EARTHQUAKES& SEISMIC SAFETY

SEISMIC SAFE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

SUBMITTED BY MANSI BEDI B.ARCH, IV YEAR

SEISMIC SAFETY IN ARCHITECTURE

CONTENTS Certificate Acknowledgement Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION...5 Chapter 2 EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY...6

Chapter 3 SEISMIC VIBRATION IN BUILDING.12

Chapter 4 SEISMIC SAFE DESIGN PRINCIPLES.20

Chapter 5 SEISMIC SAFE ARCHITECTURE.29 Chapter 6 SEISMIC RETROFITTING..44

SEISMIC SAFETY IN ARCHITECTURE

CERTIFICATE

SEISMIC SAFETY IN ARCHITECTURE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I EXPRESS MY EARNEST THANKS TO MY TEACHERS- PROF. S. M. AKHTAR AND AR. NISSAR KHAN, FOR EXTENDING THEIR IMMENSE ESPOUSAL AND GUIDANCE THROUGHOUT MY DISSERTATION, RIGHT FROM CHOOSING THE TOPIC TO FINAL REPORT MAKING. I ALSO EXPRESS MY HEARTFELT GRATITUDE TO ARCHITECT SATISH GUJRAL AND ARCHITECT MOHIT GUJRAL FOR HAVING LENDING ME SOME SPACE IN THEIR TIGHT SCHEDULE TO ANSWER MY QUERRIES, TO MAKE MY DISSERTATION A SUCCESS.

SEISMIC SAFETY IN ARCHITECTURE

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Indian subcontinent is amongst the most disaster prone areas of the world and 54% of its land is vulnerable to earthquakes. Therefore safety of the buildings against the earthquakes is a very serious issue, which is dependent on the design concept chose by the architect. Thus seismic safety of any structure should be the utmost concern of an architect. Building and infrastructure failure during earthquakes is mainly due to non-compliance with the safety norms of the Bureau of Indian Standard Codes. You probably associate earthquakes with destruction caused by falling buildings or by the creation of tidal waves. While earthquakes may be associated with destruction in the time frame of human activity, in the evolution of the Earth they signal the geological forces that build our mountains and create our oceans. In many ways, earthquakes are one of natures reminders that we are living on the thin outer crust of a planet whose interior is still cooling.

o CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE Earthquakes are related to tectonic nature of the earth. The surface of the earth consists of seven major tectonic plates. The tectonic plates are in slow but constant motion. Plate boundaries glide past each other, creating frictional stress. When frictional stress exceeds a critical value, a sudden failure occurs. When the failure at the fault plane results in the violent displacement of the earths crust, the elastic strain energy is released and elastic waves are radiated, thus causing earthquake.

Figure 1: Plate tectonics

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Chapter 2 EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY

o FAULT:
The crust moves along the cracks called faults. A fault is a break in the earths crust. The crust can move in different directions depending on the type of fault. During an earthquake, the rocks on one side of the fault suddenly slip with respect to the other. The fault surface can be vertical horizontal some or or at

arbitrary

angle in between. The various faults are:NORMAL FAULT:

tension, a pulling force that causes the plate to move apart, can create a normal fault.
Figure 2: Types of faults

THRUST FAULT: - When the earths plates come together, they produce compression forces, leading to breaking and sliding of rocks causing earthquakes. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT: - At a strike slip fault, the rocks on either side of the fault slide past each other.

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o FOCUS:
Earthquakes occur in the crust or upper mantle, when a fault on or near the plate boundary slips abruptly due to slowly accumulating causing strain. pressure The point

where the fault first slips or rocks break is termed as focus or hypocenter.
Figure 3: Focus, Epicenter, Fault, Epicentral Distance

o EPICENTRE:
The point on the earths surface directly above the focus or hypocenter is called the epicenter.

o EPICENTRAL DISTANCE:
It is the distance of the epicenter of the earthquake to a site. The intensity of vibration at a site depends upon the epicentral distance. As the epicentral distance increases, the effect of shaking reduces and thereby the impact on the structure.

o WAVES DUE TO EARTHQUAKE:

Earthquake is caused by a sudden slippage or breakage of rock causing a massive release of energy due to long term build up of stress in the fault plane in the earths crust. The released energy travels in the form of waves through the earths crust and cause shaking. Different types of energy waves that are generated shake the ground in different ways and also travel through the earths crust at different velocities. The following waves are generated:-

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P-WAVES:

it is the fastest seismic wave,

which is longitudinal in nature. They travel like sound waves, transferring energy as the ground particles are pushed or pulled in the direction of wave propagation. Their speed varies between 1.5-8 km/sec. they can travel through solid rock and liquid. They can be transmitted into the air as sound waves and can be heard as low rumbling sound. S-WAVES: These travel at about half the
Figure 4: P-Waves

speed of P-waves. These are transverse waves that transfer energy as the ground particles vibrate perpendicular to the wave motion. These can travel through solid rock, but not through liquid or air. SURFACE WAVES: These are slowest seismic waves having complicated rolling motion. As these waves travel, their movement is more at the earths surface. Their movement gets smaller at greater depths below the earths surface. They take time and distance to develop. Their vibrations are small near the epicenter of earthquake, while further away they can be the main cause of ground shaking.

Figure 5: S-Waves & surface waves

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o MEASURING & RECORDING EARTHQUAKE:

Earthquakes are recorded by a Seismograph, which is fundamentally a simple pendulum. When the ground shakes, the base and frame of the instrument move with it, but the inertia keeps the pendulum bob in place. It will then appear to move, relative to the shaking ground. As it moves, it records the pendulum displacement that changes with time, tracking out a record called seismograph. An earthquake can be measured on the following scales: INTENSITY SCALE: Intensity is the measurement of the effect of shaking. It is a subjective scale and depends on its impact on people, objects, buildings and landscapes. The MedvedevSponheuer Karnik (MSK) is mainly used in Europe and India since 1964. The following is a brief description of MSK I to MSK II
Table 1: MSK intensity scale

MSK I MSK II MSK III MSK IV MSK V MSK VI MSK VII

The tremor is not felt by human senses, but detected and recorded by seismograph. Scarcely noticeable Weak, partially observed only. Largely observed Awakening Frightening In many buildings (reinforced buildings and well built wooden structures) slight damage is caused. Most buildings (reinforced buildings and well built wooden structures) undergo moderate damage. Many buildings (reinforced structures and well built wooden structures) undergo heavy damage. Many buildings (reinforced structures and well built wooden structures) are destructed.

MSK VIII

MSK IX

MSK X

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MSK XI

Severe damage even to well built buildings, bridges, water dams and railway lines. Landscape changes. Practically all structures above and below ground are greatly damaged or destroyed.

MSK XII

MAGNITUDE SCALE: The magnitude is the measurement of the size of earthquake. It is an indicator of energy release. It is not a linear scale. It was invented in Japan by Wadati in 1931 and developed by Richter in California in 1935. Magnitude of earthquake in Richter at A=log/O (Amplitude in micron) short period torsion seismometer (with a period of 0.8 seconds and magnification of 2800) damping nearly critical at an epicentral distance of 100 km.

Figure 6:Earthquake measured in Richter scale

The scales in the diagram above allow doing the mathematical computation quickly by eye. The equation for Richter Magnitude is: ML = log10A(mm) + (Distance correction factor)

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o SEISMIC ZONING : Earthquake hazard map of India is shown in the figure. The seismic risk (probability of

damage and losses depends on:1. Hazard or probability of the earthquake depends on the earthquake zone of the site. Depending on seismic history, tectonic and geologic features,

country is divided into four zones, viz., Zone II, Zone III, Zone IV, Zone V. zone V is zone the of most the
Figure 7: Seismic zones of India

seismic

country, i.e. more frequent and large magnitude earthquakes are more likely to occur in this zone. Thus buildings in this zone should be designed for higher seism forces. 2. Vulnerability of buildings depends on type of building (load bearing wall or frame structure), material of construction, age and condition of building, regular or irregular buildings, soil and foundation condition, occupants at various times of day etc.

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Chapter 3 SEISMIC VIBRATION AND BUILDING

The waves generated due to earthquake spread out from the epicenter. These waves strike the foundation of the building and induce vibration in them. According to the Newtons first law of motion, eve though the base of the building moves with the ground, the roof has the tendency to stay in its original position, due to inertia. But since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag the roof along.

Figure 8: Figure 8: Newton's first law

Figure 9: Seismic forces on building

The inertia force experienced by the roof is transferred to the ground through walls and columns, causing deformation in them. Such deformations develop lateral forces in the structural system.

Figure 10: Deformation of building during Earthquake

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o STIFFNESS:
Stiffness of a material is its resistance to deflection or drift. Bending stiffness is also the amount of effort required to cause the unit end rotations. Stiffness of a material depends on its modulus of elasticity, moment of inertia and length. Stiffness is given by:K = Where, 12 EI / L3

E = Modulus of elasticity I = moment of inertia L = length of column

Thus,

So, if you double the height of the column, L the stiffness gets reduced to 1/8th.

SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM:

Figure 11: Single Degree of freedom system

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While assessing the lateral displacement of portal against earthquake load, the roof weight and half the column weight are idealized as a lumped mass m and the spring represents the combined stiffness of the three columns. A portal system is idealized by assuming that the concentrated mass at the roof level is attached to the spring and is subjected to earthquake load F (t). This force while pushing the frame to cause the displacement will be resisted by the columns. The resistance of the column in turn depends on its stiffness represented by K1, K2, K3. TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM: In its idealized spring mass equivalent, storey stiffness1 is the summation of the stiffness of two columns on the ground floor (K1 + K2) and storey stiffness 2 is for the first floor (K3 + K4) and the total storey drift is d1 + d2. m1 represents the lump mass for the first floor and m2 for the second floor.

Figure 12: Idealization of two degree of freedom system

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o TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO SEISMIC VIBRATION:

UNDAMPED VIBRATION: The portal system if subjected to dynamic load like earthquake will

experience vibration. Usually the structural system offer resistance to such vibration, which dissipates energy and hence, it stops vibrating after some time. However, in theory, there may be systems, without dissipation of energy. The oscillatory motion in that case will continue forever with constant amplitude. Such a system is termed undamped. The effect of damping may be attributed to the effect of air drag forces, internal friction of molecules, imperfect elasticity of material, slippage etc. DAMPED VIBRATION: Damping is a process by which a structural system dissipates energy

when subjected to dynamic load, and stops vibrating after some time. Damping depends on non-structural as well as structural elements. Cladding, partitions and type of structural elements, can contribute significantly to damping. The three most common types of damping are usually defined as viscous, coulomb and hysteresis. Viscous damping is usually associated with bodies moving through fluids at low velocity. The coulomb or dry friction damping is associated with the sliding of bodies on dry surface.

Figure13: Damped and undamped vibration

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TIME PERIOD:

The time required to complete one cycle of motion about the stationary point

is called the time period. Greater the length of a building, greater the time period of vibration. FREQUENCY: Number of cycles completed per unit time. The shorter the length of building

higher the frequency and shorter the time period and greater the length of building, lower the frequency and greater the time period. NATURAL FREQUENCY: the frequency at which an object oscillates, when pushed by a single force or impulse and not influenced by any other external force or damping, is natural frequency of an object. An object may have more than one natural frequency called harmonics.

Where,

L = Length/height of building t = Time period of vibration = Frequency of vibration

Figure 14: Time period and frequency relation

Thus a short building will have a high natural frequency and a short natural period of time. Conversely, a tall building will have a low natural frequency and a long time period Building height 2 storey 5 storey 10 storey 20 storey 30 storey Typical natural period 0.2 seconds 0.5 seconds 1 second 2 seconds 3 seconds

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Figure 15: Thumb rule for period of vibration of building

RESONANT FREQUENCY:

When the frequency of disturbing force matches with the natural

frequency of an object, it will begin to resonate. This reinforces the vibration and makes amplitude larger. Structural resonances are a function of material, dimension, shape of the

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structure and end conditions. Resonance tends to increase the buildings response to earthquake and hence a building may suffer a greater damage.

o RESPONSE SPECTRUM:
Representation of buildings range of response to the ground motion of different frequency contents is termed as response spectrum. A response spectrum is a kind of graph that plots the maximum acceleration, response values of and

velocity

displacement against time period and frequency for a single degree of freedom system. As building period lengthens, and

acceleration

decreases

displacement increases. On the other hand, buildings with shorter period (low rise building) have higher natural frequencies. They undergo higher acceleration displacement. The following three graphs are but smaller

simplified version of a response spectrum. It shows the how building response varies with building

frequency and time period. AVERAGE RESPONSE SPECTRUM FOR DESIGN: A response spectrum shows the maximum response of a single degree
Figure 16: Graph showing response spectrum

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of freedom system to a particular ground motion. The design response spectrum in IS 1893, Part 1, 2002 is an approximation of an elastic response spectrum. It shows the response spectrum for several earthquakes and represents a kind of average spectrum for design. The Xaxis represents building period and Y-axis the Spectral acceleration, which is a factor of acceleration due to gravity. Spectral acceleration reduces rapidly with the height of building and for a particular period of building, it is minimum in hard soil.

Figure 17: Response spectra for rock and soil sites for 5% damping

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Chapter 4 SEISMIC -SAFE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The three most important properties of the seismic resistance of buildings are adequate strength, stiffness, ductility and appropriate building configuration:STRENGTH: It is the property of material to resist and bear applied forces within safe limit.

STIFFNESS: It is the degree of to deflection or drift (drift being a horizontal storey to storey relative displacement). DUCTILITY: It is the character of material to bend, flex, or move, but fails only after considerable deformation has occurred. BUILDING CONFIGURATION: This term defines a buildings size and shape, and structural and non-structural elements. Building configuration determines the way seismic forces are distributed within the structure, their relative magnitude and problematic design concerns.

o STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:
A building consists of two parts:

BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEM- that resists gravity and horizontal forces

supporting system Distribution system Spanning system

Opening system

that does not take part in load transfer like curtains, furniture, occupants etc. however significantly contributes to overall load of building

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM: transfers the load safely on to the soil within the safe limits of differential soils. SUPPORTING SYSTEM: supports the floor spaces/roof- masonry walls, RCC/steel columns.

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OPENING SYSTEM:

doors,

windows for light ventilation etc., RCC/stone arches. SPANNING SYSTEM: Floor space/
Figure 18: Four componets of structural system

lintels,

brick/

stone

roof supported on wall or beam could be made of RCC, RB The way spanning, opening and

distribution systems are assembled, determines Following the are structural different system. types of
Figure 19: Framed structure

structural systems:-

Figure 10: structural elements resisting gravity and horizontal forces

1. FRAMED STRUCTURE: A system of slab, beams and columns and footings with monolithic joints is a framed structure. Load is transferred from slab to beam to column to foundation to soil. The infill walls and partitions generally do not take part in load transfer. The following are different types of framed structure:-

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MOMENT RESISTING FRAME: In these frames, lateral forces are resisted primarily by the joints between the columns and the beams, which become highly stressed and their constructional detail is of prime concern. BRACED FRAME: Bracing generally takes the form of steel rolled sections, circular bar sections or tubes. Vibration may cause the bracing to elongate or compress, in which case it will lose its effectiveness and permit large deformations or collapse of the vertical structure. Ductility therefore must be designed into the bracing to create safe assembly. Braced frames may at as the shear wall, but they may offer lower resistance depending on their details of design and construction.

Figure 11: braced frame

2. LOAD BEARING WALL: In this system the load is transferred from slab to wall to foundation to soil. In a load bearing wall system, the slab rests on the wall, which acts as the continuous support. Joints between the walls and roof are not monolithic

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Figure 12:Deformation against earthquake forces, load bearing wall

3. HYBRID STRUCTURE: The merge of framed and load bearing wall system is called the hybrid structure. During the earthquake the two portions of the same building load bearing and framed structure will vibrate with different frequencies leading to cracks. The difference in the pattern of resistance of load bearing part and that of the framed system against earthquake should be considered in design of such a building. A gap separating the two portions will make the building seismic safe.

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o ISSUES OF SEISMIC SAFETY:

SHEAR WALL: The wall parallel to the direction of earthquake is called the shear wall. During the earthquake it can offer a great resistance. On the other hand, the wall perpendicular to the direction of earthquake is too weak to offer any resistance, and is called the transverse wall. Moment of, which is an indicator of resistance, is far greater for shear wall than in case of transverse wall. Shear wall is stronger than
Figure 13: openings in shear wall reduce its relative stiffness

transverse wall as former has greater depth in the direction of earthquake. Since the direction of earthquake is not fixed, thus, there is no fixed shear and transverse wall in a building. Therefore, providing long walls in both the axes of a building will enhance its seismic resistance. CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTRE OF STIFFNESS:

Figure 14: Torsion due to mismatch of centre of gravity and stiffness

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A structural system resists the applied forces through the centre of reaction, which is called the centre of stiffness. The structural and non-structural components in a building constitute the total load, thus, they have a combined centre of gravity. The combined centre of gravity usually does not coincide with the centre of stiffness, leading to torsion.

o SEISMIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES:

Seismic safe designs are based primarily on IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002. Thus it is essential for architects to be well aware of these safety requirements. The Design Basic Earthquake (DBE) is likely to occur at least once in the designed life of the structure. The Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) is the most severe earthquake effects considered by the IS 1893. The design approach adopted inthis code is to ensure that: 1. Structure possess atleast a minimum strength to withstand without damage the minor earthquakes (<DBE), which may occur frequently, 2. Resist moderate earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage though some non-structural damage may occur. 3. Withstand a major earthquake (MCE) without collapse.

EARTHQUAKE FORCE ON A BUILDING ACCORDING TO IS18923 ( PART I) : 2002

ITEM ONE

Z depends upon where your building is located

FROM TABLE 2 IS 1893 (PART I): 2002

Seismic zone Seismic intensity Z II low 0.1 III moderate 0.16 IV severe 0.24 V Very severe 0.36

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Design horizontal Seismic co efficient Ah = Z 2

ITEM 2 I importance Hospital, schools, emergency buildings = 1.5 And all other = 1.0
X

I X SA R g

ITEM 3 spectral acceleration coefficient Sa/g It depends upon the type of soil and the time period of a building that depends upon its height. Time period in second = no. of storey/10 Sa/g = 2.5 for building on all types of soil having period of vibration less than 0.5 seconds.

ITEM -3 R response reduction factor Depends upon ductile or brittle deformation Moment resisting frame: it is a frame in which members and Joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by flexure. Ordinary moment resisting frames: R=3 Special moment resisting frames: R=5

1. 2.

Load bearing masonry wall buildings Un reinforced=1.5

Reinforced with horizontal RC band=2.5 Reinforced with horizontal RC bands and vertical bars at corners of rooms and jambs of openings=3

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DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF Z, I, R AND Sa The formula for calculating Ah is as follows:

Design horizontal seismic co efficient

Ah = Z 2

I X SA R g

ZONE FACTOR Z From the seismic map in IS 1893, Part I, 2002 we can find out the earthquake zone whwere a building is located and accordingly adopt the coefficient Z from the table IMPORTANCE FACTOR I The importance factor of life-line building, e.g., hospital, schools, emergency building is 1.5 and all other it is 1.0. RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR R This depends upon ductile or brittle deformation and over-strength due to partial safety factor, etc. of a structural system. MOMENT RESISTING FRAME: It is a frame in which members and joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by bending. Following are the response reduction factors of two types of moment resisting frames: 1. 2. Ordinary moment resisting frame, which does not meet special detailing requirements for ductile behavior; R=3 Special moment resisting frames: specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with the requirements given in IS 4326 or IS 13920

LOADING BEARINGMASONRY WALL BUILDINGS 1. 2. 3. For un-reinforced masonry wall system; R=1.5 For masonry wall system reinforced with horizontal RC bands; R=2.5 For masonry wall system reinforced with horizontal RC bands and vertical bars at corner of rooms and jambs of openings; R=3. SPECTRAL ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT Sa/g

ITEM FOUR

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Sa/g in soft soil is higher than the rock. Sa/g reduces rapidly as the time period of the building increases. Sa/g is 2.5 for building on all types soil having time period of vibration less than 0.5 seconds.

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Chapter 5 SEISMIC SAFE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

o THE EIGHT ITEMS TO BE ASSURED BEFORE PROGRESSING WITH DESIGN:

CHECK THE FOLLOWING Soil WHAT IS TO BE LOOKED AT Is your site on a Type I ( rock or hard soil), Type-II ( medium soil) or Type-III ( soft soil) Consider the building system options Location of building on site Plan irregularities check the following
Reentrant corners Out of plane offsets Diaphragm discontinuity Non parallel system Vertical irregularities check the following Stiffness irregularities soft storey and extreme soft storey Mass irregularity Vertical geometric irregularity In- plane discontinuity in vertical elements resisting lateral force Discontinuity in capacity weak store

2 3

Site planning Configuration Take plans and sections of your building and check whether they have horizontal or vertical irregularities

4 5 6 7 8

Safe location of doors and windows staircase Adjacency Non-structural elements If one is making additions to existing structures

Check the dimensions and location of the openings Check the location of stair from main structure While designing two adjacent blocks remember that if they are too close they may lead to pounding Follow the instructions in section 6.7 Follow the instruction in section 6.8

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SOIL The intensity of shock due to an earthquake could vary locally while propagating through soils of different types and conditions. In addition, transmission of the shock into the building structures depends upon the type of foundation. IS 1893, Part I : 2002 have categorized soil into; Type I ( rock or hard soil, SBC > 30 tons/sq.m), Type II ( medium soil, SBC 10-30 tons/sq.m), Type III ( soft soil SBC < 10 tons/sq.m).
BUILDING SYSTEM OPTIONS ACCORDING TO SOIL CONDITIONS

SITE TYPE Soft soil ( long period) Hard site ( short period) Poor soils ( pile supported)

DESCRIPTION OF THE SUITABLE SYSTEM Use rigid building with short period) Use flexible building with long period Use light weight rigid building

EXAMPLE I Shear wall Ductile moment resisting frame Steel braced frame

EXAMPLE II Steel braced Base isolation Steel tube frames

LIQUEFACTION

One of the important considerations in earthquake- safe design and construction is liquefaction of soil. Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils, that is, soil in which the space between individual particles is completely filled with water. This water exerts a pressure on the soil particles that influences how tightly the particles themselves are pressed together. Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is readily moved with respect to each other. In such a case, the soil will have very little strength that will behave more like a liquid than a solid hence, the name liquefaction. The following methods may be adopted to

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reduce liquefaction hazards when designing and constructing new buildings: VLBROFLOTATION: it involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate granular soil to depths of over 30m. The vibrations of the probe cause the grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil surrounding the probe. To treat an area of potentially liquefiable soil, the vibroflot is raised and lowered in a grid pattern. DYNAMIC COMPACTION: Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 15m to 30m. It provides an economical way of improving soil for mitigation of liquefaction action hazards.

o SITE PLANNING
Do not build on filled-up soil. Excavate till hard soil - keep the minimum depth of foundation 600mm.

BUILDING CONFIGURATION:

When we design a building, we deal with the plan and massing. While doing that we regulate the centre of gravity and centre of stiffness of the building. Torsion is developed in a building if the centre of gravity and the centre of stiffness do not coincide. Torsion will be induced in a building due to the presence of two building blocks of different stiffness, such as in an L shaped buildings.

If two buildings stand isolated, they will deflect individually as shown in dotted lines. However if they are joined as shown, torsion will be induced in the building. If the walls and other elements in all the floors ere symmetrically placed and if all the bays are of equal number and height, the CC of mass will coincide with the centre of stiffness.

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Figure 15: l shaped building develops torsion

PLAN IRREGULARITIES There are five checks to avoid plan irregularities: 1. REENTRANT CORNERS one can avoid irregularities provided that the

projection A is not greater than 15% of the length in that direction. If they are more than the restriction shown in figure then one can isolate the irregularities as shown below.

2. DIAPHRAGM DISCONTINUITY diaphragms are horizontal resistance elements such as floors and roof, which transfer the lateral force between the vertical resistance

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elements (shear walls or frames). Basically, a diaphragm acts as a horizontal I-beam. That is, the diaphragm itself acts as the web of beam and its edges act as flanges.

Figure 16: insert diaphragm discontinuity by keeping area AB <50%

3. OUT OF PLANE OFFSETS

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4. NON PARALLEL SYSTEM

Figure 17: avoid non parallel shear walls

VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES: There are five checks to assess vertical irregularities: 1. STIFFNESS IRREGULARITIES - Soft storey can be avoided by keeping lateral stiffness of a storey > 70% of that of the storey above or > 80% of the average lateral stiffness of the 3 storey above.The columns and beams of soft storey are to be designed for 2.5 times the storey shears and moments neglecting the effect of infill watts in other storey.

One can avoid it by keeping the stiffness of storey A > 70% of the stiffness of storey B Or Stiffness of A > 80% of the stiffness of ( B+C+D)/3

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In addition to this, the shear walls placed symmetrically in both directions in a building will increase its stiffness. The shear walls should be as far away as possible from the centre of the building. Shear wall are designed to receive lateral forces from diaphragms and transmit them to the ground. The forces in these walls are predominantly shear forces in which the fibers within the wall try to slide past one another. Shear wafts, in particular, must be strong in themselves and also strongly connected to each other and to tie horizontal diaphragms.

A building will be an extreme soft storey if the lateral stiffness a floor A < 60% of B-the storey above Or Stiffness of A < 70% of the stiffness of (B+C+D)/3

2. MASS IRREGULARITY - A building will have mass irregularity if the seismic weight of any storey is greater than 200% of its adjacent storey. This is not Applicable for roof.

3. IN-PLANE DISCONTINUITY IN VERTICAL ELEMENTS RESISTING LATERAL FORCE - An in plane offset of the lateral force resisting elements should not be greater than the length of those elements

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4. VERTICAL GEOMETRIC IRREGULARITY - This type of irregularity will occur if the horizontal dimension of the lateral force resisting system in any storey Is greater than 150% of that to Its adjacent storey.

5. DISCONTINUITY IN CAPACITY - Weak storey will occur if the storey lateral strength is less than 50% of that in the storey above. The storey lateral strength is the total strength of all seismic force resisting elements sharing the storey shear in the considered direction.

OTHER MEASURES: BASE ISOLATION Base Isolation is a state-of-the-art design strategy that substantially decouples (isolates) a building from the damaging effects of earthquake ground motion. It can be used to dramatically reduce earthquake forces by factors of

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5 to 10 on mid-rise buildings (2-15 stories tall), and make a Magnitude 8.0 earthquake seem like a much less damaging Magnitude 5.5 event. A base-isolated structure is one supported by isolation elements--generally bearings or sliders-that are typically placed between the building and its foundation. An appropriate analogy would be the relationship between automobiles and their suspension system of springs and shock absorbers, which cushion the occupants from a bumpy ride.

MASS DAMPENERS:

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o ADJACENCY
While designing two adjacent blocks remember that if they are too close it may lead to pounding. Pounding can be avoided by keeping a safe gap between buildings which depends upon the storey height and response reduction factor "R". Following are some of the R values adopted from Table 7 of IS J893 (Part-1) 2002. FRAMED STRUCTURE 1. Ordinary moment resisting frames that do not meet special detailing requirements for ductile behavior; R=3. 2. Special moment resisting frames which are specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with the requirements given in IS 4326; R=5. Load bearing masonry wall buildings Un-reinforced; R =1.5 Reinforced with horizontal RC band; R =2.5 Reinforced with horizontal RC bands & vertical bars at corners of rooms and jambs of openings; R- 3 The storey drift in any storey due to maximum specified design lateral force, shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey height To avoid damaging contact the separation joint in between two adjacent buildings or two adjacent units of the same building shall be; =R X the sum of the calculated storey displacements (0.004 times the storey heights). When the floor levels of two similar adjacent units or buildings are at same level, the factor R in this requirement may be replaced by R/2.

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Figure 18: A sum up of major principles

o SEISMIC SAFETY OF DOORS AND WINDOWS

OPENINGS IN LOAD BEARING WALL STRUCTURE

If doors and windows are placed too close to the wall ends or the gap between door and window is too narrow cracks will appear.

Safe location of doors and windows in masonry buildings

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ONE STOREY W1 + W2 + W3 Not > L/2

TWO STOREY Not > L/2.4

THREE STOREY Not < L/3

OPENINGS IN FRAMED STRUCTURE The transverse wall will behave as a two way slab and the openings may develop cracks at corners. This can be avoided by providing lintel and by using steel dowels in masonry work ensuring anchorage with the slab, roof and columns. STAIRCASE Isolation of staircase from the building will eliminate most of the problems associated with earthquake. While providing a gap between the staircase slab and the roof makes the building safe, one has to work out an appropriate architectural detail to protect the joint from rodent, rain water,
Figure 19: forces inducing torsion in stairs

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o NON STRUCTURAL DAMAGE CONTROL

All items, which are not part of the structural system, are considered as "nonstructural", and include such building elements as: Exterior cladding and curtain walls Parapet walls Canopies Chimneys and stacks Partitions, doors, windows Suspended ceilings Routes of exit and entrance Mechanical, Plumbing, Electrical and Communications equipment Elevators Furniture and equipment These items must be stabilized with bracing to prevent their damage or total destruction. Building machinery and equipment can be outfitted with seismic isolating devices, which are modified versions of the standard Vibration Isolators. The following are the recommendations of IS 1893 (Part-1) 2002 on some of the non-structural items in buildings.

VERTICAL PROJECTIONS - Tower, tanks, parapets, smoke stacks (chimneys) and other vertical projections attached to buildings and projecting above the roof shall be designed and checked for stability for five times the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified above. In analyzing the building, the weight of these projecting elements will be lumped with the roof weight. HORIZONTAL PROJECTIONS - All horizontal projects like cornices and balconies shall be designed and checked for stability for five times the design vertical coefficient specified in 6.4.5 of IS 1893 (Part-1), 2002.

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o EARTHQUAKE SAFETY MEASURES WHILE RENOVATING A STRUCTURE:

1. An addition that is structurally independent from existing structures shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the seismic requirements for new structures. 2. An addition that is not structurally independent from and existing structure shall be designed and constructed such that the entire structure conforms to the seismic force resistance requirements for new structures unless the following conditions are complied with: The addition shall comply with the requirements for new structures The addition shall not increase the seismic forces in any structural elements of the existing structure by more than 5% unless the capacity of the element subject to the increased force still in compliance with IS 1893, and The addition shall not decrease the seismic resistance is equal to or greater than that required for new structures.

o BUILDINGS THAT FAILED OR DAMAGED DURING EARTHQUAKE

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o EARTHQUAKE PROOF BUILDINGS:

THINGS THAT MAKE A SEISMIC-SAFE MASONRY BUILDING: Light weight buildings with shear waifs in both the axes Structural integrity between foundation, wall and roof, proper bonding at comers, Tjunction, etc Masonry cannot withstand tension. Therefore, it requires vertical reinforcements at corners, openings and vertical reinforcements at plinth, lintel roof Adequate quality of construction and good design makes a building seismic-safe Asymmetry in plan and elevations result in torsion in buildings Asymmetry in plan may be made symmetric by providing gaps in the building as shown in Figure 6.5 Large openings and their locations close to the wall end weakens them against earthquake forces Adequate quality control during construction THINGS THAT MAKE A SEISMIC-SAFE RC BUILDING: Architectural design having lateral load resisting system such as shear walls integrated with the frame Adequate quality control during construction Adequate ductile detailing of reinforcement in beams, columns, beam column joints Adequate diaphragm action of roofs and floors Adequate treatment of non-structural components like infill masonry walls, staircases

o BUILDINGS THAT SURVIVED DURING EARTHQUAKE

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Chapter 6 SEISMIC RETROFITTING

Seismic deficiencies in buildings may arise at: 1. 2. 3. planning stage due to faulty configuration and irregularities, structural design stage due to inadequate strength and ductility, and Construction stage due to faulty construction practices.

Such buildings could be upgraded to the latest standards (BIS codes) of seismic-safety and the process involved is called retrofitting.

o EVALUATION OF AN EXISTING BUILDING TO CHECK ITS STRENGTH AGAINST FUTURE EARTHQUAKES:

A building is designed based on the three pillars of architecture, i.e, utility, strength and aesthetics. Out of these three, the objective of the middle pillar is to make a building safe so that it can resist the expected forces such as gravity, wind, earthquake, etc. The last few chapters were focused on that

However, there may be a need to study the safety of an existing building to determine how it will respond to given forces. This is called evaluation. The evaluation of strength of an existing building may be required for the following reasons. If the building was not designed and executed according to the Bureau of Indian Standards' relevant codes If the codes on seismic, wind, etc. are upgraded If the seismic/wind zones are upgraded based on latest knowledge on the subject Loss of strength of the structure due to aging Addition and (or) alterations to an existing structure adversely affecting its required strength

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Increase in loads due to the change in the use of the building

SEISMIC RETROFITTING

Seismic retrofitting is the intervention to upgrade the seismic resistance of an existing building so that it attains the intended seismic performance level. It includes:

Removal of irregularities and asymmetry Increasing the strength by adding new members, shear walls, bracing Reducing load, if possible Strengthening of structural elements and increasing ductility of members etc. Earthquake demand reduction by base-isolation or energy dissipation

The decision on the need for retrofitting interventions of a building is determined based on "Preliminary Evaluation", which may call for a "Detailed Evaluation".

PRELIMINARY EVALUATION Rapid Visual Screening (RVS) Approximate method of checking the strength and stiffness Recommendations

DETAILED EVALUATION Data collection and condition assessment of building According to the IS-1893 linear dynamic analysis-response spectrum analysis and nonlinear static analysis-push-over analysis are adopted for detailed analysis of structures against earthquake.

For the architects the rapid visual screening will be an important tool for assessing the seismic health of a building. Following are the objectives of rapid visual screening.

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1. 2.

To develop building-specific seismic vulnerability information. To identify simplified retrofitting requirements for a particular building, where further evaluations are not required.

3.

To identify if a particular building requires detailed evaluation for assessment of its seismic vulnerability.

4.

By plotting the buildings on a city map according to the type of vulnerability one can be proactive regarding the city's seismic rehabilitation requirements. This will enable one to develop seismic risk management program for a city.

o IMPORTANT ISSUES OF RETROFITTING

Retrofitting may be cost-effective to upgrade an existing building to make it seismicsafe. Retrofitting of an existing building may be very difficult to upgrade it to the same standard as prescribed in the latest seismic code for a new building. Retrofitting of the heritage buildings needs very special attention. It is Important to note that the existing undergraduate engineering and architecture course curricula are primarily RCC and steel based. This is not conducive for the retrofitting of masonry domes, vaults, arches, etc. with authenticity and respect to the ancient wisdom. Retrofitting of non-structural elements in buildings Is very important.

EXAMPLES OF RETROFITTING

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