Random #ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Search
HomeDictionary+ Handbook Institutions

Save

Photonics Handbook > OTDRs

OTDRs
Finding the Weak Spots in Fiber Links
Michel Leclerc and Vincent Racine, EXFO The optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is used to characterize a fiber optic span. It performs single-ended tests and can calculate fiber attenuation and uniformity and splice and connector losses. It can also locate breaks and determine fiber length. Its ability to locate and measure reflectance and loss makes it the troubleshooting and fault locating equipment of choice. New generation OTDRs include advanced functions such as macrobend location, active-fiber testing and automatic trace acquisition. An optical time-domain reflectometer sends short pulses of light into a fiber and measures its reflections as a function of time. The delay of these reflections to the detector as well as their intensity tells the story of the fiber link itself. This time lapse between pulse launch and detection, in relation to the speed of light in the glass material, allows distances to be calculated and events to be characterized. An OTDR calculates distance as: d = (c t)/2(IOR) where c is the speed of light, t the round-trip travel time and IOR the index of refraction of the fiber under test as specified by the manufacturer.

Figure 1. Lasers and detectors are key elements in an OTDR. An OTDR comprises a microprocessor, a pulse trigger and generator, a laser diode, an optical coupler, a detector, an analog-to-digital converter and a display (Figure 1). When the test button is pressed, the microprocessor sends a set of instructions to the trigger and generator that tells the laser to send a pulse. The pulses then pass through the directional optical coupler to the OTDR port and into the fiber being tested. Typically, an OTDR will be equipped with two, three or even four lasers, specified at the main transmission windows. When testing multimode fiber, these windows are located around 850 and 1300 nm. For single-mode fiber, they are around 1310 and 1550 nm. OTDRs designed for specific applications, such as fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), also include the 1490 nm wavelength. Legacy OTDRs are designed to test inactive fibers also called dark fibers and are normally used during the construction phase or when troubleshooting fiber sections that are not carrying traffic. New generation OTDRs can offer filtered ports, designed to measure fibers that are carrying live traffic signals, i.e., active fibers. A live-fiber-testing OTDR uses a laser generating at 1625 or 1650 nm and a filter, which prevents transmission wavelengths from interfering with the OTDRs optical components. As the pulse travels down the fiber, two phenomena occur: Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflections. Rayleigh scattering results from minute variations in fiber density such as inconsistencies in the index of refraction. Small amounts of light reflect from each point in the fiber toward the transmitter. Fresnel reflections occur when the light traveling down the fiber encounters abrupt changes in material density that may occur at connections or breaks where an air gap exists. A large amount of light, compared with the Rayleigh scattering, is reflected. The strength of the reflection depends upon the degree of change in density. The returning signal, therefore, consists of both Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflections. The power level of the Fresnel reflection is tens of thousands of times stronger than the Rayleigh scattering. At the OTDR, the optical coupler directs the reflected signal away from the originating laser and into the detector (either avalanche photodiode or PIN). The signal passes through the analog-to-digital converter to the microprocessor for analysis and display. The processor then averages the data to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and displays the points that

make up the fiber trace or waveform (Figure 2). The trace is a collection of tens of thousands of sampling points. Because of the OTDRs limited display resolution, not all of these data points can be displayed on screen at the same time. When the full trace is being displayed, each point on the screen represents an average of a dozen sampling points.

Figure 2. A typical OTDR trace comprises tens of thousands of sampling points. An OTDRs performance can be accurately evaluated by briefly examining the following key specifications: Dynamic range describes the loss and distance measurement capability. Measured in decibels, it is the difference between the backscatter level at the front end of the fiber and the noise floor at the end of the fiber. Because the length of the pulse width determines how much optical energy is injected into the fiber, larger pulse widths correspond to greater dynamic range specifications. Measurement range is defined by Bellcore as the maximum attenuation that can be placed between the OTDR and the event being measured, and still allow measurement within acceptable accuracy limits. Therefore, the OTDR must be able to see and measure the loss of an event within the specified measurement range. Dead zones result from a temporary blinding of the detector following a reflective event. They occur when the high return power from Fresnel reflections saturates the detector, and they are associated with every reflective event. An OTDR cannot detect or measure events in the dead zone. Event (or reflective) and attenuation (or nonreflective) are the two main types of dead zones. The event dead zone represents the minimum distance between the beginning of a reflective event and the point where a consecutive reflective event can be detected. The attenuation dead zone is the minimum distance after which a consecutive reflective event attenuation measurement can be made. To compare dead zones, data must be specified for a reflectance level and pulse width. Other specifications associated with dead zones are the front-end and network resolutions. Front-end resolution signifies that a reflective event can be detected at a specified distance from the front-end connector and that a nonreflective event can be measured at a specified distance. Network resolution is a similar test performed on events outside the front-end resolution range. Sampling resolution, also known as measurement resolution, is the separation between two consecutive data acquisition points. It can be determined by the distance range selection as a function of total sampling data points. For example, an acquisition performed with 32,000 sampling points over a distance of 160 km provides a sampling resolution of 5 m. Accuracy represents the difference between the value measured and the true value. Two types of accuracy are of interest: loss and distance. Linearity is used to judge loss accuracy because the measurement quantity is not an absolute value. Linearity is specified as a decibel offset per decibel in reference to the dynamic range.

Distance accuracy performance includes three factors: calibration, clock stability and fiber refractive index uncertainty. The distance accuracy also is affected by the sampling resolution; a better sampling resolution improves the probability of sampling points coinciding with faults. Test parameters Testing starts with the verification and adjustment of operating parameters. Preliminary settings include fiber type (single- or multimode), wavelength, index of refraction and helix factor for multifiber cables. The three main parameters are distance range, pulse width and acquisition time (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Main OTDR test parameters. Distance indicates fiber length and is displayed on the screen. It is usually set greater than the length under test. Width is the duration in time (and distance) of the pulse launched into the fiber and is predetermined for specific distance ranges (e.g., shorter widths for shorter distances). For maximum resolution, select the shortest width that can reach the fibers end. Shorter widths can characterize events closer to the input end of the fiber and resolve two closely spaced events. Longer widths launch more energy into the fiber and reach a greater distance; however, they generate larger dead zones. Acquisition time affects trace quality. Thousands of pulses are launched to perform a single acquisition and to average each sampling point. An OTDR removes noise from the data through an averaging process. The longer the averaging time, the less noisy the resulting trace will be. In automated mode, the user runs the software with minimal setup. The OTDR automatically selects pulse width and distance range, optimized for the fiber under test as well as a standard acquisition time. It provides processing and output. Interpreting results The basic elements in a fiber profile are reflective and nonreflective events, gains and roll-offs. All the events and fiber sections located by an OTDR are listed in a result table (Figure 4), which shows the type of event, distance, loss, reflectance and attenuation.

Figure 4. Data developed by an OTDR reveal details of a fiber link.

The reflective element concerns connectors, mechanical splices, breaks or the fiber end, and is recognized by a spike on the trace. The higher the spike with respect to the backscatter levels, the greater the reflectance. Nonreflective elements are caused by fusion splices or bending, which stress the fiber and cause light to escape. A discrete drop in backscatter level recognizes them. Optical gain may occur at a splice instead of a loss; however, it is not a true increase in optical power. There are two main reasons: Optical gain is seen when backscatter level increases between the first and second fiber sections because of refractive index differences; and fiber core diameter differences cause gain from the smaller fiber to the larger fiber. True loss data for events showing gain are calculated through bidirectional trace analysis as the average between the gain and corresponding loss of the event in the reverse direction. The end of the fiber can be viewed as a reflective or nonreflective event. An end-of-fiber condition is characterized by noise after the event. Otherwise, a backscatter level indicates a break and not the actual fiber end. A fiber end or broken fiber may not necessarily be reflective because of the nature of the end connector or break. For example, the end of the fiber can be displayed by a roll-off caused by the presence of gel or water. Many reflective events in a fiber can cause ghost reflections, or echoes. In addition to the fibers reflective components, the OTDR itself may reflect light into the fiber. The light bounces back and forth within the fiber, causing false reflections at multiple distances from the true reflection. The reflections may appear within the fiber span itself or after the length of the fiber. Echoes do not exhibit losses. OTDR software can distinguish between actual events and possible echoes. Measurement methods An OTDR is both a troubleshooting and measurement tool. The measurement capabilities include twopoint loss, end-to-end loss, splice loss, section attenuation and distance measurement. Calculating the difference between the power levels of any two points determines the two-point loss measurement. End-to-end loss also is measured by the two-point method. Note that the end-to-end loss measurement is not as accurate as an optical loss test set measurement since the OTDR measurement is based on the reflected power and not on the actual transmitted power. Coarse attenuation loss and splice-loss measurements also can be made using the two-point method. Splice-loss measurements are performed most accurately with the splice-loss measurement method, where loss is defined by a four-point boundary. The main markers are placed before and after the event, and the submarkers are placed beyond the main markers and do not include any additional events (Figure 5). The loss is calculated using least squares approximation.

Figure 5. The splice-loss measurement method provides accurate loss information.

Attenuation measurements calculate the loss per distance based on a least squares fitting of the section. The section of fiber should not include any events within the marker limits so as not to artificially shift the line interpolation. Distance can be measured using any of the cursor placement methods described above. When interpreting distances, the actual distance is the length of the fiber and not necessarily the cable. The fiber can be longer than the cable if it is wrapped in a helical pattern. To account for this, the index of refraction may be adjusted to scale the distance or a helix factor can be entered as an operating parameter.

Reducing FTTH OPEX with the Intelligent Optical Link Mapper (iOLM) Mario Simard, Senior Product Manager, Optical Business Unit, EXFO Just five years ago, CAPEX reduction was the lingering thought in every telcos mind. Now, with no end in sight to the increase in bandwidth demand, operators must radically boost network capacity, while pursuing the equally vital objective of cutting back on OPEX. Since bandwidth demand is growing much faster than revenues, providers have no choice but to massively and rapidly shift toward FTTH deployments, and hire numerous new technicians, many of which are migrating from a copper background to fiber-plant testing. These moves can initially be costly for two main reasons. First, former copper technicians generally lack fiber-testing knowledge, which increases training time. And second, there are fewer experienced technicians who can efficiently test and troubleshoot fiber. With the number of fibers to be tested, chances are that some will be misdiagnosed or wrongly characterized, leading to turn-up and troubleshooting failures, and ultimately additional truck rolls which have a nagging, upward effect on OPEX. Solving These Conflicting Challenges Although the above-mentioned challenges are not avoidable, their OPEX repercussions might very well be. To help providers efficiently address the lack of experience and the unnecessary truck rolls, LinkAware technology was developed and built into a newly available solution, the intelligent Optical Link Mapper (iOLM). This completely automated technology uses advanced algorithms ensuring that all elements of a link are fully and accurately characterized, with the end result of enabling operators to avoid costly turn-up and troubleshooting missteps, future-proof their networks and really cut down their OPEX. Two Traditional Test Methods: OLTS and OTDR There are two main methods traditionally commonly used for testing FTTH networks, both of which have their pros and cons. The first, based on the optical loss test set (OLTS), is very user-friendly, delivering fast and straightforward loss, ORL and continuity measurement results at the touch of one button. However, the OLTS approach requires two technicians, one of which must have some experience in identifying potential problems such as macrobends on a link. In addition, should a problem be detected, a more experienced technician must be called upon to locate and fix the faults (with an OTDR). The second method uses the optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) to perform a single-ended measurement with only one technician. In addition to delivering the same information as an OLTS, the OTDR has the capability to characterize each event. In other words, any fault detected bad connector, bad splice, macrobend, etc. can easily be located and qualified. The OTDRs downside?

The skill set required to operate it. In fact, the technician operating the unit makes a huge difference, as the interpretation of traces and test results depends entirely on the users experience and ability to select the proper test parameters. Only expert technicians can execute all the OTDR test tasks accurately, and it may take years to reach that status which is a major issue in the current context of massive FTTH deployments. To make things even worse, FTTH is the most challenging type of link to test with an OTDR. Detecting and measuring closely spaced events and short fibers spans on the ONT side (drop fiber) while measuring large localized loss caused by splitters is a difficult task. There is no optimal pulse to extract all information from an FTTH link. Running a quick test with an OTDR only gets a fraction of the available information. Therefore, the only way to obtain the full information is to perform several OTDR measurements with different OTDR pulses. Failure to do so can lead to incomplete network characterization, several problems going unnoticed, and ultimately to repeat truck rolls. Testing an FTTH Link With an OTDR Recently, EXFO surveyed 10 companies involved in fiber optic deployment. Results show that those companies have an average of 5% to 10% of repeat truck rolls mainly due to fiber mischaracterization or lack of a diagnosis. Repeat truck rolls can be minimized when testing is optimized. In theory, this can be achieved by assigning an experienced technician to the task. Below is a typical example of such a situation. The technician starts by using a short pulse width to qualify the first part of the link, probably up to the splitter, to make sure that the front-end connector and the drop fiber are meeting predefined specifications and that all splices are within acceptable limits.

Figure 1. Using a 5 ns to10 ns pulse width, an experienced technician verifies the first connector and identifies all elements on a link, up to the splitter; using a short pulse width enables better resolution and easy pinpointing of a problematic connector or splice. Then, using a second acquisition with a longer pulse width, the technician measures loss at the splitter to verify if it is within acceptable limits.

Figure 2. Using a longer pulse width than for the first trace, an experienced technician qualifies the splitter area, and possibly the portion between two splitters. Depending on the results, the technician may need to repeat this second step to find the optimal pulse for measuring the splitter loss. Finally, the technician completes the test with a pulse width that has enough dynamic range to allow end-to-end loss qualification.

Figure 3. Using a pulse width with enough dynamic range, an experienced technician can measure the end-to-end loss. This process results in having three or four OTDR traces that are not consolidated. A fair amount of time will be spent comparing results at the different pulse widths to determine which one provides the best measurement for each section and event. Plus, if a single report must be provided at the end, extra time will also be required to extract information from the different traces and input the data into a custom report template. Overall, the entire process could take between 5 to 10 minutes, depending on the complexity of the network and the documentation required. To detect macrobends, this long sequence must even be performed another time at a second wavelength (e.g., 1310 nm and 1550 nm) to compare the loss of each event between both wavelengths. To fully characterize an FTTH network, one must therefore analyze information gathered from many traces. But the reality is that no one has both the time and the experienced technician available to test this way. The Forward-Thinking Alternative: The iOLM

The very accurate, yet time-consuming and highly complex OTDR test procedure can now be performed automatically with the intelligent Optical Link Mapper (iOLM). This revolutionary solution employs different pulse widths to fully characterize all sections of an FTTH network each section being characterized with the optimal pulse. Then, the iOLM consolidates all this information into a single comprehensive Link View; the operator no longer has to compare results at different pulses. The iOLM provides the loss and ORL of a link, in addition to identifying all network elements such as splices, splitters and connectors. It offers the loss and reflectance of the identified elements. And when a specific element or the link itself gets a fail verdict, it offers a diagnosis to help the operator solve the problem. The whole routine takes 30 to 60 seconds, depending on network complexity.

The Link View represents each element by a distinct pictogram, helping the technician to immediately identify all the elements in the link. Viewing and correcting a problem becomes very easy, as even an entry-level technician with minimal experience in optics will be able to perform tests just like any other experienced technician, and will do so in less time. Training time is minimized and network quality is increased, thus improving the end customers quality of experience (QoE). The iOLM can also save all results in a comprehensive report that can easily be transferred to a database. Business Case Consider a typical business case, with a team of 20 technicians working three jobs per day and 200 days per year, for a total of 12 000 jobs per year. According to the previously mentioned survey, the average yearly percentage of repeat truck rolls ranges between 5% and 10%, which means 600 to 1200 jobs in this particular example. Repeat truck rolls represent the number of times a truck is sent back to fix problems for varying reasons: lack of technician training, wrong pass/fail criteria, wrong equipment usage, false diagnosis, wrong OTDR trace interpretation (bad splice or connector), turn-up failure troubleshooting, etc. Based on the same survey, the average cost of a truck roll is between $100 and $150 per hour, excluding manpower. The average salary of the experienced technician can amount to $40 or $50 per hour, and an average of two to three hours is required to do the repair. Overall, such repeat truck rolls

can cost between $168 000 and $720 000 per year. With its intuitiveness and advanced analysis technology, the iOLM can truly help in that regard, since a) it allows network operators to assign their experienced technicians to more profitable tasks, and b) it eliminates the vast majority of analysis mistakes, therefore minimizing repeat truck rolls and their related costs. For example, based on the same survey, an entry-level technician earns $20 to $40 less per hour than an experienced technician. In a typical year (200 working days of eight hours each), such a difference would represent OPEX savings of $32 000 to $64 000 per technician, per year. For the same team of 20 technicians, it would amount to $640 000 to $1 280 000 per year. Conclusion A lot has been done in the last few years to streamline the CAPEX part of networking business. Now, the current market imperatives booming bandwidth demand combined with flattening revenues are creating an OPEX challenge that is leaving operators looking for answers. By enabling entry-level technicians to fully characterize a link with a simple one-touch operation, without having to combine, analyze or interpret multiple, complex OTDR traces, the iOLM might just be one of those answers.