yoar ho usoJ novol mothoJs to proJict tho position ol
tho minor planot Coros, vhich haJ loon lost,` a sonsational rosult
{ -- P
altor vhich ho vas lamous as loth a mathomatician anJ an as-
tronomor.
Gauss also provoJ that ovory numlor is tho sum ol throo triangular
numlors, a conclusion that lormat haJ Jravn lut coulJ not provo.
Gauss roJucoJ it to tho prollom ol roprosonting a numlor as tho
sum ol throo sguaros ly pointing out that il,

1
2( 1)
1
2( 1)
1
2( 1)
Thon 8 3 (2 1)
2
(2 1)
2
(2 1)
2
Ho thon provoJ anothor ol lormat`s claims, that any intogor is tho
sum ol at most lour sguaros.
Ho rolusoJ to sponJ timo on K- - , roplying to tho
astronomor Ollor`s urging ly saying, l conloss that lormat`s Thoo-
rom as an isolatoJ proposition has vory littlo intorost lor mo, locauso
l coulJ oasily lay Jovn a multituJo ol such propositions, vhich ono
coulJ noithor provo nor Jisposo ol.` (Novman 1956)
-- - -
Gauss, in a lottor to Encko on Christmas Evo 1849, vroto, As a loy
l consiJoroJ tho prollom ol hov many primos thoro aro up to a
givon point. lrom my computations, l JotorminoJ that tho Jonsity ol
primos arounJ , is alout 1log().` Ho claimoJ to havo maJo many
ol his Jiscovorios through systomatic, palpallo oxporimontation.`
(Vackay 1994)
Givon a lov minutos` sparo timo ho voulJ calculato primo num-
lors. Ho is supposoJ Juring his lilotimo to havo calculatoJ all tho
primos up to 3,000,000. Hovovor, ho also omployoJ anothor calcu-
lating proJigy, Zacharias Daso (1824-1861), vho vas no mathomati-
cian, to Jo calculations lor him. Iiko many calculating proJigios,
Daso touroJ viJoly giving oxhilitions ol his alilitios. Ho calculatoJ
sovon-liguro tallos ol logarithms anJ tho valuo ol to tvo hunJroJ
placos, anJ maJo a lactor tallo ol tho numlors lotvoon anJ 10
million.
Gauss lator conjocturoJ on tho lasis ol ompirical oviJonco that (),
tho numlor ol primos loss than , is approximatoly ogual to
()

2
anJ that tho numlor ol primos up to is alout (log ).

log
-- P {
This is tho tallo that ho sont to Encko, as corroctoJ ly D. N.
Iohmor.
primos () log Jilloronco
500,000 41,538 41,606 68
1,000,000 8,498 8,628 130
1,500,000 114,155 114,263 108
2,000,000 148,933 149,055 122
2,500,000 183,02 183,245 13
3,000,000 216,816 216,91 155
-- -
Gaussian intogors aro ol tho lorm vhoro 1. Iiko tho nat-
ural numlors, Gaussian intogors can lo uniguoly lactorizoJ. Hov-
ovor, cortain orJinary primos aro composito vhon rogarJoJ as
Gaussian intogors vith 0.
ln lact, sinco all orJinary primos ol tho lorm 4 1 can lo
oxprossoJ as tho sum ol tvo sguaros, such as
13 2
2
3
2
thoy aro Gaussian compositos, locauso
2
2
3
2
(2 3)(2 3)
A Gaussian primo lits thoso conJitions: il anJ aro non-zoro,
thon is a Gaussian primo il anJ only il
2

2
is an orJinary
primo. ll oithor or 0, thon tho alsoluto valuo ol tho othor must
lo an orJinary primo ol tho lorm 4 3.
Ono moasuro ol tho sizo` ol a Gaussian intogor, , is its ,

2

2
. Tho soguonco ol Gaussian primos in tho lirst guartor ol tho
ArganJ Jiagram starting vith tho smallost norm is: 1 , 2 , 3, 3
2, 4 , 5 2, , 5 4, , 2, 6 5, 8 3, 8 5, 9 4, . . .
ll is a Gaussian primo, thon so aro , , anJ
, so tho Gaussian primos aro symmotrical alout tho origin vhon
thoy aro plottoJ on an ArganJ Jiagram. This is tho pattorn thoy
mako, lor all anJ such that
2

2
1000, moaning that thoy
lio vithin a circlo vith raJius 10 10.
This pattorn has loon usoJ lor tallocloths anJ tiling lloors, as voll
as prompting guostions such as: il tho Gaussian primos aro stop-
ping-stonos` to inlinity, vhat is tho largost stop you ovor nooJ to
tako? lt is knovn that you nooJ to cross gaps ol at loast 5. (Gothnor,
Wagon, anJ Wick 1998)
{ -- P
--K-
Hov many points aro thoro on or insiJo a circlo vhoso contor is a lat-
tico point? ll tho raJius is , thon tho total is,
(0) (1) (2) (3) . . . (
2
)
vhoro () is tho lormula lor tho numlor ol vays in vhich is tho sum
ol tvo intogral sguaros. ( lormat anJ primos ol tho lorm
2

2
.)
Tho points on a sguaro lattico that aro visillo lrom tho origin aro
just tho points vhoso coorJinatos aro : so thoir Jonsity is
ogual to tho prolalility that tvo intogors choson at ranJom aro
coprimo, vhich is 6
2
.
lormat, primo numlor thoorom
K-
Vako up a tallo ol ropoatoJ alsoluto Jilloroncos ol tho primo num-
lors in soguonco, liko this:
K- {
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 29 31 3 41 43 4 53 59 61 6 1
1 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 2 6 4 2 4 6 6 2 6 4
1 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 0 4 4 2
1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 4 0 2
1 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 4 2
1 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2
1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0
Tho pattorn is protty much irrogular, oxcopt lor tho lolt-hanJ oJgo,
vhich altor tho initial 2 sooms to alvays lo 1. Proth lirst noticoJ this
pattorn in 188 anJ claimoJ, mistakonly, to havo provoJ it. Iator
Gillroath spottoJ it vhon ho vas a stuJont at tho Univorsity ol Cali-
lornia at Ios Angolos in tho lato 1950s, anJ it is nov calloJ Gil-
lroath`s conjocturo. lt has loon vorilioJ lor primos loss than 10
13
.
(OJlyzko 1993)
Ono ingonious suggostion is that this proporty has nothing spo-
cilically to Jo vith primos at all, lut is truo ol any starting so-
guonco that logins vith 2 anJ continuos vith oJJ numlors that
incroaso lairly slovly anJ Jon`t havo too groat gaps. Horo is an
oxamplo, in vhich tho initial rov is a mixturo ol primos anJ com-
positos:
2 3 5 9 11 13 15 19 25 2 33 3 39 41 45 4 51
1 2 4 2 2 2 4 6 2 6 4 2 2 4 2 6
1 2 2 0 0 2 2 4 4 2 2 0 2 2 4
1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 2
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 2 2 0
1 0 0 0 2 0 2
1 0 0 2 2 2
1 0 2 0 0
1 2 2 0
1 0 2
1 2
1
But vhy? No ono knovs.
{ K-
O
-
GlVPS is tho lost-knovn oxamplo ol - . ln 1995
Goorgo Woltman collatoJ all tho knovn rosults on - -
anJ in January 1996 put thom on tho Wol, togothor vith a last pro-
gram lor tosting vhothor a Vorsonno numlor is primo. Soon scoros
ol oxports anJ thousanJs ol amatour onthusiasts voro joining tho
hunt, incluJing schooltoachors vho havo usoJ tho GlVPS phonomo-
non to motivato thoir stuJonts, vho can run tho lroo soltvaro thom-
solvos as a class projoct.
ToJay, tho GlVPS usos Entropia`s PrimoNot systom, vhich por-
lorms 2 trillion calculations por soconJ, ovory soconJ, all Jay, vhilo
its tamo computors aro Joing othor tasks, ovon vhilo thoir ovnors
aro asloop-nothing stops it!
Tho rosults aro incroJillo: GlVPS spont thirtoon thousanJ yoars ol
computor timo to linJ tho thon rocorJ-lroaking primo 2
13,466,91
1,
JiscovoroJ ly Vichaol Camoron in 2001.
Ono GlVPS onthusiast, Nayan Hajratvala ol Plymouth, Vichigan,
von $50,000 in 1999, ono ol tho `s
cooporativo computing avarJs, lor Jiscovoring tho lirst million-Jigit
primo, 2
6,92,593
1, vhich has 2,098,960 Jigits.
ll you vant to join tho lun, moro inlormation anJ tho lroo soltvaro
aro availallo at vvv.morsonno.orgprimo. Tho stato ol play is ro-
corJoJ on tho GlVPS status pago, at vvv.morsonno.orgstatus.
All tho Vorsonno numlors loss than 10
1,000,000
havo loon tostoJ at
loast onco, most ol thom moro than onco. Both ol tho largost knovn
primos voro lounJ ly GlVPS momlors. On Docomlor 11, 2003,
CNN hoaJlinoJ, StuJont linJs largost knovn primo numlor.` A
GlVPS momlor, Vichaol Shalor, a graJuato stuJont at Vichigan Stato
Univorsity, haJ lounJ tho latost vorlJ rocorJ primo on his Doll com-
putor, ono ol moro than tvo hunJroJ thousanJ computors involvoJ
in tho soarch, making lotvoon thom 9 trillion calculations por soc-
onJ. lt is 2
20,996,011
1, is 6,320,430 Jigits long, anJ voulJ tako hun-
JroJs ol pagos to print out.
O - {
K-
AccorJing to K- , il is primo thon oach ol tho
1 torms on tho lolt-hanJ siJo is ogual to 1 (moJ ), so thoir sum
oguals 1 (moJ ):

1
1
2
1
3
1
. . . ( 1)
1
1 (moJ )
Giuga conjocturoJ in 1950 that il this congruonco is truo, must lo
primo.
Ho also provoJ that

1 (moJ ) il anJ only il lor oach primo

Jivisor ol , loth 1 anJ JiviJo 1, so il a countoroxam-
plo oxists it voulJ lo a spocial typo ol , vhich
looks liko a vory limiting conJition. lnJooJ, il an oxcoption to
Giuga`s conjocturo oxists, it has at loast 12,000 Jigits. This conjocturo
has loon vorilioJ lor 10
100
. (Pilonloim 1996)
-
ll is a composito numlor such that 1 lor all primo Jivi-
sors, , ol , thon is a Giuga numlor. Giuga provoJ that is a
Giuga numlor il anJ only il tho sum ol tho rociprocals ol its primo
Jivisors, loss thoir proJuct, is an intogor. lor oxamplo, tho smallost
Giuga numlor is 30 anJ,
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
30 1
Tho soguonco ol Giuga numlors continuos 858 2 3 11 13
lor vhich
1
2
1
3
1
11
1
13
1
858 1
lollovoJ ly 122 2 3 41
lor vhich
1
2
1
3
1

1
41
1
122 1
66198 2 3 11 1 59
2214408306 2 3 11 23 31 405
24423128562 2 3 43 3041 444
. . .
livo Giuga numlors vith sovon or oight lactors aro knovn. lt is not
knovn il thoro aro an inlinity ol Giuga numlors. (Borvoin, Borvoin,
Borvoin, anJ Girgonsohn 1996)
{ K-
K-
Tho lamous prollom ol vhich l proposo to spoak tonight is prol-
ally as Jillicult as any ol tho unsolvoJ prolloms ol mathomatics.
O K-
Christian GolJlach (1690-164) vas lorn in Konigslorg in Prussia
lut spont most ol his lilo in Pussia vhoro ho vas appointoJ corro-
sponJonco socrotary ol tho lmporial AcaJomy ol Scioncos at St.
Potorslurg. His social succoss intorloroJ vith his mathomatical vork
lut ho corrosponJoJ vith many ol tho loaJing mathomaticians ol
Europo, anJ lor moro than thirty yoars vith , vhom ho
promptoJ to invostigato tho lilth , 2
2
5
1, vhich Eulor
provoJ vas composito.
On Juno , 142, GolJlach vroto a lottor to Eulor in vhich ho
spoculatoJ on hov numlors might lo roprosontoJ as tho sum ol
primos. ln particular, ho suggostoJ that ovory numlor is tho sum ol
throo primos.
GolJlach`s conjocturo moans toJay tho strong claim that any ovon
numlor (2 oxcoptoJ) is tho sum ol tvo primos: it has novor loon
provoJ.
Tho voakor conjocturo, that ovory oJJ numlor can lo vritton as a
sum ol throo primos, is knovn to lo truo il anothor conjocturo
rolatoJ to tho -- is truo. lt is truo anyvay lor all lut
a linito lut vory largo numlor ol possillo oxcoptions, all loss than
10
43000
.
Tho main conjocturo romains oxtromoly Jillicult, so tho pullishors
lalor anJ lalor must havo lolt protty salo vhon thoy announcoJ as
an aJvortising gimmick to promoto thoir look -
K- ly Apostolos DoxiaJis that thoy voro olloring
\1 million to anyono vho coulJ provo GolJlach`s conjocturo
lotvoon Varch 20, 2000, anJ Varch 20, 2002. Thoy voro right-tho
prizo vas not claimoJ.
lronically, GolJlach himsoll voulJ not havo loon allovoJ to
ontor-ltom 10 ol tho Torms anJ ConJitions rostrictoJ tho challongo
to logal rosiJonts ol tho UnitoJ KingJom anJ tho UnitoJ Statos agoJ
18 or ovor`!
K- {
Although GolJlach`s conjocturo has not loon provoJ, it is cloar (!)
that all ovon numlors lut tho smallost aro tho sum ol tvo primos in
an incroasing numlor ol vays:
14 3 11
16 3 13 5 11
18 5 13 11
20 3 1 13
22 3 19 5 1 11 11
24 5 19 1 11 13
26 3 23 19 13 13
28 5 23 11 1
. . .
Tho soguonco ol tho smallost ovon numlors that aro tho sum ol
tvo primos in vays starts: 6, 10, 22, 34, 48, 60, . . .
GolJlach`s conjocturo vas vorilioJ in 1998 ly Joorg Pichstoin up to
4 10
14
. Tho conjocturo that ovory oJJ numlor is tho sum ol throo
primos has loon chockoJ up to 10
20
. lt is oguivalont to tho statomont
that ovory intogor groator than 1 is tho sum ol throo - primos.
lt is knovn that ovory intogor is tho sumol at most six primos, anJ that
all sulliciontly largo numlors aro tho sum ol a primo anJ a -.
Also, ovory numlor groator than 161 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos
ol tho lorm 6 1, il 205, ol Jistinct primos, 6 1, il 55, ol Jis-
tinct primos ol tho lorm 4 3, anJ il 121, Jistinct primos, 4 1.
ll is ovon anJ largo onough, thon thoro is a numlor , loss than ,
such that ( ) has at most livo primo lactors. (Hallorstam anJ
Pichort 194)
Vany ovon numlors can simply lo vritton as tho sum ol 3, 5, or
anJ anothor primo. Tho smallost that cannot is 98 19 9.
GolJlach also conjocturoJ in a lottor to Eulor ol 152 that ovory oJJ
intogor is tho sum ol a primo (vhich lor GolJlach incluJoJ tho
numlor 1) anJ Joullo a sguaro. Voritz Storn JiscovoroJ in 1856 that
5 anJ 5993 aro oxcoptions.
Iauront HoJgos has chockoJ up to 1,000,000 anJ lounJ no moro
oxcoptions, so thoro prolally aro nono, lor, as Eulor pointoJ out, tho
numlor ol roprosontations in tho lorm 2
2
incroasos vith .
{ K-
HoJgos calculatos, lor oxamplo, that thoro aro just tvonty-oight num-
lors lrom 1 to 69 that can lo roprosontoJ in only ono vay as
2
2
. (HoJgos 1993)
Dan Zvillingor chockoJ vhich ovon numlors lrom 2 to 1,000,000
can lo vritton as tho sum ol -, that is, primos that aro oach
a momlor ol a pair ol tvin primos. Only thirty-throo oxcoptions voro
lounJ, all loss than 5000. Tho smallost throo oxcoptions voro 94, 96,
anJ 98. Tho largost numlor than can lo so roprosontoJ in only ono
vay is 24098. (Zvillingor 199)
HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos, Opporman`s conjocturo
-
ErJos anJ Strauss call a primo () gooJ il ()
2
( )( )
lor all valuos ol lrom 1 to 1.
Tho inlinito soguonco ol gooJ primos starts, 5, 11, 1, 29, . . . (Guy
1994, 32)
K-
Grimm conjocturoJ that givon any soguonco ol consocutivo numlors,
thoro is a matching soguonco ol - primos among thoir lactors.
lor oxamplo:
1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 180 1808 1809 1810
aro Jivisillo rospoctivoly ly
53 601 41 19 43 139 113 6 181
lt has loon provoJ that thoro aro only linitoly many oxcoptions to tho
conjocturo. (Grimm 1969)
P
Tho mathomatician`s pattorns, liko tho paintor`s or tho poot`s,
must lo loautilul, tho iJoas, liko tho colors or tho vorJs must lit
togothor in a harmonious vay. Boauty is tho lirst tost: thoro is no
pormanont placo in this vorlJ lor ugly mathomatics.
O
P {
HarJy vas tho groatost British mathomatician ol tho tvontioth con-
tury, anJ a lrilliant oxponont ol vory puro mathomatics, ospocially
primo numlors. ln his look K- ho put into
vorJs vhat so many mathomaticians lool-l am intorostoJ in math-
omatics only as a croativo art`-anJ ho oxprossoJ his satislaction that
nothing ho haJ ovor JiscovoroJ or provoJ voulJ havo any practical
uso vhatsoovor: so ho might havo loon JisappointoJ to loarn that
tho lactorization ol giant primo numlors is toJay important in
.
ln an aJJross to tho British Association lor tho AJvancomont ol Sci-
onco ho saiJ, A scionco is saiJ to lo usolul il its Jovolopmont tonJs
to accontuato tho oxisting inogualitios in tho Jistrilution ol voalth, or
moro Jiroctly promotos tho Jostruction ol human lilo,` aJJing that
tho stuJy ol primo numlors JiJ noithor, vhilo tho groatost matho-
maticians ol all agos havo lounJ in it a mystorious attraction impos-
sillo to rosist.` (HarJy 1915, 14)
ln his inaugural locturo as prolossor at OxlorJ Univorsity, ho saiJ,
ll l coulJ attain ovory sciontilic amlition ol my lilo, tho lrontiors ol
tho Empiro voulJ not lo aJvancoJ, not ovon a llack man voulJ lo
llovn to piocos, no ono`s lortuno voulJ lo maJo, anJ loast ol all my
ovn. A puro mathomatician must loavo to happior colloaguos tho
groat task ol alloviating tho sullorings ol humanity.` (HarJy 1920)
HarJy onco sont a postcarJ to a lrionJ listing his six Nov \oar
vishos. Ono vas to mako 211 not out in tho lourth innings ol tho last
tost match at tho Oval. (HarJy vas a crickot lanatic.) Anothor vas to
murJor Vussolini, lut tho lirst vas to provo tho --.
HarJy`s lilo vas markoJ ly tvo romarkallo collalorations. Tho
lirst startoJ in 1911 vhon ho logan to vork vith J. E. IittlovooJ,
vho vas oight yoars his junior. Thoy vorkoJ togothor lor thirty-livo
yoars vriting noarly ono hunJroJ papors, many on numlor thoory,
incluJing tho Piomann zota lunction.
Tvo yoars lator, HarJy rocoivoJ a lottor lrom , contain-
ing a largo numlor ol rosults, somo voll-knovn, somo moroly novol,
anJ somo, HarJy arguoJ, so oxtraorJinary that thoy coulJ only lo
tho vork ol a mathomatician ol gonius.
Ho rocorJoJ this lamous anocJoto Joscriling a visit to Pamanujan
vhilo ho vas ill:
l haJ riJJon in taxi cal numlor 129 anJ romarkoJ that tho numlor
soomoJ to mo rathor a Jull ono, anJ that l hopoJ it vas not an unlavorallo
omon. No,` ho roplioJ, it is a vory intorosting numlor, it is tho smallost
{ P
numlor oxprossillo as tho sum ol tvo culos in tvo Jilloront vays.` (HarJy
1940)
Pamanujan coulJ havo aJJoJ that 129 is also tho thirJ
.
HarJy vroto tvo notallo toxtlooks: - -
vhich introJucoJ gonorations ol English stuJonts to rigorous Conti-
nontal iJoas in analysis, anJ
- (1938) vritton vith E. V. Wright, vhich is nov in its lilth oJition
anJ voll vorth stuJy ly any roaJors vho vant to go lurthor into tho
tochnicalitios ol primo numlor thoory.
-
Wo trust that it vill not lo supposoJ that vo attach any oxaggor-
atoJ importanco to tho spoculations vhich vo havo sot out. . . .
Wo havo not lorgotton that in puro mathomatics, anJ in tho Tho-
ory ol Numlors in particular, it is only prool that counts.` lt is
guito possillo, in tho light ol tho history ol tho suljoct, that tho
vholo ol our spoculations may lo ill lounJoJ. Such oviJonco as
thoro is points, lor vhat it is vorth, in tho opposito Jiroction.
O
ln ono oxtromoly long papor, HarJy anJ IittlovooJ pullishoJ an
inlluontial sorios ol - alout hov numlors might lo ropro-
sontoJ in Jilloront lorms, nono ol vhich thoy provoJ, though thoy
JiJ givo complicatoJ lormulao lor tho numlor ol roprosontations.
Horo aro somo ol thom.
- Conjocturo B: Thoro aro inlinitoly many primo pairs anJ
, lor ovory ovon .
- Conjocturo E: Tho numlor ol primos ol tho lorm
2
1 is inli-
nito anJ is ogual to
12
log as tonJs to inlinity, vhoro
is approximatoly 1.328134628 . . . (linch 2003, 85)
This romains only a conjocturo, lut it has loon shovn that
thoro aro an inlinity ol valuos ol
2
1 that aro oithor primos
or --.
HarJy anJ IittlovooJ gonoralizoJ this to -tuplos` ol tho
lorm
1
,
2
, . . . ,

, conjocturing that lor any

givon (
1
, . . . ,

) thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol s lor vhich

tho -tuplo
1
,
2
, . . . ,

vill lo all primo,

P {
unloss thoro is an olomontary Jivisilility conJition onsuring
that ono ol thoso must lo composito. Tho - conjoc-
turo is tho spocial caso ol anJ 2.
- Conjocturo H: Evory largo numlor is oithor a sguaro or tho sum
ol a primo anJ a sguaro.
- Conjocturo K: ll is any lixoJ numlor othor than a (positivo
or nogativo) culo, thon thoro aro inlinitoly many primos ol tho
lorm
3
.
- Conjocturo I: Evory largo numlor is oithor a culo or tho sum
ol a primo anJ (positivo) culo.
- Conjocturo V: ll is any lixoJ numlor othor than zoro, thoro
aro inlinitoly many primos ol tho lorm
3

3
, vhoro anJ
aro loth positivo.
- Conjocturo N: Thoro aro inlinitoly many primos ol tho lorm

3

3

3
.
- Conjocturo P: Thoro aro inlinitoly many primo pairs ol tho lorm

2
1,
2
3.
Dospito tho hositation thoy oxprossoJ in tho guotation alovo, thoso
conjocturos ly tvo vorlJ-class mathomaticians havo stooJ tho tost ol
timo-ovon as prools aro still lacking.
HarJy anJ IittlovooJ also conjocturoJ that ( ) () ().
This conjocturo, hovovor, is inconsistont vith tho conjocturo that
thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol triplos ol primos ol tho lorms 6 1,
6 1, 6 5 anJ 6 1, 6 5, 6 . Which plausillo conjoc-
turo is lalso? Prolally tho lormor. (HarJy anJ IittlovooJ 1923)
lormulao lor primos, tho primo numlors raco
{ P
-
Thoro is an inlinito numlor ol primos ol tho lorm
2

4
(lvanioc
anJ J. lrioJlanJor) anJ ol tho lorm
3
2
3
.

4
1 is primo lor 1, 2, 4, 6, 16, 20, 24, 28, 34, 46, 48, . . . (Sloano
A000068) (Ial 196)
Thoro is an inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm
2

2
or
2

2
1. ll

2
4 is a porloct sguaro, thon
2
has algolraic lactors.
Othorviso, anJ il , , anJ aro coprimo in pairs anJ il anJ
aro not loth ovon, thon thoro is an inlinity ol primos
2

- -
Nov lor tho . . . houristic argumont. Tho roaJor shoulJ lo varnoJ
that tho lolloving Jiscussion involvos somo largo loaps ol laith.
O
G. H. HarJy consiJoroJ tho numlor ol vays in vhich an ovon num-
lor 2 can lo vritton as tho sum ol tvo primos, anJ arguoJ liko
this:
ll anJ is largo, tho chanco that is primo is approximatoly 1: log
. ll thon vo vrito in ovory possillo vay in tho lorm , tho chanco
that loth anJ aro primo is approximatoly 1: (log )
2
. Wo shoulJ thoro-
loro oxpoct tho orJor ol magnituJo . . . to lo (log )
2
. (HarJy 1966)
This is an oxamplo ol a - argumont. lt is loss than convincing
locauso, as HarJy notoJ, tho arithmotical lorm ol makos a Jillor-
onco to tho ansvor. lor a start, must lo ovon, unloss is 2 moro
than a primo.
lt turns out that to got a moro accurato rosult that takos into
account tho lact that anJ 2 loing primo aro actually inJo-
ponJont ovonts, vo havo to multiply this houristic ostimato ly a lac-
tor 1.32032 . . . This makos a largo Jilloronco in practico: tho rosult is
incroasoJ lor largo ly noarly ono-thirJ, yot tho - argumont
vas cortainly on tho right linos anJ takos tho mathomatician a long
vay tovarJ tho corroct conclusion.
(Brun provoJ that ovory ovon numlor is tho sum ol tvo numlors
vith at most nino oJJ primo lactors, anJ that tho numlor ol such
roprosontations is also proportional to at loast (log )
2
.)

Plya notoJ that vhilo thoro aro only oight pairs ol tvin primos loss
than 100, thoro aro tvico as many, sixtoon, primos such that 6
is also primo: 5-11, -13, 11-1, 13-19, 1-23, 23-29, 31-3, 3-43, 41-
4, 4-53, 53-59, 61-6, 6-3, 3-9, 83-89, anJ 9-103. Tho propor-
tion ol 1:2 continuos vhon highor primos aro chockoJ. Up to
30,000,000 thoro aro 152,892 tvin primo pairs anJ 304,86 pairs Jil-
loring ly 6.
Having noticoJ this lact, Plya, vriting in 1959 vhon computors
voro still guito voak, usoJ Jata calculatoJ ly D. H. anJ Emma
- - {
Iohmor up to tho limit 3 10

to comparo tho lroguoncy ol pairs,

anJ , in vhich loth numlors aro primo.
Ho noticoJ that tho lroguoncy ol pairs anJ vas roughly
ogual lor 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, anJ 64. Similarly, tho Jata lor 6, 12,
24, anJ 48 voro roughly ogual, anJ so voro thoso lor 10, 20, anJ
40 anJ 14, 28, anJ 56.
Plya continuoJ vith his olsorvations, linally Jraving tho conclu-
sion that il

() is tho numlor ol pairs, anJ , loth primo vith
, thon

() is approximatoly ogual to
2
() ( 1)( 2)
vhoro tho proJuct is calculatoJ ovor all tho oJJ primos that JiviJo .
Plya thon continuoJ his argumont ly introJucing an argumont
lasoJ on , anJ got tho ansvor ho vantoJ,
: to corroct` tho llav, ho intro-
JucoJ an oxtra lactor anJ got tho corroct` rosult, vhilo aJmitting
that l Jo not protonJ to unJorstanJ vhy tho introJuction ol tho
uppor lounJ - yiolJ tho right rosult.`
At this point vo can loavo Goorgo Plya`s lrilliant spoculations, vhilo
Jraving tho oncouraging conclusion-vhich vill astonish thoso poo-
plo vho lalsoly loliovo that mathomatics is alvays rock-soliJ anJ
puroly logical-that such imaginativo houristic roasoning can loaJ to
corroct ansvors anJ so contriluto to mathomatical progross, ly point-
ing tovarJ moro comploto anJ linal argumonts. (Plya 1959)
K- -
DaviJ Hillort (1862-1943) vas among tho groatost mathomaticians
ol all timo. Ho is ol most intorost to us locauso ol a lamous spooch
that ho JolivoroJ to tho SoconJ lntornational Congross ol Vatho-
maticians in Paris on August 8, 1900, on Tho Prolloms ol Vatho-
matics.` With tho conliJonco that charactorizoJ his ovn vork-his
cry, Wo must knov. Wo vill knov` is inscriloJ on his toml in Got-
tingon-ho proclaimoJ:
This conviction ol tho solvalility ol any mathomatical prollom is a strong
incontivo in our vork, it lockons us: this is tho prollom, linJ its solution.
\ou can linJ it ly puro thinking sinco in mathomatics thoro is no lgnora-
limus!
{ K- -
Ho thon introJucoJ his 23 lamous prolloms. Tho oighth vas
- Hillort askoJ lor a prool ol tho
--, lollovoJ ly an oxact count ol tho numlor ol primo numlors loss
than , anJ an ansvor to tho guostion vhothor tho occasional con-
Jonsation ol primo numlors vhich has loon noticoJ in counting
primos` is Juo to cortain torms in ono ol Piomann`s lormulao.
Hillort thon turnoJ to K- anJ tho guostions
vhothor thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol pairs ol primo numlors
vith tho Jilloronco 2, or ovon tho moro gonoral prollom, vhothor
tho linoar Jiophantino oguation
0
(vith givon intogral coollicionts oach primo to tho othors) is alvays
solvallo in primo numlors anJ .`
Tho ninth prollom vas: prool ol tho most gonoral rociprocity lav in
arlitrary numlor liolJs. This rolors to gonoralizations ol tho lav ol
.
Tho tonth prollom vas: Jocision on tho solvalility ol a Diophantino
oguation. This vas ovontually ansvoroJ ly -, vhoso solu-
tion involvoJ an oxtraorJinary roprosontation ol tho primo numlors.
GolJlach`s conjocturo, Vatijasovic, guaJratic rociprocity, lav
ol, Piomann hypothosis

Start vith any numlor anJ lorm a nov numlor ly concatonating its
primo lactors, starting vith tho loast. Thon ropoat: 30 2 3 5
235 5 4 54, vhich is primo, anJ tho ol 30.
Similarly, tho homo primo ol 4 is 211:
4 2 2 22 2 11 211
lor 2, 3, . . . tho homo primos aro 2, 3, 211, 5, 23, ,
333111396533863510, 311, 3, . . . (Sloano A0324)
Argumonts lrom prolalility suggost that thoro is zoro chanco that
any soguonco vill not contain a primo, lut it has not loon provoJ
that no oxcoptional soguoncos oxist.
{
Tho largost homo primo, HP(), lor 100 is knovn to lo HP(49)
HP(), although it has not loon calculatoJ. Tho soguonco starts, 49,
, 11, 339, 31109, 132393, 344131, . . . lut calculation has stuck at
stop 100, vhich has a 204-Jigit composito colactor vhoso primo lac-
tors aro unknovn.
Tho noxt largost HP() lor 100 is HP(80) 313,169,138,
2,14,145,210,044,94,146,858,220,29,81,91,489. (Do Goost anJ
Kruppa, )
--
-K- vas gonoralizoJ in 1958 ly Siorpinski anJ
Schinzol to polynomials in gonoral. Thoy calloJ thoir gonoralization
hypothosis H.
Supposo that you havo a numlor ol polynomials in , oach vith no
algolraic lactors, vith positivo loaJing coollicionts, -
- -- -
x: thon thoro is an inlinity ol valuos ol that makos thom all
primo simultanoously.
Tho italicizoJ conJition oxcluJos casos such as
2
2 anJ
2
1,
sinco thoir proJuct, (
2
2)(
2
1), vill lo ovon vhothor is oJJ
or ovon.
Hypothosis H implios thoro aro inlinitoly many primos ol tho lorm

2
1 simultanoously ol tho lorms
2
1 anJ 2
2
1 (such as 3
anJ 3 vhon 6, or 5 anJ 1153 vhon 24).
lt also proJicts, lor oxamplo, that thoro aro inlinity ol intogral
Pythagoroan trianglos tvo ol vhoso siJos aro primos, such as 3-4-5,
5-12-13, 11-60-61, anJ 19-180-181, sinco thoso siJos vill havo tho
lorm
2

2
, 2, anJ
2

2
, anJ tho lirst anJ last oxprossions
voulJ lo primo simultanoously. (CalJvoll, -)

UnauthorizoJ playing ol DVDs is illogal, so tho Votion Picturo Asso-
ciation ol Amorica has suoJ to stop tho Jistrilution ol tho DoCSS
coJo, vhich can lo usoJ to unscramllo tho Contont Scramllo Systom
usoJ to protoct DVDs. Not ovoryono is improssoJ, anJ this coJo, as
voll as othors vith tho samo lunction, has loon pullishoJ lrooly on
tho lntornot anJ ovon printoJ on T-shirts. Tho coJo can also lo trans-
{ --
lormoJ into a numlor. Altor all, computors vork on linary lits, so
that any program can lo vritton as an intogor.
Vathomatics prolossor Phil CarmoJy has roprosontoJ tho DoCSS
coJo as a primo, not locauso ho Joosn`t loliovo in protocting artists`
rights-ho Joos-lut locauso ho thinks tho curront lav lavors multi-
national pullishors against consumors. Tho rosult is a 1,401-Jigit
primo that il translormoJ into hoxaJocimal voulJ roprosont tho
DoCSS coJo. Courts in tho USA havo JociJoJ that this program anJ
any vorsion ol it aro an illogal circumvontion Jovico` accorJing to
tho Digital Villonium Copyright Act, or DVCA, locauso thoy allov
copyright matorial to lo sharoJ vithout paymont. Horo it is:
48565089653982930984189469428613044208351359240196
5203668698513401042344696894399261151093010244
52804905883138403549099890965395522011121502594666
9932402268345966196060348514249358468518855645025125
449996482194184655100841190862591694909915200486609
959235960613202593999361886063169144358830024533692
81813914995551339994939488289984691836100182598901031
60196183503434489568053845208538045842415654824889333804
458112833959896852232544608408911191269412095862440
541613210050064598201696118094811362200223448222493
2325954234688002926499061481298404283452014634896854
16908235438356619218622496943162216663939055430241564
329248552489912253946654862140482111381243882116029
841255244644450558346281448833563190225319590439283836
40391689125924055015620889816335999108808490815909
5480192856845198859630532382349055809203299960323441140
601984163531161130856084862236302835010496125956818
4685965333100019916146442549228334869160006458591
462812126900351830924153010630289329566584366200080046
896984382090961985949364630938058633621469695950296
812052499666698056145338204120315933030994915246918
35659362102220068126982344560938020304491224980919
55938381210005886668925844800402552490604446521213
04043211826101035911864666296385849508448493346861420
880529443
CarmoJy has sinco translormoJ tho lannoJ CSS Joscramllor coJo
into a 1,905-Jigit primo.
{
-
lt is a voll-knovn rulo that il tho Jigit-sum ol a numlor is 9, thon 9
JiviJos tho numlor oxactly, lut this is oxcoptional. Vost numlors,
loyonJ tho Jigits 1 to 9 thomsolvos, aro not Jivisillo ly thoir Jigit-
sum. Thoso that aro lorm this soguonco:
10 12 18 20 21 24 2 30 36 40 42 45 48 50 . . .
(Jigit-sum) 10 4 2 10 4 3 10 4 10 5 4 10 . . .
Somo numlors, , aro such that no numlor in laso 10 is timos tho
sum ol its Jigits. John Convay has laloloJ thoso tho inconsummato
numlors, anJ thoir soguonco (Sloano A00365) lor laso 10 starts:
62, 63, 65, 5, 84, 95, 161, 13, 195, 216, 261, . . .
Thoy oxist, ol courso, lor othor lasos also. Thoso aro tho smallost
inconsummato numlors lor lasos 2 onvarJ (Sloano A052491):
13, 1, 29, 16, 2, 30, 42, 46, 62, 68, 89, . . .

|lln |tho highorl arithmotic tho most ologant thooroms lroguontly

ariso oxporimontally as tho rosult ol a moro or loss unoxpoctoJ
stroko ol gooJ lortuno, vhilo thoir prools . . . oluJo all attompts
anJ Joloat tho sharpost onguirios.
O--
Gauss in tho oxtract alovo is Joscriling ono ol tho most Jolightlul
lut also lallling loaturos ol primo numlors, vhich vas ospocially
olvious Juring tho sovontoonth anJ oightoonth conturios vhon lasic
anJ loautilul proportios ol tho primos voro lying arounJ as it voro
liko so many mathomatical jovols vaiting to lo pickoJ up ly tho
koon-oyoJ mathomatical naturalist.
lormat anJ Eulor anJ Gauss himsoll voro lrilliant calculators vho
noticoJ lar moro proportios ol tho primos than thoy voro allo to provo,
ovon altor in somo casos JocaJos ol ollort. So lormat spottoJ that tho
small - voro primo, anJ thon, as Gauss romarkoJ, ho
{ -
vas misloJ ly his inJuction anJ allirmoJ that all numlors containoJ
in this lorm aro nocossarily primo.` (Gauss 18011966, 459)
Gauss inlorroJ vhon a toonagor, lrom his statistical Jata, that (),
tho numlor ol primos loss than or ogual to , is approximatoly log
, lut this vas only provoJ ly HaJamarJ anJ Vallo Poussin in
1896.
Vory many rosults in tho thoory ol numlors voro originally claimoJ
ly tho mathomatician vho JiscovoroJ thom, ly oxporimont anJ
olsorvation or somotimos ly looso` lut plausillo roasoning, only
to lo provoJ (or JisprovoJ) lator ly somoono olso, vhich raisos tho
guostion: hov conliJont can you lo-shoulJ you lo-vhon you
spot vhat appoars to lo a rock-soliJ pattorn? Eulor haJ ono
ansvor:
lor oach ol us can convinco himsoll ol this truth ly porlorming tho multi-
plication as lar as ho may vish, anJ it sooms impossillo that tho lav vhich
has loon JiscovoroJ to holJ lor 20 torms, lor oxamplo, voulJ not lo
olsorvoJ in tho torms that lollov. (Eulor: Wolls 199, 64)
Hovovor, vo can pick tvo possillo holos in that roasoning. Eulor
vas talking alout a sorios anJ in sorios or soguoncos such as
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, . . .
tho pattorn Joos soom to lo oxtromoly strong-this sooms olviously
to lo tho triangular numlors-anJ yot, consulting that invaluallo aiJ
to tho moJorn mathomatical naturalist, Noil Sloano`s
-, thoro is a gooJ chanco that vo shall
linJ moro than ono soguonco that lits thoso sovon starting valuos. So
lot`s go to vvv.rosoarch.att.com-njassoguoncos, soloct tho
soguonco` option, anJ typo in, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28.
What Jo vo got? Tho lirst rosult is, naturally, soguonco A00021,
tho triangular numlors, vith thoir lormula, ( 1)2, anJ a list ol
many vays in vhich thoy ariso. Thoy aro, 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36,
45, 55, 66, 8, 91, 105, 120, . . .
Hovovor, this ontry is lollovoJ ly many othors that aro not tho tri-
angular numlors, lut look much liko thom. Horo aro somo ol thom.
- Tho soguonco 0, 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 35, 43, 52, 62, 3, 85,
98, vhich is numlor ol oJgos in 8-partito Turn graph ol
orJor .` This is lollovoJ ly similar rosults lor 9-, 10-, 11-, anJ
12-partito graphs.
{
- Noxt is soguonco A03123: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 46, 48,
51, 55, 60, 66, 3, 81, 90, 100, vhich has tho rocurronco rola-
tionship () ( 1) sum ol Jigits ol .
- Soguonco A06191: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, , 90,
in contrast, is tho numlor ol Jistinct sums
3

3
lor 1
.
- Soguonco A06106: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 45, 46, 48,
51, 55, 60, 66, 3, 81, 90, 90, 92, 96, vhich is tho sum ol tho
proJucts ol tho Jigits ol all tho numlors lrom 1 to . (Vurthy:
Conroy)
Thoro aro othor soguoncos that start 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28. So vo
havo to lall lack on Eulor`s roloronco to 20 torms,` as il that voro
lar onough to proviJo comploto conliJonco anJ total satislaction.
Vajor Porcy VacVahon romarkoJ ol ono ol his conjocturos, This
most romarkallo thoorom has loon vorilioJ as lar as tho coolli-
ciont ol
89
ly actual oxpansion so that thoro is practically no roa-
son to Joult its truth, lut it has not yot loon ostallishoJ.` (Plya
1954, 96)
Wiso vorJs: tho loliol that 2
1
1 is only Jivisillo ly il is
primo is truo up to 340, lut thon 341 is tho lirst oxcoption,
anJ tho lirst (lormat) -.
D. H. anJ Emma Iohmor haJ to go much lurthor to Jiscovor that
2

3 (moJ ) is lirst satislioJ lor 4,00,063,49. ln othor vorJs,

il you continuo this soguonco ol tho romainJors vhon 2

3 is
JiviJoJ ly , lrom 2 onvarJs,
1 2 1 4 1 6 5 5 1 10 . . .
thon you only havo 4. lillion anJ a lit torms to go loloro tho lirst
zoro appoars.
Anothor misloaJing rosult is that (30 1) (30) lor all valuos
ol up to 20,000,000, yot it has loon provoJ that ovontually thoro is
an lor vhich (30) (30 1). (Novman 199, 256-5)
G. H. HarJy romarkoJ ol K- , Tho numorical
oviJonco lor tho truth ol tho |conjocturol is ovorvholming. lt has loon
vorilioJ up to 1000 ly Cantor anJ . . . up to 10,000 ly Haussnor.`
ToJay, GolJlach`s conjocturo has loon chockoJ up to 4 10
14
, lut as
mathomaticians knov only too voll, inlinity is much liggor than 10

.
conjocturos, orrors, Piomann hypothosis, strong lav ol small
numlors
{

An intogor is a jumping champion il it is tho most lroguontly occur-
ring Jilloronco lotvoon consocutivo pairs ol primos. Tho iJoa vas
suggostoJ ly Harry Nolson in 198-199, though tho namo vas
givon thoso numlors ly John Convay in 1993. (Nolson 198-9)
Thoro aro occasionally sovoral jumping champions in a rango. Tho
champion is 2 lor thoso rangos ol numlors: -100, 103-106, 109-
112, . . . Both 2 anJ 4 aro joint champions lor tho rangos, 101-102,
10-108, 113-130, . . .
lor 1000, tho champion is mostly 2, 4, or 6. Tho champion up
to alout 1.4 I 10
35
is 6, altor vhich 30 proJominatos. Tho noxt
champion, 210, ontors at alout 10
425
. Sinco 2, 6, 30, 210, . . . is tho
soguonco ol -, it is naturally conjocturoJ that tho soguonco
ol jumping champions consists ol 1 anJ 4, anJ tho primorials, tho
noxt loing 11= 2310. (OJlyzko, )
-
Hov many triplos ol consocutivo primos aro thoro? Wo oxcluJo 3-5-
locauso it is ono ol a kinJ. Also, tho romainJors vhon vo JiviJo tho
pattorn , 2, anJ 4 ly 3 must lo 0, 2, anJ 1 in that cyclic
orJor, so ono ol thom is alvays Jivisillo ly 3.
So vo locus on triplos such as 5--11 anJ -11-13, ol tho lorm ,
2 4, 6. Thoy oxist lor thoso valuos ol :
5, , 11, 13, 1, 3, 41, 6, 9, 101, 103, 10, 191, 193, 223, 22,
2, 30, 34, 45, 613, 641, . . . (Sloano A00529)
Ol thoso, ton aro ol tho , 2, 6 lorm anJ tvolvo aro ol tho ,
4, 6 lorm. Up to 10
8
thoro aro 55,600 triplos ol tho lorm (,
2, 6) anJ 55,556 ol tho lorm (, 4, 6). (CalJvoll,
-) Tho HarJy-IittlovooJ primo -tuplos conjocturo implios that
tho total is alout 55,490.
ln a Jilloront kinJ ol triplo, tho miJJlo primo is tho avorago ol its
noarost noighlors. Thoso aro tho miJJlo primos:
5, 53, 15, 13, 211, 25, 263, 33, 563,
593, 60, 653, 33, . . . (Sloano A006562)
- {
lt is not knovn il thoro is an inlinity ol guaJruplos ol primos, or ol
-tuplos in gonoral, in arithmotic progrossion. Primo guaJruplots,
somotimos knovn as a locauso thoir linal Jigits in
laso 10 must alvays lo 1, 3, , anJ 9, cannot havo tho lorm ,
2, 4, 6 lor tho samo roason as loloro-ono ol thoso numlors
must lo a multiplo ol 4.
Wo also oxcluJo 2-3-5- anJ 3-5--11, vhich loth incluJo tho
pathological` triplo, 3-5-, not to montion tho uniguo ovon primo!
So vo consiJor tho sot, , 2, 6, anJ 8, anJ tho guaJru-
plots that start vith 5--11-13, anJ continuo vith 11-13-1-19, 101-
103-10-109, 191-193-19-199, 821-823-82-829.
Sulsoguont sots start vith thoso valuos ol : . . . 1481, 181, 2081,
3251, . . . (Sloano A00530) Tho soguonco incluJos tho smallost
primo guaJruplot ol lilty Jigits. (Stovons 1995, 1-22)
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853891,
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853893,
100000000000000000000000000000000000000000585389,
1000000000000000000000000000000000000000005853899
Tony lorlos koops Jotails ol tho largost knovn primo -tuplos at his
sito, vvv.ltkz.Jomon.co.ukktuplots.
Dickson`s conjocturo, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos
- -
A primo numlor is ono that cannot lo composoJ` ol tvo othor
numlors, so it is no surpriso that primo` is usoJ motaphorically to
Joscrilo othor mathomatical oljocts that cannot lo littoJ togothor
lrom othor (primo) piocos.
- knots can lo lormoJ ly joining togothor on tho samo
string tvo othor knots, calloJ knots. Knots that aro not com-
posito aro Thoro is ovon a primo knots lactorization thoorom.
Tho orJinary troloil knot is primo:
{ - -
Thoso aro tho sovon primo altornating knots vith sovon crossings:
- - {
This liguro shovs hov you can aJJ` tvo primo knots to croato a
composito knot:
To lactorizo tho right-hanJ knot, cut it at tho narrov nock` anJ join
tho looso onJs to ro-croato tho tvo primo knots on tho lolt.
P
ln 1903 IanJau pullishoJ a prool ol tho that
vas simplor than thoso ol HaJamarJ anJ Jo la Vallo Poussin.
Thon in an aJJross at tho lilth lntornational Congross ol Vatho-
maticians in CamlriJgo, EnglanJ, in 1912 ho JoscriloJ lour prol-
loms that ho saiJ voro unattackallo` in tho prosont stato ol
knovloJgo. Thoso voro K- , tho - con-
jocturo, tho oxistonco ol an inlinity ol primos ol tho lorm
2
1, anJ
tho prollom ol tho oxistonco ol a primo lotvoon
2
anJ ( 1)
2
.

Iolt-truncatallo primos romain primo vhon tho lolt-hanJ Jigit is
ropoatoJly romovoJ. AccorJing to Chris CalJvoll thoro aro 4,260
such primos, ol vhich tho throo longost aro
959 18918 9965 33196 9396 . . . (23 Jigits)
966 86312 64621 6566 2913 . . . (23 Jigits)
356 86312 64621 6566 2913 . . . (24 Jigits)
(CalJvoll, -)
P
IogonJro JiscussoJ tho lav ol , anJ mistakonly
loliovoJ that ho haJ provoJ a thoorom that vas lator provoJ ly
Dirichlot: in ovory arithmotic soguonco vhoso torms Jo not havo a
common lactor, thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol primos.
ln 1823 IogonJro pullishoJ his prool that lormat`s oguation,
5

5

5
, has no solution in intogors, anJ ho provoJ that ovory num-
lor not ol tho lorm 8 is tho sum ol throo sguaros.
Ho also proJucoJ ono ol tho oarliost ostimatos ol (), conjoctur-
ing in 198, anJ again in 1808, that (), tho numlor ol primos loss
than , tonJs to
{ P
() (log() )
as tonJs to inlinity: ho supposoJ lrom his oxporimontal oviJonco
that tho lost valuo ol vas 1.08366 . . . knovn as IogonJro`s con-
stant, vhich ho pullishoJ in his in 198. ln
1850, Tcholycholl shovoJ that tho lost liguro, il tho limit oxists, is 1,
lut ho vas unallo to provo that tho limit JiJ inJooJ oxist.
P
D. N. Iohmor vas an unusual mathomatician: ho pullishoJ anJ
oJitoJ pootry anJ stuJioJ North Amorican lnJians, collocting thoir
logonJs anJ storios, as voll as thoir music, vhich ho usoJ to com-
poso throo musical vorks lasoJ on lnJian culturo.
ln 1914 ho pullishoJ a - -
unusually listing 1 as a primo. Ho haJ alroaJy pullishoJ in 1909 a
tallo in look lorm ol tho largost lactors ol all tho numlors up to
10,01,000, oxcluJing numlors vith tho olvious lactors, 2, 3, 5, anJ
tho loss olvious . Ho vas also a lounJor ol tho
.
P
Dorrick Honry Iohmor continuoJ his lathor`s vork on primo num-
lors, aiJoJ ly his vilo anJ covorkor Emma Iohmor (1906- ), vho
vas originally his lathor`s graJuato assistant. At ago ninoty, Emma
Iohmor has linishoJ hor rosoarch vork, vritton up hor huslanJ`s
unlinishoJ vork, anJ ovorsoon tho pullication ol thoso matorials.
D. H. Iohmor vas ono ol tho lounJors, in 1943, ol tho journal
- - , vhich in 1959 locamo
- ln his PhD thosis ho proposoJ tho -
- lor Vorsonno primos. Ho also vorkoJ on ENlAC, tho lirst
oloctronic computor in tho UnitoJ Statos. Ho vas lascinatoJ lrom his
stuJont Jays vith numlor siovos, oloctromochanical machinos that
tostoJ numlors to soo il thoy satislioJ cortain congruoncos.
Iohmor`s machinos soarchoJ a soguonco ol numlors, chocking
automatically, ly mochanical, oloctrical, or optical moans or a com-
lination ol mothoJs, lor numlors that lolt tho roguiroJ romainJor
vhon JiviJoJ ly cortain primos.
P {
His lirst oloctromochanical numlor siovo vas constructoJ in 1926,
using ninotoon rotating licyclo chains. ln 1932 ho luilt a largor
machino using thirty-tvo goar vhools, vhich coulJ chock 300,000
numlors ovory minuto. Thoso Jovicos voro lollovoJ ly othors using
16mm lilm, thon vacuum tulos anJ Jolay linos.
Tho 1932 goaroJ siovo vas JomonstratoJ at tho Chicago Contury-
ol-Progross Expositions. Siovos aro still in uso, lor oxamplo at tho
Univorsity ol Vanitola, vhoro lung anJ Williams usoJ ono to linJ
guaJratics vith many primo valuos (- K- ). Thoir
siovo solvos 133,000,000 linoar congruoncos por soconJ. (Pulinstoin
n.J.) (lung anJ Williams 1990, 346)
A Iohmor Conloronco vas holJ at tho onJ ol August 2000 at tho
{ P
-
ly Dorrick N. Iohmor
On tho 19th ol Octolor a littlo group ol mathomaticians gathoroJ in
tho Burt Ialoratorios in PasaJona, Calilornia, arounJ a mystorious
machino to vatch it attack a prollom in mathomatics. lt vas a sim-
plo onough prollom to stato. lt haJ only to linJ tvo numlors vhich
vhon multiplioJ togothor voulJ givo 5,283,065,53,09,209. Any
porson vith a lov hunJroJ yoars ol loisuro timo on his hanJs coulJ
vork it out. . . .
AnJ altor all vo haJ takon only an important outvork in tho
assault upon a roal lortross. This victory haJ moroly cloaroJ tho
Jocks lor action against anothor anJ much largor numlor vhich vas
unJor gravo suspicion ol loing a primo, that is, not tho proJuct ol
any tvo smallor numlors. This numlor is tho groat unconguoroJ lac-
tor ol 2
95
1. lt is tho ninotoon Jigit numlor 3,011,34,49,614,
249,131.
On tho 9th ol Octolor, just altor tho Jiscovory ol tho imp` tho
machino vas sot to Jo somo roal vork in tho thoory ol numlors.
Thoro vas a largo lactor ol 2
93
1, namoly tho numlor
1,53,228,62,093,301,419 vhich vas knovn ly a vory povorlul tost
to lo composito, lut tho tost voulJ not lurnish tho lactors. Tho
smallost lactor vas knovn also to lo largor than 300,000, anJ might
lo largo onough to occupy tho timo ol a skilloJ computor lor ovor
tvonty-livo yoars to linJ it. ( , Soptomlor 1932)
Univorsity ol Calilornia at Borkoloy to honor tho vork anJ inlluonco
ol all throo momlors ol tho Iohmor lamily.
Cunningham projoct, Iohmor, Dorrick Norman
K- -
Dirichlot`s thoorom provoJ that thoro aro an inlinito numlor ol
primos in tho arithmotic soguonco,
, , 2, 3, . . . ,
lut vhon Joos tho lirst primo occur? \uri VlaJimirovich Iinnik
(1915-192) shovoJ in 1944 that thoro is a numlor , Iinnik`s con-
stant, such that tho lirst primo is at most

, inJoponJontly ol tho
valuo ol , proviJoJ it is largo onough.
Pogor Hoath-Brovn provoJ in 1992 that 5.5, lut it is conjoc-
turoJ that 2, vhich is cortainly tho corroct liguro lor almost all
valuos ol
VinograJov`s cololratoJ prool ol tho tornary K-
statos that all largo onough oJJ numlors can lo vritton as tho sum
ol throo primos. Iinnik shovoJ that lor largo vo can vrito as tho
sum ol tvo primos anJ povors ol 2, vhoro is nov knovn to lo
at most 12.
- P
Iiouvillo, among many achiovomonts, provoJ tho lolloving oxtraor-
Jinary proporty ol tho Jivisors ol tho Jivisors ol a numlor:
Start vith a numlor, say, 10, anJ vrito Jovn its Jivisors: 1, 2, 5, 10.
Nov vrito Jovn tho numlor ol Jivisors ol oach Jivisor. Thoy havo
1, 2, 2, anJ 4 Jivisors, rospoctivoly.
Thon: (1 2 2 4)
2
81 1
3
2
3
2
3
4
3
Similarly, tho Jivisors ol 24 aro 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, anJ 24, anJ tho
numlor ol thoir Jivisors aro 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 6, anJ 8, rospoctivoly, anJ
(1 2 2 3 4 4 6 8)
2
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
4
3
6
3
8
3
900
- P {
This thoorom also implios that il is Joullo an oJJ numlor anJ has
no lactors ol tho lorm 4 3 (that romarkallo Jistinction again!) anJ
il vo vrito Jovn tho vays in vhich its ovon lactors can lo oxprossoJ
as tho sum ol tvo oJJ sguaros, thon tho sum ol tho culos ol tho
numlors ol vays vill ogual tho sguaro ol thoir sum. lor oxamplo,
50 1
2

2

2
1
2
5
2
5
2
10 3
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
anJ 2 1
2
1
2
anJ so: 3
3
2
3
1
3
(3 2 1)
2
6
2
(Dickson 1952, vol. 1, 286)
K-
John EJonsor IittlovooJ (1885-19) is lost knovn lor his long col-
laloration vith G. H. on analytic numlor thoory.
ln 1914 ho provoJ a vory surprising thoorom alout tvo lunctions
lor tho numlor ol primos loss than or ogual to (), anJ Ii().
AccorJing to tho tallo on p. 185, () is alvays loss than Ii(), anJ
inJooJ it is knovn that () Ii() lor all 10
12
. Novortholoss Iit-
tlovooJ shovoJ that () Ii() is lalso inlinitoly olton, Jospito tho
apparontly ovorvholming numorical oviJonco to tho contrary.
lt is nov knovn that thoro is a countoroxamplo lolov 10
400
.
This prool that a lunction vhich is rolatoJ to tho
-- can svitch in valuo so lar lrom tho origin naturally unJorminos
tho oviJonco that Piomann`s hypothosis is truo, lasoJ on tho calcu-
lation ol its lirst lov lillion zoros. Who knovs vhat might happon a
lov lillion larthor on?
-
A similar phonomonon appoars in tho primo numlors raco, though
tho svitch occurs much soonor. All primos lrom 5 onvarJ aro ol ono
ol tho lorms 4 1 or 4 3. ll vo start counting tho numlor in oach
class, it sooms that 4 3 alvays vins, lut this is misloaJing: at
26861 tho loaJ svitchos. Up to that limit, thoro aro 1,43 primos ol
tho lorm 4 1 anJ only 1,42 ol tho lorm 4 3. (Iooch 195)
Tho succossion ol primos 4 1 anJ 4 3 is vory irrogular, as
might lo oxpoctoJ. Thus tho raco lotvoon primos 4 1 anJ 4 3
is tioJ at: 2, 5, 1, 41, 461, 26833, 26849, 26863, 26881, 26893, 26921,
{ K-
61569, 61693, 616829, 616843, . . . (Sloano A00351) Tho primo
26861 is ol tho lorm 4 1 anJ puts 4 1 into tho loaJ lor tho lirst
timo, lut tho loaJ is immoJiatoly lost.
Tho ropoatoJ oguality at livo valuos lotvoon 26833 anJ 26921, lol-
lovoJ ly a largo gap, suggosts somo rosomllanco lotvoon this
primo raco anJ a ranJom valk. As long as tho ranJom valk is noar
tho origin, it has a signilicant chanco ol roturning to tho origin in tho
noar luturo. Tho larthor it movos avay, tho longor it is likoly to stay
avay.
lor most ol tho lirst lov lillion numlors, 4 3 is vinning ovor
4 1. Tho sixth anJ largost knovn rogion lor vhich 4 1 is loaJ-
ing strotchos lrom 18,465,126,293 to 19,033,524,538.
Tho soguonco
11593 1159 1161 11621 11633
1165 116 11681 11689
is a soguonco ol nino consocutivo primos ol tho lorm 4 1, Jiscov-
oroJ ly Don Haan, anJ 241603 is tho start ol thirtoon consocutivo
primos ol tho lorm 4 3. (Guy 1994, 13)
Tho raco lotvoon 3 2 anJ 3 1 initially lavors 3 2, though
thoro is an inlinity ol valuos ol lor vhich 3 1 is loaJing, starting
vith 608,981,813,029, lounJ ly Cartor Bays anJ PicharJ HuJson on
Christmas Day 196. Tho loaJ thon changos ropoatoJly just alovo
608,981,813 10
3
. lt can lo provoJ that tho loaJ in all such primo
numlor racos changos inlinitoly olton.
inJuction
- P
Iucas vorkoJ at tho Paris Olsorvatory as assistant to Io Vorrior (vho
haJ proJictoJ tho position ol tho nov planot Noptuno) anJ lought in
tho lranco-Prussian War (180-1) in tho artillory. Ho is roputoJ to
havo livoJ in Paris in a houso on tho sito ol tho houso vhoro Pascal
JioJ. Ho himsoll JioJ a lizarro Joath. At a languot, a plato vas
JroppoJ anJ a chip llov up anJ cut his chook. Ho JioJ soon altor
lrom orysipolas at tho ago ol lorty-nino.
Ho vas Jooply intorostoJ in numlor thoory anJ its history. Ho vas
a momlor ol tho committoo that oJitoJ lormat`s vorks lor pul-
lication, anJ ho vroto papors on astronomy, goomotry, analysis,
- P {
comlinatorics, anJ calculating Jovicos, as voll as numlor thoory.
(Williams 1998, 53)
Ho also vroto sovoral papors on tho thoory ol voaving, a suljoct
that has a surprising connoction vith computing: tho prollom ol
proJucing tho most complox pattorns in vovon silk vas solvoJ ly
JacguarJ ly using punchoJ carJs that soloctoJ tho throaJs usoJ Jur-
ing tho voaving ol a particular pattorn, making tho JacguarJ loom
tho lirst storoJ program` machino. Charlos Ballago also usoJ
punchoJ carJs to instruct his Dilloronco Engino, vhich ho usoJ to
calculato tho valuos ol K- , anJ thoso in turn voro tho
ancostors ol tho Holorith carJs lirst usoJ in a UnitoJ Statos Consus
anJ lator in oloctronic computors. (Williams anJ Shallit 1994)
ln 189 Iucas startoJ a column on rocroational mathomatics in
K, anJ lator in
, anJ lotvoon 1882 to 1894 pullishoJ a lour-volumo
, vhich incluJoJ -- anJ tho Tovor
ol Hanoi, a puzzlo that ho invontoJ in 1883 anJ pullishoJ unJor tho
anagram N. Claus Jo Siam` (or Iucas J`Amions) as a gamo ol com-
lination JosignoJ to oxplain tho linary systom ol numoration,` as
tho insiJo covor ol tho vorsion solJ to tho pullic oxplainoJ.
Tho oljoct is to translor all tho rings lrom pog A to pog C, lollov-
ing tho rulos that:
1. Only ono ring may lo movoJ at a timo.
2. No ring may lo placoJ on top ol a smallor ring.
Tho puzzlo croatoJ a sonsation anJ vas soon oxploitoJ in an
aJvortising vorsion, tho Eight Puzzlo, in vhich oach Jisk aJvortisoJ a
Jilloront proJuct. Iucas also maJo a giant vorsion moro than a motor
high lor pullic Jisplay. lt vas solJ vith a story ol tho priosts at tho
{ - P
Tomplo ol Bonaros, vhoro thoro is, lonoath tho Jomo vhich marks
tho contor ol tho vorlJ, a lrass plato in vhich aro lixoJ throo Jia-
monJ nooJlos. On ono ol thoso nooJlos GoJ placoJ at tho Croation
sixty-lour Jisks ol puro golJ. . . . Day anJ night uncoasingly tho
priosts translor tho Jisks lrom ono JiamonJ nooJlo to anothor.`
Whon tho sixty-lour Jisks havo all loon translorroJ, rolatos Iucas,
thon tovors, tomplo, anJ priosts aliko vill crumllo into Just, anJ
vith a thunJorclap tho vorlJ vill vanish.`
Tho point ol his lallo is that tho minimum numlor ol movos
nooJoJ to translor Jisks lrom ono pog to anothor spocilioJ pog is
2

1, a - . (Tho mothoJ ol moving tho Jisks to min-

imizo tho movos roguiroJ can also lo roprosontoJ ly using linary
numlors.)
Iucas notoJ in tho rulos that camo vith tho puzzlo that at ono
movo por soconJ, it takos moro than lour minutos to movo a tovor
ol oight rings,` vhich roguiros 255 movos. Contomporary illustra-
tions ol tho puzzlo shov ton rings, or a vorsion vith livo pogs anJ
sixtoon rings. Tho vorsion using only throo pogs voulJ tako moro
than oightoon hours, supposing that no mistakos voro maJo on tho
vay! To translor sixty-lour Jisks voulJ tako 2
64
1 movos. At ono
movo por soconJ, tho priosts voulJ tako moro than 500 lillion
yoars.
All tho possillo movos in tho Tovor ol Hanoi puzzlo can lo ropro-
sontoJ in this Jiagram, vhich is lor throo Jisks only, anJ rosomllos
tho pattorn ol -K- anJ Siorpinski`s gaskot.
Tho notation 231,` lor oxamplo, moans that tho smallost Jisk is on
pog 2, tho miJJlo Jisk on pog 3 anJ tho largost Jisk is on pog 1. ll
- P {
all throo Jisks start on pog 1, thon thoy can lo movoJ to pog 2 in
sovon movos ly lolloving tho soguonco Jovn tho right siJo ol tho
trianglo.
Tho liguro vill alvays split up into throo smallor trianglos (anJ
thon into smallor trianglos still) locauso tho shortost vay to translor
Jisks lrom pog 1 to pog 2 is alvays to movo 1 Jisks lrom pog 1
to pog 3, thon movo tho largost Jisk to pog 2, anJ thon movo 1
Jisks lrom pog 3 to pog 2.
- -
Iucas also vroto a look on tho - anJ stuJioJ tho
lilonacci soguonco anJ tho rolatoJ soguonco that is nov calloJ tho
Iucas soguonco:
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 . . .
() 1 3 4 11 18 29 4 6 123 199 . . .
(lt somotimos is startoJ: 2, 1, 3, 4, , 11, . . .)
lt has tho samo rulo ol lormation: oach torm is tho sum ol tho provi-
ous tvo torms, so it is an oxamplo ol a gonoralizoJ lilonacci
soguonco.
ll tho lirst tvo torms aro laloloJ
0
anJ
1
, Iucas provoJ that il
is primo, thon 1 (moJ ). This is not a tost lor primality, hov-
ovor, locauso tho convorso is somotimos lalso:
05
1 (moJ 05)
although 05 is composito. This conclusion is rominiscont ol
K- anJ so tho oxcoptions to tho convorso to
Iucas`s rulo aro calloJ Iucas psouJoprimos. Tho only onos loss than
100,000 aro 05, 2465, 23, 345, 4181, 5, anJ 621. (Singmas-
tor 1983)
Tho Iucas soguonco has, liko tho lilonacci soguonco, many othor
proportios:
Whoroas ovory intogor JiviJos an inlinity ol lilonacci torms, tho
numlor 5 Joos not JiviJo any torm ol tho Iucas soguonco:

2
2(1)

2

1

1
5(1)

anJ

3

1

2
5(1)

. . . illustrating that 5 has a spocial rolo in tho Iucas soguonco also.

{ - P
Tho lilonacci anJ Iucas soguoncos aro also rolatoJ: lor oxamplo,

1

1
anJ
2

1
2(5

) anJ so
2

1
2(5

2
)

JiviJos

il anJ only il JiviJos anJ is oJJ.

2

il anJ only il 3 ,

il anJ only il is an oJJ multiplo ol

4, 11

il anJ only il is oJJ multiplo ol 5.

Tho Iucas soguonco has porioJic linal Jigits vith porioJ 12: thoy go
1 3 4 1 8 9 6 3 9 2
Tho linal tvo Jigits aro porioJic vith porioJ 60.
Iiko tho lilonacci soguonco, tho ratio
1

tonJs to tho GolJon

Patio,
1
2( 5 1) 1.618 . . . Voroovor,

is tho closost intogor to

. lor oxamplo,
9
6.01315 . . . anJ
9
6.
Tho soguonco ol primo Iucas numlors starts: 3, , 11, 29, 4, 199,
521, 220, 351, 9349, anJ thon tho vory largo 3010349, 54018521,
30248451, 664383889, . . . (Sloano A00549)
Iucas also consiJoroJ moro gonoral soguoncos that ho usoJ in his
vork on primality tosting. Binot haJ provoJ in 1843 that tho
lilonacci numlors can lo JolinoJ ly this oguation:

vhoro anJ aro (1 5)2 anJ (1 5)2, tho roots ol tho
oguation
2
1 0. Although thoso roots aro irrational, thoso
lunctions ol thom aro alvays intogors-tho numlors in tho lilonacci
soguonco.
Iucas consiJoroJ instoaJ oguation
2
0, vhoro anJ
aro coprimo. ll its roots aro anJ , thon ho JolinoJ

anJ also

- P {
Onco again, ovon il anJ aro irrational, anJ vill alvays lo
intogors, anJ thoy satisly tho samo rocurronco rolationship as tho
lilonacci numlors: oach torm is tho sum ol tho provious tvo torms.
What is tho point ol thoso Jolinitions? What aro thoso
- usolul lor? lt vas tho gonius ol Iucas to roalizo,
anJ to shov in a long papor pullishoJ in 188, that thoy voro
rolatoJ to a voalth ol prolloms, incluJing, as ho vroto, tho tho-
ory ol Jotorminants, comlinations, continuoJ lractions, Jivisilility,
Jivisors ol guaJratic lorms . . . guaJratic rosiJuos, Jocomposition ol
largo numlors into thoir primo lactors, otc.` (Williams 1998, 1) Ho
also pointoJ out that thoy lohavoJ in somo vays liko tho trigono-
motrical lunctions, sino anJ cosino! Thoy coulJ also lo usoJ lor
-.
-
Iucas vas tho lirst mathomatician to roalizo anJ Jomonstrato that
ovon vory largo numlors coulJ lo tostoJ lor primality vithout
rocourso to toJious anJ impracticallo trial Jivision. Ho JiJ this in a
sorios ol thirtoon papors all vritton lotvoon 185 anJ 188. (During
tho samo porioJ ho vroto moro than sovonty papors on various othor
suljocts-oxtraorJinary proJuctivity.)
By 18, ho haJ lactorizoJ tho lirst sixty -.
(Vollin 2001, 2-28) ln 186 ho shovoJ that tho gigantic (lor that
ora) -
12
2
12
1 is primo. Ho usoJ this tost,
vhich roguiroJ a groat Joal ol calculation:
Iot 2
4 3
1, vhoro 4 3 is primo. lorm tho soguonco,
3, , 4, 220, 48084, . . .
in vhich
1
3 anJ
1

2
2. Thon is primo il tho loast valuo
ol such that

is 4 2.
This tost is simplo in thoory lut roguiros an onormous amount ol
computation. Hov JiJ Iucas Jo it, ly hanJ? With typical ingonuity,
ho usoJ linary arithmotic anJ turnoJ tho calculation into a kinJ ol
gamo, oxploiting tho lact that multiplication is moJ , using a 12-ly-
12 chossloarJ. This is hov ho oxplainoJ his mothoJ, aJaptoJ lrom
tho account ly Williams anJ Shallit (1994, 491-92), using tho simplor
oxamplo ol

.
{ - P
-K-
ConsiJor

1 12. Wo havo
1
3,
2
,
3
4,
4
4
2

2 48 (moJ 12),
5
48
2
2 16 (moJ 12),
6
16
2
2 0 (moJ
12).
So 12
6
lut no smallor torm, anJ so 12 is primo.
Noxt, Iucas notoJ that il

1, thon 2

2

(moJ

). ln
this caso,

12 2

1 anJ so 2

2

(moJ 12).
Tho main oporation ol tosting involvos sguaring, sultracting 2, anJ
roJuction moJulo 12. To porlorm this on
3
to calculato
4
, vo lirst
vrito
3
in linary, as 101111. Noxt, vo start to sguaro it ly long mul-
tiplication:
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
Hovovor, locauso vo only nooJ to linJ tho ansvor moJulo 12, anJ
vo knov that 2

2

(moJ 12), so 2

2
0
, 2
8
2
1
, 2
9
2
2
, anJ
so on, vo can put tho six linos ol tho long multiplication into this
sguaro array:
No. ol column 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
Iucas suggostoJ using part ol a chossloarJ, vith pavns lor onos anJ
ompty sguaros lor zoros. Nov that tho piocos aro arrayoJ, vo lollov
thoso tvo rulos:
- P {
1. Tako (vhon possillo lut only onco) a pavn avay lrom col-
umn 2. This corrosponJs to sultracting 2 lrom tho sguaro. ll a
pavn novor appoars in column 2, thon 2 must lo sultractoJ lrom
tho linal ansvor.
2. lor oach pair ol pavns in any column, romovo ono lrom tho
loarJ anJ movo tho othor into tho column to tho lolt, romom-
loring that tho column to tho lolt ol column is column 1.
Continuo porlorming thoso oporations until tho only pavns romain-
ing aro in tho lirst rov. ln our caso vo got tho lirst rov to lo,
No. ol column 6 5 4 3 2 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
vhich roprosonts
4
48 in Jocimal.
Iucas claimoJ that thoso oporations, vith practico, coulJ lo por-
lormoJ vory guickly, anJ this vas hov ho shovoJ that
12
is primo.
On tho othor hanJ, it voulJ soom oasy to mako a small mistako, vith
no rocorJ lolt lohinJ to lo chockoJ, so this no Joult oxplains vhy
Iucas alvays shovoJ a slight uncortainty as to vhothor ho roally haJ
provoJ
12
primo.
- -
Tho convorso ol K- is lalso: thoro aro numlors
that satisly it lut aro not primo. Hovovor, Iucas in 186 aJJoJ an
oxtra conJition to croato a tost lor primality. Supposo vo vant
to knov il is primo. ll thoro is a numlor such that
1
1
(moJ ) (so satislios lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom), anJ also

is
congruont to 1 (moJ ) lor 1 to 2, thon is primo.
This took a lot ol calculation, hovovor, ospocially loloro moJorn
computors voro invontoJ, so in 1891 Iucas shortonoJ it. lt vas thon
improvoJ ly Iohmor anJ Kraitchik. This is tho rosult:
Supposo than 1. Thon il lor ovory primo lactor ol 1 thoro
is an intogor such that
1
1 (moJ ), anJ
( 1)
is not con-
gruont to 1 (moJ ), thon is primo.
This tost JoponJs on tho comploto lactorization ol 1.
K- is an improvomont that roguiros only tho partial lac-
torization ol 1.
{ - P
Eulor`s guaJratic, lilonacci numlors, Iucas-Iohmor tost, pri-
mality tosting
-
ln 1955 Stanislav Ulam (1909-1984) anJ throo colloaguos at tho Ios
Alamos Sciontilic Ialoratory usoJ an oarly computor to invostigato a
soguonco that strongly rosomllos tho primo numlors.
Tho siovo ol -- loavos lohinJ tho primo numlors. lt can
oasily lo moJiloJ to loavo lohinJ Jilloront soguoncos ol numlors.
Writo Jovn tho natural numlors anJ Joloto ovory soconJ
numlor:
1 3 5 9 11 13 15 1 19 . . .
Tho lirst numlor romaining is 3, so Joloto ovory thirJ numlor, start-
ing vith 5. This loavos:
1 3 9 13 15 19 21 25 2 31 33 3 39 . . .
(This moans that all numlors ol tho lorm 3 2 havo loon struck
out.) Tho lirst unusoJ` numlor is nov , so Joloto ovory sovonth
numlor. Tho noxt unusoJ` numlor is 9, so Joloto ovory ninth num-
lor. AnJ so on. Tho linal rosult is tho soguonco ol -:
1, 3, , 9, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31, 33, 3, 43, 49, 51, 63, 6, 69, 3, 5, 9,
8, 93, 99, 105, 111, 115, 12, 129, 133, 135, 141, 151, 159, 163, 169,
11, 189, 193, 195, 201, 205, 211, . . . (Sloano A000959)
Tho largost knovn lucky numlor is 9,999,999,99. (SchnoiJor 2002)
Thoro aro lovor` lucky numlors than primo numlors, moaning that
although thoro is an inlinity ol oach, tho primo numlors aro Jonsor,
thoy occur in any largish linito intorval vith groator lroguoncy.
Ulam anJ his colloaguos usoJ an oloctronic computing machino`
to linJ tho lucky numlors up to 48,000. Thoro voro 4,523, comparoJ
to 4,94 primos in tho samo intorval. Thoy notoJ that tho numlors ol
luckios ol tho lorms 4 1 anJ 4 3 voro roughly ogual, as thoy
aro lor tho primos. Iikoviso, tho gaps lotvoon succossivo lucky
numlors soom to roughly match thoso lotvoon primos, anJ ovory
ovon intogor lotvoon 1 anJ 100,000 is tho sum ol tvo lucky num-
lors. Tho numlor ol lucky tvin pairs (Jilloring ly 2) is roughly that
- {
ol tho tvin primos. Thoy also noticoJ that thoro aro 15 numlors that
aro loth primo anJ lucky, up to 48,600 (though no ono knovs il
thoro is an inlinity ol primo lucky numlors). (GarJinor, Iazarus, Vo-
tropolis, anJ Ulam 1956)
Waltor SchnoiJor in Vay 2002 calculatoJ all lucky numlors up to
10
10
anJ vorilioJ K- to tho samo limit.
- -
limit luckios primos tvin luckios tvin primos
10
3
153 168 33 35
10
4
1,118 1,229 18 205
10
5
8,2 9,592 1,162 1,224
10
6
1,918 8,498 ,669 8,169
(SchnoiJor 2002)
NM -
Thoso parallols lotvoon tho lucky numlors anJ tho primos suggost
that many ol tho proportios ol tho primo numlors JoponJ only on
tho lact that thoy can lo croatoJ ly a siovo. This conclusion is roin-
lorcoJ ly othor mothoJs ol croating primo` numlors. lor oxamplo,
HaralJ Cramr in 1936 imaginoJ putting llack anJ vhito lalls into a
soguonco ol jars roprosonting tho numlors 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . so that tho
prolalility ol Jraving a vhito lall lrom tho th jar vill lo 1log .
Thon ho choso ono lall lrom oach jar in soguonco anJ calloJ thoso
ranJom primos.`
Ho thon shovoJ ly prolalility thoory that thoro is an inlinity ol
tvin ranJom primos,` anJ 1 (unliko orJinary primos, consoc-
utivo numlors can turn out to lo ranJom primos), anJ ho Jrov othor
conclusions that matchoJ tho actual or conjocturoJ lohavior ol tho
orJinary primos.
DaviJ Havkins has stuJioJ anothor kinJ ol ranJom primo. Start vith
tho natural numlors,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 1, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, . . .
lut instoaJ ol striking out ovory ovon numlor, striko out oach num-
lor vith prolalility ono-hall, lor oxamplo, ly tossing a coin vhon
you roach tho numlor anJ throving it out il you toss hoaJs. This
{ -
vill, on avorago, oliminato hall tho numlors. Supposo tho numlors
romaining aro
3, 4, 5, , 10, 11, 13, 14, 1, 18, 19, 23, . . .
Tho lirst romaining numlor, 3, counts as tho lirst ranJom primo.
Noxt, throv out ovory numlor vith prolalility ono-thirJ. Tho ro-
maining numlors coulJ lo
3, 5, , 10, 11, . . .
So 5 is tho noxt ranJom` primo numlor. Nov striko out oach num-
lor groator than 5 vith prolalility ono-lilth, anJ so on. Tho rosult is
a soguonco ol ranJom` primos.
What can lo saiJ alout thoso ranJom` primos? Woll, vith prola-
lility 1, tho is truo: tho numlor ol ranJom
primos loss than tonJs to log as incroasos. Thoro is also in
oach soguonco ol ranJom primos, vith prolalility 1, an inlinity ol
tvin ranJom primos,` anJ 1, anJ thoir numlor tonJs to (log
)
2
as tonJs to inlinity. - argumonts suggost tho samo lor-
mula lor tho actual tvin primos. (Havkins 1958)
--
Pouso Ball in his - --- prosontoJ
this magic sguaro composoJ ontiroly ol primos, croatoJ ly tho groat
English puzzlist Honry Ernost DuJonoy.
6 1 43
13 3 61
31 3
(DuJonoy 191, prollom 408) (Pouso Ball 1939, 211)
Vartin GarJnor onco olloroJ through his column
$100 lor a 3-ly-3 magic sguaro all ol vhoso ontrios aro consocutivo
primos. Harry Nolson colloctoJ tho prizo ly using tho primo
148002811 in tho contral coll, anJ arounJ it tho primos 12,
18, 30, anJ 42.
Tho magic sum in this magic sguaro ol sixtoon consocutivo primos is
much smallor, 258:
-- {
3 53 89 9
83 61 6 4
9 1 59 31
41 3 43 101
(Gilos Blanchotto: CalJvoll, -)
- K-
Ono ol tho most notorious ol K- - vas tho 10th:
Joos thoro oxist a univorsal algorithm lor solving Diophantino ogua-
tions, that is, polynomial oguations vith intogral coollicionts anJ
intogral solutions?
lt vas solvoJ ovor many yoars ly Vartin Davis, H. Putnam, anJ
Julia Polinson, vho took tho lirst stops, anJ \uri Vatijasovic, vho
took tho linal stop in 190, using tho Jivisilility proportios ol tho
-.
Tho solution vas nogativo: no such algorithm oxists, yot this noga-
tivo conclusion haJ somo vory positivo implications. Vatijasovic`s
prool implios that thoro is a polynomial in tvonty-throo variallos,
vhoso positivo valuos, only, lor intogor valuos ol tho variallos, aro
tho sot ol primos.
ln 196 J. P. Jonos, D. Sato, H. WaJa, anJ D. Wions pullishoJ thoir
vorsion, a polynomial in tvonty-six variallos vhich, vory convo-
niontly, can lo vritton Jovn using tho tvonty-six lottors ol tho
alphalot:
( 2)1 | l
2
|( 2 1)( ) l
2
|2
l
2
|16( 1)
3
( 2)( 1)
2
1
2
l
2
|
3
( 2)(
1)
2
1
2
l |(
2
1)
2
1
2
l
2
|16
2

4
(
2
1) 1
2
l
2

|((
2
(
2
))
2
1)( 4
2
) 1 ( )
2
l
2
| l
2

|(
2
1)
2
1
2
l
2
| 1 l
2
| ( 1)
(2 2
2
2 2) l
2
| ( 1) - (2 2

2
2 2) l
2
| ( ) (2
2
1) l
2

At lirst sight this is vory complicatoJ. At soconJ sight it looks at vorst

liko choating, anJ at lost liko a trick, locauso it`s ol tho lorm (
2)(1
2

2

2
. . .) vhoro , , anJ anJ so on aro thomsolvos
polynomials.
{ - K-
ln othor vorJs, it vill havo positivo valuos vhon
. . . 0, vhon tho valuos vill lo 2 (vhich vill lo primo), anJ
vo coulJ just as voll prosont it as this list ol conJitions:
0
0 ( 2 1)( )
0 2
0 (16 1)
3
( 2)( 1)
2
1
2
0
3
( 2)( 1)
2
1
2
0 (
2
1)
2
1
2
0 16
2

4
(
2
1) 1
2
0 ((
2
(
2
))
2
1)( 4)
2
1 ( )
2
0
0 (
2
1)
2
1
2
0 1
0 ( 1) (2 2
2
2 2)
0 ( 1) -(2 2
2
2 2)
0 ( ) (2
2
1)
Vatijasovic`s construction can lo applioJ to othor sots ol numlors, in
lact to any sot that is - , moaning roughly that it
is gonoratoJ ly aJJition, multiplication, Jocisions lasoJ on in-ogual-
itios, anJ solocting an olomont lrom a list. lor oxamplo, tho sot ol
- - is tho sot ol positivo valuos ol this polynomial, in
thirtoon variallos, vhoro tho variallos rango ovor tho non-nogativo
intogors.
- - - -
Tho lriar Varin Vorsonno (1588-1648), a momlor ol tho orJor ol
Vinims, vas a philosophor, mathomatician, anJ sciontist vho vroto
on music, mochanics, anJ optics, suggostoJ to Christian Huygons
that a ponJulum might lo usoJ to moasuro timo, anJ JolonJoJ
Christianity against Skopticism. Ho also occupioJ a uniguo rolo as a
corrosponJont vho linkoJ togothor no lovor than sovonty-oight
philosophors anJ mathomaticians across Europo, incluJing Dos-
cartos, lormat, tho English philosophor Thomas Hollos, Blaiso Pas-
cal anJ his lathor, Etionno, vho mot as Vorsonno`s guosts, anJ othors
vho corrosponJoJ through him-ho vas a kinJ ol intornational post
lox-incluJing Huygons, Torricolli, anJ Galiloo.
- - - - {
- -
ll 2

1 is primo, thon is primo, locauso il haJ a primo lactor

thon 2

1 voulJ JiviJo 2

1. ll , thon
2

1 (2

1)(2

. . . 2
3
2
2
2

1)
Tho convorso, hovovor, is not alvays truo. ll is primo, 2

1 may
lo oithor primo or composito.
Vorsonno lamously spoculatoJ in his look -
(1644) that 2

1 is primo vhon 2, 3, 5, , 13, 1,

19, 31, 6, 12, anJ 25 anJ no othor loss than 25.
This is an oxtraorJinary list, locauso numlors such as 2
6
1 aro
so largo: hov coulJ Vorsonno havo possilly loon conliJont that
thoy voro primo? No ono in his Jay haJ any satislactory mothoJ ol
JociJing vhothor such largo numlors voro primo or composito.
Anyvay, Vorsonno`s list contains sovoral mistakos. Tho numlors

6
anJ
25
aro composito, anJ tho missing
61
,
89
, anJ
10
aro
primo-lut thoso orrors voro not linally JomonstratoJ until throo
hunJroJ yoars lator, ly A. lorrior in 194.
- -
- ln 1536 HuJalricus Pogius shovoJ that 2
11
1 204 23 89
is not primo.
- ln 1603 Piotro CatalJi corroctly announcoJ that
1
anJ
19
voro primo, anJ lalsoly claimoJ lor
23
,
29
, anJ
3
. lormat
corroctoJ him on
23
, anJ
3
in 1640.
- ln 150 Eulor, vho haJ alroaJy corroctoJ CatalJi on
29
,
shovoJ that
31
is primo. This vas tho largost knovn primo
lor ovor a hunJroJ yoars, lrom 12 to 186.
- ln 186 Iucas concluJoJ that

12
101411834604692313168303158841052
is primo, though ho novor soomoJ ontiroly convincoJ ly his
ovn calculations. This vas tho rocorJ largo primo until 1951,
anJ tho largost ovor to lo calculatoJ ly hanJ.
- ln 1883 Porvouchino shovoJ that 61 is primo, missing lrom
Vorsonno`s list.
- Povors announcoJ in 1911, in Tho Tonth Porloct Numlor`
( 18), that
89
is primo, also
corrocting Vorsonno. Ho also shovoJ that
10
is primo, in
1914.
{ - - - -
- ln 1903 l. N. Colo provoJ that 6, on Vorsonno`s list, is com-
posito.
- Vorsonno`s list vas linally anJ complotoly chockoJ only altor
WorlJ War ll: Vorsonno numlors aro primo lor 2, 3, 5, ,
13, 1, 19, 31, 61, 89, 10, anJ 12, up to tho limit 25.
-
ln 1952 Polinson provoJ that
521
,
60
,
129
,
2203
, anJ
2281
aro
primo, tho lirst succossos using a moJorn computor. Tho aJvont ol
oloctronic computors has maJo tho hunt lor Vorsonno primos moro,
not loss, compotitivo. Whon Gillios ol tho Univorsity ol lllinois lounJ
tho 23rJ Vorsonno primo, 2
11213
1, tho math Jopartmont changoJ its
postago motor to print 2
11213
1 is primo` on ovory onvolopo.
On Novomlor 14, 198, a pross roloaso announcoJ, Tvo 18-yoar-
olJ youths, Iaura Nickol anJ Curt Noll, havo calculatoJ tho largost
knovn primo numlor, 2 to tho 21,01st povor minus ono, using a
torminal at Calilornia Stato Univorsity, HayvarJ anJ hooking into tho
C\BEP 14 in tho Ios Angolos aroa. Totaling 6,533 Jigits, tho num-
lor vas provoJ to lo primo last Octolor 30 altor throo yoars ol Jili-
gont stuJy anJ vork intorruptoJ at timos ly ollicial anJ porsonal
prolloms.` Tho novs maJo tho lront pago ol tho -
Nickol anJ Noll got hookoJ on computor calculation in high
school, anJ vroto thoir program vith inlormation lrom tho local Cal
Stato Univorsity math Jopartmont. Thoy ran thoir program lor 440
hours vhon tho C\BEP 14 vas not othorviso in uso.
This vas tho 25th Vorsonno primo. Noll vont on to Jiscovor tho
26th,
23209
, vhich has 13,395 Jigits, anJ lator vorkoJ lor Silicon
Graphics, vhoro most ol tho rocont largost primo numlor rocorJs
havo loon sot, ly DaviJ Slovinski, Paul Gago, anJ othors. Noll is
also a momlor ol tho Ell Cooporativo Computing AvarJs Toam, anJ
ono ol tho AmJahl Six vho JiscovoroJ 235235 2
0000
1, a numlor
ol 21,08 Jigits anJ lriolly tho largost non-Vorsonno primo knovn.
Silicon Graphics takos part in , tho Groat lntornot Vorsonno
Primo Soarch.
Currontly vo knov that

is primo lor 2, 3, 5, , 13, 1, 19, 31,

61, 89, 10, 12, 521, 60, 129, 2203, 2281, 321, 4253, 4423, 9689,
9941, 11213, 1993, 2101, 23209, 4449, 86243, 110503, 132049,
216091, 56839, 859433, 1258, 1398269, 296221, 30213,
692593, 1346691, 20996011, anJ 24036583. lor all othor loss than
69600,

is composito. ll is loss than 1041200, it is prolally

composito.
- - - - {
Bocauso tho tosts lor Vorsonno primos aro rolativoly simplo, tho
largost knovn primo numlor has almost alvays loon a
Vorsonno primo.
no. ol Jigits yoar Jiscovoror
13-14 521, 60 15, 183 1952 P. V. Polinson
15-1 129, 386, 1952 P. V. Polinson
2203, 664,
2281 68
18 321 969 195 H. Piosol
19-20 4253, 1,281, 1961 Hurvitz anJ SollriJgo
4423 1,332
21-23 9689, 2,91, 1963 Gillios
9941, 2,993,
11213 3,36
24 1993 6,002 191 Tuckorman
25 2101 6,533 198 Curt Noll anJ
Iaura Nickol
26 23209 6,98 199 Curt Noll
2 4449 13,395 199 Slovinski anJ Nolson
28 86243 25,962 1982 Slovinski
29 132049 33,265 1983 Slovinski
30 216091 39,51 1985 Slovinski
31 110503 65,050 1988 Colguitt anJ Wolsh
32 56839 22,832 1992 Slovinski anJ Gago
33 859433 258,16 1994 Slovinski anJ Gago
34 1258 38,632 1996 Slovinski anJ Gago
35 1398269 420,921 1996 ArmongauJ, Woltman
ot al. (GlVPS toam)
36 296221 895,832 1996-9 Sponco, Woltman ot al.
(GlVPS)
3 30213 909,526 1998 Clarkson, Woltman,
Kurovski ot al. (GlVPS
anJ PrimoNot)
38 692593 2,098,960 1999 Hajratvala, Woltman,
Kurovski ot al. (GlVPS
anJ PrimoNot)
?? 1346691 4,053,946 2001 Camoron, Woltman,
Kurovski ot al. (GlVPS
anJ PrimoNot)
{ - - - -
?? 20996011 6,320,430 2003 Shalor, Woltman,
Kurovski ot al. (GlVPS
anJ PrimoNot)
?? 24036583 ,235,33 2004 linJloy, Woltman,
Kurovski ot al. (GlVPS
anJ PrimoNot)
Tho latost Vorsonno primos may possilly not lo tho 39th, 40th, anJ
41st, locauso not all tho smallor Vorsonno numlors havo yot loon
chockoJ.
- - - - {
This is hov HoaJlino Novs, at http:mathvorlJ.vollram
.comnovs, roportoJ (Juno 1, 2004) tho latost rocorJ: Josh linJloy, a
participant in tho Groat lntornot Vorsonno Primo Soarch (GlVPS), iJon-
tilioJ tho 41st knovn Vorsonno Primo on tho morning ol Vay 15. Tho
Jiscovory vas conlirmoJ on Vay 29, making 2
24036583
1 tho largost
knovn Vorsonno primo, as voll as tho largost primo numlor knovn.`
- -
All knovn Vorsonno primos aro sguarolroo, anJ it sooms likoly that
thoy all aro, locauso it is knovn that il tho sguaro ol a primo,
2
,
JiviJos a Vorsonno primo, thon is a , anJ thoso aro
vory raro. Just tvo Wiolorich primos loss than 4 10
12
aro knovn, anJ
noithor ol thom JiviJos a Vorsonno primo.
lt vas a natural spoculation that il

is primo thon

is also
primo. lor oxamplo,
2
3, anJ suro onough,
3
is primo:
5

31 anJ
31
is primo, as Eulor provoJ in 150. But tho conjocturo is
novortholoss vrong:
13
8191 is primo, lut
8191
turns out to lo
composito.
in 186 maJo a moro limitoJ conjocturo: tho soguonco ol
Vorsonno numlors
2
2
1 3 2
3
1 2

1 12
anJ 2
12
1 is also primo. Unlortunatoly, tho noxt torm has moro than
10
38
Jigits anJ cannot lo tostoJ at prosont.
-
This is tho Nov Vorsonno conjocturo, maJo ly Paul Batoman, Paul
SollriJgo, anJ Stan Wagstall. Iot lo an oJJ primo: thon tho lollov-
ing tvo statomonts aro oguivalont:
1.

is primo.
2. Thoso tvo statomonts aro oithor loth truo or loth lalso:
a. (2

1)3 is primo.
l. is ol tho lorm 2

1 or 4

3.
- -
lt is not knovn vhothor thoro aro inlinity ol Vorsonno primos, or
inJooJ an inlinity ol Vorsonno compositos. ln - -
, PicharJ K. Guy says ol Vorsonno primos, thoir
numlor is unJoultoJly inlinito, lut prool is hopolossly loyonJ
roach.` Ho thon ollors somo suggostions lor tho sizo ol (), tho
numlor ol primos lor vhich 2

1 is primo.
Gillios suggostoJ () is approximatoly log . Tho constant coulJ
lo , vhoro is K- -. Pomoranco suggostoJ () is
approximatoly (log log )
2
.
{ - - - -
(Baxa 1993)
ll tho Vorsonno primos, 2

1, aro put on a graph ly plotting log

against , thon you Jo got a romarkally straight` lino. On tho lasis
ol such Jata anJ an ingonious - argumont, Wagstall conjoc-
turoJ in 1983 that:
1.

is alout ( log 2)(log log ) or roughly 2.5695 . . . (log

log ).
2. Tho numlor ol Vorsonno primos

vith 2 is alout
1.806 . . .
3. Tho prolalility that

is primo is alout ( log )( log

2) vhoro 2 il is ol tho lorm 4 3 anJ 6 il is ol tho
lorm 4 1.
K-
Elorhart conjocturoJ that il

is tho th primo such that

is a
Vorsonno primo, thon

is approximatoly (32)

, il is largo onough.
- - -
Proving that a Vorsonno numlor is composito tolls you nothing
alout its actual lactors, anJ only somo Vorsonno compositos havo
loon lactoroJ. (lnciJontally, Vorsonno numlors vritton in laso 2
consist ol all 1s, anJ so thoy aro linary - anJ thoro is a con-
noction vith tho prollom ol lactorizing tho ropunits in gonoral.)
lt holps to knov somo lasic thooroms alout tho lactors ol Vorsonno
primos. lor oxamplo, il is an oJJ primo, thon any Jivisor ol

is
ol tho lorm 2 1.
Eulor provoJ in 150 that il is a primo ol tho lorm 4 3, thon
2 1 is a lactor ol

il anJ only il 2 1 is also primo (so anJ

2 1 aro a pair ol -). ln this caso,

is com-
posito, vith tho oxcoption ol tho caso 3, vhon
3
anJ it is
truo that 2 3 1 JiviJos
3
, lut it is not composito.
lor oxamplo,
11
204, anJ 11 is primo anJ 11 4 2 3, anJ 2
11 1 23 is also primo, so 23 204, vhich is truo.
Similarly, il JiviJos

, thon is ol tho lorm 8 1. Using tho

samo oxamplo,
11
204 23 89, anJ 89 8 11 1 anJ 23
8 3 1.
Horo aro just a hanJlul ol lactorizations:

11
2,04 23 89

23
8,388,60 4 18,481
- - - - {

29
233 1,103 2,089

3
223 616,318,1

41
13,36 164,511,353

43
431 9,19 2,099,863

4
2,351 4,513 13,264,529

53
6,361 69,431 20,394,401

59
19,951 3,203,431,80,33

6
193,0,21 61,838,25,28

1
228,49 48,544,121 212,885,833

3
439 2,298,041 9,361,93,132,609

9
2,68 202,029,03 1,113,491,139,6

83
16 5,912,614,113,25,649,08,21

9
11,44 13,842,60,235,828,485,645,66,393
As an oxamplo ol vhat tho latost mothoJs can Jo,
619
vas com-
plotoly lactoroJ ly tho NlSNET toam using tho Spocial Numlor liolJ
Siovo. Tvo lactors voro alroaJy knovn, 110183 anJ 1082099544.
Thoy havo lounJ thoso tvo romaining lactors: 1093 86816105
291956924 8023421390 8123642560 1922510384 55204252439 anJ
253956 68031642 145012902 311820691 3098610826 6999358245
069816383 2424511153 65529011 042045245 5686291833.
- - - -
Tho Iucas-Iohmor tost Jolinitoly Jotorminos vhothor a Vorsonno
numlor is primo or not.
Tho tost vas invontoJ ly Iucas anJ rolinoJ ly Iohmor in alout
1930. This is hov it vorks. Dolino tho soguonco,
(1) 4, (2) 14, (3) 194, (4) 3634, . . .
vhoro ( 1) ()
2
2. Thon
2 1
is primo il anJ only il
2 1
JiviJos (2).
Tho valuos ol () rapiJly locomo vory largo inJooJ, lut lortunatoly
thoy Jo not nooJ to lo calculatoJ Jiroctly to run tho tost. lor oxam-
plo,
13
8191, so this vill JiviJo (12) il anJ only il 8191 is primo.
Sinco vo aro only intorostoJ in Jivisilility, vo can Jo tho ontiro cal-
culation moJulo 8191, liko this, using a hanJ calculator:
(4) 3634 480 (moJ 8191)
(5) 480
2
2 2316898 3953 (moJ 8191)
{ - - - -
(6) 3953
2
2 1562620 590 (moJ 8191)
() 590
2
2 35640898 185 (moJ 8191)
(8) 185
2
2 344844 36 (moJ 8191)
(9) 36
2
2 1294 1294 (moJ 8191)
(10) 1294
2
2 164434 340 (moJ 8191)
(11) 340
2
2 12040898 128 (moJ 8191)
(12) 128
2
2 16382 8191 2 0 (moJ 8191)
AnJ so 8191 is primo. Ol courso, this is not a lrilliant vay ol tosting
a numlor tho sizo ol 8191 vhich vo coulJ also tost ly JiviJing ly
all tho primos loss than 8191 90.5 . . . ! But this mothoJ vorks
olliciontly lor much largor numlors.
GlVPS, primality tosting
- -
Tho sum ol tho - - Jivorgos, lut vory slovly. Iot
()
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
. . .
1

Tho sum lrom

1
2 to
1
is approximatoly log log , anJ vo havo tho
loautilul rosult that ( ) log log tonJs to tho Vortons constant,
0.2614921284642 . . .
as tonJs to inlinity. (Sloano A061)
Brun`s constant
-
Approximatoly hall ol all numlors aro Jivisillo ly 2, anJ so hall aro
not. Wo havo to say approximatoly` locauso, lor oxamplo, lotvoon
1 anJ 11 inclusivo, only livo out ol olovon aro ovon! (Tho argumont
only vorks porloctly lor ovon numlors.)
Similarly, approximatoly ono-hall aro not Jivisillo ly 3 anJ ono-
hall multiplioJ ly ono-thirJ aro Jivisillo ly noithor 2 nor 3. (This
conclusion is also only oxactly truo lor multiplos ol 2 anJ 3.) ln gon-
oral, approximatoly,
(1
1
2)(1
1
3)(1
1
5)(1
1
) . . . (1
1
)
aro Jivisillo ly nono ol tho primos lrom 2 to

. Tho tallo shovs this

proJuct, approximatoly, lor primos up to 1,000,000:
- {
proJuct ol (1
1
) lor primos
10 0.2286
10
2
0.1203
10
3
0.0810
10
4
0.0609
10
5
0.0488
10
6
0.040
So alout ol numlors aro Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, or , vhilo roughly
94 aro Jivisillo ly a primo unJor 10,000. (\oung 1998)
AccorJing to tho , tho numlor ol primos
is log , anJ so tho proportion ol numlors that aro primo is
1log . Doos this moan that tho proJuct
(1
1
2)(1
1
3)(1
1
5)(1
1
) . . . (1
1
)
tonJs to 1log as tonJs to inlinity? No! Tho sourcos ol orror vo
havo notoJ aro cumulativo, anJ tho valuo ol proJuct tonJs to
log , vith an orror lactor roughly proportional to . This is
Vortons thoorom.
houristic roasoning
-K
W. H. Vills provoJ in 194 a thoorom that is as amazing as it is uso-
loss. Ho provoJ that thoro is a numlor, , such that
3

is primo lor
all intogor valuos ol . Evon moro surprisingly, Vills JiJ not givo an
actual valuo lor -his prool vas nonconstructivo.
This is inJooJ a -, lut it is usoloss in
practico locauso you nooJ to knov to a vory largo numlor ol Joc-
imal placos to got ovon a lov primos out, anJ you nooJ to knov tho
primos gonoratoJ loloro calculating .
Tho smallost possillo valuo ol , knovn as Vills` numlor, has loon
calculatoJ as,
1.30638838630806904686144926026051291684585156 . . .
This loaJs to tho soguonco ol primos starting, 2, 11, 1361,
252100888, . . .
Thoro is an inlinity ol othor possillo valuos ol .
{ -K
K-
lnspiroJ ly Vills, E. V. Wright provoJ that thoro is a numlor , such
that il
0
anJ
1
2

thon |

l, tho intogral part ol

, 1,
is alvays a primo. Ho gavo tho oxamplo 1.928800 . . . vhon
|
1
l 3, |
2
l 13, |
3
l 16381, anJ |
4
l has alout 5,000 Jigits. (Wright
1951)

Thoro is such a cornucopia ol rosults alout primos that thoy coulJ
not possilly lit into a much largor look than this, anJ nor can thoy
all lo oasily anJ noatly classilioJ, so horo is a small lunJlo ol mis-
collanoous rosults.
- Evory soguonco ol sovon consocutivo numlors groator than 36
incluJos a multiplo ol a primo groator than 41. (Gupta: CalJ-
voll, -)
- Evory numlor groator than 45 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos
groator than 11. (Gupta: CalJvoll, -)
- Evory numlor groator than 121 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos ol
tho lorm 4 1.
- Tho numlors 2, 5, 1, 369119, anJ 41504643 aro tho only
knovn numlors that JiviJo tho sum ol all tho primos loss than
thom.
- Tho numlor 1549 is tho only oJJ numlor loss than 10,000 that
is not tho sum ol a primo anJ a povor.
- Tho soguonco ol primo numlors omloJJoJ in tho Jocimal
oxpansion ol pi ( ) goos 3, 31, 314159 anJ thon
31,415,926,535,89,932,384,626,433,832,95,028,841
- Tho soguonco ol primos vith consocutivo Jigits starts: 23, 6,
89, 456, 8901, 68901, 2345689, 4568901, . . . (
- 5:254)
- Tho numlor 1683 is tho only numlor that can lo oxprossoJ
as a sum in oxactly vays using throo Jistinct primos oach
timo (tho orJor ol tho primos in tho sum is irrolovant). (Pivora:
CalJvoll, -)
- Thoro is a primo ol tho lorm 2

1 lor oach loss than 383.

(SollriJgo: CalJvoll, -)
{
- Tho numlor
818098654321069686
66656463626160595855655545352
51504948446454443424140393833
635343332313029282262524232221
2019181161514131211109865432
is vritton ly starting at 82 anJ vorking lackvarJs to 1, anJ it
is primo. (Nicol anJ lilasota: CalJvoll, -)
- Tho largost primo lolov 1,000,000,000 is 999,999,93.
- Tho lirst triplo ol consocutivo numlors oach vith throo Jistinct
primo lactors is 1309-1310-1311. Tho noxt tvo such triplos aro
1885-1886-188 anJ 2013-2014-2015.
- Tho lirst tvo pairs ol consocutivo numlors vith lour Jistinct
primo lactors oach aro 314-315, lollovoJ ly 8294-8295 anJ
8645-8646.
- Tho sot
5 11 13 2 3 1 1
is tho largost knovn sot ol consocutivo primos that can lo par-
titionoJ into tvo sots vith this proporty. (CalJvoll,
-)
- Evory numlor groator than 55 is tho sum ol Jistinct primos ol
tho lorm 4 3.
-
Not only is it incomparally oasior to multiply tvo largo numlors
togothor than it is to rovorso tho oporation anJ lactorizo tho proJuct
into tho original numlors, lut it is possillo to multiply vory largo
numlors almost as guickly as thoy can lo aJJoJ.
This sooms countorintuitivo. Any schoolchilJ vill toll you that multi-
plication ly hanJ is much moro timo-consuming than aJJition, anJ in
gonoral, lolloving tho usual algorithm lor long multiplication, it voulJ
soom nocossary to mako alout
2
small calculations to multiply tvo
-Jigit numlors togothor (plus a much smallor numlor ol aJJitions).
Not so! Supposo that vo havo tvo numlors anJ roprosontoJ
in linary notation. ll oach has 2 Jigits, thon vo can split thom into
halvos ly vriting thom as
{ -
2

Thon, (2
2
2

) 2

( )( ) (2

1)
This has roJucoJ tho original multiplication-vhich vo assumoJ
voulJ tako (2)
2
4
2
multiplications plus a lit ol aJJition-to
throo multiplications ol alout
2
oporations oach.
This in itsoll is a saving ol alout 25. Hovovor, vhon multiplying
vory largo numlors, this procoss can lo ropoatoJ. lt turns out that tho
running timo lor largo multiplications can lo roJucoJ lrom rounJ
alout
2
to
1.585
, a groat saving.
ls this tho limit? No! By ovon moro cunning mothoJs, oxtromoly
largo numlors can lo multiplioJ in a timo that is noarly propor-
tional to tho longth ol tho numlors. Evon lottor, il you havo a
computor vith an unlimitoJ numlor ol compononts all acting
simultanoously, thon it is possillo to Josign a Jovico such that, ll
vo viro togothor sulliciontly many ol thoso Jovicos in a straight
lino, vith oach moJulo communicating only vith its lolt anJ right
noighlours, tho rosulting circuitry vill proJuco tho 2-lit proJuct
ol -lit numlors in oxactly 2 clock pulsos.` (Knuth 1981, 29)
Nov that is magic!
-
Nivon numlors aro namoJ altor lvan Nivon, author ol
- (1960). (Thoy voro also laloloJ
multiJigital numlors, or HarshaJ numlors, ly Kaprokar, -
moaning groat joy` in Sanskrit.) Thoy aro intogors Jivisillo ly tho
sum ol tho Jigits. Thoir soguonco in laso 10 starts
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 20, . . .
(Sloano A005349)
ln 1994, GrunJman provoJ that at most tvonty consocutivo Nivon
numlors aro possillo anJ proJucoJ an inlinito lamily ol such
soguoncos, tho smallost ono ol 44,363,342,86 Jigits.
Thoro is an inlinity ol numlors that aro loth Nivon anJ . (Wois-
stoin, )
- {
- -

Tho conjocturo that ovory oJJ numlor can lo vritton as 2

2
,
vhoro is unity or a primo anJ coulJ lo zoro, is lalso. Only tvo
countoroxamplos, hovovor, aro knovn, 5 anJ 5993. (Ashlachor:
CalJvoll, -)
K-
ln 1882 Opporman claimoJ that il 1 thon (
2
) (
2
)
(
2
). This has novor loon provoJ, though tho oviJonco is com-
polling:

2
primos in tho gap
2
primos in tho gap
2

2 3 4 5 6
6 5 9 11 12
12 13 16 1, 19 20
20 23 25 29 30
30 31 36 3, 41 42
42 43, 4 49 53 56
56 59, 61 64 6, 1 2
2 3, 9 81 83, 89 90
90 93, 9 100 101, 103, 10, 109 110
. . .
BrocarJ`s conjocturo
-
Thoro aro liltoon palinJromic primos consisting ol throo Jigits: 101,
131, 151, 181, 191, 313, 353, 33, 383, 2, 5, 8, 9, 919, anJ
929. Tho only palinJromic primo vith an ovon numlor ol Jigits is 11.
Tho curront rocorJ lor tho largost knovn palinJromic primo is holJ
ly Harvoy Dulnor, vho lounJ on April 5, 2004, 10
120016
12621
10
60005
1, vhich has 120,01 Jigits. His provious rocorJ vas
(1989191989)
1560
1, containing 15,601 Jigits, announcoJ in Octolor
2001. Tho notation moans that 1989191989 is ropoatoJ 1,560 timos
anJ thon a 1 is put on tho right-hanJ onJ.
{ - -

Dulnor also lounJ, on Vay 4, 2004, this palinJromic primo vhoso

Jigit longth, 98689, is also a palinJromo:
10
98689
429151924 10
49340
1
(vvv.vorlJolnumlors.compalprim2)
-
Tho Jigits 1 to 9 cannot lo arrangoJ to mako a primo numlor,
locauso thoir sum, 45, is Jivisillo ly 3, anJ so thoroloro is any
arrangomont ol thom. Hovovor, you can aJJ an oxtra unit to mako
a primo. Tho lirst lov ol thoso aro 1012345689, 1012346589,
1012346589, 1012348569, 1012348569, . . . (Sloano A050288)
ll you oxcluJo zoro, tho smallost panJigital primos aro 112346589,
112346589, 112346859, 112346958, 112348659, . . . (Sloano
A050290)
Dulnor anJ OnJrojka JiscovoroJ tho smallost panJigital primo that
is also palinJromic: 102345698896543201 (CalJvoll, -)
-K- -
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 21 35 35 21 1
1 8 28 56 0 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
Pascal`s trianglo is lormoJ ly starting anJ onJing ovory rov vith 1,
anJ using tho rulo that oach ontry is tho sum ol tho tvo ontrios alovo
it in tho provious rov.
-K- - {
Tho ontrios aro also tho - that appoar vhon cal-
culating algolraic oxprossions such as
(1 )
8
1 8 28
2
56
3
0
4
56
5
28
6
8

8
Binomial coollicionts can also lo calculatoJ Jiroctly. Counting tho
unit at tho top ol tho trianglo as rov zoro, tho 4th ontry in tho 8th rov
is 56, anJ
56
lgnoring tho onJ units, vhich ontrios aro Jivisillo ly thoir rov
numlor il vo count tho top unit as rov zoro? A guick chock shovs
that il is primo, thon all ol rov (tho units oxcluJoJ) aro Jivisi-
llo ly .
This is tho pattorn croatoJ. Zoro (0) inJicatos an ontry that is Jivisi-
llo ly tho rov numlor vithout romainJor:
-
- 0 -
- 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 -
- 0 - - - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 - 0 0 - 0 0 -
- 0 - 0 0 - 0 0 - 0 -
- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -
lt is loss olvious, lut truo, that tho ontrios in rov , oxcluJing tho
onJs, aro Jivisillo ly primo il anJ only il is a povor ol .
Tho miJJlo torm in ovory othor rov is (
2

), vhich is alvays Jivisillo

oxactly ly 1.
Hov many coollicionts aro not Jivisillo ly tho rov numlor? Surpris-
ingly, tho numlor as a proportion ol all tho ontrios Jrops to zoro as
tho numlor ol rovs tonJs to inlinity. - ontrios aro Jivisillo
ly thoir rov numlor. (Harlorth 19)
8 6
1 2 3
{ -K- -
-K- -K- -
Thoro is an olvious similarity lotvoon thoso liguros anJ Siorpinski`s
gaskot, vhich is constructoJ ly Joloting tho contral guartor ol tho tri-
anglo, thon tho contral guartors ol oach ol tho throo romaining trian-
glos, anJ so on:
-K- - {
- --
- Hov many timos Joos a particular numlor occur in Pascal`s
trianglo? DaviJ Singmastor pointoJ out that 120, 210, 1540,
140, 11628, anJ 24310 oach occur six timos, among numlors
loss than 2
48
. Ho has also provoJ that an inlinity ol numlors
occur at loast six timos oach.
Tho lilonacci soguonco also appoars in Pascal`s trianglo, along thoso
Jiagonals:
- ErJos conjocturoJ in tho 1930s that il 4, thon (
2

) is novor
squarcfrcc, anJ Sarkosy provoJ it in 1985 lor all sulliciontly
largo . Gootgholuck has conlirmoJ that it is truo il is not a
povor ol 2 anJ il 2
42205184
.
- ErJos, Iacampagno, anJ SollriJgo havo conjocturoJ that il is
tho smallost primo lactor ol tho linomial coolliciont (

), anJ
is at loast 2, thon is at most (

) or 29 vhichovor is tho largor.

- Tho numlor ol oJJ ontrios in tho th rov is 2

, vhoro is tho
numlor ol 1s in tho linary roprosontation ol . lor oxamplo,
11 1011
2
, so thoro aro oight oJJ ontrios in rov 11. ln partic-
ular, in rovs 3, , 15, 31, . . . all tho ontrios aro oJJ.
- lor positivo intogors anJ anJ 2, (

) has a primo lac-

tor groator than .
- ErJos provoJ that at loast ono ol tho linomial coollicionts (

)
is not sguaro-lroo il 23. Voroovor, lor somo

, JoponJing
on , il

thon at loast ono ol (

) is Jivisillo ly an th
povor ol somo primo. (ErJos anJ EynJon 1992)
- -
Tho lost-knovn uso ol numlor thoory in tho roal vorlJ is tho uso ol
primos in public kcy cncryption. This makos cortain largo primos anJ
algorithms commorcially valuallo. So Pivost, Shamir, anJ AJloman
liloJ patont numlor 4,405,829 on Docomlor 14, 19, titloJ Crypto-
graphic Communications Systom anJ VothoJ,` on thoir RSA algo-
rithm. A company vas lormoJ, calloJ PSA Data Socurity, anJ vas
grantoJ an oxclusivo liconso on tho PSA patont. Hovovor, sinco it
vas pullishoJ loloro tho patont application, it coulJ not lo patontoJ
unJor Europoan anJ Japanoso lav. Amorican roaJors may lo
oncouragoJ to knov that tho PSA patont oxpiroJ in 2000!
Palph Vorklo anJ Vartin Hollman voro loss lortunato. On August
19, 1980, thoy liloJ a patont, No. 4,218,582, lor a Pullic-Koy Cryp-
tographic Apparatus anJ VothoJ,` lasoJ on tho knapsack prollom,
vhich roguiros itoms ol Jilloront sizo to lo littoJ into a knapsack ol
givon volumo. Tvo yoars lator IoonarJ AJloman solvoJ tho simplost
vorsion ol Vorklo`s prollom. Vorklo promptly aJvortisoJ in tho
pagos ol magazino a rovarJ ol $1,000 lor anyono vho coulJ
lroak a ropoatoJ itoration knapsack prollom. Again ho lailoJ: Ernio
Brickoll crackoJ an itoration prollom vith lorty itorations in just ono
{ - -
hour on a Cray-1 suporcomputor. That vas tho onJ ol Vorklo`s knap-
sack mothoJ lor all practical purposos.
Voro rocontly, Pogor Schlally oltainoJ U.S. Patont 5,33,560 in
1994 lor tvo primos, ol vhich this is tho smallor, roprosontoJ in
hoxaJocimal notation:
98A3Dl52AEAE999325CB258D6EBD1l4630E9B9E21
32A4AlB1624BA6Dl911466AD8DA960586l4A0D5E3C36
Al099660BDDC15E54A9l402334433ACB14BCB
Sinco Schlally is a momlor ol tho Ioaguo lor Programming lrooJom,
vhich is opposoJ to patonting computor soltvaro, ho prosumally
haJ his tonguo in his chook.
PSA algorithm
K
lathor Joan Ppin (1826-1904) vas a Josuit priost vho pullishoJ sov-
oral papors on mothoJs ol lactorization. ln 18 ho pullishoJ his tost
lor tho primality ol Icrmat numbcrs.
() is primo il anJ only il 1 anJ 5
( () 1)2
1 is Jivisillo ly ()
lor oxamplo, (2) 1 anJ 5
(1 1)2
1 5
8
1 390626 1 2298
Tho tost is usually prosontoJ toJay vith 3 in placo ol 5.
lronically, hovovor, locauso so lov lormat primos aro knovn, Ppin`s
tost has novor loon usoJ succosslully to shov that a lormat numlor is
primo!
ln 1905 J. C. VoorhoaJ anJ A. E. Wostorn loth usoJ Ppin`s tost to
shov that

is composito vithout linJing tho lactors, vhich voro

calculatoJ in 190 ly John Brillhart anJ V. Vorrison:

(2
9
116,503,103,64,643 1)
(2
9
11,141,91,095,088,142,685 1)
ln 1909 VoorhoaJ anJ Wostorn collaloratoJ to provo that
8
is com-
posito, using Ppin`s tost. (Koshy 2002)
Tho largost lormat numlor that has loon tostoJ using Ppin`s thoo-
rom is
24
in 1999 ly Vayor, PapaJopoulus, anJ CranJall. (Pivora,
Conjocturo 4)
K {
-
lt is rocorJoJ that all GoJ`s vorks voro complotoJ in six Jays,
locauso six is a porloct numlor. . . . lor this is tho lirst numlor
maJo ol Jivisors, a sixth, a thirJ, anJ a hall, rospoctivoly, ono,
tvo, anJ throo, totaling six.
O - Tho City ol GoJ
A porloct numlor is tho sum ol all its propor Jivisors (so it is noithor
abunuant nor ucficicnt). Tho soconJ porloct numlor is 28, vhich
Plutarch notoJ vas tho numlor ol momlors in tho Sonato at Sparta.
On tho othor hanJ, Alcuin (35-804), vho vas Charlomagno`s
toachor, notoJ that sinco tho human raco vas JosconJoJ lrom oight
souls in Noah`s Ark, anJ 8 is Joliciont, thoroloro this soconJ croation
vas inlorior to tho lirst. (Oro 19481988, 94)
EucliJ prosontoJ porloct numlors in his - Ho JolinoJ thom in
Vll, Dolinition 22, anJ thon in Book lX proposition 36, claimoJ that:
ll as many numlors as vo ploaso loginning lrom a unit lo sot out continu-
ously in Joullo proportion, until tho sum ol all locomos primo, anJ il tho
sum multiplioJ into tho last mako somo numlor, tho proJuct vill lo porloct.
ln othor vorJs, you aJJ up tho soguonco 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . until you
got a primo anJ thon multiply tho sum ly tho last torm. So tho lirst
lour porloct numlors aro:
6 (1 2) 2
28 (1 2 4) 4
496 (1 2 4 8 16) 16
8128 (1 2 4 8 16 32 64) 64
anJ suro onough, oach numlor is tho sum ol its propor lactors:
6 1 2 3
28 1 2 4 14
496 1 2 4 8 16 31 62 124 248
8128 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 12 254
508 1016 2032 4064
EucliJ claimoJ that ovory numlor ol this lorm is porloct, lut not that
ovory (ovon) porloct numlor is ol this lorm: that vas provoJ ly Eulor
in 14. lt lollovs that linJing porloct numlors amounts to linJing
{ -
Vcrscnnc primcs anJ tho largost knovn porloct numlor vill lo
JorivoJ Jiroctly lrom tho rocorJ Vorsonno primo.
Tho lirst lour porloct numlors voro knovn to Nicomachus ol Gorasa
(c. AD 100), anJ to lamllichus, vho vroto a commontary on Nico-
machus`s , anJ suggostoJ that thoro might lo ono porloct
numlor lor oach numlor ol Jigits, suggosting that thoro is somothing
spocial alout laso 10. This is lalso.
lt vas also a natural assumption that sinco 2, 3, 5, anJ proJuco
porloct numlors, tho noxt voulJ lo lor 11, vhich is also lalso: 2
11

1 204 23 89.
Tho porloct numlors also soom to onJ in oithor 6 or 8, vhich is
truo, anJ to Jo so altornatoly, vhich is again lalso. Tho linal Jigits ol
tho knovn porloct numlors go, 6, 8, 6, 8, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 8,
8, 6, 6, 6, 8, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 8, 6, 8, 6, 6, . . . (Sloano
A094540)
Tho lilth porloct numlor vas lounJ in 1536 ly HuJalricus Pogius,
vho shovoJ that 2
13
1 8191 is primo, so 33550336 2
12
(2
13
1)
is porloct. Thon J. Schloyll in 1555 lounJ tho sixth: 8589869056
2
16
(2
1
1). Piotro Antonio CatalJi (1548-1626) roJiscovoroJ tho lilth
anJ sixth anJ aJJoJ tho sovonth: 13438691328 2
18
(2
19
1).
CatalJi, liko Vorsonno lator, thon maJo an orror. Ho corroctly claimoJ
that 2

1 is primo lor 2, 3, 5, , 13, 1, anJ 19 anJ thon aJJoJ

23, 29, 31, anJ 3, ol vhich only 31 is corroct.
Potor Barlov vas a vory roliallo calculator vhoso - (1814) ol
lactors, sguaros, culos, sguaro roots, rociprocals, anJ natural loga-
rithms up to 10,000 is still in print. Ho maJo a lamous romark in his
look - - (1811) that
2
30
(2
31
1) 2,14,483,64 is tho groatost |porloct numlorl that vill
lo JiscovoroJ, lor as thoy aro moroly curious, vithout loing usolul it
is not likoly that any porson vill attompt to linJ ono loyonJ it.`
Hov closo can a non-porloct numlor lo to porloction? Povors ol 2
aro only just ucficicnt: so il 2

, thon () 2 1. Such num-

lors aro calloJ - lt isn`t knovn il thoro aro any othors.
What alout () 2 1? Thoso havo loon calloJ guasi-porloct,
anJ thoy must lo oJJ sguaros, lut no ono knovs il any oxist. (Guy)
Evory multiplo ol a porloct numlor is abunuant, anJ ovory lactor is
ucficicnt.
- {
-
Doscartos, ono ol Vorsonno`s many corrosponJonts, vroto to him in
1638 that:
l think l am allo to provo that thoro aro no ovon numlors vhich aro por-
loct apart lrom thoso ol EucliJ, anJ that thoro aro no oJJ porloct numlors,
unloss thoy aro composoJ ol a singlo primo numlor, multiplioJ ly a sguaro
vhoso root is composoJ ol sovoral othor primo numlors. But l can soo
nothing vhich voulJ provont ono lrom linJing numlors ol this sort. lor
oxamplo, il 22021 voro primo, in multiplying it ly 9018009 vhich is a
sguaro vhoso root is composoJ ol tho primo numlors 3, , 11, 13, ono
voulJ havo 19858556189, vhich voulJ lo a porloct numlor. But, vhat-
ovor mothoJ ono might uso, it voulJ roguiro a groat Joal ol timo to look
lor thoso numlors.
Doscartos points out that il 22021 voro primo anJ il - 3
11 13, thon -
2
voulJ lo an Olut 22021 61
19
2
. (Crulollior anJ Sip 199, 389-410)
All ovon porloct numlors aro ol EucliJ`s lorm, lut coulJ thoro lo
an oJJ porloct numlor? No ono knovs, lut it is a typical curiosity ol
mathomatics that you can say a groat Joal alout an oljoct that may
not oxist at all! So mathomaticians havo provoJ that an oJJ porloct
oxists, it has at loast olovon primo lactors, must lo groator than 10
300
,
tho largost primo lactor must lo groator than 500,000, tho soconJ
largost must lo groator than 1000, anJ its primo lactorization must
consist ol ovon povors ol all its primo lactors lut ono, vhich appoars
as an oJJ povor.
On tho othor hanJ, il it has Jistinct primo lactors, thon it is loss
than 4
4

. (Guy 1994)
Tho only ovon porloct numlor ol tho lorm

vith 1, anJ
anJ coprimo, is 28.
porloct, multiply, Siorpinski numlors, unitary porloct

A numlor is multiply porloct il () , vith 2, so orJinary por-
loct numlors aro Joully porloct. Tho lirst triply porloct numlor (
3
)
lor vhich () 3 is 120 2
3
3 5: (120) 360.
lormat lounJ tho soconJ triply porloct numlor, 62 2
5
3 lor
vhich (62) 2016 3 62. Tho thirJ
3
, 5236 2
9
11 31,
vas JiscovoroJ ly lathor Jumoau in 1638.
{
Doscartos announcoJ this
3
: 146304896 2
13
3 11 31
anJ thoso six
4
s: 30240 2
5
3
3
5
3260 2
3
3
2
5 13
23569920 2
9
3
3
5 11 31
142990848 2
9
3
2
11 13 31
6643320320 2
13
3
3
5 11 43 12
403031236608 2
13
3
2
11 13 43 12
anJ also this
5
: 14182439040 2

3
4
5 11
2
1 19.
Tho common primo lactors in thoso oxamplos aro Juo to Doscartos`s
mothoJ lor croating nov multiply porloct numlors lrom olJ, vhich
incluJoJ thoso rulos:
1. ll is a
3
not Jivisillo ly 3, thon 3 is a
4
.
2. ll a
3
is Jivisillo ly 3, lut ly noithor 5 nor 9, thon 4 5
3
is a
4
.
3. ll a
3
is Jivisillo ly 3, lut not ly , 9, or 13, thon 3 13

3
is a
4
.
(Dickson 1952, vol. 1, 33-35)
D. N. Iohmor provoJ that a
3
must havo at loast throo Jistinct primo
lactors, a
4
at loast lour, a
5
at loast six, a
6
at loast nino, anJ a

at loast lourtoon.
lt is possillo to croato highor-orJor porloct numlors lrom lovor-orJor,
lasoJ on this thoorom: il is primo, is -porloct anJ , thon
is ( 1)-porloct. lor oxamplo, il is 3-porloct anJ 3 , thon 3 is
4-porloct, anJ il is 5-porloct anJ 5 , thon 5 is 6-porloct.
Tho numlor ol knovn multiporloct numlors has rison stoaJily:
1911 1929 1954 1992 2004
251 334 539 c. 00 5,040
Tho numlors ol knovn -multiporloct numlors aro 1, 3, 6, 36, 65,
245, 516, 1134, 2036, 644, 1, 0, . . . incluJing, it is loliovoJ, all thoso
vith inJox 3 to . (Woisstoin, ) Tho curront rocorJs aro:
9-porloct .984249155534198 . . . 10
465
1992 l. W. Holonius
10-porloct 2.8689864419349 . . . 10
923
199 Pon V. Sorli
11-porloct 2.51850413483992918 . . . 10
1906
2001 G. l. Woltman
{
Nono ol thoso aro claimoJ to lo tho smallost possillo lor thoir inJox.
(Achim llammonkamp, vvv.uni-liolololJ.Jo)
Tho Sloano soguoncos lor tho multiporloct numlors start:
- 3-porloct (Sloano A005820): 120, 62, 5236, 459818240,
146304896, 51001180160, . . .
- 4-porloct (Sloano A0268): 30240, 3260, 218540, 23569920,
45532800, 142990848, 13945420, 4386148400, . . .
- 5-porloct (Sloano A046060): 14182439040, 31998395520,
518666803200, 13661860101120, 3082386618560,
4034499488680, 96928461056000, . . .
- 6-multiporloct (Sloano A046061): 1543455560850649600,
9186050031556349952000, 680489641226538823680000,
6205958624555895129342000, . . .
psouJoporloct numlors, voirJ numlors
-
Pormutallo primos romain primo vhon thoir Jigits aro jumlloJ. Por-
mutallo primos aro also circular primcs, anJ liko circular primos thoy
aro likoly to lo only linito in numlor.
Thoso vith not moro than 466 Jigits aro (giving tho smallost pormu-
tation only):
13, 1, 3, 9, 113, 199, 33
- -
ll

Jonotos tho intogor givon ly tho lirst Jocimal Jigits ol , thon

is primo lor 1, 2, 6, anJ 38. ln othor vorJs, thoso numlors aro

primo:

1
3

2
31

6
314159

38
314159265358993238462643383295028841
(Sloano A005042)
{ -
EJvarJ Prothro has calculatoJ (Docomlor 2001) that 500 to 1620 aro
all composito, anJ tho noxt primo is
16208
, vhich passos tho
strong psouJoprimo tost, so tho chanco that it is composito is
oxtromoly small. Tho noxt primo can lo oxpoctoJ rounJ alout
561460.
psouJoprimos, strong
K-
Honry Calourn Pocklington (180-1952) vas a physicist anJ a lol-
lov ol tho Poyal Socioty. His contrilution to mathomatics vas a sin-
glo papor vritton Juring tho lirst WorlJ War. D. H. Iohmor in 192
usoJ this papor to proJuco Pocklington`s tost lor primality. Whoroas
K lor tho primality ol JoponJs on tho comploto lactor-
ization ol 1, Pocklington`s nooJs only a partial lactorization.
Supposo that vo can lactorizo 1 into tvo lactors, 1
vhoro anJ aro coprimo anJ . Thon il lor ovory primo lactor
ol thoro is an intogor 1 such that,

1
1 (moJ ),
anJ also tho groatost common Jivisor ol
( 1)
1 anJ is ogual to
1, thon is primo. (Thoro is no nooJ to uso tho samo valuo ol lor
ovory lactor .)
K- -
ln 1849, Alphonso Jo Polignac (181-1890) conjocturoJ that lor
ovory ovon numlor 2 thoro is an inlinity ol primos that Jillor ly 2.
ll 1 this roJucos to tho tvin primcs conjocturo. (Dickson 1952,
424) (Polignac 1849)
Dickson`s conjocturo
- -
Polignac also conjocturoJ that ovory oJJ numlor is tho sum ol a primo
anJ povor ol 2. Ho claimoJ to havo vorilioJ this up to 3,000,000, anJ
il ho JiJ inJooJ go to thoso longths, it vas a monumontal vasto ol
ollort, lor Eulor haJ alroaJy notoJ that 12 anJ 959 cannot lo so. ln
K- - {
lact, ErJos provoJ that thoro is an inlinito arithmotic progrossion ol
oJJ intogors that cannot lo roprosontoJ as sum ol a primo anJ 2

.
Tho numlors that roluto Polignac`s conjocturo havo loon calloJ Polig-
nac numlors or - numlors, ol vhich thoro aro sovontoon loss
than 1000, only ono ol vhich is composito, 905. (Ajax: CalJvoll,
-) Tho soguonco ol lailuros starts: 12, 149, 251, 331, 33, . . .
Curiously, as ClillorJ Pickovor has notoJ, thoro aro many pairs ol
olstinato numlors Jilloring ly 2, such as 905 anJ 90, 3341 anJ
3343, 3431 anJ 3433. Pickovor has also calculatoJ tho smallost titanic
olstinato numlor, 10
999
18919.
ll you vant to join Pickovor in linJing olstinato numlors, you can
sign up lor tho GranJ lntornot Olstinato Numlor Soarch, anothor
oxamplo ol uistributcu computing.
Vost Polignac numlors aro thomsolvos primo. Cohon anJ SollriJgo
shovoJ that tho tvonty-six-Jigit numlor,
4,86,42,232,066,880,04,611,09
is primo anJ noithor tho sum nor tho Jilloronco ol a povor ol 2 anJ
a primo.
-
ll vhon a positivo intogor is lactorizoJ, all its primo lactors appoar at
loast sguaroJ, thon it is Tho soguonco ol povorlul num-
lors starts
4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 2, 32, 36, 49, 64, 2, 81, 100, . . .
Solomon Goloml shovoJ hov to linJ an inlinito numlor ol consoc-
utivo pairs ol povorlul numlors, such as 8 anJ 9, 288 anJ 289, anJ
provoJ that tho numlor ol povorlul numlors is approximatoly
vhoro 2.13 . . . Ho also conjocturoJ that 6 is not tho Jillor-
onco lotvoon tvo povorlul numlors, lut this is lalso:
6 5
4

3
463
2
(Narkiovicz: Guy 1994)
lt turns out that ovory intogor is tho Jilloronco lotvoon tvo povor-
lul numlors.
{ -
Tho pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors alroaJy montionoJ aro
rolatoJ to solutions to tho Poll oguation,
2
2
2
1. ll anJ sat-
isly this oguation, thon 8
2

2
anJ (
2
2
2
)
2
aro consocutivo pov-
orlul numlors.
8
2

2
(
2
2
2
)
2
1 1 8 2
3
9 3
2
3 2 288 2
5
3
2
289 1
2
5 9800 2
3
5
2

2
9801 3
4
11
2
1 12 332928 2
5
3
2
1
2
332929 5
2
Tho rulo lor lorming oach nov solution is that
1

anJ

.
As a moro gonoral rulo, il anJ aro consocutivo povorlul num-
lors, thon so aro 4 anJ 4 1. Also, il anJ 4 aro loth pov-
orlul, thon so aro ( 4) anJ ( 4) 4 ( 2)
2
.
Almost all knovn pairs ol consocutivo povorlul numlors havo ono
ol thom a porloct sguaro. Goloml givos this oxcoption: 23
3
1216
anJ 2
3
3
2
13
2
12168. (Goloml 190)
Also, ovory sulliciontly largo numlor is tho sum ol throo povorlul
numlors. (Hoath-Brovn: Guy 1994)
lt has loon conjocturoJ that thoro cannot lo throo consocutivo pov-
orlul numlors. (Goloml 190)
Tho smallor numlor ol oach pair ol consocutivo povorlul numlors is
8, 288, 65, 9800, 1216, 235224, . . . (Sloano A060355)
Vollin anJ Walsh actually provoJ a much strongor rosult: lor ovory
intogor , thoro is an inlinito numlor ol pairs ol povorlul numlors
vhoso Jilloronco is . Also, ovory ovon intogor is tho Jilloronco in an
inlinity ol vays ol tvo povorlul numlors noithor ol vhich is a
sguaro. (Vollin anJ Walsh 1986)
alc conjocturo
-
Tho prollom ol Jistinguishing primo numlors lrom composito
numlors anJ ol rosolving tho lattor into thoir primo lactors is
- {
knovn to lo ono ol tho most important anJ usolul in arithmotic.
lt has ongagoJ tho inJustry anJ visJom ol anciont anJ moJorn
goomotors to such an oxtont that it voulJ lo suporlluous to Jis-
cuss tho prollom at longth. . . . lurthor, tho Jignity ol tho scionco
itsoll sooms to roguiro that ovory possillo moans lo oxploroJ lor
tho solution ol a prollom so ologant anJ so cololratoJ.
O-- Disguisitionos Arithmoticao
Gauss vont on to claim that vith his mothoJs numlors vith sovon,
oight, or ovon moro Jigits havo loon hanJloJ vith succoss anJ
spooJ loyonJ oxpoctation,` though ho aJmittoJ that all mothoJs
that havo loon proposoJ thus lar aro oithor rostrictoJ to vory spocial
casos or aro so lalorious anJ prolix that . . . thoso mothoJs Jo not
apply at all to largor numlors.`
Tho prolloms ol primality tosting anJ lactorization aro inJooJ oxtra-
orJinarily tricky anJ sultlo. lortunatoly, tosting lor primality is tho
oasior ol tho tvo.
Using povorlul oloctronic computors, tho siovo ol Erastosthonos is
olliciont lor numlors up to alout 10
10
, vhilo trial Jivision, JiviJing a
numlor ly tho primos, starting vith 2, 3, 5, , anJ so on up to tho
limit ol , vorks lor numlors vith up to alout tvonty-livo Jigits,
anJ loth thoso mothoJs vill proJuco tho lactors, il thoro aro any: pri-
mality simply moans no propor lactors.
To tost lor primality alono, hovovor, thoro aro moro povorlul moth-
oJs. What is nooJoJ is a thoorom alout primo numlors that can lo
to locomo a tost. Ono canJiJato is Wilson`s thcorcm
that il anJ only il is primo,
( 1)! 1
Hovovor, calculating ( 1)! is oxtromoly oxponsivo ovon on largo
moJorn computors, so this thoorom is moro or loss usoloss. A moro
promising canJiJato is Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm, vhich says il is
primo anJ anJ aro coprimo thon,

1
1 (moJ )
Unlortunatoly, thoro is a lly in tho ointmont!-tho convorso ol lormat`s
Iittlo Thoorom is not truo. Thoro aro pscuuoprimcs, composito num-
lors, , lor vhich tho thoorom is truo lor cortain valuos ol (anJ thoro
{ -
aro ovon alsoluto psouJoprimos, or Carmichacl numbcrs, lor vhich it
is truo lor valuo ol ). Thoso psouJoprimos aro annoying,
although thoy aro rolativoly raro. lor oxamplo, thoro aro moro than 10
9
primos loss than 25 10
9
lut only 21,853 laso 2 psouJoprimos.
So lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom can lo usoJ as a tost lor primality, lut
not as a prool. ll a numlor lails lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, thon it must
lo composito. But il it passos tho tost, thoro romains a (small) prol-
alility that it is not a roal primo lut only a psouJoprimo. Honco a
numlor that has passoJ tho lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom tost, maylo lor
sovoral valuos ol , is calloJ a , anJ tho numlors aro
its vitnossos.
Supposo that you chooso an oJJ numlor, , at ranJom so that 1
, anJ a laso at ranJom, 1 1, anJ supposo that

1
1 (moJ ) so that is a psouJoprimo to laso . What is tho
chanco that is actually composito, as a lunction ol ?
Kim anJ Pomoranco (1989) shovoJ that il has 60 Jigits, tho
chanco is loss than 0.016, small lut signilicant. Hovovor, il has
100 Jigits, it is loss than 0.00000002, anJ il has 1,000 Jigits, it is
1.6 10
1331
. PsouJoprimos aro a nuisanco, lut as tho rango ol
incroasos thoy locomo loss anJ loss signilicant.
Thoro aro sovoral vays to got arounJ thoso Jillicultios, loaJing to
tho Iucas-Ichmcr tcst, tho spocial Iucas-Iohmor tost lor Vcrscnnc
numbcrs, K , Pocklington`s thcorcm,
Proth`s thcorcm, mothoJs lasoJ on clliptic curvcs, not lorgotting tho
AKS algorithm, anJ novor anJ lar moro povorlul algorithms, many
ol thom -
- -
Prolalilistic primality tosts aro similar to lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, in
that thoy soarch lor --- (corrosponJing to tho laso in lormat`s
- {
-
Samuol \atos JolinoJ a titanic primo as a primo vith at loast a thou-
sanJ Jigits in 1984 vhon only 110 such primos haJ loon iJontilioJ.
A titan, naturally, vas anyono vho haJ lounJ a titanic primo. Tho
namo has nov loon maJo alsurJ ly aJvancos in computor harJ-
varo anJ programming mothoJs!
thoorom) to tho compositonoss ol a numlor, . ll a vitnoss is lounJ,
tho algorithm vill stop, anJ tho conclusion is cortain that tho numlor
is composito.
So tho stratogy is to chooso somo numlors, say, 200 ol thom, at
ranJom lotvoon 1 anJ 1 anJ tost il thoy aro vitnossos. ll thoy
all aro, anJ tho chanco ol tho numlor not loing composito is ono-
hall lor oach vitnoss, thon you can lo conliJont that is primo,
apart lrom tho minisculo prolalility ol 1 in 2
200
that you aro vrong.
This is cortainly closo onough to cortainty lor so-calloJ inJustrial
graJo primos lor uso in PSA oncryption, lor oxamplo.
lor an introJuction to moro JotailoJ anJ aJvancoJ argumonts, an
oxcollont sourco is Hugh Williams, -
- (1998).

Tho primo numlors can lo illustratoJ ly marking tho points (

)
on a graph:
{
Carl Pomoranco has provoJ that lor ovory numlor , thoro aro
points on tho primo numlor graph that aro collinoar. Tho illustration
shovs tho lirst casos lor 3, 4, anJ 5. (Pomoranco 199)


Tho guostions, Hov many primos aro thoro?` anJ Hov lig is tho
th primo?` aro closoly rolatoJ. ll vo coulJ ansvor oithor ol thom
oxactly vith a simplo lormula, thon vo coulJ also ansvor tho
othor-lut vo can`t. Tho lost mathomaticians havo managoJ is to
got moro or loss closo to tho oxact ansvors.
Tho numlor ol primos loss than or ogual to is JonotoJ ly ().
This shoulJn`t lo misloaJing-thoro is no connoction lotvoon tho
in () anJ tho constant that is rolatoJ to tho circlo.
Sinco all primos oxcopt 2 anJ 3 aro ol tho lorm 6 1, vo can say
that at most ono-thirJ ol numlors aro primo, lut this is a gross ovor-
ostimato. Noticing that thoy aro also ol tho lorm 30 1, , 11, or 13
moans that at most oight out ol thirty, or 26.66, can lo primo, lut
this is also a loollo liguro, not loast locauso tho numlor ol primos
Jocroasos tho lurthor vo go lut this proportion stays tho samo.
Tho primo numlor thoorom assorts that as incroasos, () -
- log , moaning that () log tonJs to 1
as tonJs to inlinity. ln notation: () log . This is a lrilliantly
simplo ostimato, anJ a protty gooJ ono, though not tho lost: it also
turnoJ out to lo vory Jillicult to provo.
Tho approximation log to () also moans that ol tho numlors
1 to , roughly 1log aro primo. Wo coulJ also say that tho prola-
lility ol a ranJom numlor lotvoon 1 anJ loing primo is approxi-
matoly 1log .
lt also moans that tho avorago gap lotvoon tvo consocutivo
primos noar tho numlor is closo to log . Thus, vhon is rounJ
alout 100, log is approximatoly 4.6, so roughly ovory lilth numlor
shoulJ lo primo.
-
IogonJro vas tho lirst to put a vorsion ol tho primo numlor thoorom
into print. ln 198 ho claimoJ in his look
{
- that () is approximatoly (log 1.08366). Ho must havo
loon tomptoJ to concluJo that tho last liguro shoulJ lo 1 (tho lost
valuo), lut ho stuck vith his Jata, vhich only vont up to 400,000.
Tho youthlul Gauss haJ also loon stuJying primo numlors, anJ in
192 at tho ago ol liltoon ho proposoJ tho ostimato,
() is approximatoly Ii()

Gauss`s conjocturo is oguivalont to tho primo numlor thoorom.

Thoro vas thon a long pauso until Tcholycholl provoJ in 1851 that
il () log Joos havo a limit, thon tho limit must lo 1, though
ho vas unallo to tako tho linal stop anJ shov that tho limit oxistoJ.
A yoar lator ho provoJ that il is largo onough, thon
()
Tho linal stop vas takon ontiroly inJoponJontly ly Jo la Vallo
Poussin (1866-1962) anJ Jacguos HaJamarJ (1865-1963), coinciJon-
tally tvo ol tho longost livoJ mathomaticians ovor. Thoy provoJ that,
inJooJ,
()
Tho orror in this approximation JoponJs on tho zoro-lroo rogion ol
tho Piomann zota lunction insiJo tho critical strip vithin vhich tho
roal part ol is lotvoon 0 anJ 1. Tho moro vo knov alout this
rogion, tho smallor vo can mako tho orror torm. Koch shovoJ in
1901 that il tho Ricmann hypothcsis is truo, thon
() Ii() an orror torm ol tho orJor ol
12 log
Do la Vallo Poussin also shovoJ that Gauss`s ostimato Ii() is a lot-
tor approximation to () than (log ) no mattor vhat valuo is
assignoJ to tho constant (anJ also that tho lost valuo lor is 1).

lt vas long loliovoJ that tho primo numlor thoorom coulJ only lo
provoJ ly analytic mothoJs, using calculus. Hovovor, in 1949 Paul

log
(1.105 . . .)
log
(0.92 . . .)
log
1
log
{
ErJos anJ Atlo Sollorg lounJ a mothoJ ol prool that JiJ not uso tho
Piomann zota lunction or tho thoory ol complox numlors, anJ so is
JoscriloJ as olomontary,` though it is moro complicatoJ anJ harJor
to unJorstanJ than tho analytic prools. DonalJ Bonson rocalls that in
1950 ho attonJoJ a courso ol thirty locturos JovotoJ ontiroly to
oxplaining tho nov olomontary` prool! (Bonson 1999, 231)
-
Tho rocorJ valuo lor () is (10
21
) 21,12,269,486,018,31,928,
calculatoJ ly Xavior GourJon on Octolor 2, 2000. (CalJvoll,
-) Tho provious rocorJ vas (10
20
) 2,220,819,602,560,918,840,
ly Varc Dologliso anJ Paul Zimmormann. (Dologliso anJ Zimmor-
mann 1996)
Thoro aro many ostimatos lor tho valuo ol (). lor oxamplo, il
16, thon log () (log 32) (Williams 1998, 18)
lor 1, ()
lor 54, ()
Tho tallo anJ tho lolloving graph shov hov tho valuos ol () anJ
sovoral Jilloront ostimatos comparo:
() log (log 1) Gauss`s Ii IogonJro
10
3
168 145 169 18 12
10
4
1229 1086 1218 1246 1231
10
5
9592 8686 9512 9630 9588
10
6
8498 2382 8030 8628 8534
10

66459 620420 661459 664918 665138

10
8
561455 5428681 540304 562209 569341
10
9
508448 48254942 5001542 50849235 5091519
ln this tallo Gauss`s Ii() is alvays largor than (). Hovovor, in
1914 IittlovooJ provoJ that () Ii() assumos loth positivo anJ
nogativo valuos inlinitoly olton. Skovos thon provoJ in 1933, assum-
ing tho truth ol tho Ricmann hypothcsis, that tho lirst svitch occurs
loloro roachos 10
10
10
34
.
This vas an oxtraorJinarily largo numlor at that timo, tho
largost numlor vhich has ovor sorvoJ any Jolinito purposo in

log 4

log 2
1.125506
log

log
{
mathomatics,` accorJing to G. H. HarJy, vho comparoJ it to tho
numlor ol possillo gamos ol choss in vhich ovory particlo in tho
univorso vas a pioco.
ToJay, Skovos`s numlor is nogligillo (!) comparoJ to cortain num-
lors appoaring in conlinatorics, such as Graham`s numlor, vhich
can only lo oxprossoJ using a spocial notation.
lt is also a vory poor ostimato: in 1986 to Piolo shovoJ that lo-
tvoon 6.62 10
30
anJ 6.69 10
30
thoro aro moro than 10
180
consocu-
tivo intogors lor vhich Ii() is an unJorostimato.
A much lottor approximation than any ol thoso is tho Piomann lunc-
tion, (), vhich is JolinoJ using tho Volius lunction, k(), vhich
is 1 lor 1, 0 il is squarcfrcc, anJ (1)

othorviso, vhoro
is tho numlor ol Jistinct primo lactors in () is tho sum lrom 1 to
inlinity ol k () Ii(
1
)
Ii()
1
2 Ii(
1
2
)
1
3 Ii(
1
3
)
1
5 Ii(
1
5
)
1
6 Ii(
1
6
) . . .
Tho Jilloroncos lotvoon (), Ii(), anJ () lrom 10
2
to 10
16
aro:
{
1 Gauss 2 Legendre 3 Riemann
() Ii() () () ()
10
2
25 5 1
10
4
1,229 1 2
10
6
8,498 130 29
10
8
5,61,455 54 9
10
10
455,052,511 3,104 1,828
10
12
3,60,912,018 38,263 1,46
10
14
3,204,941,50,802 314,890 19,200
10
16
29,238,341,033,925 3,214,632 32,052
(Piosol 1994, 52)
ln tho 180s Voissol JovolopoJ a clovor vay to calculato () lar
loyonJ tho knovn tallos ol primos anJ in 1885 (slightly mis-)cal-
culatoJ (10
9
). Voissol`s mothoJs voro simplilioJ ly D. H. Iohmor
in 1959. lurthor improvomonts lollovoJ, anJ linally in Octolor 2000
Xavior GourJon anJ his uistributcu computing projoct calculatoJ
(10
21
).
-
Tho th primo is JonotoJ ly () anJ is roughly log . A rocont
ostimato is that 0.91 log () 1. log . A lottor ostimato lor
() is (log log log 1), anJ Piorro Dusart has provoJ that
this is alvays an unJorostimato. (Dusart 1999)

lt is ol courso possillo, vith sulliciont computing povor, to calculato
() oxactly, though thoro is no vory simplo lormula.
Horo aro somo rosults:
Tho 1,000,000th primo 15,485,863
Tho 1,000,000,000th primo 22,801,63,489
Tho 10,000,000,000th primo 252,09,800,623
Tho 1,000,000,000,000,000th primo 3,124,508,045,065,43
-
Solomon Goloml, vho coinoJ tho torm in a talk to tho
HarvarJ Vath Clul in 1953 anJ lator invontoJ Goloml`s Gamo,
provoJ that as incroasos, tho ratio () takos in Juo courso ovory
intogor valuo groator than 1. (Goloml 1962)
{
Thoso aro tho lirst valuos ol at vhich tho valuos 2 to 6 appoar:
() ()
2 1 2
2 9 3
96 24 4
330 66 5
1080 180 6

Tho titlo - is givon to any composito num-
lor, , that satislios tho oguation

(moJ ). This is a loss

rostrictivo conJition that Icrmat`s IittlcThcorcm, vhich says that il
anJ aro coprimo, thon
1
1 (moJ ), anJ so thoro aro moro
oxcoptions than tho psouJoprimos that misloaJingly satisly lormat`s
Iittlo Thoorom.
Tho titlo lor laso is givon to tho smallost primo
protonJor to laso . Sinco tho smallost Carmichacl numbcr, 561, sat-
islios
1
1 (moJ ) lor all lasos, anJ thoroloro,

(moJ ),
ovory primary protonJor is 561.
Convay anJ colloaguos shovoJ that thoro aro only 132 Jistinct pri-
mary protonJors, anJ tho soguonco starts
4, 4, 341, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 10, 4, 4, 14, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 22, 4,
4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 38, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 46, 4, 4, 10,
6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 15, 4, 4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 15, 6, 4, 4,
6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 21, 4, 4, 10, . . . (Sloano A00090)
This soguonco is porioJic, vith this 122-Jigit porioJ:
19568584333460025824534003362898201213829336043363
436229438643954831960991852999259921329236506842360
439300
This numlor is (2 3 5 11 . . . 59)(2 3 5 11 13 1
19 23) or 59= 23= vhoro = is primorial .
ln this proJuct, (59) 2 is tho largost possillo primo lactor, anJ
(9) 23 is tho largost possillo primo lactor, ol a compos-
ito numlor loss than tho Carmichaol numlor 561. (Convay ot al.
199)
{

ln a soguonco ol intogors, a primo lactor ol ono torm is calloJ prim-
itivo il it Joos not JiviJo any provious torm. lor oxamplo, tho lirst
lov torms ol tho lilonacci soguonco havo tho primitivo primo lactors
ontoroJ lolov:
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
2 3 5 13 1 11
Bang`s thoorom, Iucas numlors
-
Tho povors ol 3 (moJ 5) aro:
3

3 9 2 81 243 29 . . .
3

(moJ 5) 3 4 2 1 3 4 . . .
Tho rosiJuos ropoat, in tho soguonco 3-4-2-1, vhich incluJos all tho
intogors loss than 5. Thoroloro, 3 is a primitivo root ol 5.
ln gonoral a primitivo root, , ol a primo is such that tho rosiJuos
ol ,
2
,
3
,
4
, . . . ,
1
(moJ ) aro all Jistinct, vhich moans that
thoy aro a pormutation ol tho numlors 1 to 1.
lt isn`t nocossary to actually vork out tho povors ol : it is onough
to roJuco oach povor (moJ ) anJ thon multiply ly . lor oxamplo,
tho lirst lov povors ol 5 (moJ 13) aro:
5 5 (moJ 13)
5
2
25 12 (moJ 13)
5
3
5 12 60 8 (moJ 13)
5
4
5 8 40 1 (moJ 13)
Sinco 5
4
1 (moJ 13), tho soguonco ol rosiJuos nov ropoats, anJ 5
is a primitivo root ol 13.
Any oJJ primo, , has ( ( )) ( 1) primitivo roots. So 13
has (12) 4 primitivo roots, vhich aro 2, 6, , anJ 11.
Not only primos havo primitivo roots. A composito intogor has a
primitivo root il (anJ only il) it is 1, 2, or 4 or is ol ono ol tho lorms

or 2

vhoro is an oJJ primo. ln this caso, it has ( ()) prim-

itivo roots.
- {
Wo can oxpross this anothor vay: il
()
is tho smallost povor ol
that is congruont to 1 (moJ ), thon is a primitivo root ol .
Johann H. Iamlort (128-1) announcoJ vithout prool that ovory
primo numlor has at loast primitivo root.
Thoro is no last algorithm lor linJing primitivo roots ol a gonoral into-
gor, or ovon lor tosting vhothor a numlor is a primitivo root.
Thoso aro tho smallost primitivo roots ol tho primos in soguonco:
primo 2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 . . .
smallost primitivo root 1 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 5 . . .
Tho noxt rocorJs` aro 6, vhich is tho loast primitivo root ol 41, anJ
, vhich is tho loast primitivo root ol 1. (Sloano A001918)
Thoso aro tho primos vith 2 as a primitivo root:
3 5 11 13 19 29 3 53 59 61 6 83 . . .
(Sloano A001122)
K-
Artin conjocturoJ in 192 that il is noithor 1, 0, or 1 nor a porloct
sguaro, thon tho numlor ol primos lor vhich is a primitivo root is
inlinito. This guostion has not loon sottloJ, lut it is knovn that it is
truo lor 2, 3, anJ 5.
Thoro is also a connoction vith rocurring uccimal porioJs. ll is a
primo groator than 5, thon tho Jocimal oxpansion ol 1 has tho max-
imum possillo porioJ ol 1 il anJ only il 10 is a primitivo root
moJulo . This vas tho suljoct ol anothor lamous conjocturo ly Artin.
-
Tho smallost primo, , such that its smallost primitivo root is not a
primitivo root ol
2
, is 4048. (Dr. Glasly: CalJvoll, -)
Jocimals, rocurring

ll is primo, thon primorial , JonotoJ ly =, is tho proJuct ol all tho

primos loss than or ogual to . Tho soguonco ol primorials starts
{
1 2 6 30 210 2310 30030 510510 9699690 22309280
6469693230 200560490130 . . . (Sloano A002110)
-
Primorial primos aro ol tho lorm = 1. Goorgo Plya is roputoJ to
havo roplioJ to a pupil vho askoJ hov olton tho proJuct ol tho lirst
primos, plus 1, vas itsoll primo, Thoro aro many guostions vhich
lools can ask that viso mon cannot ansvor.` Gauss is supposoJ to
havo maJo much tho samo ansvor to tho guostion vhy JiJ ho not
tacklo Icrmat`s Iast Thcorcm. (Goloml 1981)
lt is not knovn il = 1 contains an inlinity ol primos, or ovon il an
inlinity aro composito. Tho livo largost knovn primorial primos aro,
primorial primo no. ol Jigits yoar Jiscovoror
392113= 1 169,966 2001 Daniol Houor
366439= 1 158,936 2001 Daniol Houor
145823= 1 63,142 2000 A. E. AnJorson
anJ D. E. Polinson
42209= 1 18,241 1999 Chris CalJvoll
24029= 1 10,38 1993 Chris CalJvoll
(CalJvoll, -)
Iot

(
1

3
. . .

)
1
. Thon tho limit ol

as tonJs to inlin-
ity is , tho laso ol natural logarithms. (Puiz 199)
K-
lranois Proth (1852-189) vas a larmor anJ soll-taught mathomati-
cian vho JioJ at tho ago ol tvonty-sovon, having spont his ontiro lilo
in tho villago ol Vaux-Jovant-Damloup noar VorJun. (Williams 1998,
121) Ono ol tho many glorios ol mathomatics is that progross can lo
anJ has loon maJo ly tho humllo anJ tho amatour. This is not to
say that tho rosoarch lounJary` ol mathomatics is not usually lar
Jistant lrom amatour stuJios-it is-lut rathor that mathomatics is so
rich anJ so lortilo, anJ thoro aro so many iJoas lolt to Jiscovor, that
tho amatour on occasion can mako a groat contrilution.
ln 188 ho provoJ Proth`s thoorom: il 2

1 vith 2

anJ
il thoro is an intogor such that JiviJos
( 1)2
1, thon is
primo. This tost is oxtromoly simplo anJ covors Icrmat numbcrs,
Cullon numlors, anJ othors.
K- {
Ono ol tho most popular primo numlor programs on tho lntornot is
tho Proth.oxo program croatoJ ly \vos Gallot in 199, originally to
linJ largor lactors ol tho lormat numlors that aro knovn to lo ol tho
lorm 2

1. lt nov also hanJlos numlors ol tho lorm 2

1,
anJ Gcncralizcu Icrmat numbcrs ol tho lorm
2

1. ln 199 Car-
los Pivora usoJ it to linJ tho largost knovn non-Vorsonno` primo,
9183 2
262112
1. ln 1998, Chip Korchnor lounJ tho thon largost
knovn Sophic Gcrmain primc, 92305 2
16998
1.
- -
Siorpinski calloJ numlors that aro tho sum ol somo ol thoir lactors
only, - lor oxamplo, 12 2 4 6. ll vo JiviJo ly 12,
vo got an oxamplo ol Egyptian lractions, vhich sum to unity:
1
1
6
1
3
1
2
Similarly, 20 10 5 4 1 anJ 1
1
2
1
4
1
5
1
20.
Convorsoly, any oxprossion ol tho lorm 1
1

1

1
. . . loaJs to
a psouJoporloct numlor. This is an oxamplo ol a sot ol rociprocals ol
oJJ intogors that sum to 1:
1
1
3
1
5
1

1
9
1
15
1
21
1
2
1
35
1
63
1
105
1
135
(Guy 1981, D11: 89)
lt is oguivalont to:
945 315 189 135 105 63 45 35 2 15 9
voirJ numlors
--
Tho prollom vith tho simplo tosts that a primo numlor must pass is
that somo composito numlors satisly thom also. ln othor vorJs, pass-
ing tho tost is nocossary lut not sulliciont to provo that tho numlor
is primo.
So, lor ovory simplo tost thoro aro somo composito numlors that
pass it. Thoso aro calloJ -- Tho simplost psouJoprimos
aro tho lormat psouJoprimos, vhich satisly Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm,
{ - -
although thoy aro actually composito. (ll tho torm - is
usoJ vithout gualilication a lormat psouJoprimo is moant.)
AccorJing to lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom, il is primo anJ anJ aro
coprimo, thon

1
1 (moJ )
Unlortunatoly tho convorso is not truo. Somotimos,

1
1 (moJ )
although is composito. lor oxamplo,
2
341 1
1 (moJ 341)
although 341 11 31.
This is tho smallost oxcoption vith 2 anJ is thoroloro tho small-
ost lormat psouJoprimo to laso 2, JiscovoroJ ly Sarus in 1819.
(Baso 2 psouJoprimos aro occasionally calloJ Sarus numlors, also
Poulot numlors, altor Paul Poulot, vho pullishoJ an oarly tallo ol
psouJoprimos in 1938, anJ occasionally lormatians.)
Thoro aro also psouJoprimos to othor lasos: tho smallost to laso 3
is 91 13, anJ to laso 5, 21 31. (ll you count psouJo-
primos, thon 124 2
2
31 is tho smallost in laso 5. Somo authors sim-
ply Jon`t count ovon numlors as psouJoprimos, sinco it is so
olvious that thoy aro composito anyvay.)
Wo coulJ havo JiscovoroJ that 341 is composito ly chocking it using
anothor laso, lor oxamplo, 3:
3
341 1
56 (moJ 341)
So 341 is composito altor all. lt is a psouJoprimo to laso 2 lut not to
laso 3. By chocking to soo il a numlor is psouJoprimo to various Jil-
loront lasos, vo can usually Jiscovor guito guickly il it is composito.
Hovovor, somo raro numlors aro psouJoprimos to laso. Thoso
aro tho Carmichacl numbcrs.
Tho soguonco ol psouJoprimos to laso 2 starts: 341, 561, 645, 1105,
138, 129, 1905, 204, . . . (Sloano A00156) Thoso aro all oJJ. D. H.
Iohmor lounJ tho smallost ovon psouJoprimo to laso 2 vhich is
161038 2 3 1103, sinco 2
161038
2 (moJ 161038).
-- {
Thoro is an inlinity ol psouJoprimos to any givon laso, anJ an inlinity
ol psouJoprimos vith oxactly lactors, proviJoJ 1. Hovovor,
psouJoprimos aro much scarcor than gonuino primos. Thoro aro 8,498
primos loss than 1,000,000 lut only 245 psouJoprimos to laso 2.
-- --
To vhich lasos is 91 a psouJoprimo? lt is a psouJoprimo to thirty-six
lasos, starting vith: 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 1, 22, 23, 25, 2, 29, 30, 36,
38, 40, 43, 48, 51, . . . lt is no coinciJonco that (91) 2 2 36. Tho
ratio ol () to tho numlor ol lasos to vhich it is a psouJoprimo is
1 lor primo numlors anJ Carmichacl numbcrs, anJ 2, 3, 4, or 5 lor
thoso numlors:
2: 4, 6, 15, 91, 03, 1891, 201, 11305, 12403, 13981, 1821,
23001, . . .
3: 9, 21, 45, 65, 105, 133, 231, 341, 481, 645, 1541, 3201, 4033,
431, . . .
4: 8, 10, 12, 28, 66, 85, 435, 451, 946, 138, 204, 32, 336,
5551, . . .
5: 25, 33, 165, 21, 325, 385, 93, 1045, 1065, 2665, 3565, 4123, . . .
(GrarJ Vichon, http:homo.att.not numoricana)
-- -
Starting vith an oJJ numlor, , anJ a laso , vo knov that il,

1
1 (moJ )
thon oithor is primo or it is psouJoprimo to laso . Nov vrito in
tho lorm 2

1. Thon,

1 (moJ )

1 0 (moJ )
So, ly lactorizing
2
1
(

1)(

1)(
2
1)(
4
1) . . . (
2
( 1)

1) 0 (moJ )
Thoroloro, JiviJos ono ol thoso lactors, il it is primo. ll it is com-
posito lut JiviJos ono ol thoso lactors anyvay, thon it is a - -
-
{ -- -
Tosting vhothor Joos inJooJ JiviJo any ol thoso oxprossions is a
strongor tost than tho usual psouJoprimo tost, locauso strong
psouJoprimos aro oxtromoly raro.
Thoro aro just throo strong psouJoprimos loss than 1,000, anJ only
lorty-six lolov 1,000,000, comparoJ to 245 orJinary psouJoprimos
to laso 2. Voroovor, thoro aro no Carmichacl numbcrs among tho
strong psouJoprimos. ll is composito, thon it vill lail tho strong
psouJoprimo tost lor at loast hall tho lasos loss than .

Sulstitution ciphors havo loon lounJ in Egyptian hioroglyphics anJ in
Vosopotamian cunoilorm tallots. Thoy voro lator usoJ ly Julius Cao-
sar, vho gavo his namo to tho Caosar Ciphor. Ioaping lorvarJ across
tvo thousanJ yoars, tho SoconJ WorlJ War vas shortonoJ ly tho suc-
coss ol tho mathomaticians at Blotchloy Park, incluJing Alan Turing,
vho crackoJ tho coJos proJucoJ ly tho Gorman Enigma machino, anJ
vhoro Colossus, tho vorlJ`s lirst oloctronic computor, vas usoJ lrom
1944 onvarJ. Voro rocontly, tho British govornmont has announcoJ
tho croation ol a nov instituto JovotoJ to signals intolligonco,` or tho
stuJy ol communications usoJ ly torrorists anJ criminals.`
TraJitional mothoJs ol sonJing socrot mosagos, although ingo-
nious, sharoJ a prollom, vhich vas that tho sonJor anJ tho rocipi-
ont nooJoJ tho samo koy, anJ oxchanging tho koy vas a risky
lusinoss locauso it coulJ too oasily lo intorcoptoJ.
WhitliolJ Dillio anJ Vartin Hollman in 196 haJ a lright iJoa:
instoaJ ol having tho samo koy lor oncryption anJ Jocryption, vhat
alout having koys? Thon tho oncryption koy coulJ lo
oponly pullishoJ, lut anyono vith tho coJoJ mossago in thoir hanJs
voulJ lo holploss to Jocrypt tho mossago. Thoro voulJ, ol courso,
havo to lo somo connoction lotvoon tho tvo koys, lut this ought to
lo as olscuro as possillo, oxcopt to tho JocoJor. Altornativoly, you
might pullish tho Jocryption koy lut hiJo tho oncryption mothoJ. (lt
vas lator rovoaloJ that tho British Socrot Sorvico haJ alroaJy thought
ol tho samo iJoa lut-lorco ol halit?-kopt it socrot!)
Tho original iJoa that Dillio anJ Hollman pullishoJ in tho prophot-
ically titloJ Nov Diroctions in Cryptography` vont liko this. lirst,
tvo numlors aro maJo pullic, a , anJ a , vhich
{
is choson so that ovory numlor lrom 1 to 1 is ol tho lorm

lor
somo valuo ol .
Alan anJ Botty can thon croato sharoJ socrot koys as lollovs: Alan
choosos his ovn ranJom numlor anJ calculatos

(moJ ), vhilo
Botty choosos hor numlor anJ calculatos

(moJ ). Thoy thon

oxchango tho rosults. Alan thon calculatos (

(moJ ) anJ Botty

calculatos (

(moJ ). Thoy nov sharo tho socrot koy

(moJ ),
anJ this vill romain socrot as long as it is impossillo, or simply
impracticallo, to calculato

lrom

anJ

, shoulJ tho lattor

locomo pullic knovloJgo locauso thoy oxchangoJ thom ovor an
insocuro channol. This is so proviJoJ tho primo is largo onough.
Tho rosult vas a rango ol pullic koy oncryption systoms, most ol
vhich turnoJ out not to lo as unlroakallo as thoir invontors lonJly
imaginoJ: tho cloar vinnor in tho Darvinian strugglo vas tho RSA
algorithm.
Thoso aro not usoJ in practico to oncrypt ontiro mossagos, locauso
thoy aro alout a thousanJ timos slovor than convontional cryptog-
raphy, lut thoy can lo usoJ to oncrypt tho convontional crypto-
graphic koy.
PSA algorithm

Vargarot Konnoy suggosts arranging tho numlors 1 to in oach rov
ol a pyramiJ, so that oach aJjacont pair ol numlors sums to a primo:
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 4 3 2 5
1 4 3 2 5 6
anJ so on. Evory rov logins vith 1, anJ onJs vith . (vvv
.goomotry.not, Pascal`s Trianglo Goomotry)
Thoro aro nov tvo possililitios lor rov :
1 4 3 2 5 6
or 1 6 5 2 3 4
(Woisstoin, )
{
Tho numlor ol vays ol comploting oach rov is Sloano soguonco
numlor A036440:
0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 4, , 24, 80, . . .
circlo, primo
-
Pythagoroan trianglos aro right-angloJ trianglos vith intogral siJos.
Tho longths ol tho siJos can alvays lo roprosontoJ in tho lorm, 2,

2

2
,
2

2
, lor somo valuos ol anJ .
ll hypothcsis H ol Siorpinski anJ Schinzol is truo, thon thoro is an
inlinity ol Pythagoroan trianglos vith ono log anJ tho hypotonuso
loth primo. Harvoy Dulnor anJ Tony lorlos havo soarchoJ lor such
trianglos. Tho largost thoy lounJ haJ ono log ol 5,35 Jigits anJ a
hypotonuso ol 10,13 Jigits. (Dulnor anJ lorlos 2001)
--
ll vo tako a primo, , anJ sguaro all tho intogors loss than , vo got
a limitoJ numlor ol ansvors. lor oxamplo, il 11, thon

2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2

2
8
2
9
2
10
2

2
(moJ 11) 1 4 9 5 3 3 5 9 4 1
Tho pattorn is (inovitally) symmotrical. Tho numlors 1, 3, 4, 5, anJ
9 aro tho guaJratic rosiJuos ol 11, or tho guaJratic rosiJuos moJulo
11. Tho numlors 2, 6, , anJ 8 aro non-rosiJuos.
ll is an oJJ primo, it has ( 1)2 guaJratic rosiJuos anJ tho samo
numlor ol non-rosiJuos.
Tho numlor 1 is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol primos ol tho lorm 4 1
anJ a non-rosiJuo ol primos 4 3. lt lollovs that il tho primo
4 1, thon thoro is a multiplo ol that is ol tho lorm 1
2
. Simi-
larly, 2 is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol primos ol tho lorm 8 1 anJ a non-
rosiJuo ol primos 8 3.
-- {
Eulor`s critorion says that is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol il
( 1)2
1
(moJ ) anJ a non-rosiJuo il
( 1)2
1 moJ . Notico that it must
lo ono or tho othor! So tho 5th povors ol 1, 3, 4, 5, anJ 9 1 (moJ
11), vhilo 2, 6, , 8, anJ 10 1 (moJ 11).
Tho proJuct ol tvo rosiJuos or tvo non-rosiJuos is a rosiJuo, lut tho
proJuct ol a rosiJuo anJ a non-rosiJuo is a non-rosiJuo-thoy
lohavo liko positivo anJ nogativo numlors.
ll (moJ ), thon anJ aro oithor loth rosiJuos or loth non-
rosiJuos.
- --
ll is tho maximum numlor ol consocutivo non-rosiJuos ol a primo
, HuJson provoJ tho conjocturo that , il is largo onough.
Tho only oxcoption sooms to lo 13. (HuJson: Guy 1994)
lssia Schur has conjocturoJ that 13 is tho only primo, , vith moro
than consocutivo non-rosiJuos. HuJson has provoJ this is so lor
2
232
. (CalJvoll, -)
QuaJratic rosiJuos olton appoar in applications ol mathomatics, lor
oxamplo in tho Josign ol tho lost rocoption in concort halls, anJ in
noiso alatomont structuros. Concort hall acoustics also croato prol-
loms ol normal moJos ol vilration in culical or noar-culical ros-
onators, vhoso solution JoponJs on roprosonting intogors as tho
sum ol throo sguaros. (SchrooJor 1992)
-
What alout moro complicatoJ polynomials than tho simplo
2
?
Iagrango (136-1813) provoJ that il is a primo, thon tho polyno-
mial congruonco,

1
. . .
1

0
0 (moJ )
has, - solutions (moJ ), proviJoJ is not Jivisillo ly .
lor oxamplo,
3
5 3 0 (moJ ) has tho singlo solution 6
(moJ ), vhilo
3
4 9 has throo solutions (moJ 3), vhich moans
that all its valuos aro Jivisillo ly 3.
Gaussian primos, guaJratic rociprocity, lav ol
{ --

This lav vas JiscovoroJ ly Eulor in 12, partly provoJ ly IogonJro
in 185, anJ roJiscovoroJ ly Gauss, at tho ago ol oightoon, vho
provoJ it in total ol oight Jilloront vays, tho lirst in 196, anJ calloJ
it tho , or golJon thoorom.
lrank Iommormoyor pullishoJ in 2000 a list ol 196 Jilloront prools,
lut this is alroaJy out ol Jato. At vvv.rzusor.uni-hoiJollorg.Jo thoro
is a list ol 20 prools, 8 ol thom in tho nov millonnium, oviJonco ol
tho importanco, Jopth, anJ lascination ol this thoorom.
lt can lo most lriolly oxprossoJ using tho IogonJro symlol:
() oguals: 1 il is a guaJratic rosiJuo ol
1 il is not a guaJratic rosiJuo ol
anJ () oguals: 0 il 0 (moJ )
IogonJro`s lunction might soom lizarro, lut it is actually vory usolul,
not loast locauso it has sovoral simplo proportios. lor oxamplo, il
is an oJJ primo, thon lor any tvo intogors anJ ,
() ()()
(
2
) 1
anJ il (moJ ) thon () ()
- Tho lirst proporty implios that (

) ()

.
- Tho lirst tvo proportios imply that (
2
) ().
Tho lav ol guaJratic rociprocity statos that il anJ aro Jistinct oJJ
primos, thon () ( ) unloss loth anJ aro ol tho lorm
4 3, in vhich caso () ( ).
Notico that, onco again, a sultlo lut striking Jilloronco appoars
lotvoon numlors ol tho tvo lorms 4 1 anJ 4 3!
Tho lav can also lo oxprossoJ as ( ) (1)
( 1)( 1)4)
().
lt can nov lo usoJ to calculato valuos ol (). lor oxamplo, is 152
a guaJratic rosiJuo moJulo 43? Iot`s soo:
(15243) (2343) (4323) (2023)
(2
2
23)(523) (1)(523) (235) (35)
(53) (23) (1) 1
{
Or, altornativoly:
(15243) (2
3
43)(1943) (243)
3
(1943)
(1)
3
(1)(4319) (519) (195) (45) (2
2
5) 1
K-
ll is an oJJ primo, thon lor all , ()
( 1)2
(moJ ).
lt lollovs that: (1) 1 il 1 (moJ 4)
(1) 1 il 3 (moJ 4)
Similarly, (2) 1 il 1 (moJ 8)
(2) 1 il 3 (moJ 8)
Hillort`s 23 prolloms, guaJratic rosiJuos
- P
An oguation lor mo has no moaning unloss it oxprossos a thought
ol GoJ.
O
Srinivasa Aiyangar Pamanujan vas lorn in EroJo, a small tovn in
Tamil NaJu stato, lnJia. Ho vas a soll-taught mathomatician vith an
uncanny alility to manipulato lormulao rominiscont ol Eulor. Sullor-
ing lrom povorty anJ moving lrom ono potty jol to anothor as
ho pursuoJ his mathomatical inspirations, ho ovontually vroto to
ono mathomatician in EnglanJ-no rosponso-thon anothor-no
rosponso-anJ thon linally to G. H. HarJy, vho rocognizoJ his
gonius, oxplaining that his thooroms must lo truo, locauso, il thoy
voro not truo, no ono voulJ havo haJ tho imagination to invont
thom.` (HarJy 1940, 9) HarJy arrangoJ lor him to como to Cam-
lriJgo, porsuaJing VaJras Univorsity to grant him a rosoarch schol-
arship ol \250 a yoar lor livo yoars plus \100 lor his passago to
EnglanJ in 1914.
HarJy haJ a vory high opinion ol Pamanujan, at loast in torms ol
puro natural` talont, lor vhich ho ratoJ him at 100, giving himsoll
25, his longtimo collalorator IittlovooJ 30, anJ tho groat Gorman,
DaviJ Hillort, 80. (HarJy`s juJgmont ol himsoll is suspoct, not to say
lizarro: ho haJ a possimistic stroak in his makoup, vhich camo out
{ - P
in his lamous vork, K- , vhich vas inJooJ
apologotic,` as il his vonJorlul lilo`s vork nooJoJ any oxcuso. On
ono occasion ho trioJ to kill himsoll, as JiJ inJooJ Pamanujan. lor-
tunatoly, thoy loth lailoJ.)
Pamanujan proJucoJ, vith HarJy, somo romarkallo mathomat-
ics, anJ lolt lohinJ him his oxtraorJinary notolooks, vhich havo
sinco loon transcriloJ anJ pullishoJ anJ continuo to lo stuJioJ,
lut tho English climato anJ looJ JiJ not agroo vith him. Ho con-
tractoJ tulorculosis, anJ roturnoJ to lnJia in 1918, to Jio tvo yoars
lator.
Pamanujan haJ his ovn viov ol his talonts: Pamanujan anJ his
lamily voro arJont Jovotoos ol GoJ Narasimha (tho lion-lacoJ
incarnation ol GoJ), tho sign ol vhoso graco consistoJ in Jrops ol
llooJ soon Juring Jroams. Pamanujan statoJ that altor sooing such
Jrops, scrolls containing tho most complicatoJ mathomatics usoJ to
unlolJ loloro him anJ that altor vaking, ho coulJ sot Jovn on
papor only a lraction ol vhat vas shovn to him.` (Panganathan
196, 88)
Pamanujan haJ a truly vonJorlul gilt lor manipulating lormulao ol
all kinJs. lor oxamplo, lrom tho lact that,
12
2
13
2
14
2
15
2
. . .
2
6
ho JoJucoJ that,
12
2
13
2
15
2
1
2
18
2
111
2
112
2
. . .
2
20
vhoro tho Jonominators aro tho intogors vith an numlor ol
primo Jivisors. Similarly,
12
2
13
2
15
2
1
2
111
2
113
2
11
2
. . . 92
2
vhoro tho Jonominators aro tho intogors containing an numlor
ol -- primo Jivisors. (Pamanujan 1913)
- -
Ono ol Pamanujan`s longost anJ lost papors vas on highly composito
numlors, vhich ho JolinoJ as a numlor vhoso numlor ol Jivisors ox-
cooJs that ol all its proJocossors.` Ho provoJ that il 2

. . .

is highly composito, thon anJ that 1, lor all

highly composito numlors oxcopt 4 anJ 36. (Pamanujan 1915)
- P {
Ho also provoJ that tho ratio ol vory largo consocutivo highly com-
posito numlors tonJs to 1 anJ gavo a list ol 103 highly composito
numlors, vhich starts:
2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 120, 180, 240, 360, 20, 840, . . .
Thoro aro just six highly composito numlors, il 1 is incluJoJ, that aro
Jivisors ol ovory largor highly composito numlor: (1), 2, 6, 12, 60,
anJ 2520. (Stovon Patoring 1991)
lt is possillo to linJ a soguonco ol consocutivo intogors, as long as
vo chooso, vhoso momlors aro all highly composito. (Sulrakamian
anJ Bockor 1966)
-- -
To put it pootically, primos play a gamo ol chanco.
O
lt is oviJont that tho primos aro ranJomly JistrilutoJ lut, unlor-
tunatoly vo Jon`t knov vhat ranJom` moans.
O -
Tho primo numlors aro so irrogular that is tompting to think ol thom
as somo kinJ ol ranJom soguonco, in vhich caso it shoulJ lo possi-
llo to uso tho thoory ol prolalility anJ statistics to stuJy thom. Tho
lirst anJ most lamous application ol prolalility to primos vas tho
ErJos-Kac thoorom.
ln 191 Haruy anJ Ramanujan haJ provoJ that proviJoJ is largo,
tho typical` numlor ol primo lactors is log log . (A vory small pro-
portion ol numlors has many small primo lactors, lut such numlors
aro untypical.) Tho statos, vory roughly, that many Jis-
trilutions in naturo lohavo as il thoy voro tho rosult ol tossing a coin
many timos. Poincaro claimoJ that thoro is somothing mystorious
alout tho normal lav locauso mathomaticians think it is a lav ol
naturo lut physicists loliovo it is a mathomatical thoorom. (Kac 1959)
Vark Kac, a pionoor in prolalility thoory, lortunatoly collalo-
ratoJ vith Paul , vho vas an oxport in analytic numlor tho-
{ -- -
ory, to provo that it makos sonso to think ol tho numlor ol Jistinct
primo lactors ol , N - , as tho sum ol statistically inJopon-
Jont lunctions ( ), vhich aro 1 il anJ 0 il . lt lollovs
that tho numlor ol primo lactors ol lits tho normal lav, vith a
moan ol log log anJ a stanJarJ Joviation ol (log log ). (ErJos
anJ Kac 1945)
Voro procisoly, Kac anJ ErJos provoJ that tho proportion ol into-
gors lor vhich
log log 2 log log () log log 2 log log
oguals tho aroa unJor tho normal` curvo,

2
lotvoon anJ .
So, lor oxamplo, tho avorago numlor ol primo lactors is livo rounJ
alout 10
0
, anJ moro procisoly, alout 60 ol tho intogors rounJ
alout 10
0
havo lotvoon throo anJ sovon primo lactors. Similar
rosults can lo provoJ lor othor lunctions, such as Eulor`s () or
totiont lunction.
Throo physicists at Boston Univorsity, PraJoop Kumar, Plamon
lvanov, anJ Eugono Stanloy, havo loon stuJying hoartloat rhythms.
Nov thoy loliovo thoy may havo lounJ a curious kinJ ol orJor in tho
soguonco ol primo numlors. Thoy stuJioJ tho soconJ Jilloroncos in
tho soguonco ol primos:
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 23 29 31
1st Jills. 1 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 2
2nJ Jills. 1 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
ll tho primos roally jump arounJ ranJomly, thon thoso soconJ Jillor-
oncos shoulJ jump ranJomly also, lut Kumar anJ his colloaguos
concluJoJ that thoy Jon`t. Positivo valuos aro usually lollovoJ ly
(corrosponJing) nogativo valuos, lor oxamplo, tho lirst 2, 2 Jillor-
oncos. Thoy lounJ an oscillation ol porioJ 3.
Thoy also JociJoJ that soconJ Jilloroncos that aro multiplos ol 6
aro loss lroguont than othor Jilloroncos. This lits provious statistical
analysos that lounJ oscillations vith porioJ 6 in tho Jistancos
lotvoon consocutivo primos. (Kumar, lvanov, anJ Stanloy 2003)
Patrick Billingsloy has oxplainoJ hov vo can also think ol a singlo
composito numlor as gonorating a ranJom valk. \ou tako tho
1
-- - {
primos, 2, 3, 5, . . . anJ movo up ono stop il tho primo is a lactor ol
tho numlor anJ Jovn ono stop il it is not. Tho rosult is rathor liko
ropoatoJ coin-tossing or Brovnian motion-anJ ly aJjusting tho
sizo ol tho stops takon can lo maJo moro so. lt is thon possillo to
JoJuco thooroms alout primo numlors lrom voll-knovn rosults in
prolalility thoory. (Billingsloy 193)

Tho rociprocal ol tho Ricmann zcta function,
1
(- ), can lo vritton as
this sorios,
1 (-) 1 12
-
13
-
04
-
15
-
16
-
1
-
08
-
09
-
110
-
. . .
Tho numorators aro tho valuos ol tho Volius lunction, k(), vhich is
zoro il is squarcfrcc, 1 il it has an ovon numlor ol primo lac-
tors, anJ 1 il it has an oJJ numlor ol primo lactors.
Von Stornach in 1896 roalizoJ that tho valuos ol tho Volius lunc-
tion,
1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1 . . .
coulJ lo thought ol as a ranJom valk in vhich a Jrunk oithor stanJs
vhoro ho is (0), or staggors lorvarJ ono stop (1), or stumllos lack
{ -- -

ErJos, vho vas sponJing tho yoar at tho lnstituto ol AJvancoJ
StuJy, vas in tho auJionco lut ho hall-JozoJ through most ol my
locturo, tho suljoct mattor vas too lar romovoJ lrom his intorosts.
TovarJ tho onJ l JoscriloJ lriolly my Jillicultios vith tho numlor ol
primo Jivisors. At tho montion ol numlor thoory ErJos porkoJ up
anJ askoJ mo to oxplain onco again vhat tho Jilliculty vas. Within
tho noxt lov minutos, ovon loloro tho locturo vas ovor, ho intor-
ruptoJ to announco that ho haJ tho solution!
Tho roaJor, l hopo, vill lorgivo my lack ol moJosty il l say that it
is a loautilul thoorom. lt markoJ tho ontry ol tho normal lav, hith-
orto tho proporty ol gamllors, statisticians anJ --, into
numlor thoory anJ . . . it gavo lirth to a nov lranch ol this anciont
Jisciplino.` (Kac 198, 90-91)
ono stop (1). So ho listoJ tho lirst 150,000 valuos ol k() anJ cal-
culatoJ that tho prolalility that it vas non-zoro vas, apparontly,
6
2
, or roughly 0.608 vith 1 anJ 1 appoaring as valuos moro or
loss ogually olton.
Tho Ricmann hypothcsis is nov oguivalont to saying (roughly anJ
cruJoly!) that our ranJom valkor Joos not staggor too lar lrom tho
origin. (Vaughan, Chanco Novs 11.02)
-
A small community ol mathomaticians is JovotoJ to linJing largor,
highor, liggor primo numlor rocorJs. What`s tho point? Woll, com-
potition is ono ansvor, compotition that is lun, that tosts ovon moJ-
orn povorlul computors to thoir limits, anJ that has ovon locomo a
sociallo activity vith tho arrival ol uistributcu computing in vhich
tho participants in projocts such as GIVPS, thc Grcat Intcrnct
Vcrscnnc Primc Scarch, vork in toams.
linJing tho largost primos also JoponJs not only on moro povor-
lul harJvaro lut on moro anJ moro olliciont algorithms that aro
loautilul in thomsolvos: vhat coulJ lo moro astonishing than prov-
ing loyonJ Joult that a numlor so largo that it coulJ not lo vritton
out ly hanJ in loss than millions ol yoars is in lact primo?
- -
Tho largost knovn primo vas lounJ ly GlVPS momlor Josh linJloy,
vho usoJ a 2.4 GHz Pontium 4 WinJovs XP PC running lor lour-
toon Jays to linally provo tho numlor primo, on Vay 15, 2004. lt is
2
24036583
1 anJ has ,235,33 Jocimal Jigits, noarly a million moro
than tho provious rocorJ. GlVPS projoct loaJors nov soo tho lirst
ton-million-Jigit primo vithin roach, lor vhich tho Flcctronic Iron-
ticr Iounuation is olloring a $100,000 avarJ.
Tho tvo provious rocorJs voro:
- Vichaol Schalor, a chomical onginooring stuJont at Vichigan
Stato Univorsity, anJ GlVPS: 2
20996011
1 (6,320,430 Jigits),
Novomlor 1, 2003.
- Vichaol Camoron, 2
1346691
1 (4,053,946 Jigits), Novomlor 14,
2001.
- {
Tho non-Vorsonno primo rocorJ is ly Jollroy \oung: 3 2
303093
1
(91,241 Jigits), lounJ in 1998.
Tho rocorJ lor a primo that is not ol a spocial anJ oasily tostoJ
lorm is 10
9999
33603 (10,000 Jigits), lounJ using ECPP on August
19, 2003, ly Jons lranko, Thorston Kloinjung, anJ Tolias Wirth vith
a JistrilutoJ vorsion ol thoir ovn ECPP program (vvv.ollipsa.
notprimorocorJ).
Chris CalJvoll spoculatos, lasoJ on tho Jatos ol provious rocorJ-
lroaking primos, that a 10,000,000-Jigit primo vill lo lounJ ly 2005,
a 100,000,000-Jigit primo ly 2015, anJ a 1,000,000,000-Jigit primo ly
oarly 2025. (CalJvoll, -)
- aliguot soguoncos, arithmotic progrossions, ol primos,
Brior numlors, Cullon primos, Cunningham chains, lactorial primos,
lormat`s Iast Thoorom, GlVPS, -tuplos conjocturo, primo, Vorsonno
numlors, porloct, multiply, primorial, ropunits, primo, Sophio Gor-
main primos, tvin primos, unitary Jivisors, WooJall primos
-
Tho ropunits, in laso 10, aro tho numlors vhoso Jigits aro all 1s,
such as P
5
11111. Sinco P
5
999999 (10
5
1)9, tho primality ol
P

JoponJs on tho lactorization ol 10

1.
A ropunit P

can only lo a primo il itsoll is a primo. lt is loliovoJ

that thoro aro inlinitoly many ropunit primos, lut only livo aro
knovn: P
2
, P
19
, P
23
, anJ P
31
, vhich vas provoJ primo ly J. Brillhart
anJ H. C. Williams in 19, anJ P
1031
, provoJ primo ly Williams anJ
Dulnor in 1986.
{ -

Hurvitz knov alout V
4423
soconJs loloro V
4253
(locauso ol tho vay
tho output vas stackoJ). John SollriJgo askoJ Doos a machino rosult
nooJ to lo olsorvoJ ly a human loloro it can lo saiJ to lo Jis-
covoroJ`?` To vhich Hurvitz roplioJ, lorgotting alout vhothor tho
computor knov, vhat il tho computor oporator vho piloJ up tho
output lookoJ?` l |havol JociJoJ that Hurvitz JiscovoroJ tho primo
vhon ho roaJ tho output, so V
4253
vas novor tho largost knovn
primo.` (CalJvoll, -)
Tho tvo largost knovn canJiJato ropunit primos aro loth
primos: P
49081
(10
49081
1)9 vas lounJ ly Harvoy Dulnor on
Soptomlor 9, 1999, anJ P86453 vas JiscovoroJ ly Iov Baxtor in Octo-
lor 2000.
ln laso , tho ropunits aro ol tho lorm (

1)( 1). A ropunit in

laso 10 vill thoroloro not lo a ropunit in anothor laso unloss vo can
solvo tho oguation,
111 . . . 1
10
1
2
. . .

This has no knovn solution. Hovovor, tho oguation,

1 5 5
2
31 1 2 2
2
2
3
2
4
moans that (5
3
1)(5 1) (2
5
1)(2 1), tho only knovn oxamplo
ol ogual ropunits to Jilloront lasos.
ln laso 3, tho ropunits lor 1000 aro primo lor 3, , 13, 1, 103,
anJ 541.
ln laso 5, tho ropunits lor 1000 aro primo lor 3, , 11, 13, 4,
12, 149, 181, 619, anJ 929. (Pilonloim 1988, 29)
- {
-
Tho numlor 140800 - 2
9
5
2
11, so its primo lactors sum to 39.
Whon vritton to thoso lasos,
laso 1st Jigit 2nJ Jigit 3rJ Jigit
198 3 11 22
832 169 192
1200 11 400
1540 91 660
128 81 832
2024 69 1144
2360 59 1560
220 51 2080
in ovory caso, tho proJuct ol tho Jigits vhon JiviJoJ ly tho laso
oguals 39. (vvv.mathpagos.comhomokmath083.htm)
-
Tho sum ol tho primo lactors ol 25662 2 3 13 4 is 2, anJ
tho proJuct ol tho Jigits is 20, vhich is 10 timos 2, so 25662 is a
PhonJa numlor: tho proJuct ol tho Jigits in laso is ogual to
timos tho sum ol tho primo lactors.
Thoro is an inlinity ol PhonJa numlors, incluJing thirty-oight in laso
10 lolov 200,000. (vvv.mathpagos.comhomomath00.htm, Smith
Numlors anJ PhonJa Numlors`)
Smith numlors
--
His stylo vas concoptual rathor than algorithmic-anJ to a highor
Jogroo than that il any mathomatician loloro him. Ho novor trioJ
to concoal his thoughts in a thickot ol lormulas. Altor moro than
a contury his papors aro still so moJorn that any mathomatician
can roaJ thom vithout historical commont, anJ vith intonso ploa-
suro.
O
Goorg lrioJrich BornharJ Piomann (1826-1866) vas anothor proJ-
igy. Whon still a youth, ho vas lont a copy ol IogonJro`s -
- anJ roaJ tho 900 pagos in six Jays. Ho stuJ-
ioJ unJor Dirichlot, lut prosontoJ to Gauss his thosis lor a highor
Jogroo, -- -- lt vas
roaJ on Juno 10, 1854, loss than a yoar loloro Gauss`s Joath.
ln 1862 Piomann marrioJ Eliso Koch, lut in tho samo yoar ho
caught a hoavy colJ anJ vas thon JiagnosoJ vith tulorculosis. His
hoalth haJ novor loon rolust, anJ Jospito travoling to ltaly in soarch
ol a curo, ho JioJ ol tho Jisoaso at tho ago ol thirty-nino, loaving
lohinJ a lov papors ol tho vory highost guality.
ln 1859 Piomann prosontoJ to tho Borlin AcaJomy tho only papor ho
ovor vroto on numlor thoory, On tho Numlor ol Primo Numlors
Ioss Than a Givon Quantity.` This oight-pago papor, olscuro, con-
JonsoJ, anJ lacking in rigor ly moJorn stanJarJs, containoJ a num-
{ -
lor ol conjocturos, nono ol vhich voro provoJ in tho noxt thirty
yoars, lut vhich proviJoJ iJoas anJ prolloms lor many ol tho groat-
ost mathomaticians vho lollovoJ him.
ln particular ho JiscussoJ vhat is nov calloJ tho Piomann zota lunc-
tion:
(-) 11
-
12
-
13
-
14
-
15
-
. . .
vhich is tho samo as tho sorios that Eulor consiJoroJ (pago 2),
oxcopt that lor Piomann, - vas a complox numlor, vhoroas lor Eulor
it vas roal.
Tho Piomann zota lunction has vhat aro calloJ tho - at
2, 4, 6, . . . Tho romaining zoros aro all in tho strip lor vhich tho
roal part ol - lios lotvoon 0 anJ 1 inclusivo anJ thoy aro symmotri-
cal alout tho lino roal -
1
2.
Piomann conjocturoJ that this lunction has an inlinito numlor ol
zoros vith roal part lotvoon 0 anJ 1, inclusivo, anJ gavo a lormula,
also conjoctural, lor tho numlor ol zoros ol tho lunction,
-

F This is tho
lamous Piomann hypothosis-Piomann thought it vory likoly`-
vhich is univorsally rogarJoJ as tho most important unsolvoJ prol-
lom in mathomatics.
Tho stuJy ol tho Jistrilution ol tho zoros ol (-) is important locauso
tho sizo ol tho orror torm in tho primc numbcr thcorcm JoponJs on
it. Tho moro that is knovn alout tho zoro-lroo rogion ol (-), tho
smallor tho orror torm. Tho Piomann hypothosis is oguivalont to
() Ii() plus an orror torm that is lounJoJ as tonJs to inlinity
ly a lunction
12
.
J. P. Gram in 1903 pullishoJ a list ol tho lirst ton roots plus livo
largor roots. Tho lirst ton roots all havo roal part
1
2, anJ aro approxi-
matoly
1
2 , vhoro has tho valuos:
14.135 21.022 25.011 30.425 32.935
3.586 40.919 43.32 48.005 49.4
(EJvarJs 194, 96)
G. H. HarJy provoJ in 1915 that thoro is an inlinity ol zoros on tho
critical lino, anJ Conroy in 1989 that moro than 40 ol tho zoros aro
on tho lino.
-- {
Bohr anJ IanJau (1914) provoJ that lor any 0, all lut an inlin-
itosimal proportion ol roots lios vithin ol tho lino roal -
1
2.
Possor, \oho, anJ SchoonlolJ havo calculatoJ up to tho 3
1
2 mil-
lionth zoro-anJ thoy aro all on roal -
1
2. Tho calculations, vhich
aro assumoJ to lo orror-lroo, aro on throo rools ol magnotic tapo
storoJ at tho Vathomatics Posoarch Contor in VaJison, Wisconsin.
Voro rocontly, A. V. OJlyzko anJ A. Schonhago usoJ a lastor
mothoJ ol calculation to calculato 10
6
roots noar root numlor 10
20
anJ 10 lillion roots noar root numlor 10
22
. (OJlyzko anJ Schonhago
1988)
Ono vay to lollov tho lohavior ol (-) is to stuJy a Jilloront lunc-
tion, ()
( )
(
1
2 ), vhich has roal valuos lut also has tho samo
zoros as (-). (Tho moaning ol
()
vo shall not oxplain.)
Tho valuos ol () can lo calculatoJ using tho Piomann-Siogol lor-
mula that vas pullishoJ ly Siogol altor ho haJ maJo a carolul stuJy
ol Piomann`s unpullishoJ notos.
What Joos () look liko? Sinco it is intimatoly connoctoJ to (-),
vhich is intimatoly connoctoJ to tho primo numlors, vo might
oxpoct it to lo vory irrogular, anJ, suro onough, it is! ln particular, it
{ --

ZotaGriJ is a platlorm inJoponJont griJ systom that usos iJlo CPU

cyclos lrom participating computors. GriJ computing can lo usoJ lor
any CPU intonsivo application vhich can lo split into many soparato
stops anJ vhich voulJ roguiro vory long computation timos on a singlo
computor. ZotaGriJ can lo run as a lov-priority lackgrounJ procoss on
various platlorms liko WinJovs, Iinux, AlX, Solaris, anJ Vac OSX. On
WinJovs systoms it may also lo run in scroon savor moJo. . . .
At tho lBV Dovolopmont Ialoratory in Bollingon ZotaGriJ solvos
ono prollom in practico, running on six Jilloront platlorms: Tho vor-
ilication ol Piomann`s Hypothosis is consiJoroJ to lo ono ol moJorn
mathomatics` most important prolloms.
This implomontation involvos moro than 11,000 vorkstations
anJ has a poak porlormanco rato ol alout 056 GlIOPS. Voro than
1 lillion zoros lor tho zota lunction aro calculatoJ ovory Jay.` (vvv
.zotagriJ.notzota)
occasionally - - -- -, vhich is oxtromoly sig-
nilicant locauso a maximum just lolov tho axis or a minimum just
alovo voulJ moan that K- -- - -! Thoso ovonts
aro rolorroJ to as Iohmor`s phonomonon anJ aro illustratoJ in tho
liguro on this pago. (Iohmor 1956)
Hov tho goJs aro laughing at us! Tho point vhoro tho graph sooms
to touch tho axis is actually a pair ol zoros that is oxtromoly closo
togothor: just as vo havo caught our lroath, () oxocutos an onor-
mous sving Jovn anJ thon up again! No vonJor that HarolJ
EJvarJs romarkoJ, Tho Jogroo ol irrogularity ol shovn ly this
graph ol Iohmor, anJ ospocially tho lov maximum valuo |illustratoJl
must givo pauso to ovon tho most convincoJ loliovor in tho Piomann
hypothosis.` (EJvarJs 194, 18) (ll you vant to olsorvo tho lohav-
ior ol () yoursoll, go to vvv.math.ulc.ca-pughPiomannZota
PiomannZotaIong.html, vhoro thoro is a Java applot that plots () in
roal timo.)
- --
John laroy (166-1826) pullishoJ alout sixty sciontilic articlos anJ
just ono on mathomatics, On a curious proporty ol vulgar lractions`
(- , 1816), in vhich ho pointoJ out tho curi-
-- {
ous proporty` that no ono soomoJ proviously to havo spottoJ, that il
you arrango all tho lractions vith Jonominators (lor oxamplo) at
most livo, in orJor ol sizo, liko this,
1
5
1
4
1
3
2
5
1
2
3
5
2
3
3
4
4
5 1
thon thoy havo tho noat proporty that il

F anJ

F- aro succossivo torms,
thon - 1.
lranol anJ IanJau provoJ in 1924 that thoro is a connoction vith
tho Piomann hypothosis. Thoro aro ton torms in this laroy soguonco
that vo can comparo vith tho soguonco ol ogually spacoJ lractions
lrom
1
10 to
10
10:
1
5
1
4
1
3
2
5
1
2
3
5
2
3
3
4
4
5 1
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10

10
8
10
9
10
10
10
Calculato tho alsoluto Jilloroncos:
1
5
1
10
1
10,
1
4
2
10
1
20 . . .

4
5
9
10
1
10 anJ 1
10
10 0.
Nov aJJ up thoso alsoluto Jilloroncos anJ call tho sum . Thon
tho Piomann hypothosis is oguivalont to tho statomont that
(12 )
tonJs to zoro as tonJs to inlinity vhatovor tho valuo ol . (EJvarJs
194, 264)
-- -
- --
Iot

1
1
2
1
3
1
4 . . .
1
. Thon tho Piomann hypothosis is
oguivalont to tho claim that
()
()
log() lor all 1, vhich in turn is
oguivalont to tho claim that:
() log log lor all 5041
(Iagarias 2002)
- -
Tho Piomann hypothosis can also lo oxprossoJ in torms ol tho
sguarolroo numlors. Call a numlor il it is tho proJuct ol an ovon
numlor ol Jistinct primos, anJ il it is tho proJuct ol an oJJ
numlor.
Ol tho sguarolroo numlors up to 30, thoro aro oight roJ numlors,
1, 6, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, anJ 26, anJ olovon lluo numlors. Tho Pio-
mann hypothosis says, vory roughly, that tho numlors ol lluo anJ
{ --
roJ sguarolroo numlors aro alout tho samo. Voro procisoly, tho Pio-
mann hypothosis is oguivalont to this thoorom:
Chooso a valuo ol 0, vhich can lo as small as you liko. Thon thoro is a
numlor such that lor all , tho numlor ol lluo numlors lrom 1 to
inclusivo Joos not Jillor lrom tho numlor ol roJ numlors in tho samo
rango ly moro than
12
. (Tho smallor tho valuo ol , tho largor vill lo.)
(Will 198)
Donjoy pointoJ out that il a sguarolroo numlor can lo rogarJoJ as
loing ogually likoly to lo lluo or roJ, so that choosing` its color is
liko llipping a coin anJ gotting hoaJs or tails, thon accorJing to stan-
JarJ statistical thoory, il you toss tho coin` timos thon tho Jillor-
onco lotvoon tho numlor ol hoaJs anJ tails as tonJs to inlinity
vill grov loss rapiJly than
12
, vith prolalility 1. (EJvarJs 194,
268)
Unlortunatoly, this is only a hcuristic argumont: vo coulJ turn it
arounJ anJ say that-okay!-it lollovs that il tho Piomann hypotho-
sis is truo, thon vhothor a sguarolroo numlor is lluo or roJ is inJooJ
liko llipping a coin! Novortholoss, sinco tho lattor sooms intuitivoly
likoly, vo can say that our intuitivo that tho Piomann hypoth-
osis is corroct is strongthonoJ. Vathomatics is ly no moans only
alout !
-
ln 189 lranz Vortons (1840-192) conjocturoJ that lor ovory 1,
tho Jilloronco lotvoon tho numlor ol roJ anJ lluo numlors (in tho
samo sotup) in tho rango 1 to novor oxcooJs .
ln othor vorJs, ho supposoJ that vo coulJ tako 0 anJ 1.
This is a much strongor conjocturo that vas provoJ lalso ly OJlyzko
anJ to Piolo in 1985.
-- --
Nicolas provoJ a thoorom in 1983 alout tho valuos ol () ly lirst
assuming that tho Piomann hypothosis is truo, anJ thon assuming
that it is lalso-so vhatovor tho linal conclusion, his rosult vill lo
sounJ!
Although thoro is much that mathomaticians Jon`t knov alout tho
zoros ol tho zota lunction, thoy Jo knov onough to calculato tho sum
ol all thoir rociprocals, vhich is,
1
2 1 log 2
1
2log( )
-- {
0.023095089 . . . , a lormula that lrings togothor , , anJ (in olloct)
, tho laso ol natural logarithms. (linch 2003, 42)
JistrilutoJ computing, sguarolroo numlors
-
A Piosol numlor (namoJ altor tho Jiscovoror ol tho 18th Vcrscnnc
primc) is an intogor such that 2

1 is composito lor any into-

gor valuo ol . Piosol lounJ 509203 in 1956. Tho Piosol conjoc-
turo is that this is tho smallost Piosol numlor.

Tho primo 3939133 is tho largost primo that ropoatoJly proJucos
primos vhon Jigits aro JolotoJ lrom tho right. Tho numlors
3939133, 393913, 39391, 3939, 393, 39, 3, anJ aro all primo.

Can tho roaJor say vhat tvo numlors multiplioJ togothor vill
proJuco tho numlor, 8,616,460,99? l think it unlikoly that
anyono lut mysoll vill ovor knov lor thoy aro tvo largo primo
numlors.
O - Principlos ol Scionco
Tho PSA algorithm is tho lost knovn mothoJ ol public kcy cncryp-
tion, in vhich tho oncryption anJ Jocryption koys aro Jilloront.
Thoro has to lo a connoction lotvoon tho tvo koys, ol courso, oth-
orviso thoy coulJ not vork togothor, lut proviJoJ this connoction
cannot lo JiscovoroJ ly tho lastost availallo computors in a roa-
sonallo` timo, tho systom is olloctivoly socuro. PSA` is an acronym
lor PonalJ Pivost, AJi Shamir, anJ IoonarJ AJloman, vho croatoJ
tho algorithm in August 19. Voro rocontly, Jocumonts roloasoJ ly
GCHQ, tho British Govornmont Communications HoaJguartors, in
Britain shov that tho mothoJ vas lirst invontoJ at GCHQ in 193 ly
ClillorJ Cocks, lut thoy JiJ nothing vith it. AJloman, Pivost, anJ
{ -
Shamir voro loss laiJ-lack. Thoy patontoJ tho mothoJ anJ lormoJ
PSA Data Socurity lnc. to oxploit it commorcially.
Tho simplost vory Jillicult` prollom in numlor thoory is lactoriz-
ing a largo numlor, so it is no surpriso that tho PSA mothoJ JoponJs
on having tvo largo primos, anJ , vhoso proJuct, , can
{
AJloman originatoJ tho torm computor virus` to Joscrilo a soll-
roplicating program that coulJ inloct a computor. His stuJont lroJ
Cohon roloasoJ tho lirst computor virus in 1983, vithin a small not-
vork.
Also in 1983, AJloman croatoJ vith Carl Pomoranco anJ P. S.
Pumoly tho APP primality tcst.
Voro rocontly, at Christmas 1993, AJloman croatoJ tho lirst DNA
computor. lt consistoJ ol tvonty-ono tost tulos ol DNA, anJ ho usoJ
it to solvo a particular caso ol tho Travoling Salosman prollom, lor
vhich thoro is no polynomial-timo algorithm. (Tho Travoling Salos-
man prollom asks lor tho shortost routo to visit tovns.)
This is part ol Thomas Bass`s account ol thoso Jays:
Pivost anJ Shamir kopt popping oll iJoas lor hov to implomont a pullic-
koy crypto systom, anJ AJloman lounJ tho holos. Ovor tho noxt lov
months, ho crackoJ 42 potontial systoms. . . . Ono night, AJloman vas
avakonoJ ly a phono call. lt vas Pivost vith pullic-koy crypto systom
Numlor 43. . . . l knov ho`J como up vith an unloatallo systom,` says
AJloman. \ou got a lool lor thoso things il you think alout thom long
onough, my aosthotic juJgmont tolJ mo ho`J linally Jono it.`
Pivost stayoJ up all night Jralting a rosoarch papor, vhich ho prosontoJ
to his colloaguos tho lolloving morning. PullishoJ in tho lolruary 198
Communications ol tho ACV unJor tho joint authorship ol Pivost, Shamir,
anJ AJloman, tho papor vas ollicially titloJ A VothoJ lor Oltaining
Digital Signaturos anJ Pullic-Koy Cryptosystoms.` . . . Thon, tho National
Socurity Agoncy got in touch. Tho spios voro calling to say that tho
US govornmont classilios cryptography as a munition, anJ that il thoy
mailoJ thoir articlo ovorsoas, thoy voulJ lo prosocutoJ lor illogal arms
Joaling. . . .
Pivost, Shamir, anJ AJloman lator JociJoJ to go into tho crypto lusi-
noss. . . . So, hov JiJ AJloman shapo up as a lusinossman? Ho throvs lack
his hoaJ anJ laughs. ln my hanJs tho lusinoss vont into tho toilot,` ho
says. l vas torrillo. Just avlul. Wo ovontually roorganizoJ tho company
anJ hiroJ a roal prosiJont.` (Bass 1995)
saloly lo maJo pullic locauso is impossillo to lactorizo vith cur-
ront mothoJs. ln 19 a primo ol 100 Jigits voulJ Jo. As ol toJay,
anJ can saloly lo ol alout 200 Jigits oach.
lt also JoponJs on Icrmat`s Iittlc Thcorcm, as improvoJ ly Eulor.
This says that il anJ aro coprimo, thon,

()
1 (moJ )
vhoro () is Fulcr`s toticnt function, vhich in this caso, locauso
anJ aro Jistinct primos, oguals ( 1)( 1). Having choson anJ
, vo noxt calculato, using stanJarJ tochniguos, tvo intogors, anJ
, such that 1 () anJ
1 (moJ ())
Tho mossago vo vish to sonJ is thon onciphoroJ as a numlor, ,
vhich must lo loss than : in practico, tho asymmotric PSA systom is
vory slov at oncrypting long mossagos, so thoy aro oncryptoJ ly a
stanJarJ symmotric mothoJ anJ only tho symmotric koy is oncryptoJ
ly using tho PSA algorithm. Tho mossago sont is nov,

(moJ ),
using tho numlor that is maJo pullic. Tho numlors anJ aro tho

Tho rocoivor, vho has tho privato valuo , Jociphors it ly calculat-
ing (

(moJ ), sinco

(moJ ), ly Eulor`s vorsion ol lor-

mat`s Iittlo Thoorom, anJ is loss than .
A cryptanalyst in orJor to crack tho ciphor must lo allo to linJ

givon only tho valuos ol anJ . This is knovn as tho PSA prollom.
Although no ono has ovor provoJ it, it is viJoly loliovoJ to lo oguiv-
alont to tho lactoring prollom. ll tho cryptanalyst can lactor , tho
ciphor can lo crackoJ, othorviso not, anJ this cannot currontly lo
Jono in polynomial timo.
K-
Tho PSA systom rocoivoJ a lurst ol pullicity in 19 vhon tho
authors pullishoJ a pullic koy mossago anJ olloroJ a moJost $100
rovarJ (plus vast kuJos) lor any crypto-nut vho coulJ crack it anJ
Vartin GarJnor aJvortisoJ tho ollor in his Vath-
omatical Gamos` column (GarJnor 19) unJor tho provocativo titlo,
A Nov KinJ ol Ciphor That WoulJ Tako Villions ol \oars to Broak.`
lt JiJn`t, ol courso, lut tho 129-Jigit numlor knovn as PSA-129, vith
tho pullic oncryption koy 900, vas not solvoJ until April 26, 1994,
ly a toam loJ ly Arjon Ionstra, vho usoJ tho lntornot, 1,600 assortoJ
computors, anJ a novol lactorization algorithm calloJ tho guaJratic
{
siovo, lor oight months. Tho mossago roaJ, Tho magic vorJs aro
sguoamish ossilrago.`
PSA-129 114,381,625,5,888,86,669,235,9,96,146,612,010,218,
296,21,242,362,562,561,842,935,06,935,245,33,89,830,
59,123,563,958,05,058,989,05,14,599,290,026,89,543,
541

ll you lancy trying your hanJ at giant lactorizations, tho PSA Ialora-
torios (at vvv.rsasocurity.com) sponsor tho PSA lactoring Chal-
longo to oncourago rosoarch into largo-numlor lactorization anJ
computational numlor thoory.`
Eight challongo numlors aro postoJ on tho lntornot. Each numlor
is a scmiprimc, as usoJ in PSA oncryption.
Thoro aro prizos lor succosslul lactorization, lrom $10,000 lor tho
smallost 56-lit numlor to $200,000 lor 2048 lits. (ll you think you
can moot tho challongo, you can sulmit your lactorization to PSA
Ialoratorios onlino lor conlirmation.)
Thoso aro tho lirst tvo anJ tho last ol tho curront oight challongos.
Tho numlors aro JosignatoJ PSA-XXXX,` vhoro XXXX is tho num-
lor`s longth, in lits. Tho lirst has alroaJy loon lactoroJ:
challongo prizo status Jato solvor
PSA-56 $10K lactoroJ 1232003 J. lranko ot al.
PSA-640 $20K opon
. . .
PSA-2048 $200K opon
PSA-640, vith 193 Jocimal Jigits, is:
31041824049004321350500358885693003346022842
2545201619488232064405180815045563468296123286
824391622838033415410310850191954852900332
48228352542386454014691366024652346609
Tho prizos olloroJ may sounJ liko a small lortuno, lut tho vork
involvoJ is immonso: thoso aro PSA Ialoratorios` ovn ostimatos ol
tho rosourcos roguiroJ to lactor numlors ol various sizos
(in tho soconJ column, machinos` moans tho numlor ol 500
VHz Pontiums, or similar):
{
numlor longth (lits) machinos momory
430 1 trivial
60 215,000 4 Gl
1020 342,000,000 10 Gl
1620 1.6 I 10
15
120 Tl
(PSA Ialoratorios Bullotin =13)
Thoso Jata moan that a 512-lit koy vith 155 Jocimal Jigits (vhich is
still usoJ commorcially) can lo lactoroJ in a lov hours. NooJloss to
say, improvomonts in lactoring algorithms or in machino harJvaro
coulJ possilly lring largor koys vithin loasillo roach, such as tho lat-
ost Amorican plans lor a suporlast computor porlorming 250 trillion
calculations por soconJ.
PSA Ialoratorios also pullishos a Socrot-Koy Challongo aimoJ at
tho U.S. govornmont`s Jata oncryption stanJarJ (DES), vhich usos
only 56-lit koys. Tho iJoa is to uso lruto lorco to chock all possillo
koys, lrom tho simplost challongo, a 40-lit koy, to tho harJost, ol 128
lits.
ln January 1999, DistrilutoJ.not von an PSA Ials contost to
crack a mossago coJoJ using tho DES. Thoy took just tvonty-lour
hours using tho lroo timo ol 100,000 computors vorlJviJo, vhich
tostoJ ovor 250 lillion koys ovory soconJ. (PSA Ialoratorios, vvv.
rsasocurity.com)
-
Hank Aaron hit his 15th Vajor Ioaguo homo run on April 8, 194,
loating tho rocorJ ol 14 holJ ly Balo Puth. Carl Pomoranco, invon-
tor ol tho guaJratic siovo lactorization mothoJ, anJ tvo colloaguos
noticoJ that tho pair 14 anJ 15 havo somo curious anJ intorosting
proportios.
Tho numlor 14 2 I 3 I I 1, anJ 15 5 I 11 I 13, so 14 I
15 2 I 3 I 5 I I 11 I 13 I 1, tho proJuct ol tho lirst sovon
primos, or primorial.
Thoy thon JiscovoroJ on a computor that only primorials 1, 2, 3, 5,
anJ can lo roprosontoJ as tho proJuct ol consocutivo numlors, up
to primorial 3049.
{ -
Thoy also noticoJ that (14) 128 12
3
, vhilo tho ratio
(14) (14) 128192 9, a porloct sguaro.
Wo vill aJJ thoso aJJitional proportios:
- 2 3 1 5 11 13 29, anJ this is tho only vay to
split tho lirst sovon primos into tvo sots ol ogual total.
- ( (15) (480) 128, vhich is Joullo ( (14) (192)
64.
(Nolson, Ponnoy, anJ Pomoranco 194)
K-
H. l. Schork conjocturoJ on tho lasis ol ompirical oviJonco that tho
th primo, il is ovon, can lo roprosontoJ ly tho aJJition anJ sul-
traction ol all tho smallor primos, oach takon onco. lor oxamplo, 13
is tho 6th primo, anJ
13 1 2 3 5 11
Similarly, tho th primo, vhon is oJJ, can lo roprosontoJ unJor
tho samo conJitions, oxcopt that tho immoJiatoly smallor primo is
JoulloJ:
1 1 2 3 5 11 2 13
Tho conjocturo vas provoJ in 196 ly J. I. Brovn.
Chris Nash has provoJ that ovory intogor (groator than 1) is an
algolraic sum ol all tho primos loss than , or all tho primos loss than
oxcopt lor tho last. (Nash 2000)
Both Brovn anJ Nash usoJ Bcrtranu`s postulatc.
--
A somiprimo (or -) or 2-almost-primc has just tvo primo
lactors. Tho soguonco starts, 4, 6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, 25 26 33 34 35
38 39 46 49 51 55, . . . (Sloano A001358)
- Thoro aro 299 somiprimos loss than 1000.
- All somiprimos aro ucficicnt, oxcopt lor 6, vhich is pcrfcct.
-- {
Noto that all tho somiprimos lrom 9 to 39 lorm pairs or triplots ol con-
socutivo somiprimos. Tho noxt such pairs aro 5-58, 85-86-8, 93-94-
95, 118-119, 122-123, 133-134, 141-142-143, 145-146.
ll tho primo lactors aro roguiroJ to lo Jistinct, thon tho lirst consoc-
utivo pair is 14 anJ 15, tho lirst consocutivo pair vith throo Jistinct
primo lactors oach is 230 2 5 23 anJ 231 3 11.
lour consocutivo somiprimos cannot oxist, locauso ono ol thom
voulJ lo Jivisillo ly 4 anJ havo at loast throo lactors.
J. P. Chon provoJ that ovory ovon numlor is tho Jilloronco lotvoon
a primo anJ a somiprimo.
- -
Soxy primos aro such that anJ 6 aro loth primo. (Soxy` comos
lrom tho Iatin lor six,` vhich as all schoolloys knov, is -) Tho soxy
pairs unJor 200 aro: 5-11, 11-1, 13-19, 1-23, 23-29, 31-3, 3-43, 4-
53, 53-59, 61-6, 6-3, 3-9, 83-89, 9-103, 103-109, 10-113, 131-13,
151-15, 15-163, 16-13, 13-19, anJ 191-19. (Sloano A023201)
Thoro aro ton ol tho lorm 6 1 anJ tvolvo ol tho lorm 6 1.
Tho soguonco ol soxy triplots starts: -13-19, 1-23-29, 31-3-43, 4-
53-59, . . . (Sloano A046118)
Tho soxy guaJruplots aro: (5-11-1-23), 11-1-23-29, 41-4-53-59, 61-
6-3-9, . . . (Sloano A02321) Tho lirst guaJruplot is in paronthosos
locauso it is tho only ono that Joos not start vith a unit Jigit 1.
Tho soxy guintuplot, 5-11-1-23-29, is uniguo sinco ono ol tho num-
lors must lo Jivisillo ly 5. Thoro is, ironically, no soxy soxtuplot.
tvin primos, cousin primos
K-
Tho gap lotvoon succosivo primos

anJ
1
is takon to lo
1

1, so that tho gap lotvoon anJ 11 is 3, corrosponJing to tho

{ - -
compositos 8, 9, anJ 10. Shank`s conjocturo is that il () is tho lirst
primo that lollovs a gap ol sizo , thon log ( ) is roughly .
- -
NamoJ ly BoaurogarJ anJ Suryanarayan, thoy aro primo pairs ol tho
lorm
2
2 anJ
2
2. Tho soguonco ol pairs starts, -11, 9-83, 223-
22, 439-443, 108-1091, 1368-13691, . . . (BoaurogarJ anJ Surya-
narayan 2001)
- -
NamoJ altor Waclav Siorpinski (1882-1969), a Siorpinski numlor is
an intogor such that 2

1 is composito lor intogor valuo ol

. Siorpinski provoJ in 1960 that thoy oxist. ln 1962, John SollriJgo
JiscovoroJ tho smallost knovn Siorpinski numlor, 855. Whatovor
tho valuo ol , 855 2

1 is Jivisillo ly ono ol tho primos 3, 5,

, 13, 19, 3, or 3.
Tho noxt largost is 21129. Hovovor, thoro aro sovoral prolallo
Siorpinski numlors,` incluJing 484, vhich proJucos composito
numlors up to 2900. (Pivora, Prollom 30)
- --
Siorpinski provoJ that il you tako any string ol Jocimal Jigits, such
144948, thon thoro aro inlinitoly many primo numlors starting vith
this string. Thoro is also an inlinity ol primo numlors vith
any givon string, proviJoJ tho last Jigit is 1, 3, , or 9.
This is also truo ol any arithmotic progross, , proviJoJ anJ
aro coprimo.
-K-
Siorpinski provoJ in 1964 that lor ovory positivo intogor , thoro is an
intogor such that
2
is primo lor at loast valuos ol .
-K-
Siorpinski conjocturoJ that lor ovory intogor 2, thoro is a numlor
lor vhich () has oxactly solutions. This vas provoJ ly
Kovin lorJ in 1999. (lorJ 1999)
Piosol numlor
- - {
K-
-
Thoro havo loon - ol assortoJ numlors, incluJing tho primos,
lor conturios, lut, as Noil Sloano points out, until tho pullication ol
his look - in 193, thoro vas no vay
to linJ out vhothor a particular soguonco ol intogors vas voll
knovn anJ, il so, vhat it roprosontoJ.
That look vas so popular that a soconJ, onlargoJ oJition,
-, appoaroJ in 1995, in vhich
Sloano anJ Simon Ploullo JoscriloJ noarly 6,000 oxamplos. Nov tho
(vvv.rosoarch.att.com-njassoguoncos) has
moro than 93,000 soguoncos, many contrilutoJ ly Sloano`s sovoral
hunJroJ corrosponJonts. Each ontry contains tho loaJing torms ol
tho soguonco, koyvorJs, mathomatical motivations, litoraturo links,
anJ moro.
Tho groat loaturo ol tho looks anJ tho is
that thoy aro arrangoJ in numorical` orJor. Onlino you can simply
ontor tho lirst lov torms ol a soguonco to locato it-il it is rocognizoJ!
(\ou can also chock ly koyvorJ, vhich is also invaluallo.)
PoaJors vill rocognizo soguonco A000040, vhich is tho primo num-
lors. This ontry givos a Jolinition anJ thon lists tvonty-tvo rolor-
oncos to papors anJ looks anJ noarly lilty links to othor sitos, as voll
as oightoon othor rolatoJ Sloano oncyclopoJia soguoncos.
Hovovor, il you typo in tho soguonco ol intogors, 2, 3, 5, , 11, 13,
1, 19, 23, anJ oxpoct to got only tho ansvor Tho primo numlors,`
you vill lo groatly mistakon. Sovoral othor soguoncos start tho samo
vay, only to Jivorgo soonor or lator-somotimos much lator. Somo
oxamplos:
- A005180 starts tho samo, lut is Tho orJor ol tho simplo
groups.`
- A00858 incluJos an initial 1, anJ is Tho primo numlors at
tho loginning ol tho 20th contury (toJay 1 is no longor
rogarJoJ as a primo).`
- A030059 is tho ProJuct ol an oJJ numlor ol Jistinct primos.`
- A015919 is Numlors such that 2
2
,` so it incluJos all
tho primos plus tho psouJoprimos to laso 2, starting vith tho
smallost, 341.
{ K- -
- A03819 is moro mystorious. lt starts 2, 3, 5, , 11, 13, 1, 19,
23, 25, 29, 31, 35, 3, 41, 43, 4, 49, 53, 55, 59, 61, . . . anJ is
tho Posult ol soconJ stago ol siovo ol Eratosthonos.` This
ontry is lollovoJ ly tho rosults ol tho thirJ anJ lourth stagos.
- Tho noxt, A049551, is Primos such that
19
2 has a solu-
tion moJ .`
Higgs primos, primo-liko` siovos using -, primos
vith Jigits in asconJing orJor . . . tho list is not onJloss lut it Joos go
on anJ on, anJ you can oxamino it at your loisuro, thanks to Noil
Sloano!
-
Allort Wilansky namoJ Smith numlors altor his lrothor-in-lav,
vhoso tolophono numlor, 4935 3 5 5 6583, has tho prop-
orty that its Jigits` sum is tho samo as that ol its primo lactors, 42.
Anothor oxamplo is: 666 2 3 3 3.
This is an oxcollont oxamplo ol a proporty, spottoJ ly chanco, that
is plausilly a lit ol : so much so that at loast ono articlo has
loon pullishoJ ly an inJignant author arguing that Smith numlors
aro inJooJ a vasto ol timo anJ Jon`t Josorvo tho ollort JovotoJ to
thom.
ln particular, sinco thoy JoponJ ontiroly on tho laso loing usoJ,
aron`t thoy suroly suporlicial? Thoso vho invostigato Smith num-
lors aro not trying to ponotrato Joop into tho socrots ol intogors.
Thoy aro instoaJ olsorving moro acciJonts ol thoir roprosontation
in an arlitrary systom,` accorJing to UnJorvooJ DuJloy. (lvars
Potorson`s , Octolor 2 199: vvv.maa.orgmathlanJ)
(UnJorvooJ 1994)
Vaylo-lut coulJ thoy not lo stuJying Joop proportios ol cortain
lasos that allov Smith numlors to oxist at all? This Jisagroomont
illustratos hov mathomaticians, amatour anJ prolossional, Jillor in
thoir juJgmonts ol vhat is vorthvhilo-anJ suro onough, Smith
numlors turn out to lo not totally JovoiJ ol intorost.
All primos aro Smith numlors, unintorostingly, anJ so aro, 4, 22, 2,
58, 85, 94, 121, . . . anJ tho numlor ol tho loast, 666. Vuch largor
isolatoJ oxamplos aro knovn. Samuol \atos lounJ a giant ol
13,614,513 Jigits.
- {
Thoro is also an ingonious mothoJ ol croating Smith numlors,
vhich links thom to tho primo -. Sham Oltikar anJ Koith Way-
lanJ lounJ in 1983 that il is primo thon 3304 is a Smith num-
lor. Voroovor, lactor 3304 can lo roplacoJ ly any ol thoso numlors:
1540, 120, 210, 2440, 5590, 6040, 930, 8344, 840, 8920, . . .
Thoro aro 36 Smith numlors loss than 10,000 anJ 29,928 Smiths
loss than 10
6
. lt is conjocturoJ that alout 3 ol any million consocu-
tivo intogors aro Smith numlors. ( onlino oncyclopoJia,
Smith numlor)
ll thoro is an inlinity ol primo ropunits, as conjocturoJ, thon thoro
vill lo an inlinity ol non-trivial Smith numlors. Wayno VcDaniol has
sinco provoJ (198) that thoro is inJooJ an inlinity ol Smith numlors,
vithout rosolving that conjocturo.
Anothor mothoJ is to start vith any primo vhoso Jigits aro all
zoros anJ 1s anJ multiply it ly a suitallo lactor. Horo aro somo ol
Hollman`s oxamplos:
101 2 202
10111 140 1415540 10111 2 2 5
101111 21 2123331 101111 3
(Hollman 1998)
Pat Costollo in 1984 pullishoJ sovonty-livo Smith numlors ol tho
lorm 10

vhoro is a small primo anJ is a - .

His largost oxamplo vas 191 (2
216091
1) 10
266
, vith 65,319 Jigits.
Kathy Iovis in 1994 lounJ an inlinito soguonco ol Smith numlors
ol tho lorm 11

10

, vhoro

is tho th ropunit. (Waltor

SchnoiJor, vvv.vschnoi.Jo: Smith Numlors`)
-
Tho smallost consocutivo Smith lrothors aro 28-29, 2964-2965,
3864-3865, . . .
PhonJa numlors, trivia
- -
Smooth numlors aro vory composito numlors, having many small
primo lactors. Thoy aro a kinJ ol Jual to tho primo numlors-a
{ - -
primo has ono lig primo lactor, itsoll, anJ smooth numlors havo
nono.
A numlor is -smooth il it has no primo lactor groator than . So
tho povors ol 2 aro tho only 2-smooth numlors, anJ tho 3-smooth
numlors aro ol tho lorm 2

, anJ tho 5-smooth numlors aro ol tho

lorm 2

, anJ so on.
Thoro aro lorty-six 10-smooth numlors loss than 100, 140 loss than
1000, 332 loss than 10,000, anJ 58 loss than 100,000.
Carl Pomoranco usoJ smooth numlors to provo that thoro aro an inli-
nito numlor ol -, anJ thoy aro also usoJ in pri-
mality tosting anJ lactorization algorithms that olton JoponJ on
linJing smooth numlors vithin a givon rango.
|Pamanujan`sl highly composito numlors
-
Sophio Gormain (16-1831) vas ono ol tho vory oarliost lomalo
mathomaticians. Sho oJucatoJ horsoll at homo in tho lilrary ol hor
lathor, vho locamo a Jiroctor ol tho Bank ol lranco, anJ as a
thirtoon-yoar-olJ sho roaJ ol tho Joath ol ArchimoJos, killoJ ly a
Poman solJior as ho oxaminoJ a liguro tracoJ in tho sanJ, anJ
JociJoJ to locomo a mathomatician. At tho ago ol oightoon, sho
oltainoJ tho notos lor Iagrango`s locturos on analysis, posoJ as a stu-
Jont using tho namo Io Blanc, anJ sont a papor to Iagrango.
Extromoly improssoJ, ho JociJoJ to moot tho young author, anJ so
JiscovoroJ that ho` vas a voman. Thoy corrosponJoJ, anJ ho
incluJoJ somo ol hor rosults in his -, giving hor
croJit in a lootnoto.
A littlo lator, sho also vroto to Gauss unJor tho samo psouJonym,
having stuJioJ his --- , anJ ho vas also
astonishoJ vhon ho JiscovoroJ tho sox ol his corrosponJont,
romarking that Sophio Gormain provoJ to tho vorlJ that ovon a
voman can accomplish somothing in tho most rigorous anJ alstract
ol scioncos.`
Hor groatost achiovomont Juring hor lilotimo vas to vin tho prizo ol

- {
croation ol ChlaJni liguros (soon vhon sanJ is scattoroJ on a vilrat-
ing plato), lut sho is lost romomloroJ toJay lor tho Sophio Gor-
main primos. Thoso aro tho oJJ primos lor vhich 2 1 is primo,
too. Sho provoJ in 1823 il is a Sophio Gormain primo, thon thoro
aro no intogors, , , anJ , nono zoro, anJ not multiplos ol , such
that

. This is an oxamplo ol tho lirst caso` ol K-

- .
Tho soguonco ol primos, , such that 2 1 is also primo, starts,
2, 3, 5, 11, 23, 29, 41, 53, 83, 89, 113, 131, 13, 19, 191,
233, 239, 251, 281, 293, 359, . . . (Sloano A005384)
Thoso aro also tho primos lor vhich () is Joullo a primo. Triplots
such that , 2 1, anJ 4 3 aro all primo start vith thoso valuos
ol :
2, 5, 11, 41, 89, 19, 359, 509, 19, 1019, 1031, 1229,
1409, . . . (Sloano A0000)
Tho throo largost knovn Sophio Gormain primos aro:
Sophio Gormain primo no. ol Jigits yoar JiscovoroJ
2540041185 2
11429
1 34,54 2003
1891289 2
98395
1 29,628 2002
1213822389 2
81131
1 24,432 2002
(CalJvoll, -)
- -
Sophio Gormain primos aro rolatoJ to cryptography. ll anJ 2 1
aro primo, thon 2 1 is saiJ to lo a salo primo, locauso 1
Joos havo many small lactors anJ thoroloro cannot oasily lo lac-
toroJ, making tho oncryption moro socuro.
- -
Vany intogors can lo vritton as tho proJuct ol a porloct sguaro anJ
a numlor vith no sguaroJ lactor. lor oxamplo,
12 2
2
3 50 5
2
2
288 12
2
2 35 5
{ - -
Othor intogors aro - So 35 is sguarolroo, as aro thoso num-
lors that aro oach tho proJuct ol Jistinct primo lactors, apart lrom 1:
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, , 10, 11, 13, 14, 15,
1, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, . . .
Tho proportion ol sguarolroo numlors loss than is roughly con-
stant, anJ tonJs to , vhoro 6
2
. Anothor vay ol putting this
is: vhat is tho prolalility that a numlor is sguarolroo, having no
ropoatoJ primo lactor?
Tho numlor ol sguarolroo numlors loss than is ogual to 6
2
plus a lactor that is roughly proportional to as tonJs to inlin-
ity. On tho othor hanJ, tho avorago numlor ol sguaro Jivisors ol a
numlor is roughly
2
6. (Grogor 198)
Tho prolalility that tvo intogors aro coprimo, that is, primo to oach
othor, is also 6
2
. Both prolalilitios turn out to lo ogual to 1 (2),
vhoro () is tho zota lunction introJucoJ ly Eulor.

A Storn primo is a primo ol tho lorm 2
2
vhoro is a primo
anJ 0. Tho largost knovn Storn primo is 1493. (Pusso: CalJvoll,
-)
- - -
Vany mathomatical soguoncos start ly shoving vhat sooms to lo a
strong pattorn-lut thon tho pattorn Jisappoars! Tho
- aro a porloct oxamplo. Tho lirst livo aro primo, lut thon tho pat-
torn collapsos.
Tho primo lotvoon 4 1 anJ 4 3, analyzoJ ly
, is a moro sultlo oxamplo-it is a long timo loloro tho loaJ
changos at all, though ovontually it changos inlinitoly olton.
ll vo calculato povors ol
3
2 anJ thon tako tho intogral part, vo got
this soguonco, vhich is also suggostivo:
1 2 3 4 5 6
(
3
2)

1.5 2.25 3.35 5.0625 .5935 11.390625

1 2 3 5 11
- - - {
Woll, voll! Can this lo tho soguonco ol primos? No, ol courso not,
locauso (apart lrom tho 1 at tho start) tho noxt numlor vill lo much
groator than 11. ln lact it is 1, vhich is primo, lut thon tho soguonco
continuos, 25, 38, 5, 86, . . .
That oxamplo comos lrom Prolossor PicharJ Guy, vho lor many
yoars oJitoJ tho Prolloms` soction ol tho
anJ is also tho author ol - -
(1994). Ho has JiscussoJ this tricky phonomonon unJor tho titlo Tho
Strong Iav ol Small Numlors.` (Guy 1988, anJ 1990) As ho puts it,
Thoro aron`t onough small numlors to moot tho many JomanJs maJo ol
thom.`
Capricious coinciJoncos causo caroloss conjocturos.`
Early oxcoptions oclipso ovontual ossontials.`
Horo aro somo ol his amusing oxamplos involving primo numlors:
Tho numlors 31, 331, 3331, 33331, 333331, anJ 3333331 aro all
primo, anJ so is tho noxt numlor in tho soguonco, lut 333333331
1 1960843. Early numlors in tho soguonco aro likoly to lo primo
locauso no numlor in tho soguonco is Jivisillo ly 2, 3, 5, , 11, 13,
or 3.
Tho altornating sums ol tho - soom to lo alvays primo:
3! 2! 1! 5
4! 3! 2! 1! 19
5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 101
6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 619
! 6! 5! 4! 3! 2! 1! 4421
Tho noxt in tho soguonco is also primo, lut 9! 8! ! 6! 5!
4! 3! 2! 1! 9 4139.
Can vo alvays lo cortain, hovovor, that a phonomonon is an oxam-
plo ol tho strong lav ol small numlors? No, tho mathomatician can
only mako a juJgmont.
ll you JiviJo 2

ly (lrom 1 onvarJs), this is hov tho

soguonco ol - starts:
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
2

2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

romainJor 0 0 2 0 2 4 2 0 8 4
{ - - -
Tho romainJors appoar to alvays lo povors ol 2. Aro thoy? Tho
romainJor soguonco continuos, 2, 4, 2, 4, 8, 0, 2, lut thon vo como
to 2
18
262144 anJ 262144 10 (moJ 18).
Tho soguonco thon continuos, hovovor, 2, 16, 8, 4, 2, 16, lut thon
lroaks Jovn again: 2
25
33554432 (moJ 25).
Unliko tho provious oxamplos, vo can`t say that tho pattorn has lro-
kon Jovn complotoly. Pathor, vo might look lor pattorns among tho
oxcoptions. lor oxamplo, hov many oJJ romainJors aro thoro? Aro all
oJJ numlors a romainJor ? Whon Joos tho lirst romainJor
3 occur, il ovor? As it happons, D. H. anJ Emma Iohmor JiscovoroJ
that 2

3 (moJ ) lor tho lirst timo vhon 40006349.

By shoor chanco, it is not just likoly lut cortain that thoro vill lo coin-
ciJontal pattorns among tho vast numlors ol lunctions that a moJorn
computor can calculato. So vo shoulJ lo suspicious vhon it turns out
that 21 2

1 anJ 4

1 aro loth primo vhon 1, 2, 3, , 10, anJ

13, anJ composito lor othor valuos up to 1. Tho match thon collapsos.
Tho lirst lunction is primo lor 18 vhilo tho soconJ is composito, anJ
vo can lo protty conliJont that tho pattorn` vas a statistical hoax.
Horo is ono moro oxamplo, not takon lrom PicharJ Guy`s articlos:
aJJ an ovon numlor ol consocutivo primos, lrom 2, anJ thon aJJ 2:
2 3 2
2 3 5 2 19
2 3 5 11 13 2 43
2 3 5 11 13 1 19 2 9
2 3 5 . . .
2
2
Tho rosults - alvays to lo primo, lut Joos this pattorn continuo?
No-tho soguonco lroaks Jovn vhon
2

22
anJ,
2 3 . . . 9 2 93 13 61
On tho othor hanJ, tho sums taking an oJJ numlor ol primos as lar
as
2 1
aro not only composito, loing ovon, lut tonJ to havo sovoral
lactors. Tho lirst lov aro 4, 12, 30, 60, 102, 162, anJ 240.
Vathomatics, anJ ospocially numlor thoory, anJ not loast tho primo
numlors, aro inJooJ oxcoptionally lull ol pattorns, lut our vory
human capacity to spot pattorns is ovon moro oxcoptional!
conjocturos, Eulor`s totiont (phi) lunction, inJuction
- - - {
-
Tho soguonco
1
2( 1) anJ tho numlor ol Jots in a triangular array:
1 -
3 - -
6 - - -
10 - - - -
15 - - - - -
1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55 . . .
(Sloano A00021)
Thomas GroonvooJ noticoJ that 1 moro than an ovon or 2 loss than
an oJJ triangular numlor is olton a primo numlor.
- 1 11 13 19 29 3 43 53 . . .

31
496 is tho lirst countoroxamplo, 31 is primo lut JiviJos 49.
Evory ovon is triangular.
Pascal`s trianglo

G. H. in his look K- gavo sovoral

oxamplos ol trivial` proportios ol numlors, incluJing tho lact that
153 is tho sum ol tho culos ol its Jigits,
153 1
3
5
3
3
3
anJ romarkoJ, Thoso aro oJJ lacts, vory suitallo lor puzzlo columns
anJ likoly to amuso amatours, lut thoro is nothing in thom vhich
appoals to tho mathomatician.`
As il to onJorso HarJy`s viov, l notico that tho curront oJition ol
K- has oxactly 153 pagos. So vhat? Thoro aro
inJooJ many rocorJoJ proportios ol numlors that soom littlo, il at all,
moro signilicant than traJitional numlor mysticism. An iccanolil
primo is a rovorsoJ, lor oxamplo, 31 or 3. ls that
trivial or vhat? Wo can sink ovon lovor. A Jamos BonJ primo has
loon JolinoJ as any primo onJing in-you guossoJ it!-00! Tho lirst
throo aro 400, 600, anJ 900, lut K-
- Joclinos to incluJo it, naturally.
{
Tho livo-Jigit primo 12421 has a Jilloront proporty: can you spot it?
\os, tho Jigits riso anJ thon lall, making it a , as voll
as palinJromic. l`m surprisoJ it isn`t calloJ a Poaky primo. lt coulJ
thon lo rolorroJ to ouphoniously as a Porloctly PalinJromic Poaky
Primo. But so vhat?
Tho largost knovn Holoy primo is 4 lollovoJ ly 16,131 9s. lt`s
Holoy locauso tho Jigits 4 anJ 9 (anJ 0, 6, anJ 8, vhich Jo not loa-
turo) havo - insiJo, as vritton in our curront Aralic numorals.
Actually, tho Jovotoos ol Holoy-noss havo compotition, locauso a
Pimo has loon JolinoJ as a primo that usos only Jigits vith closoJ
loops, vhich moans 0, 6, 8, anJ 9 lut 4. Tho smallost Pimo is
89-nov you knov-lut tho soconJ Holoy primo, 409, is not a Pimo
though tho soconJ Pimo is ol courso Holoy, locauso Pimos aro
Holoy.
A \arlorough primo is JolinoJ rathor Jillorontly lut vith similar
olloct: its only Jigits aro 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 8, or 9, so an anti-\arlorough
primo is-yos!-a primo maJo up ol zoros anJ 1s (anJ not just in
linary). l can`t holp looling that Holoy \arlorough Pimos!` sounJs
liko an olscuro svoar vorJ.
l Jo apologizo. l am loing carrioJ avay ly tho Spirit ol Triviality.
To lo solomn lor a momont, it is inJooJ a Jolicato issuo to JociJo
vhon trivialnoss turns into soriosity. lor oxamplo, -
havo olton loon JismissoJ as trivial locauso thoir Jolinition JoponJs
on thoir Jigits-lut thoro is a voll-knovn connoction lotvoon Smith
numlors anJ -, anJ no ono thinks that ropunits aro trivial,
locauso thoy aro closoly rolatoJ to - anJ thoir porioJs (thoro
go tho Jigits again!) anJ thoro aro somo Joop unsolvoJ prolloms anJ
conjocturos alout Jocimal porioJs, incluJing K- ,
namoJ altor ono ol tho groatost mathomaticians ol tho tvontioth con-
tury. QED! Smith numlors aro non-trivial.
Nov, vhat alout 153 1
3
5
3
3
3
? Any ollors?
- HarJy, Smith numlors
-
Tho primos incluJo many pairs Jilloring ly 2: 3-5, 5-, 11-13, anJ 1-
19, anJ so on. Thoso aro tho tvin primos. Tho only numlor that
appoars in tvo tvin pairs is 5, anJ 3 is tho only numlor in tho
soguonco not ol tho lorm 6 1.
- {
Tho numlor ol tvin primos loss than naturally Joclinos as
incroasos. Tho numlors ol pairs loss than 10

aro,
2, 8, 35, 205, 1224, 8169, 58980, 440312, 3424506, 241269,
22436048, . . . (Sloano A00508)
Tho tvin primos conjocturo is that thoro is an inlinity ol thom. HarJy
anJ IittlovooJ vont lurthor anJ conjocturoJ that tho numlor ol
tvin primos loss than is approximatoly 2(log )
2
, vhoro
0.6601618158 . . . is tho -
ProviJoJ is groator than a cortain intogor, (vhich can in thoory
lo calculatoJ) thon
2()
vhoro
2
() is tho numlor ol pairs ol tvin primos loss than . (Brun
1920) lt vas Brun vho provoJ that tho sum ol tho rociprocals ol tho
tvin primos convorgos.
Jing-Pun Chon provoJ in 1966 that thoro is an inlinity ol primos
such that 2 is oithor primo or tho proJuct ol tvo primos. ll is
primo anJ 2 is oithor a primo or a -, thon tho numlor
ol such pairs loss than is at loast 1.05 I 2(log )
2
vhoro is tho
samo as loloro.
Tho curront rocorJ tvin primos aro 33218925 2
169690
1, vith
51,090 Jigits. (Papp, Jolling, Woltman, anJ Gallot 2002) This is voll
ahoaJ ol tho procoJing lour rocorJs:
tvin primos no. ol Jigits
60194061 2
114689
1 34,533
16519933 2
10520
1 32,36
318032361 2
10001
1 32,220
18031855 2
98305
1 29,603
(CalJvoll, -)
--
- Tho pair 659-661 is tho start ol a rocorJ-lroaking gap lotvoon
tvin primos: tho noxt pair is 809-811.
- All primos oxcopt 2 anJ 3 aro ol lorm 6 1, so all tvin
100
(log )
2
{ -
primos apart lrom 3-5 aro ol tho lorm 6 1 also. Noto that
120 6 20 is tho smallost intogor such that noithor 6 1 nor
6 1 is primo.
- Tho pair 60
2
30 30 1 is a tvin pair lor 1 to 13.
(Blanchotto: CalJvoll, -)
- Among primos ol tho lorm
4
1 thoro aro a surprising num-
lor ol tvins` lor vhich
4
1 anJ ( 2)
4
1 aro loth primo.
- This is tho soguonco ol lor vhich
4
1 is primo: tho tvins
aro in lolJ:
1, 16, 20, 24, 34, 4, 106, 118,
132, 154, 160, 164, 14, 180, 194, 198, . . . (Ial 196)
- Thomas P. Nicoly has calculatoJ (2004) that tho numlor ol
pairs ol tvin primos loss than 5 10
15
is 5,35,85,26,068.
(Nicoly 2004a)
- Nicoly has also calculatoJ tho numlor ol primo guaJruplots ol
tho lorm , 2, 6, anJ 8 to tho samo limit: it is
13,25,98,64. (Nicoly 2004l)
- Tho smallost triplot is 5-, 11-13, 1-19.
- Carlos Pivora has also lounJ thoso throo oxamplos ol triplos:
421-4219, 4229-4231, 4241-4243 vith common Jilloronco 12,
tho throo pairs starting 208931-208933 vith common Jillor-
onco 30, anJ tho throo pairs starting 2638206-26382069
vith common Jilloronco 30. Phil CarmoJy (2001) lounJ tho
triplot starting 123915461-123915463, also vith com-
mon Jilloronco 30. (Pivora, Puzzlo 122) J. K. AnJorson has
lounJ thoso tvo guaJratics such that () 1 is a pair ol tvin
primos lor 0 to 15:
() 4515
2
625 603900
() 12483
2
18245 834960
(Pivora, Prollom 44)
- {
--
HoaJlino Novs at mathvorlJ.vollram.comnovs has just
roportoJ ( July 9, 2004) that P. l. Aronstorl may lo closo to sottling
tho tvin primos conjocturo. A holo has loon lounJ in his prool`
(romomlor AnJrov Wilos anJ tho gap in his prool ol K- -
. . .) lut mathomaticians aro hopolul that it can lo lilloJ.
Brun`s constant, HarJy-IittlovooJ conjocturos, Vortons con-
stant
-
Stanislav Ulam (1909-1984) JiscovoroJ, or invontoJ, his spiral in
1963, vhilo sitting through a loring talk. His JooJlo lookoJ liko this:
{ -
Ho noticoJ at onco that tho primos soomoJ to sottlo onto cortain
Jiagonal linos, anJ roalizoJ that this vas locauso sguaros lying on
straight linos havo Jilloroncos that aro incroasing linoarly-so thoy
roprosont guaJratics. Honco, lt is a proporty ol tho visual lrain
vhich allovs ono to Jiscovor such linos at onco anJ also notico
many othor poculiaritios ol Jistrilution ol points in tvo Jimonsions,`
as Ulam anJ his covorkors romarkoJ in a 1964 papor pullishoJ in
tho (Stoin, Ulam, anJ Wolls 1964)
ln this liguro tho main Jiagonal is tho lunction
2
1. Tho noxt
liguro starts vith 41 anJ tho valuos ol K- lormula
appoar along tho markoJ Jiagonal.
Tho Joopor prollom is vhy somo guaJratic oxprossions proJuco
such a high proportion ol primos. Among tho valuos ol Eulor`s primo
guaJratic
2
41, ol tho lirst 2,398 numlors gonoratoJ ly tho lor-
mula, oxactly hall aro primos. Chocking all such numlors loss than
10,000,000, Ulam anJ his covorkors lounJ tho proportion ol primos
to lo 0.45.
lor tho guaJratic 4
2
10 184, tho proportion ol primos is
0.466, lor 4
2
4 59, it is 0.43. Othor guaJratics go to tho othor
oxtromo: only 5 ol tho proJucts ol tho lormula 2
2
4 11 aro
primo.
Eulor`s guaJratic, anJ tho roloronco in tho Somo Primo Wol
Sitos` soction ol tho lilliography to Dario Alporn`s Ulam spiral
applot
--
ll - anJ il - anJ havo no common lactor, thon - anJ aro uni-
tary Jivisors ol . By convontion, 1 anJ aro incluJoJ. So tho uni-
tary Jivisors ol 24 3 2
3
aro 1, 3, 8, anJ 24 only.
All tho Jivisors ol a numlor aro unitary, il anJ only il it is a primo
or tho proJuct ol Jistinct primos.
Eulor`s gonoralization ol lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom says that il ,
thon
( )
1 (moJ ). lt is also truo that il is a unitary Jivisor ol
, thon thoro is a numlor, , groator than 1, such that

(moJ
). lor oxamplo, 8 is a unitary Jivisor ol 24, although 8 anJ 24 aro
not coprimo, anJ 8
3
8 (moJ 24).
-- {

ll is tho sum ol all ol its unitary Jivisors it is unitary porloct. Uni-
tary porlocts aro naturally raror than orJinary porloct numlors. Tho
lirst livo aro: 6, 60, 90, 8360 2
6
3 5 13 anJ
2
18
3 5
4
11 13 19 3 9 109 15 313
aliguot soguoncos (sociallo chains), amicallo numlors
{ --
N M
ly Jack Bronnon
On 11 July 2001, tho longost knovn torminating unitary aliguot
soguonco vas computoJ to its tormination.
A unitary aliguot soguonco is constructoJ similarly to a stanJarJ`
aliguot soguonco, oxcopt that instoaJ ol aJJing Jivisors, ono aJJs up
unitary Jivisors. A unitary Jivisor D ol a numlor N satislios tvo
roguiromonts: D JiviJos ovonly into N, anJ D anJ N havo no com-
mon Jivisor othor than 1.
lt is conjocturoJ that all unitary aliguot soguoncos ovontually oithor
ontor a closoJ cyclo, or torminato ly roaching tho numlor 1. Cor-
tainly no countoroxamplo is knovn, anJ tho author has nov vorilioJ
tho conjocturo lor all starting numlors up to 400000000.
This nov vorlJ rocorJ` unitary aliguot soguonco logins vith tho
numlor 151244562, anJ torminatos 1665 stops lator ly roaching tho
numlor 1.
Tho largost momlor ol tho soguonco occurs at stop 4641, anJ is a
90-Jigit numlor: . . .
C90 2 3 3 3 3 503 968221399 P6
P6 125213544616359339118240880243681221282688
662016610951451950063883
ln all, thoro voro 40488 Jistinct primo lactors nooJoJ to comploto
this soguonco, anJ thus 40488 numlors voro provon primo. . . .
Tho computation ol tho soguonco occurroJ ovor a porioJ ol alout
29 vooks, using ono 450 VHz Pontium-ll on a lull-timo lasis, anJ
throo othor similar machinos on a part-timo lasis. . . .
( Jack Bronnon, vvv.lronnon.notprimos)
-
An untouchallo numlor is any numlor that cannot lo tho sum ol
aliguot parts (propor --) ol . ln othor vorJs, it is novor a valuo
ol () . Tho soguonco starts, 2, 5, 52, 88, 96, 120, 124, 146, 162,
18, . . . (Sloano A005114)
Tho only knovn oJJ untouchallo is 5, anJ it is conjocturoJ to lo
uniguo.

Tho numlors ol untouchallos loss than 10

lor 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . start,
2, 5, 89, 1212, . . . (Sloano A0598)
-
A numlor is voirJ il it is lut not -. Tho small-
ost voirJ numlor is 0, locauso its lactors sum to 4:
1 2 5 10 14 35 4
lut no sulsot ol thoso lactors sums to 0.
Thoro is an inlinito numlor ol voirJ numlors, incluJing tvonty-lour
unJor 10
6
. Tho soguonco starts,
0, 836, 4030, 5830, 192, 912, 922, 10430, 1050,
1092, 10990, 11410, 11690, . . . (Sloano A00603)
-
Thoso aro namoJ altor Arthur Josoph Alvin Wiolorich (1884-1954),
vho in 1909 pullishoJ a surprising critorion lor tho - - ol
K- - : il thoro oxist intogors , , such that

0 vhoro is an oJJ primo anJ Joos not JiviJo , thon

2
2
1
1. Such primos aro calloJ Wiolorich primos. (K-
says that il is primo, thon it JiviJos 2
1
1.)
- {
Tho only knovn Wiolorich primos aro 1093, JiscovoroJ ly W. Voiss-
nor in 1913, anJ 3511, JiscovoroJ ly N. G. W. H. Boogor in 1922.
(Sloano A001220)
PicharJ Vclntosh complotoJ a Wiolorich primo soarch, on Varch 9,
2004, up to 1.25 10
15
, vithout linJing any nov primos.
Tho tvo knovn Wiolorich primos loaJ to thoso curious Jigit pattorns
in linary: 1092
2
10001000100, 3510
2
110110110110.
ln 1910, Virimanoll aJJoJ that il tho lirst caso ol lormat`s Iast Tho-
orom is lalso lor oxponont , thon 3
1
1 is Jivisillo ly
2
.
Tho implios that thoro oxists an inlinity ol Wiolorich
primos. Tho numlor loss than is at loast log lor somo constant
. Hovovor, Silvorman also provoJ, in 1988, that il tho alc conjoc-
turo is truo, thon lor any groator than 1 thoro is an inlinity ol primos
, lor vhich
2

1
1.
Tho tvo valuos ol lotvoon 3 anJ 2
32
lor vhich
2
3
1
1 aro 11
anJ 1006003.
Curiously, vhon 99, thoro aro livo small valuos ol lor vhich

2

1
1: 5, , 13, 19, anJ 83. (Vontgomory 1993)
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho prolalility that a primo is a
Wiolorich primo is 1. lt has also loon conjocturoJ that -
- vith primo oxpononts aro -. This is maJo highly
prolallo ly tho thoorom that il
2

, thon is a Wiolorich primo.

Tho conJition
2
JiviJos
1
1 lor 5, has solution
18848146801, anJ tho rovorso` is truo also:
1
1 is Jivisillo ly

2
25. (Kollor anJ Pichstoin 2004)
-K-
John Wilson (141-193) is only romomloroJ lor Wilson`s thoorom,
vhich statos that il is primo, thon ( 1)! 1 is Jivisillo ly , as
illustratoJ ly tho lirst lov primos:
{ -K-
2 3 5 11
( 1)! 1 2 3 25 21 3,628,801 ( 11 329,891)
lronically, Wilson vas not only not tho lirst to Jiscovor this thoo-
rom-it appoars in Ioilniz`s papors-lut ho JiJn`t provo it. Iagrango
JiJ that in 13, anJ also shovoJ tho convorso, that il tho oguation
is truo, thon is primo.
Wilson`s thoorom can lo oxprossoJ in Jilloront lorms. lor oxamplo:
( 2)! 1 0 (moJ )
2( 3)! 1 0 (moJ )
6( 4)! 1 0 (moJ )
anJ in gonoral: ( 1)!( )! (1)

0 (moJ )
lt lollovs lrom Wilson`s thoorom that il is an oJJ primo, thon
1
2
3
2
5
2
. . . ( 2)
2
(1)
( 1)2
(moJ )
anJ 2
2
4
2
6
2
. . . ( 1)
2
(1)
( 1)2
(moJ )
Wilson`s thoorom is a vory inolliciont vay ol proving that a num-
lor is primo: tho largost ovor provoJ ly its uso is prolally
1099511628401. (Pupinski: CalJvoll, -)
-
Wilson`s thoorom implios that anJ 2 aro a pair ol tvin primos
il anJ only il,
4(( 1)! 1) 0 moJ ( 2)
lor oxamplo, il 5, 4(( 1)! 1) 105 3 5 .
- -
A Wilson primo is a primo numlor such that ( 1)! 1 (moJ
2
).
Tho only knovn Wilson primos aro 5, 13, anJ 563, lounJ ly GolJ-
lorg in 1953, using an oarly oloctronic computor. Thoro aro no oth-
ors loss than 500,000,000.
By a - argumont, tho 4th Wilson primo might lo oxpoctoJ
rounJ alout 5 10
23
.
lt has loon conjocturoJ that tho prolalility that a primo is a Wil-
son primo is 1.
-K- {
-K- - -
Josoph Wolstonholmo (1829-1891) vas prolossor ol mathomatics at
tho Poyal lnJian Enginooring Collogo. Ho vas a lrionJ ol Ioslio
Stophon, vhoso Jaughtor, Virginia Wooll, vas a young girl vhon
Wolstonholmo sharoJ thoir lamily holiJays. Sho lator incorporatoJ
Wolstonholmo into ono ol hor most lamous looks, -,
as tho moJol lor Vr. Augustus Carmichaol.
ln 1862 Wolstonholmo provoJ that il is a primo, not 2 or 3, thon tho
numorator ol tho harmonic numlor,
1 12 13 . . . 1( 1)
is Jivisillo ly
2
. Tho numorators ol thoso sums aro calloJ tho Wol-
stonholmo numlors, anJ thoir soguonco starts,
1, 3, 11, 25, 13, 49, 363, 61, 129, 381, 8311, 86021, 1145993,
11133, 11955, 2436559, 42142223, . . . (Sloano A001008)
Similarly, tho numorator ol
1 12
2
13
2
. . . 1( 1)
2
is Jivisillo ly il anJ only il is primo. (Alkan 1994) Tho soguonco
ol thoso numorators starts,
1, 5, 49, 205, 5269, 5369, 266681, 1049, 98141, 1968329,
23943889, . . . (Sloano A00406)
Tho numorator ol 1 12
3
13
3
. . . 1( 1)
3
is Jivisillo ly

2
il anJ only il is primo anJ 5, anJ tho numorator ol 1
12
4
13
4
. . . 1( 1)
4
is Jivisillo ly il anJ only il is primo
anJ .
Charlos Ballago haJ noticoJ in 1819 that
1 (moJ
2
)
ln 1862, Wolstonholmo provoJ that
1 (moJ
3
)
2 1
1
2 1
1
{ -K- - -
lor oxamplo, lor :
13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 116 5
3
1
Tho Wolstonholmo convorso-that il satislios tho congruonco thon
it is primo-has not loon provoJ, lut it is knovn to lo truo lor ovon
anJ vhon is a povor ol 3. (V. T. K. Wolor, vvv.mat.unl.lr)
ll tho samo congruonco is satislioJ (moJ
4
), thon is a Wolston-
holmo primo, lut to Jato only tvo aro knovn: 16843 anJ 212469.
(Sloano A088164) Thoro aro no othor Wolstonholmo primos loss than
6 4 10
8
.
- - -
Using Hisanori Vishima`s WorlJ lntogor lactorization Contor sito,
vhich is JoscriloJ in tho Somo Primo Wol Sitos` soction ol tho lil-
liography, vo linJ listoJ tho lolloving lactors ol tho Wolstonholmo
numlors that aro tho numorators ol tho sums 1 12
2
13
2
. . .
1( 1)
2
. Only thoso linos aro printoJ lor vhich oithor 1 is a
primo 2 1 is a primo, anJ in ovory caso or 2 1, or loth,
JiviJo tho numorator:
numorator
2 5
3
2
4 5 41
5 11 49
6 13 59
8 1 6339
9 19 514639
10 11 18939
11 23 43 242101
12 13 18500393
14 29 41 19029
15 31 3 9 1844659
16 1 619 8206663
18 19 3 8821 3851224
20 41 42195062598601
21 3 43 2621 8486899
22 23 295831 52030193
23 4 12 31411862913089
-K- - - {

26 53 0853 10635 8408339
28 29 41 462558551282481
29 59 6823 88932 2441122499011
30 31 61 463 621059 159352062213
31 43 205883 94993203164836381561
33 6 639 281550 4335581 539136331
35 1 13441 3532568548095886123
36 3 41 3 82163 300262389963246
39 9 10 821 26813093 240624262981001
40 41 34033 1260236851 2630288294624803
41 83 1413 6611909133130699230213331
42 43 3049 949 894400806243011161194199
44 89 13 5023 86696191 3831256052985081
46 4 1123 22152121 34121893 515918821496231
48 9 3389 63906681 64028661493 33811868955843
50 101 269 1451 658393 12026996395859283405512
-
Tho WooJall numlors, namoJ altor H. J. WooJall, vho pullishoJ an
account ol thom in 191 vritton vith , aro ol tho lorm,
2

1. Primo WooJall numlors aro somotimos calloJ

- ol tho soconJ kinJ. Tho soguonco ol WooJall numlors starts,
1, , 23, 63, 159, 383, 895, . . .
A WooJall numlor is primo only vhon 2, 3, 6, 30, 5, 81, 115,
123, 249, 362, 384, . . .
lt has loon conjocturoJ that almost all WooJall numlors aro com-
posito.
Tho largost knovn WooJall primo is 6601 2
6601
1 (200,815 Jig-
its). lt vas JiscovoroJ ly VanlroJ Toplic anJ \vos Gallot in April
2002. (CalJvoll, -)
Tho primo 2
521
1 can also lo vritton as 512 2
512
1, making it loth
a WooJall primo anJ a - . (Doll: CalJvoll,
-)
{ -
--
Although tho Piomann zota-lunction is an analytic lunction vith
|al Jocoptivoly simplo Jolinition, it koops louncing arounJ
almost ranJomly vithout sottling Jovn to somo rogular asymp-
totic pattorn. Tho Piomann zota-lunction Jisplays tho ossonco ol
chaos in guantum mochanics . . . smooth, anJ yot soomingly
unproJictallo.
O
Tho primos in gonoral anJ tho -- in particular
might soom to roprosont tho purost mathomatics possillo, so vhy
might thoro lo any connoction at all vith physics? \ot that is just

oxplainoJ to AnJrov OJlyzko:

to loarn analytic numlor thoory lrom IanJau. Ho askoJ mo ono Jay: \ou
knov somo physics. Do you knov a physical roason that tho Piomann
hypothosis shoulJ lo truo.` This voulJ lo tho caso, l ansvoroJ, il tho non-
trivial zoros ol tho zota-lunction voro so connoctoJ vith tho physical prol-
lom that tho Piomann hypothosis voulJ lo oguivalont to tho lact that all tho
oigonvaluos ol tho physical prollom aro roal.
l novor pullishoJ this romark, lut somohov it locamo knovn anJ it is


matrix aro roal. ll tho non-trivial zoros ol tho zota lunction aro
1
2

,
thon tho

voulJ lo tho oigonvaluos. Noithor ho nor Hillort, vho

maJo tho samo suggostion, haJ tho slightost iJoa vhat tho matrix
might lo.
A connoction appoaroJ as tho rosult ol a chanco mooting in 193,
vhon Hugh Vontgomory vas roluctantly introJucoJ to tho groat
lrooman Dyson, tho English-lorn mathomatician anJ physicist vho is
lamous lor having roconciloJ tho thoorios ol Julian Schvingor anJ
PicharJ loynman in guantum thoory. Vontgomory romarkoJ that ho
haJ loon stuJying tho zoros ol tho Piomann zota lunction anJ ho
montionoJ a lormula lor thoir Jistrilution, 1 (sin ( )( ))
2
. Dyson
roplioJ at onco, to his surpriso anJ Vontgomory`s, that this vas tho
Jonsity ol tho pair corrolation ol oigonvaluos ol a cortain sot ol ran-
Jom matricos. (Sallagh 2002, 134-36) As it happons, physicists havo
-- {
a voll-JovolopoJ thoory ol tho Jistrilution ol tho oigonvaluos ol ran-
Jom matricos, vhich aro usoJ to moJol tho onorgy lovols ol nucloi
anJ othor systoms ol particlos.
Vontgomory anJ Dyson novor mot again, novor spoko again, yot
this ono chanco oncountor pointoJ to a potontially prolounJ con-
noction lotvoon guantum mochanics anJ numlor thoory, vhich
mathomaticians anJ physicists havo loon oxploring ovor sinco. ln
particular, AnJrov OJlyzko lounJ through massivo calculation that
tho zoros ol tho zota lunction havo tho samo pair corrolation lunction
as tho oigonvaluos ol vhat aro calloJ GUE (Gaussian unitary onsom-
llo) matricos. This rosult, inspiroJ ly Vontgomory, is nov knovn as
tho Vontgomory-OJlyzko lav.

popular looks on tho rolo ol analogy in mathomatics, shoulJ havo
loon tho original inspiration lor such a vonJorlul soguonco ol con-
noctions`! This analogy has alroaJy lonolitoJ loth physicists anJ
numlor thoorists. Physicists lonolit locauso onorgy lovols aro usually
harJ to computo, vhoroas mathomaticians havo vory olliciont moth-
oJs lor calculating zoros ol tho zota lunction.
Thoro is anothor, rolatoJ, connoction. Quantum chaos stuJios tho
transitions lrom guantum mochanical systoms, vhich aro not chaotic,
anJ classical Novtonian systoms, vhich can lo. lt has loJ physicists
to mako proJictions alout tho rolationships lotvoon onorgy lovols
that can thon lo applioJ, ly analogy, to tho Piomann zota lunction.
Surpriso! Tho proJictions aro conlirmoJ!
AnJ that`s not all! ln hor papor Quantum-liko Chaos in Primo
Numlor Distrilution anJ in Turlulont lluiJ llovs,` A. V. Solvam
claims, Numlor thoorotical concopts aro intrinsically rolatoJ to tho
guantitativo Joscription ol Jynamical systoms ol all scalos ranging
lrom tho microscopic sulatomic Jynamics to macroscalo turlulont
lluiJ llovs such as tho atmosphoric llovs,` anJ in particular that tho
primo numlors aro analogous to oJJios in turlulont lluiJ llovs anJ
that tho lroguoncios ol primo numlors lollov guantum-liko mochan-
ical lavs. Sho aJJs anothor analogy: Pogor Ponroso JiscovoroJ in
194 tho guasiporioJic Ponroso tiling pattorn. . . . Tho lunJamontal
invostigation ol tilings vhich lill spaco complotoly is analogous to
invostigating tho mannor in vhich mattor splits up into atoms anJ
natural numlors split up into proJuct ol primos.` (Solvam 2001)
ln aJJition, tho Piomann zota lunction also shovs up in tho thoory
ol Brovnian motion anJ in tho stuJy ol Jillusion anJ porcolation
{ --
procossos. Evon this, as you might havo guossoJ, isn`t all. Xiao-Song
Iin ol tho Univorsity ol Calilornia has noticoJ an analogy lotvoon
tho Jonos polynomial in knot thoory anJ tho lhara-Hashimoto-Bass
zota lunction in graph thoory. lnspiroJ ly tho Vontgomory-OJlyzko
lav, Xiao-Song Iin has carrioJ out somo computor oxporimonts on
tho Jonos polynomial. Our Jata inJicato that, guito likoly, zoros ol
tho Jonos polynomial ol altornating knots may oloy cortain statistical
lavs as voll.`
Iittlo coulJ an anciont Grook havo roalizoJ as ho roaJ EucliJ`s pro-
sontation ol tho primo numlors in his -, in a painlully con-
volutoJ mannor locauso tho Grooks lackoJ a roally olliciont
languago anJ notation lor tho suljoct, that thoro might just possilly
lo a connoction vith tho knots ho usoJ to tio his shoos anJ tho
primo numlors.
Ol courso, nono ol this curront spoculation actually provos hov tho
zoros ol tho Piomann zota lunction lohavo. lt coulJ lo that vo havo
just vhat physicists aro accustomoJ to anJ just vhat mathomaticians
Jo not linJ ultimatoly satislactory-a usolul lut imporloct moJol ol
roality.
AnJ yot-Pythagoras claimoJ that tho univorso vas maJo ol num-
lors anJ IoopolJ Kronockor (1823-1891) claimoJ that GoJ maJo
tho intogors anJ all tho rost is tho vork ol man.` Who knovs? Por-
haps tho vorlJ is ovon moro cunningly constructoJ out ol tho
numlors!
-- {
- -

{
-
- P



















































































--
Thoso oxplanations aro in aJJition to thoso maJo at tho onJ ol tho
introJuction. Vany torms aro oxplainoJ simply ly going to thoir
ontry, lor oxamplo, , -, or
--. Othors vill lo lounJ ly going to tho inJox, vhoro tho pago
numlor ol an ontry that oxplains tho torm is in A lov, such as
tho lirst throo oxamplos ol notation in this glossary, aro oxplainoJ in
tho toxt, lut it vill not lo olvious vhoro.

() |somo authors vrito phi()l is K- , ogual to

tho numlor ol intogors loss than tho intogor that aro also primo to
, that is, havo no common lactor vith
So (10) 4 locauso thoro aro lour numlors loss than 10 anJ
primo to it: 1, 3, , 9.
() moans tho numlor ol Jivisors ol tho intogor . Tho unit, 1, is
incluJoJ anJ so is tho numlor , so (12) 6 locauso 12 has tho
Jivisors 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, anJ 12 itsoll.
() is tho sum ol tho Jivisors ol tho intogor , so (12) 1 2
3 4 6 12 28.
-
- Tho oxprossion is rathor olJ-lashionoJ. Tho aliguot
parts ol a numlor aro its propor Jivisors, moaning its Jivisors apart
lrom tho numlor itsoll. Tho numlor 1 is alvays incluJoJ. So tho
aliguot parts ol 30 aro 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, anJ 15.
- Thoso appoar in algolra vhon a povor
such as (1 )
5
is oxpanJoJ:
(1 )
5
1 5 10
2
10
3
5
4

5
Tho linomial coollicionts in this caso aro 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. Thoy also
appoar in -K-
Tvo intogors havo a common lactor il a numlor,
othor than 1, JiviJos loth ol thom oxactly.
- A numlor that can lo vritton as tho proJuct
ol tvo or moro primo numlors. Tho numlor 1 is noithor a primo
numlor nor a composito numlor.
Tvo intogors aro coprimo il thoy havo no common lac-
tor.
- Iottors stanJ lor intogors unloss othorviso inJicatoJ. Tho
lottor olton stanJs lor a constant that may lo an intogor.
Tho natural logarithm ol , tho log to laso , is vritton
as log . This Joos moan tho usual logarithm to laso 10, vhich
voulJ lo vritton log
10
.
Throughout this look, numlor` rolors to a positivo into-
gor or vholo numlor, unloss statoJ othorviso.
Givon a soguonco ol intogors, a primi-
tivo primo lactor is a primo lactor ol a numlor in tho soguonco that
is a lactor ol any provious numlor in tho soguonco. ln othor
vorJs, that particular primo lactor is appoaring lor tho lirst timo.
- ll any primo lactor ol an intogor JiviJos it moro than
onco, thon it is sguarolroo. Othorviso it is sguarolroo. lor oxam-
plo, 12 2
2
3, so 12 is not sguarolroo, anJ noithor is 90 2 3
2
5.
Hovovor, 15 3 5 anJ 105 3 5 aro loth sguarolroo.
{ --

Tho popular journals anJ -

vill lo lounJ in many acaJomic lilrarios, togothor vith many
prolossional journals in numlor thoory.
Books markoJ vith an astorisk aro ospocially rocommonJoJ (hovovor, this
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(3):190-200.
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Jovolopmonts anJ luturo outlook. Pp. 51-66 in - O
vol. 1, oJ. B. Engguist anJ W. SchmiJ. Nov \ork:
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lriJgo, UK: CamlriJgo Univorsity Pross.
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phantino oguation n! 1 m, vvv.math.uiuc.oJu.
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80(10):1099-1115.
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tions anJ tho numlor ol Jivisors.
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40-50.
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{
---. (1996). A talo ol tvo siovos. Acticcs cf t/c AMS 43(12).
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not.
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Puzzlos anJ Prolloms Connoction. vvv.primopuzzlos.not.
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Tho Primo Puzzlos anJ Prolloms Connoction. vvv.primopuzzlos.not.
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Connoction. vvv.primopuzzlos.not.
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{
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{
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-
Thoro aro thousanJs ol sitos loaturing primo numlors. Tvo onthusiasts vio,
in my juJgmont, lor tho top Prizo lor Primos: Chris CalJvoll anJ Noil
Sloano.
Chris CalJvoll is Prolossor in tho Dopartmont ol Vathomatics anJ Statistics
at tho Univorsity ol Tonnossoo at Vartin. Ho got his PhD in algolraic num-
lor thoory in 1984 anJ nov spocializos in numlor thoory anJ using com-
putors to toach mathomatics-ospocially on tho WorlJ WiJo Wol via his
massivo Pric Pcgcs sito, vhich has rocoivoJ moro than a Jozon avarJs lor
oxcollonco.
1/c Pric Pcgcs is at vvv.utm.oJurosoarchprimos, vhoro you vill also
linJ his porsonal Wol sito. A prominont icon ol tho Statuo ol Iilorty at tho
{
top ol his ovn sito is laloloJ Amorica, a Boacon, not a Policoman,` anJ
thoro aro links to vvv.againstlomling.orginJox.htm, vhich is in turn
titloJ, Amoricans Against Bomling: Amoricans Against WorlJ Empiro.` l
montion this loth to shov my approval anJ locauso, l am happy to noto,
mathomaticians tonJ to lo pacilic anJ intornationalist-porhaps lor tho
olvious roason that mathomatics itsoll crossos ovory kinJ ol lounJary,
intornally anJ oxtornally.
1/c Pric Pcgcs is an incroJilly varioJ cornucopia ol lacts, liguros, anJ
roloroncos, prools, puzzlos, anJ conjocturos, Jolinitions anJ thooroms, lists
anJ tallos-il you vant it, thoro`s a gooJ chanco Chris CalJvoll has it.
But ovon ho cannot havo ovorything: tho primo numlors aro lar too largo
a suljoct. So anothor Jazzling sito that is a ploasuro to visit is Noil K-
-, at vvv.rosoarch.att.com
-njassoguoncos.
lntogor Soguoncos` in tho titlo might soom a lit limiting, lut it`s amazing
hov much mathomatics is-or can lo-linkoJ to soguoncos ol vholo num-
lors. lor oxamplo, -K- thooroms aro alout tho sums ol tho har-
monic sorios, that is, lractions, not intogors, lut ol courso lractions havo
numorators anJ Jonominators, anJ thoso lorm intogor soguoncos! So typo in
Wolstonholmo,` chooso tho option vorJ,` anJ you got lour roloroncos to
tho inJox,
Wolstonholmo numlors: A001008, A00406, A00408, A00410
anJ tvonty-ono roloroncos to tho Jatalaso, starting vith this longthy ontry:
A093689 Wolstonholmo`s thoorom statos that primo j 3 JiviJos A00406(j
1). lt is not Jillicult to shov that this implios j also JiviJos A00406(( j
1)2). ln most instancos, c(u) (primo(u) 1)2. Excoptions occur lor primos
in A093690, vhich havo a smallor c(u). Noto that il j JiviJos A00406(k)
lor k (j 1)2, thon j JiviJos A00406( j k 1). Anothor intorosting
olsorvation: it appoars that j is tho only primo that JiviJos A00406(k)
lor somo k j 1, JiviJos A00406(26) 235060825423481649. Also
noto that vhon j 3 anJ 2j 1 aro loth primo, thoy JiviJo A00406
( j 1).
\ou can ontor tho consocutivo torms ol a soguonco (you Jon`t havo to start
at tho loginning, vhich inJooJ is somotimos amliguous) or a soarch torm,
such as Wolstonholmo,` as vo havo soon, or a Sloano soguonco numlor:
tho curront catalog numlors all start vith an A. (Thoy usoJ to start vith V
or N. Tho primo numlor soguonco is nov A00040, it usoJ to lo V0652 or
N0241.)
Mct/Wcrlc, at http:mathvorlJ.vollram.com, Joscrilos itsoll as tho vol`s
most oxtonsivo mathomatics rosourco.` lt is CroatoJ anJ maintainoJ ly Eric
Woisstoin vith contrilutions lrom tho vorlJ mathomatics community,` anJ
is supportoJ ly Wollram Posoarch anJ tho National Scionco lounJation.
{
Whon l last chockoJ, thoro voro 11,838 ontrios, ol vhich moro than 260 aro
listoJ unJor Primo Numlors.`
An ospocially attractivo loaturo is tho Mct/Wcrlc HoaJlino Novs, vhich is
currontly roporting (July 15, 2004) that P. l. Aronstorl sooms closo to sottling
tho - conjocturo anJ that Josh linJloy has JiscovoroJ tho 41st
-
Waltor SchnoiJor at Krouzmattonstrasso 8, 926 Pouto, Gormany, runs
Mct/cts. 1/c Arc/itc cf Rccrccticucl Mct/cctics Wol sito, at vvv.
vschnoi.JoinJox.html.
Carlos Pivora is tho author ol 1/c Pric Pv..lcs c Prc/lcs ccuuccticu, at
vvv.primopuzzlos.not. PoaJors vill noto sovoral roloroncos in my lilliog-
raphy. A nico loaturo is that it contains oxtonsivo rosponsos lrom solvors.
Tho WikipoJia onlino oncyclopoJia also has intorosting inlormation alout
primo numlors, at http:on.vikipoJia.orgvikiPrimo_numlor.
HiJJon among Chris CalJvoll`s Pric Pcgcs is a pago ly AnJrov Bookor,
1/c At/ Pric Pcgc, vhich allovs you to linJ tho Ath primo, up to A 10
12
,
or tho valuo ol (A), lor A up to 3 10
13
.
Hisanori Vishima runs tho WllC (WorlJ lntogor lactorization Contor) at
vvv.asahi-not.or.jp-KC2H-VSVmathlanJmatha1, vhich incluJos list-
ings ol lactors ol many typos ol numlors lrom to to
- to anJ many in lotvoon.
\vos Gallot, vho is a prolilic linJor ol assortoJ primos, lactorizations otc.,
has his ovn c/rcuclcg, cf Pric Av/cr Rcccrcs at http:porso.vanaJoo.
lryvos.gallotprimoschrrcJs.html.
Dario Alporn has a usolul sito at vvv.alportron.com.ar that has ono gooJ
loaturo anJ throo lrilliant loaturos. \ou can solvo any guaJratic oguation in
tvo variallos, you can uso tho lactorization using tho Elliptic Curvo
VothoJ` lacility, vhich givos not just tho lactors ol tho numlor you typo in
lut also c(u), tho numlor ol --, (u), thoir sum, anJ (u), K-
, you can uso his Discroto logarithm calculator,` vhich
allovs you to solvo c

/ (moJ A) lor , anJ you can play vith his

- applot, vhich givos tho oguation ol tho Jiagonal lino through your
mouso-soloctoJ point, its coorJinatos, anJ tho lirst lov valuos ol tho lunc-
tion. Excollont!
{

(u). Scc Eulor`s totiont

(phi) lunction
(u), 51-54, 210
(u), 106, 111, 129, 134,
138-139, 165,
183-18, 209
. Scc cutr, listcc clj/c-
/cticcll, iu t/c j
sccticu
alc conjocturo, 6, 1, 236
alsoluto psouJoprimos,
24
alunJant numlors, -8,
40, 49, 10, 11, 235
AJloman, IoonarJ, 168,
212-216
Agraval, VaninJra, 8-9
AKS algorithm lor pri-
mality tosting, 8-9, 88
Alcuin, 10
aliguot soguoncos (socia-
llo chains), 9-11,
234, 235
almost porloct numlors,
11
almost-primos, 11, 21
Amorican Vathomatical
Socioty, 1
amicallo numlors, 9,
11-13, 0
analytic numlor thoory,
45
AnJorson, A. E., 189
AnJorson, J. K., 231
AnJrica, Dorin, 13
AnJrica`s conjocturo, 13
APP primality tost, 213
Aronstorl, P. l., 231, 264
Arit/cticc (Diophan-
tus), 42-44
arithmotic moan, ol Jivi-
sors, 51
arithmotic progrossions,
ol primos, 13-14,
44-45
Artin`s conjocturo, 38,
188, 229
Association lor Comput-
ing Vachinory, 8-88
Aurilouillo, Ion
lranois Antoino,
14-15
Aurilouillian lactoriza-
tion, 14-15
avorago primo, 15
Ballago, Charlos, 19,
-8, 140, 238
Bang`s thoorom, 16
Barlov, Potor, 11
Basol prollom, 2-3
Bass, Thomas, 213
Batoman, Paul, 156
Batoman`s conjocturo, 16
Baxtor, Iov, 205
Bays, Cartor, 139
Boal, AnJrov, 16-1
Boal`s conjocturo, 16-1
BoaurogarJ, P. A., 219
Boogor, N. G. W. H., 236
Boll, E. T., 83
Bonczo, Vihly, 103
BonlorJ, lrank, 18
BonlorJ`s lav, 1-18
Bon Gorson, Iovi, 25
Bornoulli, Jacol, 2
Bornoulli numlors,
19-20, 99
BortranJ, Josoph, 20-21
BortranJ`s postulato,
20-21
Billo, roloroncos to
primos in, 11
Bicknoll-Johnson, Var-
jorio, 102
Billingsloy, Patrick,
201-202
Binot, H., 143
linomial coollicionts,
Pascal`s trianglo anJ,
165-166
linomial thoorom, 91
lluo numlors, 210-211
Bonso`s inoguality, 21
Bronnon, Jack, 234
Bront, P. P., 96
Brickoll, Ernio, 168-169
Brior numlors, 21-22
Brillhart, John, 96, 169,
204
BrocarJ`s conjocturo, 6,
22
Brovn, J. I., 21
Brun, Viggo, 1, 22-23,
123
Brun`s constant, 22-23
Buss, lrank, 23
Buss`s lunction, 23
CalJvoll, Chris, 81, 134,
189, 204, 262
Camoron, Vichaol, 115,
154, 203
Carmichaol, Polort
Daniol, 24, 63, 64,
5-, 105
Carmichaol numlors,
23-24, 92, 116, 121,
19, 191, 192, primo
protonJors anJ, 186,
smooth numlors anJ,
223, strong psouJo-
primos anJ, 193
Carmichaol`s totiont
lunction conjocturo,
5
CarmoJy, Phil, 81, 12,
231
Catalan, Eugno Charlos,
24, 155
Catalan`s conjocturo,
24-25, 100
Catalan`s Vorsonno con-
jocturo, 25
CatalJi, Piotro Antonio,
152, 11
Champornovno, DaviJ,
26
Champornovno`s con-
stant, 26
champion numlors, 26
Chon, Jing-Pun, 218,
230
Chinoso romainJor thoo-
rom, 26-2
cicaJas, 2
circlo, Gauss`s prollom,
113
circlos, primo, 2
circular primos, 28, 14
Clay Vathomatics lnsti-
tuto, 28-29, 4
Cocks, ClillorJ, 212
ccgitctc P/,sicc-Mct/c-
cticc (Vorsonno),
152
Cohon, lroJ, 213
Cohon, Honri, 10, 16
Colo, lrank Nolson, 83,
153
composito numlors, 1,
consocutivo, 6,
gaps lotvoon
primos anJ,
109-110, highly
composito numlors,
199-200
compositorial, 29
computors, 2, 18,
ENlAC, 135, lirst
algorithm using, 19,
usoJ lor Vorsonno
primos, 153-155,
WorlJ War ll anJ,
193. Scc clsc Jistril-
utoJ computing
computor virusos, incop-
tion ol, 213
concatonation ol primos,
29
congruoncos: Chinoso
romainJor thoorom
anJ, 26-2, lactoriza-
tion anJ, 8
conjocturos: JolinoJ, 2,
30-31, orrors in,
63-64, 5-. Scc clsc
iuciticvcl uccs cf
ccujcctvrcs
consocutivo composito
numlors, 6
consocutivo intogor
soguonco, 32
consocutivo numlors, 32
consocutivo primos,
sums ol, 32
contosts, 60, 61, 11,
149, 214-215, Boal`s
conjocturo, 16-1,
Clay prizos, 28-29,
Ell Cooporativo
Computing AvarJs,
55-56, 115, 153, 203,
Nov PSA lactoring
Challongo, 215-216,
Piomann zota lunc-
tion, 4
convoniont numlors,
0-2
Convay, John, 128, 131,
186
Convay`s primo-proJuc-
ing machino, 33,
10
CopolanJ-ErJos con-
stant, 29
Cosgravo, John, 9
Costollo, Pat, 222
ccvrsc cf Pvrc Mct/c-
ctics, A (HarJy),
121
cousin primos, 33-34
Cramr, HaralJ, 148
Cramr`s conjocturo,
109
CranJall, PicharJ, 96
Croyaulmuollor, Woll-
gang, 10
crovJ,` 10
cryptography. Scc pullic
koy oncryption
Cullon, J., 34
Cullon primos, 34, 240
Cunningham, Allan
Josoph, 34, 240
Cunningham chains, 35
Cunningham projoct,
34-35, 135, 264
cyclic numlors, 3-38
Daso, Zacharias, 111
Jata oncryption stanJarJ
(DES), 216
Davis, Kon, 81
Do Bossy, lroniclo,
0-1
Jocimal oxpansion, ol ,
14-15
Jocimals, rocurring (pori-
oJic), 36-40, 188, 229
Jocryption, 193. Scc clsc
pullic koy oncryption
DoCSS coJo, 126-12
Joliciont numlors, , 40,
49, 10, 11, 21
Joloctallo primos, 40
Dologliso, Varc, 183
Do Vziriac, Bachot, 93
Domlo numlors, 40-41
Doscartos, Pon, 12,
13
Joscriptivo primos, 41
Dickson, IoonarJ
Eugono, 41-42
Dickson`s conjocturo,
41-42, 55, 126
Dilloronco Engino,
-8, 140
Dillio, WhitliolJ, 193
Digital Villonium Copy-
right Act (DVCA),
12
Jigit proportios, 42
Diophantus, 42-44
Dirichlot, Gustav Potor
Iojouno, 44-45
Dirichlot`s thoorom,
44-45
Disqvisiticucs Arit/cti-
ccc (Gauss), 110
JistrilutoJ computing,
13, 45-4
Jistrilution ol primos,
Gauss on, 111-112
Jivisilility proportios, ol
lilonacci numlors,
102-103
Jivisilility tosts, 48
Jivisor lunction, c(u),
49-51
{
Jivisors (lactors), 48-54,
congruoncos anJ, 51,
anJ partitions, 53, primo
lactors, 54. Scc clsc
aliguot soguoncos
(sociallo chains)
DNA computor, 213
Donnolly, HarolJ, 5
Dulnor, Harvoy, 13, 24,
101, 110, 164-165,
195, 204-205
DuJloy, UnJorvooJ,
221
Dusart, Piorro, 185
Dyson, lrooman,
241-242
Elorhart`s conjocturo,
15
oconomical numlors, 55
EJvarJs, HarolJ, 209
Eloctronic lrontior loun-
Jation, 55-56, 115,
153, 203
olomontary prool, ol
primo numlor thoo-
rom, 182-183
Elccuts (EucliJ), 64-66,
10
olliptic curvo mothoJ:
lor lactorization, 8,
lor proving primality,
56-5
omirp, 5
Entropia, 115
Eratosthonos, siovo ol,
58-59, 84, 14, 18
ErJos, Paul, 1, 59-63,
5, 98, 168,
CopolanJ-ErJos con-
stant, 29, olomontary
prool ly, 183, ErJos
numlors, 61-62,
ErJos-Kac thoorom
ol, 200-202, on gooJ
primos, 119, on oJJ
numlors, 16
ErJos-Kac thoorom,
200-201, 202
orrors, 63-64, 5-
EucliJ, 44-45, 64-69,
10
EucliJoan algorithm,
68-69
Eulor, IoonharJ, 12, 25,
52-53, 69-9, 95, 11,
128, 130, 15, 11,
Basol prollom anJ,
2, Carmichaol`s
totiont lunction con-
jocturo anJ, 5-,
Eulor`s constant, 52,
3, 156, Eulor`s con-
voniont numlors,
0-2, Eulor`s gua-
Jratic, -8, 106,
140, 196-198, 232,
Eulor`s totiont (phi)
lunction, 45, 63, 64,
0, 4-, 130, 214,
21, 264, on lactoriza-
tion, 84, on lormat`s
Iittlo Thoorom, 0,
92, 233, Iucky Num-
lors ol, 8-9,
Vorsonno primos,
152, olstinato num-
lors anJ, 15, rocip-
rocals ol primos,
3-4
lactorial primos, 29,
80-81
lactorials, 80, 236-23,
lactors ol, 80, strong
lav ol small numlors
anJ, 226
lactorial sums, 81-82
lactorization, mothoJs
ol, 82-89, 95-9
laroy, John, 209-210
loit-Thompson conjoc-
turo, 89
lormat, Piorro Jo, 12,
89-100, on lactor-
ization, 83, 84,
85-86, lormat-
Catalan conjocturo,
1, 100, lormat lac-
torization, 95-9,
lormat numlors, 46,
68, 84, 94-95, 9,
106, 110, 11, 128,
169, 15, 225, 264,
lormat psouJo-
primos, 190-191,
lormat`s conjocturo,
31, 94-95, Gonoral-
izoJ lormat num-
lors, 9, 190, inli-
nito Joscont, 90, 98,
porloct numlors,
12, sums ol
sguaros, 92-94. Scc
clsc lormat`s Iast
Thoorom, lormat`s
Iittlo Thoorom
lormat`s Iast Thoorom,
2, 6, 31, 64, 90,
9-99, Boal`s conjoc-
turo anJ, 16-1,
Dirichlot anJ, 44,
Eulor on, 0, lormat-
Catalan oguation
anJ, 100, Gauss on,
111, Wiolorich
primos, 235
lormat`s Iittlo Thoorom,
8-9, 85, 90-92,
18-19, Carmichaol
numlors anJ, 23-24,
Eulor on, 0, 92, 233,
lormat guotiont, 92,
Giuga on, 116, Iucas-
Iohmor tost anJ, 146,
primo protonJor ts.,
186, psouJoprimos,
190-191, PSA algo-
rithm anJ, 214,
Wiolorich primos anJ,
235
lilonacci numlors, 18,
99, 101-106, 228,
Jivisilility proportios,
102-103, 150-151,
lilonacci composito
soguoncos, 105-106,
142-144, 16, Iucas
anJ, 104-106,
144-145
lilz, Antonio, 2
linJloy, Josh, 155, 203,
264
lorlos, Tony, 13, 35, 46,
132, 195
lorJ, Kovin, 219
lormulao lor primos, 31,
106-108, 160-161
lortunato numlors,
108-109
lortuno`s conjocturo,
108-109
{
lranol, J., 210
lranko, Jons, 204
lrugal numlors, 55
lung, Gillort, 136
Gago, Paul, 153, 154
Gallot, \vos, 22, 190,
240, 264
gaps lotvoon primos,
13, 109, 109-110, 139,
14, 183, 218-219,
230
GarJnor, Vartin, 149,
214-215
Gauss, Johann Carl
lrioJrich, 3-4, 45,
65, 110-113,
128-130, 183-184,
206, lormat`s Iast
Thoorom anJ, 189,
Gormain anJ, 223,
on primality tosting,
1-18, primo num-
lor thoorom anJ,
182, guaJratic roci-
procity lav, 3,
19-198
Gaussian intogors, 99
Gaussian primos,
112-113Gormain,
Sophio, 99,
223-224
Ghory, lmran, 13
Gillroath, N. O.,
113-114
Gillroath`s conjocturo,
113-114
Gilmoro, John, 55
GlVPS (Groat lntornot
Vorsonno Primos
Soarch), 56, 115,
153-155, 203
GirarJ, Allort, 93
Giuga`s conjocturo, 116,
Giuga numlors, 116
GolJlach, Christian,
11-119
GolJlach`s conjocturo,
23, 64, 11-119, 125,
130, 13
golJon thoorom, 19
Golos, Eric, 2
Goloml, Solomon,
16-1, 185-186
gooJ primos, 119
Gostin, G. B., 96
GourJon, Xavior, 183,
185
Graham, P. I., 105
Gram, J. P., 20
GranJ lntornot Olstinato
Numlor Soarch, 16
graph, primo numlor,
180-181
groatost common lactor
(GCD), 68-69
Groon, Bon, 14
GroonvooJ, Thomas,
228
griJ computing, 208
Grimm`s prollom, 119
Gutzvillor, V. C., 241
Guy, PicharJ K., 5, 106,
156, 226
HaJamarJ, Jacguos, 129,
134, 182
Hajratvala, Nayan, 115,
154
HarJy, G. H., 30, 49, 61,
108, 119-122, 123,
130, 138, 184, 200,
oxamplos ol trivial
proportios, 228,
Pamanujan anJ,
198-200, Piomann
hypothosis anJ, 20,
on tvin primos, 230
HarJy-IittlovooJ con-
jocturos, 33, 9,
121-122
harmonic moan, ol Jivi-
sors, 51
HarshaJ numlors, 163
Havkins, DaviJ,
148-149
Hoath-Brovn, Pogor, 13
Holonius, l. W., 13
Hollman, Vartin, 168,
193
Holm, Iouis K., 46-4
Houor, Daniol, 189
houristic roasoning,
123-124
highly composito num-
lors, 199-200
Hillort, DaviJ, 28,
124-125, 241
Hillort`s 10th prollom,
150-151
Hillort`s 23 prolloms,
28, 10, 124-125,
150-151
Histcr, cf t/c 1/ccr, cf
Av/crs (Dickson),
41-42
HoJgos, Iauront,
118-119
Hoggatt, Jr., Vornon, 102
Holoy primos, 229
homo primo, 125-126
Honakor, Jr., G. I., 41
HuJalricus Pogius, 152,
11
HuJson, PicharJ, 139
Hurvitz, A., 96, 154,
204
hypothosis H, 126, 195
lamllichus, 11, 11
lln al-Banna, 12
lln KhalJun, 11-12
lln Qurra, Thalit, 12
iccanolil primo, 228
illogal primo (DoCSS
coJo), 126-12
inconsummato numlors,
128
inJuction, 128-130
inlinito coprimo
soguonco, 104
inlinity, ol primo num-
lors, 16, 66-68
lnstituto ol Eloctrical anJ
Eloctronics Enginoors,
8-88
lntol Pontium micro-
procossor, 22
Iutrccvcticu tc Arit/-
ctic (Nicomachus),

Iutrccvcticu tc t/c 1/c-

cr, cf Av/crs, Au
(HarJy, Wright),
121
irrationality ol 2,
65-66
lvanov, Plamon, 201
JacguarJ, Josoph-Vario,
140
Jamos BonJ primos, 228
{
Jonos, J. P., 150
jumping champions, 131
Kac, Vark, 200-201, 202
Kaprokar, D., 163
Kayal, Nooraj, 8
Kollor, WillriJ, 82, 96-9,
101
Konnoy, Vargarot, 194
Korchnor, Chip, 190
Kitchon, Craig, 9
Kloinjung, Thorston, 204
knots, primo anJ com-
posito, 132-134
Knuth, DonalJ, 105-106
Koch, Eliso, 206
Kraitchik, Vaurico, 8,
88, 96, 146
k-tuplos conjocturo,
primo, 35, 42,
131-132
Kulik, J. P., 63
Kumar, PraJoop, 201
Kummor, Ernst EJuarJ,
99
Iagrango, J. I., 196, 23
Iamlort, Johann H., 188
IanJau, EJmunJ, 134,
208, 210
IanJry, lortun, 15, 95
Icts (Plato), 48-49
lolt-truncatallo primo,
134
logal issuos, ol DoCSS
coJo, 126-12
IogonJro, A. V., ,
134-135, 181-182,
19-198
IogonJro on lactoriza-
tion, 86-8
Iohmor, Dorrick Honry
(D. H.), 34-35, 38, 63,
5, 123-124, 130,
135-13, Iucas-
Iohmor tost, 135, 146,
158-159, on Pock-
lington`s thoorom,
15, on primo num-
lor thoorom, 185, on
psouJoprimos, 191
Iohmor, Dorrick Norman
(D. N.), 10, 63, 112,
135, 13, 22
Iohmor, Emma, 35, 38,
123-124, 130, 135,
22
Iohmor phonomonon,
209
Ioilniz, G. W., 23
Iommormoyor, lrank,
19
Ionstra, Arjon, 46, 96,
214
Ionstra, H.W., Jr., 96
Iovis, Kathy, 222
Iinnik, \uri
VlaJimirovich, 13
Iinnik`s constant, 13
Iiouvillo, Josoph,
13-138
IittlovooJ, John EJon-
sor, 120-122,
138-139, 183, 225,
230
IittlovooJ`s thoorom,
138-139
Iovolaco, AJa, 19
Iucas, JouarJ, 3, 15,
25, 95, 96, 104-106,
139-14, 152, Iucas-
Iohmor tost, 135, 146,
158-159, Iucas num-
lors, 15, 104, Iucas
psouJoprimos, 142,
Iucas soguonco,
142-144, Iucas`s
gamo ol calculation,
145-146, on primality
tosting, 144-14
lucky numlors,
14-149
Iucky Numlors ol Eulor,
8-9
magic sguaros, 39-40,
0, 140, 149-150
Vanasso, Vark, 46, 96
Varchal, Ioon, 81
Varkus, Vario, 2
Vartin, Grog, 6
Vassor, DaviJ, 6
Mct/ccticicus Ajcl-
cg,, A (HarJy), 120,
199, 228
Mct/cctics. Qvccu
cuc Scrtcut cf Sci-
cucc (Boll), 83
Vatijasovic, \uri, 10,
125, 150-151
VcDaniol, Wayno, 222
Vclntosh, PicharJ, 236
VcIaughlin, P. B., 96
Voissnor, W., 236
Vorklo, Palph, 168-169
Vorsonno, Varin, 0,
151, 152
Vorsonno numlors, 42,
46, 55, 144, 151-159,
Catalan`s Vorsonno
conjocturo, 25, Jis-
trilutoJ computing
soarch lor, 46, Elor-
hart`s conjocturo, 15,
lactorization ol, 84,
lactors ol, 15-158,
lilonacci numlors
anJ, 104, Iucas-
Iohmor tost anJ, 135,
146, 158-159,
Vorsonno primo con-
jocturos, 155-159,
Vorsonno primos, 55,
90, 115, 151, 152-159,
153-155, 11, 203,
264, Nov Vorsonno
conjocturo, 88, 156,
Tovor ol Hanoi anJ,
141, Wiolorich primos
anJ, 236
Vortons, lranz, 211
Vortons conjocturo, 211
Vortons constant, 159
Vortons thoorom,
159-160
Vihailoscu, ProJa, 25
Vills, W. H., 160-161
Vills` thoorom, 160-161
Vilnor, John, 2-3
Vishima, Hisanori,
239-240
Vollin, PicharJ, 1
Vontgomory, Hugh,
241-242
Vontgomory-OJlyzko
lav, 242-243
VoorhoaJ, J. C., 169
Vorrison, V., 96, 169
Vosor, Ioo, 32
Vountain primos, 229
multiJigital numlors,
163
{
multiplication, last, 1,
162-163
multiply porloct num-
lors, 12-14
Nash, Chris, 21
Nolson, Harry, 149
Novcoml, Simon, 18
Novman, D. J., 6
Nov PSA lactoring Chal-
longo, 215-216
Nicoly, Thomas P., 22,
110, 231
Nickol, Iaura, 153, 154
Nicomachus, , 11
Nivon numlors, 163
Noll, Curt, 153, 154
normal lav, 200
Norris, DaviJ A., 46-4
Nyman, Bortil, 110
olstinato numlors,
15-16
oJJ numlors: olstinato
numlors, 15-16,
Piomann hypothosis
anJ, 210-211, vritton
as j + 2c
2
, 164
oJJ porloct numlors,
12
OJlyzko, AnJrov, 208,
241-243
Oostorl, Josoph, 6
Oltikar, Sham, 222
Ou-Iiuc Euc,clcjccic
(Sloano), 220-221,
228, 263
Opporman`s conjocturo,
164
Paganini, Nicolo, 12
Paganini`s amicallo pair,
9, 12
palinJromic primos,
164-165
panJigital primos, 165
Pascal, Blaiso, 89
Pascal`s trianglo, 20, 141,
165-168
patonts on primo num-
lors, 168-169
Paxson, G. A., 96
Poll oguation, 89, 1
Ponroso, Pogor, 242
pontagonal numlors,
52-53
Ppin, Joan, 169
Ppin`s tost, 95, 169, 15
porloct numlors, , 9,
49, 68, 90, 10-14,
multiply porloct,
12-14, oJJ, 12,
somiprimos anJ, 21,
triangular, 228, uni-
tary, 234
pormutallo primos, 14
Porvushin, l. V., 96, 152
physics, 241-243
, Jocimal oxpansion ol,
14-15
Pickovor, ClillorJ, 16
Pimo, 229
Pisano, IoonarJo
(lilonacci), 101-106
Plato, 48-49
Ploullo, Simon, 20, 220
j/u1, ostimatingcalculat-
ing, 185
Pocklington, Honry
Calourn, 15
Pocklington`s thoorom,
146, 15
Poincar, Honri, 2, 30,
200
Polignac, Alphonso Jo,
15-16
Polignac`s conjocturos,
15-16
Plya, Goorgo, 31,
123-124, 189,
241-242
polynomial congruoncos,
196
polynomials, 45, 122,
196
Pomoranco, Carl, 5, ,
86, 88, 156, 19, APP
primality tost, 213,
Puth-Aaron numlors,
216-21, smooth
numlors anJ, 223
Poulot, Paul, 10
povorlul numlors, 6, 62,
16-1
primality tosting, 95,
1-180, 213, AKS
algorithm lor, 8-9,
olliptic curvo mothoJ,
56-5, Eulor on, 0,
Iucas on, 144-14,
prolalilistic,
19-180
primo circlos, 2
primo counting lunction,
181-186, rocorJ cal-
culations, 183-185
primo JocaJo, 132
primo lactors, 54
primo knots, 132-134
PrimoNot systom, 115,
154, 155
primo numlors: JolinoJ,
1-2, ol lorm 4u + 3,
6, 138-139, 141, 225,
ol lorm
2
+ ,
2
,
92-94, graph ol,
180-181, mixoJ
lag,` 161-162,
patonts on, 168-169,
rocorJs, 203-204
primo numlors raco,
138-139, 225
primo numlor thoorom,
61, 63, 98, 134, 149,
160,
181-186, Jistrilution ol
zoros in, 20
primo porioJs, 2
primo protonJors, 186
primo pyramiJ, 194-195
PPlVES is in P, 8-9
primitivo primo lactors,
16, 18
primitivo roots, 38,
18-188
primorial primos, 26, 29,
108-109, 131,
188-189
prizos. Scc contosts
prolalilistic primality
tosts, 19-180
prolalility thoory, 89
prolallo primo num-
lors, 19
propor Jivisors, 40
Proth, lranois, 189-190
Proth.oxo program, 190
Prothro, EJvarJ, 15
Proth`s thoorom,
189-190
psouJoporloct numlors,
190, 235
{
psouJoprimos, 24, 91,
130, 18-19,
190-192
psouJoprimos, strong,
192-193
pullic koy oncryption, 3,
29, 120, 168-169,
193-194, 212-216
P vorsus AP prollom, 29
pyramiJ, primo, 194-195
Pythagoras, 11, 243
Pythagoras`s thoorom, 5,
43
Pythagoroan trianglos,
primo, 195
guaJratic rociprocity, lav
ol, 3, 0, 100, 110,
125, 134, 19-198
guaJratic rosiJuos, 8,
195-196
guaJratic siovo, 88,
214-215
guantum computation,
88-89
guasi-porloct numlors,
11
Quino, W. V., 98
raJical ol u, 6
Pamanujan, Srinivasa,
120-121, 198-200,
200
ranJomnoss, ol primos,
60, 200-203
ranJom primos,`
148-149
rociprocals ol primos,
3-4, 159, 238-240
rocorJ primos, 203-204,
234
rocursivo soguonco ol
primos, 6-68
roJ numlors, 210-211
ropunit primos, 28,
38-39, 15, 204-205,
229, Domlo numlors,
41, Jigit proportios,
42, Smith numlors
anJ, 222
PhonJa numlors, 206,
222
Piomann, Goorg lrioJrich
BornharJ, 206-20
Piomann hypothosis, 2,
28, 31, 4, 63-64, 3,
11, 125, 138,
182-185, 203,
206-212, 241-243,
laroy soguonco anJ,
209-210, HarJy on,
120, Vortons conjoc-
turo, 211, /u1, sum
ol Jivisors lunction,
210, sguarolroo num-
lors, 210-211, zota
lunction, 20, 4, 182,
202-203, 20,
211-212, 225,
241-243
Piosol, H., 96, 154
Piosol numlors, 21, 212,
264
right-truncatallo primo,
212
Pivora, Carlos, 190, 231,
264
Pivost, PonalJ, 168,
212-216
Polinson, D. E., 189
Polinson, P. V., 154
Poonguthai, Warut, 35
Pouso Ball, W. W., 149
PSA algorithm, 3, 168,
194, 212-216, Nov
PSA lactoring Chal-
longo, 215-216
PSA Data Socurity, 168,
213
Pumoly, P. S., 213
Puth-Aaron numlors,
216-21
Sacks, Olivor, 83
salo primos, 224
Sato, D., 150
Saxona, Nitin, 8
Schalor, Vichaol, 203
Schork, H. l., 21
Schork`s conjocturo, 21
Schinzol, AnJrzoj, 22,
126, 195
Schlally, Pogor, 169
Schloyll, J., 11
SchnoiJor, Waltor, 41, 264
Schonago, A., 208
Schulz, Olivor, 2
Schur, lssia, 196
Sollorg, Atlo, 61, 98, 183
SollriJgo, J. I., 154
SollriJgo, John, 96, 204,
219
SollriJgo, Paul, 156, 16
Solvan, A. V., 242
somiprimos, 11, 42, 59,
118, 121, 215,
21-218, 230
Sovontoon or Bust pro-
joct, 46-4
soxy primos, 33, 218
Shalor, Vichaol, 115,
155
Shamir, AJi, 168,
212-216
Shank`s conjocturo,
218-219
Siamoso primos, 219
Siorpinski, Waclav, 6,
9, 126, 190, 195,
219
Siorpinski numlors, 21,
46, 219, Siorpinski`s
(u) conjocturo, 219,
Siorpinski`s guaJratic,
219, Siorpinski
strings, 219
Siorpinski`s gaskot, 141,
16
siovos, 136, ol Eratos-
thonos, 58-59, 84,
14, 18, guaJratic,
88, 214-215, Spocial
Numlor liolJ, 158
Silvorman, J. H., 236
Singmastor, DaviJ, 16
Sloano, Noil, 220-221,
228, 263
Sloano soguoncos, 14,
195
Slovinski, DaviJ, 153,
154
Smith numlors, 221-222,
229, Smith lrothors,
222
smooth numlors, 24,
222-223
sociallo chains. Scc
aliguot soguoncos
Sophio Gormain primos,
35, 42, 103, 15, 190,
223-224
Sorli, Pon V., 13
{
sguarolroo numlors, 6,
20, 24, 62, 224-225,
lormat numlors, 85,
Vorsonno numlors
anJ, 236, Piomann
hypothosis anJ,
210-211
sguaro root ol 2, irra-
tional, 65-66
Stanloy, Eugono, 201
Storn primo, 118, 225
Stornach, P. D. von,
202
Stioltjos, T., 63-64
Stirling, Jamos, 80
strong lav ol small num-
lors, 23, 31, 82, 106,
225-22
strong psouJoprimos,
192-193
sum ol Jivisors lunction,
210
Sun, Z. H. anJ Sun, Z.
W., 99-100
Sun Tsu Suan-ching, 26
suporalunJant num-
lors, 8
Suryanarayan, E. P., 219
Sylvostor, J. J., 32
Szokoros, Goorgo, 61
Tao, Toronco, 14
Tcholycholl, P., 135
To Piolo, Horman, 12
TijJoman, Polort, 25
titanic primos, 19
Toplic, VanlroJ, 13, 240
Total Dostiny, 88
totiont lunction. Scc
Eulor`s totiont lunc-
tion
Tovor ol Hanoi,
140-142
Travoling Salosman`
prollom, 213
triangular numlors, 32,
111, 129, 228
trivia, 221-222, 228-229
trivial zoros, 20
truncatallo primos, 40
Turn, Paul, 60, 61
Turing, Alan, 193
tvin primos, 22-23, 33,
42, 64, 119, 122,
229-232, 264, Poli-
gnac`s conjocturos
anJ, 15, Wilson`s
thoorom anJ, 23
Ulam, Stanislav, 14-149,
232
Ulam spiral, 232-233,
264
uniguo lactorization, 65
unitary Jivisors,
233-234, porloct, 234
untouchallo numlors,
235
Vallo Poussin, C.-J. Jo
la, 129, 134
Varona, Juan, 11
Viota, 90
VinograJov, l. V., 13
WaJa, H., 150
Wagstall, Stan, 156-15
Wall, D. D., 99-100
Wall-Sun-Sun primos,
99-100
WaylanJ, Koith, 222
WoJonisvski, Solastian,
4
voirJ numlors, 60, 235
Wostorn, A. E., 95, 96,
169
Wiolorich, Arthur Josoph
Alvin, 99, 235
Wiolorich primos, 6, 25,
95, 155, 235-236
Wions, D., 150
Wilansky, Allort, 221
Wilos, AnJrov, 2, 6, 31,
64, 98
Willans, C. P., 10
Williams, Hugh, 136,
204
Wilson, John, 236-23
Wilson`s thoorom, 10,
18, 236-23, Wilson
primos, 23
Wirth, Tolias, 204
Wolstonholmo, Josoph,
238
Wolstonholmo`s numlors
anJ thooroms,
238-240, 263
Woltman, Goorgo, 115,
154, 155, 13
WooJall, H. J., 240
WooJall primo, 240
WorlJ lntogor lactoriza-
tion Contor, 239-240
WorlJ War ll, 193
Wrathall, C. P., 96
Wright, E. V., 121, 161
Wright`s thoorom, 161
Xiao-Song Iin, 243
\arlorough primos, 229
\atos, Samuol, 19, 221
\oung, Jollroy, 204
zota lunction. Scc Pio-
mann hypothosis,
zota lunction
ZotaGriJ JistrilutoJ
computing notvork,
28, 4, 208
zota mystorios, 241-243.
Scc clsc Piomann
hypothosis
Zimmorman, Paul, 183
Zvillingor, Dan, 119
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