Mandate of Heaven - The god-given right for an emperor to rule.

Section One: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Dynasty The year 1800 was the high water mark of Chinas Qing Dynasty (of the Manchus). Within a century, that same dynasty was on the brink of total collapse. The reason for the Qings decline: immense pressure placed on imperial China from the powerful Western Powers (trade), and several internal reasons which included corruption, peasant unrest, and incompetence. In addition to those two problems, Chinas population had grown to 400 million by 1900 (too many people - too little food). The Qing Dynasty was doomed by 100 years of problems both foreign and domestic. The Opium War Although China had been trading with the Western Powers for over two hundred years, the only port open to foreigners was at Guang-zhou (Gwang-joe) (modern-day Canton). The Chinese wished to make money but at the same time restrict foreign culture effects on feudal-like China. The British disliked the situation since it created an unfavorable balance or trade. The British imported silk, tea, and porcelain from China in exchange for (Indian-grown) cotton and silver. (This situation was costing Britain a great deal of money.) When negotiations failed, the British turned to trading opium (grown in northern India and traded to China by the British East India Company.) Soon the balance of trade shifted. Chinese demand for the drug increased, a huge drug dependency problem developed in China, and Chinese silver headed into greedy English pockets.

the Chinese government demanded that Britain halt all opium exports into China on moral grounds. when the British refused, China closed the port at Guang-zhou and confiscated and burned all opium supplies stored there. The british viewed the Chinese government/military as weak, so they declared war in 1839. As predicted, the Chinese army and navy proved so weak that the Qing government sued for peace in 1842. The resulting Treaty of Nanjing stated the following: Britain gets 5 ports to trade in instead of 1 Lower tariffs on British goods sold in China The Chinese have to pay the cost of the war The Chinese have to give Hong Kong to Britain for 50 years China now found itself unable to protect itself against the powerful Western Powers who began to exploit Chinas economy at will. To make matters worse, the Qing government was faced with internal problems in the form of a 14-year-long peasants revolt, called the Tai Ping Rebellion. A Christian fanatic named Hong Xiuquan (Hong-zee-kwan) was the leader of the revolt, as well as brother of Jesus. He was determined to end the Qing dynasty and replace it with the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace. A few of his planned (democratic) reforms included: Give land to peasants Treat women as equals to men Money, food, and clothing were to be shared equally No tobacco, alcohol, drugs, prostitution, slavery, polygamy, or shaved heads Civil Service test is to be based on Christianity instead of Confucian ideals In March 1853 the rebellion took a turn for the worse when the Tai Ping rebels invaded the Nanjing and massacred 25,000 men, women, and children. The bloodshed coerced the Western Powers to aid the Qing government and by 1864 the tide of war had turned against the rebel forces (who had caused the death of an estimated 20 million people). The Qing dynasty proved unable to deal with massive internal problems while fending off interference by the Western Powers. (Todays current Communist government in China consider the Tai-Ping Rebellion to be a heroic struggle against a corrupt regime.)

The weakened Qing government found itself unable to control its noble-class, who continued to collect high taxes from the peasant class for their own use while ignoring the emperor. Feeling the pressure to grant political and social reforms, the Qing called for selfstrengthening, which called to adopt western technology such as ships, weapons, and modern factories, while maintaining Confucian values and institutions.

The call for China to convert into a total democracy was postponed since it was too radical of a change. Luckily, China was able to balance new technological improvements while maintaining its age-old moral values for the next 25 years.

The Advance of Imperialism Due to Western intervention, China was in for a massive period of change during the late 1800s. The Russians forced China to give up its territories north of the Amur River in Siberia. Tiber (long cherished by Russia, China, and Britain) found itself able to remain free from Chinese influence. Internally, China found itself at the mercy of the Western Powers who created Spheres of Influence, giving the foreign nations exclusive trading rights throughout China. The weakening Qing government found itself unable to control its noble-warlords from negotiating individual trading agreements with the nations of Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan. (Cartoon) In 1894, China went to war with neighboring Japan over the control of Korea. A Japanese victory cost China control of the island Taiwan (then called Formosa) as well as the Liadong Peninsula (and its valuable trading center, Port Arthur). In addition to the external problems, China found itself again facing massive internal trouble. The new emperor, Guang Xu (Kuang-hsu) enacted major reforms to his nation known as The Hundred Days of Reform. Some of the new changes included: Modernized government Change to the educational system Banks, Railroads, Free Pres Modern Military

Many of Chinas conservative leaders disliked many of Xus democratic reforms. Xus own aunt, the Empress Dowanger Ci Xi led the opposition to his reforms (even having Xu briefly imprisoned in an effort to halt all new reforms.) Fearing a total collapse of the Chinese government, and the ensuing economic chaos, both Britain and the United States tried to intercede in Chinese affairs.

US Secretary of State John Hay proposed the Open Door Policy, which created equal trade opportunities for all nations involved in China. US intentions were not necessarily honorable. They were hoping to keep all the parts of China open to trade instead of having the country divided up by the Western nations and were not really worried about the strength of the Chinese government. Spheres of influence did continue in China, but the local Western Power did not shut out trade with other Western nations.

Outside concern for the welfare of China did not prevent an undercurrent of unhappiness by many Chinese people. The Boxers (or Society of Harmonious Fists) were furious that their nation was being taken over by foreigners. They vented their anger on Chinese Christians, Christian Missionaries, and foreign businessmen. The murderous Boxers angered the Western powers who massed an international army made up of troops from Britain, France, Germany, Russia, America, and Japan. The international force of 50 warships and 55,000 soldiers eventually crushed the Boxer Rebellion, imprisoned the rebel leadership, demanded more trade/political concessions from the Chinese government, and for the Chinese to pay a 333 million dollar fine (indemnity) for damages inflicted and the cost of crushing the revolt. China and the Qing Dynasty were spiraling downward into the abyss.

Revolution in China & the Fall of the Qing Following the Boxer Rebellion, the ruling elite of China had no choice but to make widespread governmental reform. The ancient civil service system was replaced by a new educational system and local (provincial) assemblies were formed. Chinas first national elections were held in 1910, but real change was slow to come since the weak provincial assemblies were mere advisory in nature to the national government. Socio-economically, the peasant artisans and miners were still left out of the new prosperity. Real change finally started in March 1924 when a young radical leader named Sun Yat-Sen formed the RCS (Revived China Society). This progressive group felt that the Chinese government was inept and that China would forever be taken advantage of by Western nations unless the Qing Dynasty was ousted and replaced by a modern one.

Suns three-stage plan for reform included: military takeover transitional phase where Suns revolutionary party would prepare China for eventual democratic rule A new constitutional democracy 1905: The Revolutionary Alliance (later known as the Nationalist Party) was formed. Originally, the partys membership numbers were small, but over time thousands of discontented Chinese joined its ranks. 1908: The Empress Ci Xi died, and the throne indirectly went to the last emperor, the infant Henry Pu Yi (Emperor-god... who was only 3 years old). 1911: The Nationalist party led a popular revolt and the Qing government was too frail to hold onto power. The Partys founder was at the time in the US, so the membership turned to General Guan Shigai for political and military leadership. General Shigai was elected president much to the surprise of Sun, who immediately returned to China when he heard news of the rebellion. Unfortunately, real change was very slow to come to China. The new government was attempting to bring a democracy to a nation who had never really experienced that type of regime before. In addition, the Chinese middle class did not have the economic clout to make a lot of changes, since most Chinese were still peasants and suspicious of Suns new movement. In reality, Chinas government was dominated by General/President Shigais legalistic military government. Over time, most facets of Chinese society grew to hate the Shigai regime, especially when it dissolved the parliament. Suns followers waged a rebellion that failed. Sun was forced to flee to nearby Japan to avoid capture and execution. Shigai maintained his rule until his death in 1916. He was succeeded by one of his officers who could not maintain control and China into small regions, and China witnessed another period of bloody repression.

Chinas Changing Culture Nineteenth Century rural Chinese daily life was much the same as it had been for many centuries. Most were farmers, living in millions of villages in rice fields and on hillsides throughout the country side.

 Farmers lives were governed by the harvest cycle, village custom, and family ritual as well as religious practices. Few men were educated. Women remained in the house or in the fields. All children were expected to obey their parents. Wives were expected to respect their husbands.

In comparison to the rural setting, city live was noticeably Western, and one could see that the old moral values of Confucius dying out. Many liberal minded Chinese reformers viewed the old moral ways to be the tool of the old dynasties oppression of the Chinese people. The late 1800s saw Western books, paintings, music, and ideas coming into China. Urbanites seemed to be attracted to the new ways, but those Chinese living in rural areas seemed to be suspicious of Western ways. Western literature heavily influenced Chinese literature. Ba Jins trilogy Family Spring described the disintegration of traditional confucian ways and how the younger generation was shying away from traditional family values.

Section Three: The Rise of Modern Japan

The End of Japanese Isolation 1600-1800: Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa Dynasty, that had successfully rid the country of foreign merchants and Christian missionaries. Japan had successfully shut out the outside world (except for limited relations with the Koreans and a bit of Western trade out of the tightly controlled city of Nagasaki, and only with the Dutch). The greedy Western Powers, having a great deal of political and economic success in China, looked longingly on Japan for their next colonial conquest. 1853: A US naval fleet under the leadership of Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Edo Bay seeking to break the diplomatic ice with the Japanese. Besides trade, and diplomatic relations, the US was hoping to have the Japanese give better treatment to shipwrecked US sailors (whaling ships). Not achieving immediate success, Perry gathered more ships and returned to Japan to force their hand on the matter. The Japanese governmental officials were divided on allowing the US entry into their isolated world. The Japanese decision was probably made for them as Perrys gunboats entered the harbor.

The Treaty of Kanagawa stated that: Japan will return US sailors Japan will open two western ports Establishment of a US consulate in Japan A few years later, another treaty with the US strengthened diplomatic, residence, and trade ties. Japan later would sign similar treaties with other Western European nations. Japans centuries-old isolationism and feudal structure was at an end.

Inside Japan, emotions were mixed. The Samurai leaders in the southern provinces of Satsuma and Choshu had neither much past exposure to Western culture and less interest in gaining any ties with the West. Unfortunately, Japanese methods of fighting and old-fashioned forts were no match for modern (Western) military technology. The new Emperors new centralized government (Called the Sat-Cho) eventually defeated the shoguns forces, and ended regional (shogunate) political power within Japan in favor of the centralized government.

The young emperor Mutsuhito led a new era for Japan called the Meiji (Enlightened rule) Restoration. In reality, the Japanese emperors were subject to the will of the Sat-Cho leaders (as old emperors had become the subject to the will of the shoguns). Eventually, the Japanese capital was moved from Kyoto to Edo (which is modern-day Tokyo.)

Japanese Politics Transformed First, the local Japanese nobles, called the Daimyos had their power taken from them. Secondly, the local leaders (the Shoguns) lost control of their vast landholdings (ruining their military/source of wealth). In return, the weakened lords were given some monetary compensation and the title of prefecture (or territorial) governor. Third, the old absolute power of the emperor was to be combined with a legislature (originally made up of representatives from 75 prefectures (regions). Fourth, the Japanese realized that if they were to deal with the Western Powers, they needed to carefully study the government, culture, society, and economies of those Powers.

A Japanese government official by the name of Ito Hirobumi led a Japanese commision to study Western nations for one year (while a commission continued to study Western ways for another twenty years).

Eventually, the Japanese political scene divided into two ideologies: Liberals and Progressives. The Liberals favored political reform based on Western democratic ideas and giving most of the power to the parliament. The Progressives favored sharing power between Legislative and Executive branch, with more power going to the executive. As the two factions maneuvered for political leverage, the executive branch (emperor and prime minister) held on to most of the power. As in Britain, the upper house members were appointed and the lower house members elected. What seemed like a modern democracy in Japan, was in reality a traditional government led by members of the Sat-Cho leadership manipulation the emperor and the prime minister. The Meiji government spent much of the land tax on industry, realizing the value of heavy industry and trade (that would make Japan rich and strong). As new industries developed in Japan - the stronger the economy, the stronger the military. As in 18th century Prussia (Germany), millions of yen (dollars) would be spent strengthening the army (including a mandatory 3-year term of service for all Japanese males.) As in the US, education was to be the key to the future, so the Japanese set up a school system based on the American model. In line with the age old Japanese moral tradition, emphasis was continued upon self-discipline, loyalty to the family, ones ancestors, and to the emperor. Japanese society continued to be very structured. Explain the Japanese social structure: Social class determined status, job, and relationships Women were still second-class, but rights were improving Not a true democracy They developed a love for American culture Japan, like many of the Western Powers had molded their government in the Western tradition, but now sought to achieve economic and military strength. Again they simply copied the West by seeking foreign colonies (raw material, cheap labor, and markets for exports).

1874: Japan seized control of the Ryuku Islands (once owned by China). 1875: Japan forced the Koreans to open up trade markets. 1894: Following a brief war, the Chinese lost the trade city of Port Arthur to the Japanese, and had to recognize that Korea was to be a free nation. China also lost the island of Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan. 1904: The Japanese attacked a Russian naval base at Port Arthur (which the Russians had taken from China a few years earlier). As the Japanese stepped up their offensive, the Russian military proved to be weak and ineffective. Soon after, the Russian navy was defeated by a superior Japanese naval force, forcing the Russians to cede the Liaodong and other territories to Japan. The confident Japanese had grwn into a world power and it caught the attention of the Americans.The US allowed Japan to take total control of Korea (annexing it outright in 1910), in exchange Japan allowed the US to gain military and political influence in the Philippines. Culturally, the Japanese were successful at blending the old tradition ways with modern concepts: Realism merged with Japanese naturalism. Foreigners were hired (and paid very well) to help modernize Japan into a modern nation politically, economically, and militarily. Naturally there was a bit of a cultural backlash from the traditionalists. Over time, old Japanese artistic ways returned, and much of the art was exported to eager buyers around the world.