BACMI

British Aggregate Construction Materials Industries (BACMI) is the national trade federation for the aggregate, coated materials and ready-mixed concrete industries. It was founded in 1982 and includes in its membership the cornpanies producing roadstone, sand, gravel, asphalt and coated macadam, as well as the flexible paving contractors. BACMI membership also includes the Plant and Equipment Group (companies manufacturing road construction and quarrying plant and equipment) and the Refined Bitumen Association (made up of the UK producers of petroleum bitumen).

A C M AP R O D U C T R O U P G
The ACMA Product Group comprises those member companies of BACMI who supply bituminous road materials and,/or are involved in road surfacing. The name of the group and the retention of its distinctive emblem reflect the continuation within BACMI of the activities of the former Asphalt and Coated Macadam Association in the technical, research, commercial and promotional fields.

Whilst every effort is taken to ensure the accuracy of the general information and advice offered in ttris publication or given by staff of BACMI, no liability or responsibility of any kind can be accepted by BACMI or its staff.

Designed by Paul Sharp Pdnted by Design & Print PartnerehipLtd, Claygate, Surrey

This booklet presents a general review of the nature and uses of the different materials used in the construction and maintenance of bituminous roads. It is not intended for the experts who know their way around the labyrinth of detailed specifications. Its principal purpose is to assist that wider group of engineers,architects and planners who are often concerned with roads: it should also be of value to students who are looking for a useful primer on the subject.

@ 1985 Publishedby the ACMA Product Group of British AggregateConstructionMaterials Industries (BACMI), 156 BuckinghamPalaceRoad, LondonSW1W 9TR Tel0l-730 8194

Introduction
Great Britain is one of the few countriesin the world in which the whole of the public road network has a permanentall-weathersurface.Lessthan one-fifth of our road network hasbeenbuilt as new road in the last fifty years.Although this doesinclude our motorway system and many other important new roads,the major proportion of our road network consists old roads, of some with foundationswhich go back to Roman times. Theseroadshave been widened,strengthened their and in alignmentsimproved to meet the enormousincreases road traffic sincethe 1920s.It is one of the outstanding virtues of bituminous mixes that they are so convenientto old usein improving and strengthening roadsand in providing them with surfaces which are safeand comfortableto ride on, durable and strongenoughto carry the heaviest commercialtraffic. Thesevirtuesalso make bituminous mixes particularly effectivein building all types of new road, from private drives,farm roadsand estateroadsto the most heavily They are equally trafficked motorwaysand city streets. effectiveon other pavedareas,such as airfields,car and lorry parks,footways,cycle pathsand playgrounds.

Contents
Introduction 2 The make-upof a road 3 Pavement design 4 New roads Existingroads What's in a road? 5 Aggregates Bituminous binden Coatedbituminousmixes 7 Rolledasphalt Coatedmacadam Asphalticconcrete Laying and compaction 10 The flexibleroad 11 References further reading- insideback cover and
Figures Fig 1 The structure of a flexible road 3 Fig2 A typical quarry producing aggregate 5 Fig 3 A bitumen refinery 6 Fig 4 A coating plant 7 Fig 5 Rolled asphalt texture 9 Fig 6 Coatedmacadamtexture 9 Fig 7 A modern paver in action 10

Acknowledgments: Fig2andT ARC Fig 3 Esso Petroleum Ltd Co

to
This booklet presents a general review of the nature and uses of the different materials used in the construction and maintenance of bituminous roads. It is not intended for the experts who know their way around the labyrinth of detailed specifications. Its principal purpose is to assist that wider group of engineers,architects and planners who are often concerned with roads: it should also be oi value to students who are looking for a useful primer on the subjept.

@ 1985 Publishedby the ACMA product Group of British AggregateConstruction Materials Industries (BACMI), 156 Buckingham palace Road, LondonSWIW 9TR Tel0l-730 8194

The make-upof a road

All road pavements*consistof severallayersof different mixes which in combination make the road strong and durable.

The wearing course providesan even and weatherresistantrunning surfacewhich can withstand the abrasive forcesof traffic and provide appropriateskid resistance. The bituminous mixes usedfor the roadbase, basecourse and wearing courseare mixtures of mineral aggregate (crushedrock, slag,gravel and sand) and a bituminous binder, normally petroleumbitumen but occasionallytar or a speciallymodified bitumen to provide particular properties.Thesecomponentsare carefully proportioned The mixes are and mixed to an appropriatespecification. then transportedto site and laid and compactedwhile hot.

Bituminous pavements frequently described flexible are as pavements, implying their ability to absorbthe stresses imposedby traffic and weatherwithout cracking.The componentlayersof suchpavements illustratedin fig l. are

SURFACE\ SURFACING

Fig I

The structure of a flexible road All the bituminous mixes and the sub-base and roadbase materialsmentionedhere are suppliedby member companies BACMI. of In Great Britain there are two typesof bituminous mixes -asphalts and coatedmacadams. The asphalts usually are denserand more finely textured than the coated macadams. The differencebetweenthe two typesof mix is best indicatedby the following definitions: Coatedmacadam- a road material consistingof graded aggregate that hasbeen coatedwith tar or bitumen (or a mixture of the two) and in which the intimate interlocking particlesis a major factor in the strength of the aggregate of the compactedmaterial. Rolled asphalt* - a road material consistingof a dense mixture of mineral matter and bituminous binder and in which the mortar of fine aggregate, filler and high viscositybinder is a major factor in the strengthand performanceof the laid material. The terms'tarmacadam' or'tarmac'are often usedby the public at large but are incorrect:many are asphalts. Those that are coatedmacadams nowadaysusually made are with petroleumbitumen rather than coal tar.
x Two types ofasphalt are usedon roads in the UK: rolled asphaltand paving grade mastic asphalt.However, the latter is usedonly for specialised applications,such as bridge decks,city footways, bus lay-bys, whilst rolled asphaltis the principal wearing courseusedon major roads. References asphaltin this booklet will thereforegenerallybe to rolled to asDhalt.

The function of eachof the layersis as follows: The subgradeis the natural soil, on old roads usually well compactedby traffic, on new roadscarefully shapedand compactedto the appropriatelevel and profile. Subgrade improvementmay be possibleby treatmentof soils with lime or cement. The sub-baseis the lowest layer, put down to help build up the strengthof the pavement.It also provides a working platform for the machinery used in laying and compactingthe layersabove. It is usually made from crushedstone or gravel. The roadbaseis the main componentwhich providesthe strengthand load distributing propertiesof the pavement. For lightly trafficked roads it is usually made from graded crushedstoneor hardcore,or it may be crushedstone bound with a small proportion of cement(cement-bound granularbaseor lean-mix concrete).On more heavily trafficked roadsa fully bituminous roadbasemay be employedto provide a pavementof high strengthand durability. The basecourse further contributesto the strengthofthe pavement,and at the sametime providesan even, well-regulatedsurfaceto carry the uppermostlayer of the pavement.

* The wordpauement is usedin this booklet in its correct engineering sense describethe whole structureof a road, from foundation to to surface,and NOT to indicate a pedestrianfootwav.

Another semantic confusion arisesfrom the difference in meaningassigned the word'asphalf in Europe and to North America. In Europe it always meansa mixture of bitumen binder with mineral aggregate-as in rolled . fine cold asphaltetc. asphalt,mastic asphalt,gussaphalt, When North Americans talk about asphalt they usually mean the petroleumbitumen binder. The performanceofthe pavementdependsagreat deal on the care with which the bituminous mix is prepared,laid and compacted. The new BACMI Guide, availablelater in 1985, will list all members of the federation who produce aggregateand bituminous mixes and also incl.udesnamesand addresses of experiencedspecialistsurfacing contractors. Your local to BACMI memberwill alwaysbe pleased adviseyou on for the choiceof appropriatespecifications bituminous mixesin any given circumstances.

Existing roads
Bituminousmixeshaveideal propertiesfor usein pavements which are showingsignsof strengthening distressunder traffic loading. They can be superihposed on existingroadsasoverlays,so that theseroadscan continue to carry heavier traffic than that for which they had strength Alternatively, increased originally beendesigned. in a pavementcan be obtainedby replacingone or more old surfacing layers with new bituminous material. Many existingroad pavements consistof layersof different materials laid at different periods and it is often difficult to evaluatethe residualstrengthofsuch an old pavementand thus estimatethe further strengtheningrequired. Methods havebeendeveloped over the pasttwenty years,however, the to evaluatepavementstrengthin situ, by measuring vertical deflectionof the pavementunder a slowly moving load. The deflectionbeam (Benkelmanbeam to thosewho recall its designer) and its highly automatedderivative,the Lacroix deflectograph,are often seenin useon roads in of Great Britain. They help in the assessment the current and provide data to help condition of our road pavements Thesetechniques in the designofoverlays when needed. and are now highly sophisticated in any situationwherethe thicknessof overlay required is not immediately obvious it to is prudent to employ expertsusingthesetechniques provide appropriatedesigns.

Pavement design
Newroads
Thesemust be designed make them strongand stiff to enoughto distributethe traffic loadsso that neitherthe underlyingsoil nor any of the pavementlayersare Thus, in designingnew pavementsthe over-stressed. of important parameters the.strength the soil subgrade, are the weight and intensityof thdrxpected traffic and the stiffnessof the materials available to make the different pavement layers. Pavementdesignmethods must reflect the environmentfor which they are intende{. Thus with our wet climate and heavyclay soils,British methodslay considerable emphasis the importanceof a correct on evaluation of the load-supporting characteristicsof the soil subgrade,and on a proper evaluation of estimatedtraffic loading.Heavy wheel loadsare particularly damaging.The AASHO Road Test* concludedthat pavementdamageis approximatelyproportional to the fourth power of the appliedaxle load. This meansthat a l2-tonne axle,for example, doesabout five times as much damageas an 8-tonneaxle. pavements new roads for Since 1970 the basisfor designing had beenthe third edition of the Transportand Road ResearchLaboratory's Road Note 29 A guide to the structural design of pavements new roads. This was for in supplemented 1978by the Departmentof Transport's TechnicalMemorandum 6/78 Roadpavementdesign At the time of going to press the whole subject of pavement design is being radically reconsidered.As a start, a new design procedure for flexible roads has been published as TRRL Laboratory Report LR 1132 The structural design af bituminous roads and designsbasedon this were introduced by the Department of Transport for major road constructionfrom 1 April 1985.
* The AASHO Road Test was a large-scaleUS investigation on a speiially built track carriedout in the United Statesin the late 1950s.It provided a great deal of insight into the behaviour of road materialsunder various conditions.

What'sin a road?
Aggregates
Most civil engineers acceptwithout any curiosity their own specialised of the term'aggregate', othersmay be use but puzzled.In this contextit means'anaggregation hard of non-metallicmineralsavailablein particulateform and processed usein civil engineering'ie, for crushedrock, gravel,sandand slag.Within thesebroad groupsthereis an enormousvariety of aggregates availablefor usein road-making,corresponding the complicatedgeological to formationsof the country. Thereare somebroad generalisations. Gravelsand sandsare found in old river valleyssuchas the Thames,the Trent and in the lowlands of Scotland;also in marine deposits. Crushedrock generallycomesfrom hilly areas. Thereare variationsin the natureand propertiesofgravelsand sandaccordingto the natureof the parentrock from which they derive.There are evenlarger variationsin thb natureand propertiesof crushedrocks,derivingfrom their mineralogicalorigins. There are also artificial rocks suchas the slagproducedby the iron and steelmaking industry.Building bricks do not come underthe definition of aggregate. if they are But crushed, usein making sub-bases bases more for or for lightly traffickedroads,they might then be so designated.

For usein road making,indeedfor most usesin civil engineering, quality ofaggregates the must be closelycontrolled. For usein roads the most significantpropertiesare - size:the'grading'of an aggregate signifies mix the proportion of standardsizes and largelydetermines its main properties; - shape:this is important for the mechanical interlock of aggregate layers;'flakiness'isthe extentto which individual chippingsare not equi-dimensional, - strengtnLthe resistanceto crushing; - surfacecharacteristics: goodresistance to'polishing' and abrasionundertraffic are important requirements for aggregates be usedin weaing cot,,sesto ensure to adequate skid resistance long life. Theseproperties and are characterised the polishedstonevalue (PSV) and by aggregate abrasionvalue (AAV) respectively. The testsfor theseproperties laid down in BS 812 are Methodsfor sampling and testing mineral aggregates, sandsandfillers. Appropriate limits for quality on these testsare normally containedin the British Standardor other specification the particularroad making product for concerned.

Fig 2

A typical quarr! producing aggregate

Bituminousbinders
Bituminousroad materialsconsistof aggregate bound togetherby bituminousbinders,the amount of binder normally varying between3 and 9 per centby weight of the mix, accordingto the type of mix and the useto which it is to be put. There are threetypesof bituminousbinder usedin road making: - Petroleumbitumen,derivedfrom the refinins of certain typesof crude oil; - Road tar, derivedfrom coal, as a consequence of industrial processes other purposes, in the for eg production of coke for metallurgicalpurposes, the in production of coal gas(a process which for the time being at leasthasbecomeobsolescent the United in Kingdom) and in the productionof smokeless fuels; - Natural bitumens,ie, the bitumensin natural asphalts suchas the well-known asphaltlake in Trinidad. These natural asphalts soilsor rocks which were once are impregnatedwith bituminouscrude oil and from which, over geologicalperiodsof time, the more volatile fractionshaveevaporaed. By far the most commonly usedbituminousbinder in the UK is petroleumbitumen and its derivatives. Small quantitiesof road tar are still producedbut are usedmainly for surfacedressing. Somecoal tar pitchesare usedto make specialsurfacingsresistantto oil spillage.Sometimes Trinidad Lake Asphalt (TLA) is also used in making specialtypes of bituminous surfacing. All bituminousbindersare characterised beingblack, by sticky and thermoplastic, they becomesofterand more ie, fluid when they are heated,and hardenagain when they cool.

Petroleumbitumensare marketedin threedifferentforms: - penetrationbitumens, hard bitumens,gradedby their ie, penetration,which is the depth to which a standard needlepenetrates the bitumen in 5 seconds into under a load of 100 g at a temperatureof 25"C; - cutback bitumens,in which the viscosityof penetrationbitumen is reducedto make it convenient to use at lower temperatures than for penetration bitumen,by blendingit with volatileoils; bitumen emulsions,in which penetrationbitumen is in dispersed water in the form of very small globules, again to make it convenientto use cold or, with some emulsions,at lower temperatures than for penetrationbitumen; the bitumen is held in suspension the use of specialemulsifying agents. by

Cutbacksand emulsions find their main useon roadsin surface dressing. Emulsionsare alsousedas tack coats under bituminoussurfacings. The more viscouscutbacks are usedin making bitumen macadams, generallyfor the more lightly traffickedroads.Cutbacksand emulsions are also usefulin making patchingmaterialswhich are to be storedfbr a periodbeforeuse.By far the most commonly usedbitumensin bituminousroad mixes,however,are the penetrationbitumens,the actualpenetration gradebeing chosento suit the useto which the surfacingis to be put. The variousgrades bitumen are specified BS 3690 of in Bitumensfor building and civil engineering.Appropriate gradesfor differentusesare laid down in British Standards or other specifications. The variousgrades bitumen emulsionare specified BS of in 434 Bitumen road emulsions and their differentuses are thereinsuggested. Road tarsare specified BS 76 Tarsfor roadpurposes. in gradesof road tar are usedin Only the more viscous making bituminoussurfacings.

Fig3

A bitumen refinery

Fig4

Acoatingplant

Coated bituminous mrxes

Rolledasphalt
Rolled asphalthad its beginnings the latter half of the in l9th centurywhen road engineers paving contractors and were seekingto produceman-madeimitations of natural asphalts the pavingof city streets. bright and for A energetic American, Clifford Richardson,conceivedand carriedthrough a plan to inspectand analysesuccessful asphaltpavements over the USA and Europe.These all mixeswere mostly made with natural sand,with refined bitumen and road tar, both of which were then appearing on the market,to supplement natural asphalts the binder. as His book, Modern asphalt technologt, appearedin the early 1900sand rapidly ran to threeeditions. British asphaltpavingcontractorsbecamehighly skilled in interpretingthe tenetsof Richardson's recipes asphalt for surfacings under British conditions,offering first sand asphaltsheetand later mixescontainingcrushedrock or gravel,which provided extremelydurable surfacings for the traffic of that era. Improvementshave been continuous.Specifications for the composition,mixing and laying of rolled asphaltare containedin BS 594 Specificationfor rolled asphaltfor roadsand otherpavedareas,the first edition of which appeared 1935. in

Rolled asphaltis a high-qualitybituminoussurfacingwhich finds its main useon more heavily traffickedroadsand city Traditionally the specifications compositionare streets. for in the form of recipes specifyingthe quality and proportionsof aggregate bitumen to be usedand and indicatinghow the proportionsshouldbe variedto suit traffic and climate.Thereare separate for specifications wearingcourseand basecourse,mixes. alternative An method of designing rolled asphaltsurfacings uses a mechanical testingregimeto assist deriving optimum in binder contents. This alternativemethodis intended particularly for usein designing mixesfor very heavily trafficked roadsor in refiningspecifications when using particularlysands, aggregates, from unfamiliar sources. For other purposes recipespecifications provide a simpler the guide to the most appropriatemixesto and quite adequate usein given circumstances. An important characteristic rolled asphaltsurfacingis of that the aggregate is'gap-graded'thatis to say,it consists of hardly any medium-sized aggregate of a matrix of sand, but fine mineral powder and bitumen into which coarse aggregate incorporatedlike raisinsin a pudding.It is this is gap-grading which givesrolled asphaltsurfacings their particular advantages providing a durable in weather-resistant surfacewhich can accommodate heavy loadswithout cracking.The British Standardcontains specifications mixeswith a rangeof proportionsof for coarseaggregate betweenzeroand 65 per cent ofthe total aggregate. Mixes with lower stonecontenthavea smooth surfacetexture,and on roadswhereis it important to have a good skid-resistance is normal to provide this by it applying precoated chippingsonto the hot asphaltas it is laid. Mixes with higher stonecontents(557o and 657o)are normally usedfor roadbases basecounes. or

Coatedmacadam
John Loudon McAdam would have been surprisedto see the wide rangeof materials which have been evolved using his name.But they do derive from one of his important technical tenets-that road pavementsshould be made from broken stone,no particle ofwhich shouldbe larger than one inch in size.Opportunist ashe was,he would have been quick to claim proprietorship over the useful materials which have evolved from this notion. McAdam's l-inch size particles of stone, broken by hand, were laid in layers up to 6 inches thick and his concept was that these layers would remain smooth and stable under the high of contact pressures iron-shod coach wheels. But his roads were dusty in summer and, even before the beginning of the motor vehicle era, engineershad begun to apply crude tar and heavy oil to lay the dust. Out of theseendeavours emergedthe modern technique of bituminous surface dressing(a useful technique in the armoury of the road engineer, outsidethe scopeof this but maintenance booklet). could be madeby applyingthe Even strongerpavements tar or bitumen to the broken stonebeforeit was trafficked so that the binder penetratedfor some distancedown into groutedor the layer ofbroken stone.Thus emerged still penetrationmacadam,a process effectivelyusedin to somedevelopingcountrieswherethereare pressures use methods employing hand labour. to It was an obviousfurther development coat the stone with tar or bitumen in a centralplant beforeit was laid, and it was at this stagethat the term'tarmacadam'moved into bituminous road mixtures. thdvernaculaljo describe Cohtraetoffiolved their own mixtures, many of which were marketed under trade names.At this stagethey were all essentiallyopen-textured coated macadams,ie, mixes containingstoneof predominantlyone sizewith a to proportion, generally lessthan 20%,of finer aggregates provide extra stability. It was with thesemixesthat the coated macadamindustry grew to prominencein the middle of the twentieth century providing large quantities and widening of coated macadamfor the strengthening of roads to carry the rapidly increasingmotor traffic. The first national specificationswere issuedin the early 1940sas War Time Road Notesby the then Road Research Laboratory. There followed a period when were full-scale experiments with different aggregates carried out on roadsall over the country by the RRL in co-operationwith highway authoritiesand industry. As a result of theseand of a synthesisof general experience,the first seriesof British Standardsfor coated macadams,with different aggregates and road tar or bitumen, was publishedin the late 1940sand early 1950s.Now all these different specificationshave been consolidated in one British Standard, BS 4987 Specifuation for coated macadamfor roads and other paved areas. This standard indicating coversopen and medium texturedmacadams, with different the variations in specification necessary aggregates and to suit differing traffic conditions. It also includes close textured macadams(something of a contradiction in terms of McAdam's tenets),a develop-

ment by industry to supply densemixes particularly on suitablefor usein building up the pavements heavily trafficked roads. Coatedmacadamis availablein an immensevariety of mixes suitable for different uses,all the way from for surfacings private drivewaysto the wearing and base coursesand roadbasesfor heavily trafficked roads. The in specifications BS 4987 are in the form ofrecipes, indicating appropriate gradings of aggregate,and types and quantitiesof bituminous binder. Variations in these specificationscover different types of aggregateto produce the most suitablematerial for the use intended. macadamis so One particular type of open-textured manufactured as to remain porous to water throughout its useful life. The material, known aspervious macadam in highway engineeringterms but asfriction course in airfield use,has the ability to act as a self-draining layer, thereby reducing spray thrown up by vehicle wheels and also reducingthe risk of vehicles(or aircraft) aquaplaning. on Whilst this type of macadamhasbeen usedextensively airfield runways throughout the world for many years, only limited use has been made of it to date on highways. However, contiiuing developmentof the material is likely highway usein the near to result in its more extensive with recentresearch future. BACMI hasbeen associated and developmentof this type of material.

Asphalticconcrete
This material is a forryrof bituminous mix originally developedin the USA and particularly intendedto meet to the needfor stiff and strongpavements carry the heavy are ofaircraft. Specifications loads and high tyre pressures derived from a mechanical testing regime and the mixes are characterisedby having aggregateof a continuous grading and a bitumen content which must be very carefully controlled.It is not normally usedon roadsin Great Britain. It requiresa very strongstiff structure below it, otherwiseit is liable to crack under the pavementdeflections causedby heavy vehicles.In addition it provides very little surfacetexture and would treatmentto provide an require a surfacedressing on adequatelevel ofskid-resistance high speedroads.An appropriate specification for the use ofasphaltic concrete on airfieldsis containedin Specification airfield work, for Agency of the Department issuedby the Property Services of the Environment. The mechanical testing regime used to design asphaltic concrete has been adapted for use in designing rolled asphalt mixes and is particularly useful when a high stability mix is requiredfor very heavily trafficked roads.

Rolled asphalt texture

Coated macadam texture

Layingandcompaction
The processes laying and compactingbituminous of materialsare of prime importancein the provision of a satisfactory and durablejob. The laying of thesematerials, and indeedof all of the various materialsin all of the layersof flexible roads,can be carried out quickly and accuratelyby machineswhich are readily availableand which should be usedwhereverpracticable.The following brief notesoutlining the laying process will be helpful:

Sub-strate condition
Prior to laying, it is important to ensurethat the underlying constructionis strong and stable(or made so). Proper compaction cannot be achievedif the surfaceon which the material is being laid movesabout under the roller: the criterion is that the areato be coveredshall be compactedby, and be stableunder, a roller of not less weight or effectiveness than that which will be usedon the bituminous coatedmaterials.To achievethis with some typesof subgrade may be necessary consider it to the provision of sub-soildrainage. Excessive variationsin thicknessdue to the materials being laid on a poorly shapedsubstrate can cause variationsin initial compaction with subsequent consolidationunder traffic resultingin a reduction in the riding quality of the road. Where necessary, therefore, appropriateshapingor 'regulating' of the underlying constructionshould be carried out prior to laying a subsequent layer. Fig 7 paver in actton

Although a much greaterproportion of coatedmacadam and rolled asphaltis spreadby machine,there is still a large tonnagespreadby hand on suchareasasschoolplaygroun{i and footways,besides regulatingexistingsurfaces. permits, For theseconditions,where the specification lower viscositybindersare normally usedin coated giving more latitude in the handling and macadams compaction of the materials.It is also possibleto lay standardrolled asphaltand densecoatedmacadamby gang hand but a specialist or contractor an experienced should be emoloved.

Compaction
After the materialshave been spread,even when this has been done by machine,compactionis required,in the case of a macadamto ensureadequateinterlock betweenthe particlesand in an asphaltto achieveits aggregate necessary void contentand consequent low high strength and durability. A major factor in the workability of the mixed material is the viscosityof the binder which is governedby the temperatureof the material.The more workable the material,up to a limit of being too soft and pushingunder the compactingequipment,the better the compactionobtained.It is essential that material made with high viscositybindersbe laid and thoroughly compactedwhile hot. In generalrolling should commence as soon as the material can be compactedwithout undue displacement and continue until all roller marks have disappeared. govern The weatherand the site conditionsand thickness the rate at which the material cools.On an exposed, windy site, material cools quickly and there should be no delay in rolling. Showersof rain also causematerial to cool quickly. At the other extremeon a hot day, the rate of cooling is slow and some delay in compaction may be necessary.

Laying
Modern paving machinesare of the floating screedtype and automaticallytake out minor and short irregularities. Depressions from 3 to 6 m long can be taken out by of adjustmentof the thicknesscontrols, but if over 6 m long they should be made up by hand before the main resurfacing starts.However, provided the machineis working on a reasonably shapedbase,once it has beenset there is to lay the requiredthickness, lessinterference the with the controls,the better the finishedjob. There are severalsizesof thesetypesof machines. including a relatively small one suitablefor useon footways,and a selectioncan be made accordingto the output requiredand the width to be paved. In addition to spreading materialsthesemachinesalso, the by meansof a tamper,compact the material to some extent,estimatedat 60-80% of the densityobtainedafter rolling, with the result that there is lessdistortion of the surfacewhen the roller is applied.

l0

Three types of roller are availablefor the compactionof bituminous materials,namely: dead weight three-wheeland tandem rollers vibratory rollers pneumatic-tyredrollers. Until recentlythe three-wheeltype was the most common and is availablein weightsrangingfrom 2 to 12 tonnes. British Standards give an indication of the weight of roller to be usedbut an overall guide is 2.5 tonnesfor footway work and 8-10 tonneson carriagewayconstructionwork. The weight of roller usedon any layer should not be significantlygreaterthan that usedon any lower layersin the construction. In the past vibratory rollers were of relatively small sizeand weight, factorswhich made them suitableand convenientonly for footway work and small surfacing jobs. Their compactingcapabilities, however,are in excess of their dead weight. Larger tandem-typesizesare now availableand are being usedregularly on large-scale works. Pneumatictyred rollers are seldom usedin the UK for compactingbituminous mixes,exceptin airfield work.

In addition to roads,bituminous mixes are usedin many other situationssuch as: Vehicle parking areas House-drives Footways Playing areas-tennis courts, playgroundsetc Airfields-runways and access roads Agricultural uses-farm roads,animal cubicles, paved areas Hard standings and storageareas Hydraulic applications:dam construction,coastal protection etc. To understand why flexible constructionpredominates in road constructionwe must go back to the fundamental requirements a modern road pavement.It must be of preventingthe destructiveingress water weatherproof, of (even in the caseof pervious macadamsurfaces water is not allowed to penetrate beyond the wearingcourse);it must be durable,resistingthe constantpounding of heavy traffic and structuredin such a way as to distributethe load evenly through successive layers;it must have even-riding properties; and be skid-resistant. The variousbituminous mixes described have evolvedto meet preciselythoserequirements. this sense In their propertiesare also'flexible': specificallyand purposely developedfor a wide variety of circumstances road in constructionand maintenance and aiming to make the best useof availablelocal road-makingmaterials. The inherentadvantages flexible pavementconstruction of thus closelymatch the requirements outlined, and with the continuousdevelopmentover almost a century are able to carry anticipatedfuture traffic loads safelyand economically. Some of the principal characteristics modern flexible of roads are:

Application of coatedchippings
With the fine-textured types of wearing course,eg, rolled asphaltcontaining 407a lessof coarseaggregate, or fine cold asphaltand 357ostonecontent DenseTar Surfacing (seeBS 5273) it is usual to roughenthe finishedsurface on carriageways rolling in coated chippingsof 20 mm by or l4 mm nominalsizewhile the materialis still workable. If the material is handlaid it should be rolled once before the chippingsare spread,otherwisethey may be buried. Machinelaid material receives initial compactionfrom the machineand the chippingsshould be applied immediatelybehind it. When masticasphaltpaving is laid on carriageways coatedchippingsare also normally applied (seeBS 1446l 1447).

Easeof construction
The method of constructingin layersenableswork to proceedat a number of points progressively along the road as required.The materialsrequiredare easily obtained and can be laid accurately and swiftly with mobile relatively inexpensive and readily availableplant. However, the constructionneednot necessarily be continuousalong the road, but can be done in separated lengthsas found convenientfor running ofthejob, to be joined up later, without detriment to the finishedroad.

The flexibleroad
We have seenhow bituminous mixes are made uo and how they fit in with modernroad construction teihniques. They are by far the most predominantroad surfacing materials.Indeed over the last fifteen yearsor so, over three quartersof all new contractsfor motorways and trunk roads let by the Department of Transport have bebn in flexible construction,the remainderbeing in rigid (concrete)construction.Actual proportions vary from year to year. Overall, about 95 per cent of the UK total road network of 343,685 km (and indeed approximately 98 per cent of the estimated16 million km of the whole world's paved roads)may be said to be flexible, ie, built using bituminous materials-such as those discussed in this booklet.

Even riding qualtty

The surfacingon flexible roads can be laid to a high degreeof accuracy,by modern paving machinery, providing a smooth-runningfinish for vehicles.

ll

Rapid openingto traffic

As soon as the constructionof a flexible road made with bituminous materials,or any stageof it above the is it sub-base, completed. can be openedto traffic. The bituminous materialscan be usedby traffic as soon as they have been laid and have cooled to atmospheric This featurecan be particularly important in temperature. reconstructionon congested sitessuchas roundaboutsand city streetswhere the leasthindranceto traffic flow can causeconsiderable dislocationand delay. By the usein particular of bituminous roadbases, delaysare kept to a minimum as traffic can run on the material the sameday as it has been laid.

In summary,
bituminousroad mixes
provide weather-resistant surfocing are resistant to man)rdilute chemicals including de-icing salt durable give universally-acknowledgedeven-riding quahtl provide good ski.d-resistance allow early use ofa new surfacing by traffrc without the needfor lenqthl curing periods combine strenglh with flexibility giving safe distribution of heavy traffic loads are easily and economically maintained and strengthened present a neat, aestheticallypleasing and low-glare appearance provide good contrast to road markings thus contributing to safety do not require joints to be incorporated in the conproblems and struction, with their associated needs maintenance

Flexibility
The normal slight movement under traffic on a flexible road is a featurewhich preventsany harshness the in riding quality of the road. In addition, however,there is sufficientflexibility in the constructionto accommodate settlementdue to general subsidence earthwork settlementeg, embankments or or junctions with bridge abutments,without complete break-up.The riding quality of the road can be easilyand inexpensivelyrestoredby the superimposition of appropriatebituminous material.

Simpleand economic
matntenance
of The surfaces all typesof roads are subjectto wear and tear. The life of a flexible road wearing coursecan be extendedeasily,quickly and economicallyby superimposing a new wearing courseor by surfacedressing. to When it is not permissible raisethe level of the finished surfacethe existingwearing coursecan be removedeasily by heatingand planing or by cold planing and a new one substituted maintain the orieinal levels. to

Skid resistance
Bituminous wearing courses availablewhich can are provide the high resistance skidding neededon high to speedroadsand indeedin all situationswhere public safetyis involved.

There is one basic pre-condition for most of the advantageslisted: materials and construction must be of a high standard. This high standard is one of the characteristics that members of BACMI have in common-from the suppliers of roadstone right through to the contractors who carry out the surfacing work.

I2

References further reading and

British Standards-available from BSI,Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE BS 63 BS 76 BS 434 BS 594 BS 598 Single-sized roadstoneand chippings Tars for road purposes Bitumenroad emulsions Rolled asphaltfor roadsand orherpavedareas Samplingand examination bituminous of mixtures for roadsand other pavedareas Methodsfor samplingand testingof mineral aggregates, sandsand fillers Masticasphalt(naturalrock asphaltfine aggregate) roadsand footways for Mastic asphalt(limestonefine aggregare) for roads and footways Bitumens buildingand civil engineering for Coatedmacadams roadsand other paved for areas Densetar surfacing roadsand other paved for areas Other publications Asphalticroad materials-L W Hatherleyand P C Leaver -Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 1967 Developments highwaypavement in engineering PartsI & 2-Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London 1978 The performanceof rolled asphaltroad surfacings (proceedings a conference of held in London on 16.10.79)-Institutionof Civil Engineers, London, 1980 Blastfurnace and steelslag-A R Lee- Edward Arnold Publishers 1974(available Ltd from BACMI) Black top: a historyof the Britishflexibleroadsindustry -J B F Earle,1974(available from BACMI) A centuryof road materials J B F Earle, t 971 (available through Tarmac RoadstoneHoldings Ltd, PO Box 44, 50 WaterlooRoad,WolverhamptonWVI 4RU) Mastic Asphalt Council and Employers'Federation publications technical (from MACEF, Construction House, Paddockhall Road,Haywards HeathRH l6 l HE) Refined Bitumen Associationtechnicalinformation sheets (from RBA, ConstructionHouse,PaddockhallRoad, Haywards HeathRHl6 IHE) IP Standardsfor the testingof petroleumand its products -Institute of Petroleum, London (annualpublication) Instituteof Petroleum-Bitumen safetycode,June 1979 -Institute of Petroleum, London Standardmethodsfor testingtar and its products-British CarbonisationResearch Association,Chesterfield, Derbyshire AsphaltInstitute(USA)-various publications available direct from AsphaltInstitutetsuilding, CollegePark, Maryland 20740,USA BACMI publications Current list availableon request(from the address given on the title pageof this publication). (These publications includepamphlets givingguidance the on constructionand surfacingof parking areas,housing estateroadsand footways.) Government publications- not availablefrom HM SO Various reporls of the Transport and Road Research Laboratory-available from the Library of TRRL, Crowthorne,Berkshire RGI I 6AU Various Department of Transport Technical Memoranda, DepartmentalStandards and Advice Notes(including Technical Memorandum H6 / 78)-av ailablefrom DTp Publications SalesUnit, Building l, Victoria Road, South Ruislip HA4 ONZ

BS 812

BS 1446

BS 1447

BS 3690 BS 4987

BS 5273

Government publications- available from HM SO Specificationfor road and bridgeworks -Department of Transport Notes for guidanceon the specificationfor road and bridgeworks-Department of Transport Method of measurement road and bridse works for -Department of Transport Notes for guidanceand library of standarditem descriptionsfor the preparationof bills of quantities for road and bridge works-Department of Transport Airfield pavementdesignand specification publications-Department of the Environment, Property Services Agency (Airfields Branch) The design and performance roadpavements, D Croney of by -Transport and Road ResearchLaborutory. 1977 (Alqo: Bituminous materialsin road construction-Road ResearchLaboratory, 1962-now out of print but possiblyavailablein some specialised libraries)