The Native American Native Americans (American Indians) make up less than one percent of the total U.S.

population but represent half the languages and cultures in the nation. The term "Native American" includes over 500 different groups and reflects great diversity of geographic location, language, socioeconomic conditions, school experience, and retention of traditional spiritual and cultural practices. Who were the Indians? The Indians north of Mexico spoke over 300 languages (some 50-100 are still spoken today), lived in tribes scattered across the continent. Had been living there for perhaps 30,000 years, came to North America during the last Ice Age across a strip of land exposed by the drop of sea levels in the area that is now the Bering Strait, probably following the big game he was hunting (from Siberia to Alaska). Cultural regions of North America: Northwest Coast, California, Southwest, Great Plains, Eastern Woodland Where do they live today? About half of the Indians live in large cities, rural areas, scattered throughout the US. The remainder live on about 300 federal reservations. The reservations comprise 2.5% of the land area in the US (52.4 million acres, 21 million hectares) Number of their population? Flood of European settlers: by 1776: 4 million whites, 600,000 blacks (mostly slaves). In 40 years the white population swelled to 12.9 million, blacks: to 2.5 million. As European civilization spread rapidly across the continent, the native population declined disease, warfare. By 1920, the Indian population had fallen below 350,000 Indians would vanish? Now about 1,9 million (betw. 1970-80 72% increase) Some groups: Pueblo of the American Southwest: peaceful, lived in busy towns, shared many storied buildings made of adobe (mud and straw) bricks. Grew scorn, squash and beans. Apache: their neighbors: lived in small bands hunted wildlife, gathered plants, nuts and roots. After acquiring horses from the Spanish, they made their living by raiding food and goods from their more settled white and Indian neighbors. Iroquois: fierce warriors, who surrounded their villages with wooden stockades to protect them from attack. Fought for the glory of their tribe and for the individual. Long house Indians on the North Pacific coast: harvested ocean fish and seafood. Tribes like the Haida lived in large plank houses with elaborately carved doorposts totem poles a record for the history of the family. Plains Indians: (Pawnee, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche and many other) e.g. The Sioux nation (the Lakota made up from 7 strong tribes) roamed on horseback, hunting the buffalo gave them everything they needed: meat, skin, fur, hides (to make the tepees), bones (for tools, knives). Clothing decorated with bead work, hair with eagle feathers) Fine craftworkers pottery, baskets, carvings, wove cotton and plant-fiber cloth. Travelled in small boat, on foot, travois. Different as they were, all tribes were greatly affected by the coming of the white man (with his firearms, iron cooking pots, horses, wheeled vehicles and with his diseases, to which the Indians had no immunities): changed the Indian way of life forever. Early encounters Spanish: early 1500s, Florida, California, southwest. Sent missionaries to bring Christianity and civilization, forced the Indians to labor in their fields, mines, houses. Other Europeans: French, Dutch came in search of profit, some to fish, or to trade with the Indians guns, iron tools, whiskey for beaver and otter pelts. Most often to establish new

homes, to farm, needed land. At first, the Indians were glad to share their land and food Thanksgiving first to celebrate were the Pilgrims, who gave thanks for having survived their first year in the harsh American wilderness. But only with the help from the Wampanoag and Pequamid Indians who shared corn with them, showed them where to fish. Later they gave seed corn to the English, showed them how to plant crops that would grow well in the American soil. Different approaches To the Europeans, much of the Indians land appeared vacant the Indians didnt improve the land with fences wells, buildings, or permanent towns. Many settlers thought the Indians were savages, felt they had the right to farm their lands. See, e.g. the case of Manhattan Island Unions King Philip, a Wampanoag chief rallied tribes against the Pilgrims in 1675. A year of bloody battles followed they could do little against the numerous colonists and their guns by 1700, few remnants were left of the tribes that had greeted the Pilgrims. The Iroquois (or Mohawks lived below Lake Ontario and Erie in Northern New York and Pennsylvania): in 1570, 5 tribes joined formed the League of the Iroquois (Ho-De-No SauNee) most democratic nation of its time. The League was a strong power in the 1600s and 1700s traded furs with the British, sided with the British against the French in the French and Indian war important help! The L. stayed strong until the Revolution then, for the 1st time, the council couldnt unanimously decide whom to support member tribes made their own decision losses great, the L. never recovered. Western Frontier After the revolution settlers ventured beyond the Appalachian Mountains to settle the wilderness (carved settlements out of the forests of Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio). Encouraged by the French and the British who were trying to retain control of the lands west of the US, Indians attacked frontier settlements struck back, sometimes massacring entire Indian villages. Indian warfare quickly became a part of frontier life. US gov. tried to keep peace by discouraging settlements beyond the mountains Northwest Ordinance, designed to regulate the settling of the new frontier but it was far away, good faith was rarely demonstrated Tried other ways to deal with the Indian problem basically: the Indian had to be either assimilated or removed farther west to make room for the European civilization the white Americans felt was destined to rule the continent: manifest destiny Since 1824 the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has been responsible for Indian lands, resources and programs. Pres. James Monroe felt that the Indians could only survive if they are removed to an area where they wouldnt be disturbed by the settlers given time to learn civilized ways, or to practice their own way of life, they could survive. 1830: Indian Removal Act: all Indians in the east would be removed to lands set aside for them west of the Mississippi River. The Cherokee ironically had already adopted many of the white mans ways owned large farms, brick homes in the state of Georgia, towns with shops, etc. Even developed a written language (Sequoyah) 85-character alphabet, printed Bibles and a newspaper. Adopted a constitution modeled on the US constitution. When gold was discovered on Cherokee land, pressure for removal mounted. A few Cherokees, not representing their nation, signed a treaty with the American gov. agreeing to the removal of the Cherokees. By force they were removed

from their homes and forced to march overland to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). 3-5 months, in all 4000, a quarter of them died. Trail of Tears 1803: Louisiana Purchase (from the Miss. To the Rockies) Indians were removed here. 15 ys later: war with Mexico won territory from Texas to Calif. 1849: gold discovered in California miners traveling to the gold fields often moved directly through the Indian Territory that was supposed to be undisturbed by whites trip took 6 months by horse-drawn wagon. 1869: transcontinental railroad finished: 6 days much easier for settlers to move westward. Broken Treaties The Sioux: whites began to settle the Plains lands first made treaties, giving up large pieces of their land gov. promised peace, food, schools, supplies e.g. The Fort Laramie treaty of 1868 declared vast lands between the Miss and the Rockies to be Sioux territory whites were prohibited from passing or settling. 6 ys later gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota considered sacred by the Indians. Treaty ignored. Gov offered to buy, but the S. refused (Crazy Horse: One doesnt sell the earth upon which the people walk.). The buffalo began to disappear the land they roamed was being fenced by farmers and ranchers, whites began to hunt the buffalo for sport and for its hide. 1850: 50 million, 1885: almost none. By 1871 the Am gov. had determined that no Indian nation or tribe should be recognized as an independent power. Pressured the Indians to give up their traditional way of life, to live only on reservations. Many resisted. Sitting Bull, eg. Sioux war: victory, eg. Custers Last Stand 1876: Little Big Horn River, whole company of cavalry was killed but the Indians could not live on the Plains without the buffalo to feed them half starved they eventually surrendered. The Ghost Dance a messianic movement grew belief among the Indians of a miraculous re-establishment of Indian supremacy and the return from the dead of ancient warriors. Indians from several tribes left the reservations and banded together: at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, bloody confrontation with American cavalry regiment: 300 deaths marked the end of all hope for a return to the Indians traditional way of life on the Plains. The reservation system By 1890: all of the West settled by cattle ranchers, farmers, townspeople no more frontier, most Indians were confined to reservations great suffering, due to poor management, inadequate supplies; diseases, poor condition a vanishing race. Forced to adopt white ways, forbidden to practice their religion, children sent to boarding schools away from their families. General Allotment Act of 1887, each Indian was allotted 160 acres to farm no desire to farm, unfertile lands, remaining lands sold to white settlers disastrous by 1934. 1924: Indian Citizenship Act passed: all Indians born within the US to be citizens (due to their contribution in WWI, politival pressure groups). In 1928 Herbert Hoover selected a Kaw Indian from Kansas as vice presidential candidate. 1934: New Deal: Indian Reorganization Act encouraged the Indians to set up their own governments, halted the policy of trying to persuade or coerce Indians to give up their traditional culture and religion 1946: Indian Claims Commission deal with unfair treatment or fraud. Operated for 32 ys, awarded 818 million dollars in damages. Mid-1960s: Indian Power movement to parallel the Black Power. In 1972, the American Indian Movement (AIM) and other Indian rights groups: protest march on Washington Trail of Broken Treaties, 73: Wounded Knee occupied for 71 days by AIM: demanded the return of lands taken in violation of treaty agreements.

Indian Rights groups still watch out for Indian interests. Some tribes sue the federal gov. for return of their lands and are awarded compensation. The Sioux in South Dakota sued for the return of the Black Hills, the sacred land taken from them in 1877, were awarded 122,5 million. Reservations Today Life on reservations varies greatly. Navajo reservation largest, poorest home for 160,000 Indians: gov. housing, mobile homes, hogans (8-sided, one-roomed log house with earthen roof). Many lack electricity, plumbing. Few jobs, very high unemployment Mescalero Apache in New Mexico one of the wealthiest, in high mountains the tribe owns and operates a logging company and a cattle ranch multimillion dollar businesses. Built a luxury resort. Most of them governed by a tribal council, run their own police forces, schools, courts for minor offences. Aim: to become self-supporting, attract businesses also natural resources! In the past, the bureau of Indian Affairs negotiated the leases between tribes and private companies developing reservation resources today tribes take a larger economic role Indians have mixed feelings. Will we dig out our mothers beautiful face to squeeze out this energy for ourselves and for others? Will we go that far? (chairman of the Navajo nation) My generation spent all our time learning the white mans ways. We mastered them, but we lost a lot of Indian heritage. Now we are trying to regain what we have lost. (college-educated great-grandson of a famous Apache warrior)