Digital Re-print September | October 2012

Insect-damaged wheat: suni bug, cereal bug, sunn pest, wheat bug, shield bug, shell bug
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FEATURE

Insect-damaged wheat:
suni bug, cereal bug, sunn pest, wheat bug, shield bug, shell bug
by Prof. Dr. M. Hikmet Boyacioglu, Group R&D Director-Cereal Foods Institute Director, Doruk Group Holding, Turkey
This article was derived from the presentation made in 4th International Mhlenchemie Symposium, September 8-9, 2011.

heat quality can be defined in terms of inherent quality attributes those under genetic control and seasonal quality attributes (Table 1, 2). One of the parameters of wheat quality is insect-damage. It is widely accepted that insect-damaged wheat contains a bug salivary proteinase, which causes rapid relaxation of dough and, consequently, results in the production of loaves with poor volume and texture (Cressey, 1987, Every et al., 1996). Damage to wheat and its baking quality, due to preharvest insect attack, has been reported across the world including Germany, Spain, Hungary, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and New Zealand amongst others. Damage to the wheat crop in Syria, where nearly the whole harvest in a relatively small area was affected, caused a loss of 24 million Francs in 1924. The affected area doubled in 1925 and was six-fold in 1926, but damage decreased in 1927 and 1928, although the insect damage covered a larger area. Part of Ukraine also suffered severe damage in 1901 and 1909. In Turkey, insect damage to wheat, first time, was reported in 1932 and 1937. The damage caused by bugs to the New Zealand crop is usually low, but its incidence varies from year to year. There have been five major outbreaks of bug damage in New Zealand, since the problem was first reported in 1936. The problem regained importance after the 1980s in Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Russia, Bulgaria, and Romania as well as in Turkey (Lorenz. and Meredith, 1988). In recent years, it has reappeared in Black Sea region. The insects which cause the damage have been identified a Eurygaster integriceps and Aelia rostrata in Europe and in the Near East.
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In New Zealand, Nysius huttoni is thought to be the cause of the problem (Lorenz and Meredith, 1988). This article reviews the economical importance and varietal susceptibility of insect damage, methods for the prediction of damage, effects on baking quality, suni bug management and improvement of bread quality.

Economical importance
The economical importance of the cereal bug E. integriceps on the wheat plant concentrates on two main points of negative effects. First of all, the bite of only one mature insect, which survives under the winter conditions, is more than enough to kill the plant body. Yield losses attributable to direct feeding typically range between 50 and 90 percent. Secondly, five nymph generations feeding on the ear of the plant have completed their larva era, but are still not mature insects or the young bugs increase the rate and number of bitten kernels, which in turn result in a sharp decline in the quality of bread. If immature grain is attacked in the field by insects, there is damage to the mature grain. The dough made from this grain is very weak, owing to the action of a protease presumably injected by the insect. Because of the severe results on dough formation and baking quality, bug-damaged grain is severely downgraded, generally warranting only feed grade prices (Wrigley and Batey, 2003; Trissi, 2006). The damage caused by the cereal bug shows important differences which are influenced by a number of criteria such as climate and weather conditions, availability of water, characteristics of the wheat type, and

time of ripening of wheat, or a combination of these factors. According to Paulian and Popov (1980) some 10-15 million hectares (25-37 million acres) of cereal cultivation are at risk, and in certain years chemical treatments may be applied to seven million hectares (about 17 million acres) in an attempt to limit the damage, especially if the crop is wheat. A report prepared and published in 1993 by FAO/ICARDA authorities, states that about 1.3 million acres field is inflicted by E. integriceps, and a part of 582.000 acres are
Table 1: Inherent Quality Attributes Protein type and quality (extensibility, stability to mixing), Potential to produce grain with protein content in a given range (either high or low), Grain hardness, Potential to produce grain having a high milling yield (high milling release), Resistance to weather damage-dormancy.

Table 2: Seasonal Quality Attributes Soundness and maturity, Plumpness and hence actual milling yield, Actual protein content, Weather damage, Content of broken, shriveled, dry green, or frosted grains, Contamination of foreign seeds, Presence of unmillable material, e.g. chaff, white heads, Presence of moldy, insect damaged, or infested grain, Moisture content.

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FEATURE thus treated with pesticides. The calculated cost for the treatment of one acre with pesticides is about US$10, making a total of US$5,870,000. In a report prepared by specialists about the cereal bug problem in Turkey, it was stated that should no plant protection measurement and precautions be taken against the insect during plague years, the damage could reach a ratio of 90 percent to as much as 100 percent. Moreover, if sufficient precautions are taken against the plague, savings with an amount of US$40,000,000 could be achieved (Knac, 1994).

Varietal susceptibility
Many researchers have noted that the genetic quality of the insect-damaged variety influences the degree of quality deterioration (Cressey et al, 1987). Paulian and Popov (1980) reported that hard wheats are attacked more severely by the insect E. integriceps than soft wheats. Also, in New Zealand, the semi-hard wheat cultivar Karamu has shown more effects and the soft, white wheat cultivar Arawa has fewer effects of bug damage than other cultivars (Every et al, 1996). In a study to investigate the susceptibility of various New Zealand wheat cultivars and breeding lines to attack by N. huttoni, Every et al (1996) stated that the hard wheat cultivar Domino was clearly the least susceptible and the soft type breeding line WW378 was clearly the most susceptible to Nysius infestation. A similar study performed in Turkey by Knac (1994) has proven that the cereal bug E. integriceps prefers to attack white, soft and/or semi-hard wheats and it is astonishing that the first priority of the insect is to select those high quality kernels. The same study showed that E. integriceps rarely attacks hard wheats. The latest genotypes of wheat which the bug preferred to attack were hard red wheats. Also it was observed that the density of the cereal bug among wheat having thick, hard and tightly adhered seed coats is much less (Knac, 1994).

Effects on baking quality

In 1931, wheat producing a slimy gluten was reported by Berliner. This wheat was completely unsuitable for processing into bread because doughs formed from the flour quickly relaxed, becoming very sticky and difficult to mould. Loaves of bread baked from these doughs typically had low volume, coarse texture, and knobbly tops. Gluten was washed out of the flour with difficulty, and instead of having the normal elastic properties; it was slimy or rotten (Lorenz and Meredith, 1988).

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FEATURE Dough made from flour stinkbug-damaged wheat has lost much of its elasticity and is sticky or slimy. A review of several overseas studies (Nuorteva and Veijola, 1954) indicates that in general a level of two to five percent affected grain is necessary before baking quality is degraded. Meredith (1970) claimed that three to four bug-damaged grains per thousand could seriously affect baking quality. Effects of attack by suni bug were studied on the size of Russian grains and percent of damaged grain was found to be higher in smaller fractions; the proportion of fully destroyed grains and the degree of damage on the whole sample set both increased in smaller fractions (Yakovenko, 1985). The influence of wheat infestation by suni bug on bread making properties of Bulgarian wheat was investigated and results showed that suni bug infestation had a marked impact on bread making properties, with even one percent infestation affecting bread quality (Vasileva et al., 1998).

Figure 1. Farinogram, based on Brabender Farinograph Standard Procedure, shows 2.6% insect damage on wheat Courtesy of DORMAR Flour Mills, Turkey.

Methods for the prediction of damage

Physical Tests - Currently, the most widely used method to determine insect damage in wheat is the visual method. Wheat bug damage to wheat kernels can be examined visually since they are recognised as pale, slightly elevated patches, often with one or more black dots considered to be the marks of bug stylet punctures. No such damage can be found in uninfested samples. Chemical and Biochemical Tests - The prediction of the extent of insect-damage to wheats prior to milling has gained importance as the enzyme secreted by cereal bugs results in the production of runny and sticky dough and, subsequently, a low quality of bread. Most of the test methods determine the quality of gluten and dough, since the enzyme influences the gluten structure. To determine the bug damage in wheats, Greenway et al (1965) developed a method which is based on wheat sedimentation test. The method has been found to be effective and sensitive when two hydration times, such as five and 180 minutes, were used. Atl et al (1988) modified this method by applying a two-hour hydration period after the addition of bromphenol solution (Table 3, 4). In New Zealand, Cressey and McStay (1987) proposed an autolytic assay method that is based on the decrease in SDSsedimentation volume of bug-damaged flours by incubating in distilled water for 30 minutes at 37oC. It has been suggested that the method is specific for bug damage and is free of interference from other grain defects such as heat damage, field sprouting and laboratory germination. However, this method needs consideraGrain

Figure 2. Extensigram, based on Brabender Extensigraph Standard Procedure, shows 2.6% insect damage on wheat Courtesy of DORMAR Flour Mills, Turkey.

Figure 3. Alveogram, based on Alveo-AH Standard Procedure shows insect damage on wheat Courtesy of POLEN Gda, Turkey.

Initially it was not known whether slimy gluten was produced by a new kind of wheat or by normal wheat that had been damaged in some way. Whatever the cause of the problem, it was clearly of considerable concern to European millers. According to later investigations, wheat that produced slimy gluten had a proportion of grains with small dark puncture marks surrounded by a patch of lighter colour. Wheat without puncture marks gave sound gluten even if the grain was selected from a batch produced slimy gluten. However only relatively low levels (approximately 3%) of puncture-marked wheat were needed to ruin the remaining sound grain (Lorenz and Meredith, 1988).
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Although puncture marks on wheat suggested attack by sap-sucking insects, the ability of affected wheat to ruin sound grain indicated that slimy gluten was caused by an enzyme. Two insects of the genera Eurygaster and Aelia were considered to be responsible for producing wheat with damaged gluten (Kretovich, 1944; Lorenz and Meredith, 1988). Brooke (1936) states that as little as one or two percent of stinkbug-damaged kernels may injure the baking quality of wheat, depending on the severity of the damage in the damaged kernels. Much larger quantities of damaged kernels are often found in wheat from fields where the infestation was heavy.

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FEATURE instruments. Suni Bug It has Wheat Type Sed., cc Del. Sed., cc Damage, % been suggested that it is Bezostia 0.7 48 65 necessary Mix 1.1 35 41 to record White-Red 2.3 22 9 the farinograms and White-Red 2.4 38 10 alveograms White 2.5 20 10 immediCourtesy of DORMAR Flour Mills, Turkey ately after the dough is made Table 4: and again after it has Sedimentation Value, cc Gluten Quality stood in a warm place for 60 to 90 minutes, <25 Weak as the disintegration of the dough takes 25 30 Medium place only after it has >30 Good rested. Farinograph curves of flour show ble amount of sample and enzyme (Swallow the effects of bug and Every, 1991). In addition, there is no damage particularly at available information that this method can be higher temperatures also used to detect the damage of Eurygaster (45oC). The curve of and Aelia, since it has been developed for a sound flour is wider different type of bug-damage. and the decrease in Every (1991) developed an economical consistency with mixand sensitive SDS-protein gel method, based ing occurs less rapidly. on the determination of enzyme activity, to The increasing softentest the activities of different protease types. ing of the dough also This method measures the reduction in the shows as an irregular gel-formation capacity of glutenin proteins by band towards the end the enzyme. However, it is not known yet of the curve (Lorenz if this method can be used for the damage and Meredith, 1988). caused by Eurygaster and Aelia. According The methods based on the washing of to Brabender gluten after a resting period of 30 minutes Procedure; do the at 25oC of the dough gives a better under- normal Farinogram standing of changes in the quantity and qual- for 10 minutes, stop the mixer (via softity of gluten (Atl et al., 1988). Gluten index method also has been ware) (value here found to be useful in determining the pres- is for example 480 ence of slimy gluten, due to the attack of BU), leave the dough wheat kernels by wheat bugs (Perten, 1989). in the mixer, and A method for rapid indication of infec- restart via software tion was proposed involving incubation of after 20 minutes wheat in water at 30oC, to activate the insect pause. If the values proteinases, followed by PAGE to determine of the second mixing gluten profile and thus, the amount of deg- continue on the level radation that has occurred (Corbellini et al., from the first mixing (around 480 BU in 2001). this example), there is no bug damage. If Rheological Tests Insect bug damage could be reliably the values are lower predicted by using Brabender Farinograph, (for example total 50 Brabender Extensigraph, and Chopin BU), there is strong Alveograph and Chopin Mixolab instruments. bug damage. From For the estimation of the bug-damage, the second mixing, another method which has been developed the bug damage in in France uses Chopin extensimeter and the sample could be has been made official by special regulation estimated (Figure 1). The Brabender (Kretovich, 1944). is Kretovich (1944) indicated that bug dam- Extensigraph age could be reliably predicted by using another instrument Brabender farinograph and Chopin alveograph used to determine
Table 3:

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FEATURE

Bread making Test

In spite of the availability of many methods developed for the prediction of Eurygaster and Aelia damage to wheat quality, the most reliable and sensitive method is a bread making experiment. However, there is still need for simple and fast routine tests, which can be used by the millers during the purchase of wheat, since the baking experiment is relatively time-consuming.

Cleaning-tempering
Draman et al (2001) studied the effect of steam tempering on some protein fractions and farinogram values of commercial wheat having sunn pest damage at several levels. The evaluation of farinogram data combined with positive changes in protein fractions show that 70oC temperature applied during steam tempering did not cause any negative changes in rheological properties of sunn pest damaged samples. Kksel et al (2002) investigated mitigation of the detrimental effects of suni bug damage to wheat by cleaning and washing prior to milling and by elimination of mill streams of lower quality. They concluded that 50 percent of insect-damaged kernels can be removed by dry and wet cleaning prior to milling and that flour streams with minimal insect damage can be selected.

insect damage in wheat due to two or three resting periods (45, 90 and 135 minutes) between dough resistance and extensibility measurements (Figure 2). Currently, the Chopin Alveograph is also used for the measurement of insect-damage to wheat. The method involves testing of three dough pieces out of five after resting 20 minutes and after three hours for the remaining dough pieces. It has been claimed that this method could detect about 0.9% insect damage by measuring the reduction in P, L, and W values (Anonymous). Since the enzyme delivered by insect needs time and temperature to show its effect, standard alveograph method, which uses 20 minutes resting time, does not show the presence of insect-damage. However, modified Alveograph method shows the effect of insect damage since it uses extended time of three hours - degradation test. The degradation test protocol involves: - a first series of alveograph tests after 20 minutes of rest (ISO 5530/4, ICC121, AACC54-30 approved method) - a second series of balls of dough is tested after three hours rest. If the wheat contains bugs, a drop in baking strength (W) is observed due to protein hydrolysis caused by the insects proteolytic enzymes (Figure 3). It has been claimed that this method could detect about 0.9% insect damage by measuring the reduction in P, L, and W values. Atl et al (1988) suggested a modification of this method by using a two-hours resting period for the dough pieces. Aspesteguia et al (2003) reported that kneading temperature did not influence gluten degradation; however, resting temperature significantly influenced when assessing wheat damaged by wheat bugs. The Chopin Mixolab system measures real-time dough behaviour with regard to the dual constraint of kneading and temperature. It is claimed that system measures insect damage in 45 minutes including rest time. Investigations were conducted on the development of a rapid method (using viscosity measurement with the Rapid Visco Analyzer) for testing wheat for proteolytic determination due to infestation with insects of the genera Aelia and Eurygaster. Results showed that this method is rapid (results within 10 minutes) and gives 97.27% correct classification over a wide range of proteolytic degradation. Repeatability and reproducibility were good (CaballeroBarrigon and Perez-Calvo, 2008).
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Suni bug management

The current strategies for suni bug management rely mainly on chemical and cultural controls; in most cases, chemical control is the primary means of management. This is a costly and unsuitable means of pest management and has resulted in resistance of suni bug to various types of insecticides. The current novel management studies involve the use of resistant wheat varieties, insect pathogens, predators, parasites, and parasitoids. Among the most promising of these natural controls are the egg parasitoids (Trissi, 2006). Cereal growing, especially wheat, in marginal lands; overgrazing of rangeland which results in the destruction of natural vegetation and hence habitat of sunn pest predators; reduction in the area of fallow land by the continuous growing of cereals instead of increasing food or forage legumes within a rotation; the use of broad spectrum insecticides, especially by aerial spraying, might also have increased the difficulties of controlling the sunn pest problem in Turkey (Knac et al.,1998).

Milling
Bogdan (1969) reported that bread of good quality can be produced from flour of bug-damaged cereals when flour from damaged grains is blended with good quality flour, ascorbic acid and yeast are added in adequate amounts, or intensive kneading is applied. According to Valtadoros (1979), by using air classification, flour from bug-damaged wheat may be separated into fractions suitable for bread making and those suitable for biscuit manufacture.

Bread making
The effect of insect damage on bread making quality of wheat depends on degree of damage or ratio of infested kernel and quality of infested wheat. In case of less than average five percent damage and good protein quality and quantity, effect of insect damage in wheat flour could be lessen by using, improvers, additives such as ascorbic acid (Bogdan, 1969), vital wheat gluten, transglutaminase (Kksel et al., 2001), DATEM, etc. and modified methods such as short fermentation (Swallow and Cresley, 1987), use of sour dough procedure, etc (Dizlek and Gl, 2007).

Improvement of bread quality

There are various studies on to improve the quality of insect damaged wheats and their flours.

Wheat treatments
In the USSR, high-frequency heating was used for treatment of wheat infested with the shield bug and recommended as a measure for restitution of the baking performance of deteriorated grain (Pruidze et al, 1984). Draman (2010) investigated the effects of microwave treatment on technological and rheological properties of flours produced from sound wheat and wheat damaged by sunn pests (Eurygaster spp.). The results for Zeleny sedimentation, Gluten Index and alveogram values suggest that certain microwave treatment times (120-180 seconds) caused positive effects on thermal inactivation of insect enzyme damage of wheat.

Conclusion
The suni bug is one of the most serious pests of wheat in Europe (except northernmost areas), North Africa and Asia. Yield loss from its damage is commonly estimated at 50-90 percent in wheat and heavy attack causes wheat stems to break before harvest. Even if two to three percent of the grain is damaged, entire lots may be unsuitable for bread making. Therefore, there is a need for simple and fast routine tests, which can be used by the millers during the purchase of wheat, since the baking experiment is relatively time-consuming.

Blending
Wrigley and Batey (2003) stated that because of the involvement of enzymatic action, the effects of mixing bug-damaged grain with sound grain are disproportionate to the proportions of samples mixed.

References
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