Key concepts in ELT

In this issue, the ELT Journal introduces a new feature for its readership: a glossary, in encyclopedic form, of key concepts in thefieldof English language teaching. The aim of this feature is to assist readers to develop an appreciation of central ideas in ELT and to approach the content of articles from a perspective informed by current debate on aspects of theory and practice.

awareness of what is involved in the process of learning a second language, which encourage learners to become more involved in and responsible for their own learning, and which help learners to develop and strengthen their strategies for language learning. Much of the research into learner strategies has held in view the perspective of the self-directed language learner, and has tried to establish whether it is possible to facilitate learning through the use of certain strategies or whether learners can modify their strategies and learn new, more effective ones. More work is currently needed in the field to investigate learner training for strategy use. Pedagogically speaking, there are now available discussions and suggestions for learner training programmes and materials. For example, Dickinson (1987) identifies two areas of preparation for self-directed learning: psychological preparation (i.e. building confidence to work independently of the teacher), and methodological preparation (i.e. acquiring the necessary abilities and techniques for such activities as self-evaluation). Other recent discussions of training, e.g. Ellis and Sinclair (1989) and Wenden (1991), are informed by strategy research: these attempt to provide a framework for learners to exploit in making their classroom learning more effective, and in building confidence and competence for more independent learning.

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Learner training
During the 1970s, methodological trends in ELT moved towards a perspective of adult learners as capable of self-direction, able to plan and organize their own learning, and able to proceed in language learning with the kind of self-reliance they develop in other areas of their lives. Knowles (1975), for example, claimed that: there is convincing evidence that people who take the initiative in learning (pro-active learners) learn more things and learn better than do people who sit at the feet of teachers, passively waiting to be taught (reactive learners). For reactive learners, becoming more autonomous seems to imply two things. Firstly, there is the need for a change in perception about what language learning involves and a change in the expectation that language can only be learned through the guidance of a specialist teacher. Secondly, there is the need for acquisition of techniques with which learners can manage their self-directed learning. Holec (1980) regards the learning process as a management process and includes the following among the necessary techniques of management: fixing objectives for learning, deciding on the content of a learning programme, selecting methods, self-monitoring of progress, and self-evaluation.

Further reading

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-Instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holec, H. 1980. Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning. Council of Europe. The teacher, then, might be assumed to have a Knowles, M. 1975. Self-Directed Learning. New York: Association Press. responsibility for fostering autonomy through a process of learner training. This can be defined as a Wenden, A. 1991. Learner Strategies for Learner set of procedures or activities which raise learners' Autonomy. Prentice Hall International. 92 ELT Journal Volume 4711 January 1993 Oxford University Press 1993

Learner strategies

Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin, 1987) defines learner strategies as 'any set of operations, steps, plans, routines, used by- the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information. That is, what learners do to leam and do to regulate their learning'. There is a useful distinction here between cognitive strategies (what learners do to leam) and metacognitive strategies (what learners do Early researchers into learner strategies (e.g. Naiman et al., 1975) acknowledged that observation alone to regulate their learning). yielded insufficient information about strategies, and Cognitive strategies are thought processes used consequently used interviews with learners. The last directly in learning which enable learners to deal with decade has seen a growing interest in using learners' the new information presented in tasks and materials introspections, and learner reports have formed a by working on it in different ways. For example, this major research instrument. However, this approach is extract from a learner's diary shows her using problematic and limited, as it can only investigate analogy in order to distinguish the meanings of verbs conscious strategies: research in the field still needs an effective methodology. in German. Today I learnt the distinction between wissen and kennen, i.e. 'to know'. I was pleased to discover that because of doing French (savoir and connattre) I was able to understand this point quite clearly. Analogy can be seen as part of the general strategy of deductive reasoning (Rubin, 1987); i.e. looking for rules in the second language on the basis of existing knowledge about language. Examples of other cognitive strategies are repetition, i.e. imitating a language model, and inferencing, that is making guesses about the form or meaning of a new item of language. Thus a learner might guess the meaning of 'drawer' in the sentence 'He kept the papers safely in a locked drawer of the desk' from the linguistic and meaning relationship between 'locked' and 'drawer', from the meaning link with 'safely', and from knowledge about the structure of desks and the nature of their use. Metacognitive strategies involve planning for learning, thinking about learning and how to make it effective, self-monitoring during learning, and 'selfevaluation of learning after the language activity is completed' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990). So, when learners preview the next unit of their course book, revise vocabulary noted down during a class, or read carefully through the teacher's comments on their written work, they are using metacognitive strategies to assist them in their learning. Two other categories are sometimes included in frameworks of learner strategies. When learners use gestures, mime, synonyms, simple explanations, paraphrases, and cognate words from their first language to make themselves understood and to

maintain a conversation despite the gaps in their knowledge of the second language, they are using communication strategies. The value of these is that they keep learners involved in practising the language. A further category relates to social strategies, those which provide learners with opportunities for practice, for example, initiating conversations with native speakers.

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There are additional problems for those who wish to investigate the literature on learner strategies. For example, there has been a proliferation of terms such as 'tactics', 'plans', 'techniques', and 'language processing strategies' with no easy equivalences among them. Also, different research studies have identified different strategies and different ways of categorizing strategies, so a variety of frameworks has developed. For example, each of the references given below for further reading presents a different framework for strategies. However, research into learner strategies has contributed strongly to the field of ELT by highlighting the possibility of learners becoming more self-reliant in their learning and by generating discussion of how learners can be trained for taking on more responsibility for their learning.

Further reading Naiman, N., M. Frohlich, H. H. Stern, and A. Todesco. 1975. The Good Language Learner. Modem Language Centre, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education: Toronto. O'Malley, J. M. and A. U. Chamot. 1990. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. 1990. Language Learning Strategies. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Skehan, P. 1989. Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold. Wenden, A. and J. Rubin. 1987. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Prentice Hall International. Tricia Hedge, January 1993

Key concepts in ELT

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