Electronic Devices and Circuits

According to JNTUK syllabus

Bhimavaram

Information is not knowledge.

Albert Einstein

Bhimavaram

Fundamentals of atomic theory Index of first unit

Bhimavaram

Introduction and Essential Fundamentals of atomic theory

Bhimavaram

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

460 BC

Democritus develops the idea of atoms

he pounded up materials in his pestle and

mortar until he had reduced them to smaller and smaller particles which he called

ATOMA
(greek for indivisible)
Bhimavaram 5

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1808

John Dalton

suggested that all matter was made up of

tiny spheres that were able to bounce around with perfect elasticity and called them

ATOMS

Bhimavaram

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1898

Joseph John Thompson

found that atoms could sometimes eject a far

smaller negative particle which he called an

ELECTRON

Bhimavaram

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1904
Thompson develops the idea that an atom was made up of electrons scattered unevenly within an elastic sphere surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's charge like plums surrounded by pudding.

PLUM PUDDING MODEL

Bhimavaram

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

In 1910 Ernest Rutherford and his team Geiger and Marsden conducted a famous experiment . they fired Helium nuclei at a piece of gold foil

which was only a few atoms thick.

they found that although most of them passed through. About 1 in 10,000 hit
Bhimavaram 9

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

helium nuclei gold foil

helium nuclei

They found that while most of the helium nuclei passed through the foil, a small number were deflected and, to their

surprise, some helium nuclei bounced straight back.

Bhimavaram 10

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Rutherfords new evidence allowed him to propose a more detailed model with a central nucleus.

He suggested that the positive charge was all in a central

nucleus. With this holding the electrons in place by electrical attraction

However, this was not the end of the story.

Bhimavaram 11

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1913

Niels Bohr
studied under Rutherford at the Victoria University in Manchester.

Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by adding

that the electrons were in orbits. Rather like planets orbiting the sun. With each orbit only able to contain a set number of electrons.

Bhimavaram

12

HELIUM ATOM
proton

Shell

+ electron
N

neutron

What do these particles consist of?

Bhimavaram 13

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Particle Charge

Mass

Proton
Neutron Electron

+ve Charge 1.67262158 10-27 kg

1.60210
-19

Or 1.0086649156 amu

No charge

1,6749 x 10-27 kg Or
1.00727638 amu
9.10938188 10-31 kg
Or

-ve charge
-1.60210
-19

0.0005446623 amu

An atomic mass unit (symbolized AMU or amu) is defined as precisely 1/12 the mass of an Bhimavaram 14 atom of carbon-12.

The Bohr Atom : Bohr in 1913 postulated the following three fundamental laws: 2. A a transition fromgiven by classicalthe corresponding 1. Not all energies as determined by mechanics are 3. In stationary state is one stationary statecondition to a definite energy W2cananother stationary state, with possible, but the atom to possess electron in discrete that the angular momentum of the only certainthis an associated energy W1,correspondingbe multiple The energies. While in states radiation will to these discrete state is quantized and must be an integral emitted. frequencythe this radiant energyemit radiation, and the energies, of of h/2 Thus electron does not is given by electron is said (W2-W1)/h f= to be in a stationary, or non radiating, state. wheremvr = n h/2 in joule-seconds, the Ws are h is Plancks constant expressedthe joules, level inis in cycles per second, or hertz. where n is in energy and f joules of each an integer.
state is found to be

Bhimavaram

15

 wavelength in angstroms
E energy value of the stationary states in electron volts

Bhimavaram

16

According to Schrodinger four quantum numbers are required to define the wave function. 4. 1. The principal quantum explain may have the 1, 2,l3, . .and 3. Electron spin.quantumto numbercertain spectroscopic . 2. angular momentum n 1. The orbital magnetic number mn is an integer values principal In order number lquantum number takes magneticorbitall.angular .momentum quantum numberthe 1925, The phenomena, Uhlenbeck the number 0, the 2, ... 1, total energy associated withindicates and1, values 0,the2, number 1).and Goudsmit,ainof l on2. determines This . . , (n gives This orientation particular found This of themagnetic orbit. Thein addition tothe size The 3. The orbital classical number l classical necessary to assume an applied magneticthis of state. it orbit with respect to that,mmagnitude oftraversing the shape number may be considered to define field. its4.classical ellipticalis Electron the m magnitude ofspin component ofitelectronmomentum along theorbit momentums orbit, and angular mustto the angular around the nucleus, the corresponds also rotate about its own axis.nThis intrinsic atom. quantum number magnetic field is of the Bohr electronic angular the directionIs called electron spin. When mlelectron system momentum of the an (h/2) is subjected to a magnetic field, the spin axis will orient itself either parallel or anti parallel to the direction of the field. The spin is thus quantized to one of two possible values. The electronic angular momentum is given by ms(h/2), where the spin quantum number ms may assume only two values, +1/2 or 1/2 .
Bhimavaram 17

Actual orbital shape

3S 2S 1S 1S 2S 3S

2P 3P

P(14)
+N(14)

Represents Requirement of electrons to get argon configuration

Bhimavaram 18

Bhimavaram

19

Bhimavaram

20

Bhimavaram

21

Bhimavaram

22

Bhimavaram

23

Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals (left) is arranged by increasing energy Note that atomic orbits are functions of three variables (two angles, and the distance from the nucleus, r). These images are faithful to the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely representative of the orbital as a whole.
Bhimavaram 24

Basic Information Name: Silicon Symbol: Si Atomic Number: 14 Atomic Mass: 28.0855 amu Melting Point: 1410.0 C (1683.15 K, 2570.0 F) Boiling Point: 2355.0 C (2628.15 K, 4271.0 F) Number of Protons/Electrons: 14 Number of Neutrons: 14 Classification: Metalloid Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 2.329 g/cm3 Color: grey Date of Discovery: 1823 Discoverer: Jons Berzelius Name Origin: From the Latin word silex (flint) Uses: glass, semiconductors Obtained From: Second most abundant element. Found in clay, granite, quartz, sand
Bhimavaram 25

Basic Information

Name: Germanium Symbol: Ge Atomic Number: 32 Atomic Mass: 72.61 amu Melting Point: 937.4 C (1210.55 K, 1719.3201 F) Boiling Point: 2830.0 C (3103.15 K, 5126.0 F) Number of Protons/Electrons: 32 Number of Neutrons: 41 Classification: Metalloid Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 5.323 g/cm3 Color: grayish Date of Discovery: 1886 Discoverer: Clemens Winkler Name Origin: From the Latin word Germania, meaning Germany Uses: semiconductors Obtained From: refining of copper, zinc, lead

Bhimavaram

26

Syllabus

Electron Ballistics and Applications: 1.1Force on Charged Particles in Electric field, 1.2 Constant Electric Field, 1.3 Potential, Relationship between Field Intensity and Potential, 1.4Two Dimensional Motion, 1.5 Electrostatic Deflection in Cathode ray Tube, CRO, 1.6 Force in Magnetic Field, 1.7 Motion in Magnetic Field, 1.8 Magnetic Deflection in CRT, 1.9 Magnetic Focusing, 1.10 Parallel Electric and Magnetic fields 1.11 Perpendicular Electric and Magnetic Fields.

I UNIT

Bhimavaram

27

Force on a charged particle in an Electric Field

The Electric

field intensity at any point is defined as

The Force on unit Positive charge at that point.

There fore the force (f) on unit positive charge q in an electric field is

f=q

The resulting force f is in Newton and is in the direction of electric field , q is in coulombs and is in Volts/meters.

Bhimavaram

28

The Newton second law of motion says

force (f )= m a

where m is mass of electron and a is acceleration of electron.

By relating the force of electric field on the electron with Newtons second law of motion we can write that

Return to Index
Bhimavaram 29

constant electrified field

If thedifference an electron The A distance of potential Suppose that between is plates applied between Small very situated isbetween the the two is plates compared of . parallel plate with dimension of two plates capacitor are the plates . which electric The direction of contained in field maybe the electric an evacuated field is from positive to envelope as shown in fig. considered to be uniform . negative plate. The direction of electric field is along the ve x direction. That is the only force on the electron.

+ + + + + + + +

Bhimavaram

30

constant electrified field

+ + + + + + + +

Bhimavaram

31

constant electrified field

+ + + + + + + +

Bhimavaram

32

constant electrified field

V

+ + + + + + + +

Return to Index
Bhimavaram 33

Bhimavaram

34

Return to Index

Bhimavaram

35

Bhimavaram

36

Electric Field

When Vd=0 Volts is +Ve

Two Dimensional electronic motion in a uniform electric field

When an electron moving in a straight line with a uniform velocity (Vox ) it will continue its motion in a straight line path . If an uniform Electric field ()is introduced in its straight line path in a perpendicular direction . It has Two forces now and the resultant Is path of parabola.
Bhimavaram 37

Bhimavaram

38

ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION IN A CATHODE-RAY TUBE The essentials of a cathode-ray tube for electrostatic deflection are illustrated in Fig. The hot cathode K emits electrons which are accelerated towards the anode by the potential Va. Those electrons which are not collected by the anode pass through the tiny anode bole and strike the end of the glass envelope. This has been coated with a material that fluoresces when bomb boarded by electrons. Thus the positions where the electrons strike the screen are made visible to the eye. The displacement D of the electrons is determined by the potential Vd (assumed constant) applied between the deflecting plates, as shown. The velocity vox with which the electrons emerge from the anode hole is given by
Bhimavaram 39

on the assumption that the initial velocities of From the geometry of the figure, emission of the electrons from the cathode are the equation of the straight line MP is negligible. found to be Since no field is supposed to exist in the region from the anode to the point 0, the electrons will move with a constant velocity in a straightline path. In the region between the plates the electrons will move in the parabolic path given by When y = 0, x = 1/2, which indicates that when the straight line MP is extended backward, edge intersect the tube axis The path is a straight line from the point of emergence M at the it will of the at the point plates to the point P on the screen, since this region is field-free. 0, the center point of the plates. This result means that The straight-line path in the region from the deflecting plates to the screen is, of 0 is, in effect, virtual at this course, tangent to the parabola at the point. M. The slope ofathe line cathode, and regardless of the applied potentials Va and Vd, the point, and so at every point between M and P, is electrons appear to emerge from this cathode and move in a straight line to the point P.

Bhimavaram

40

At deflection (in = D, and x L + the the point P, y meters) on=the l/2. screen per volt of deflecting voltage. Is defined as deflection sensitivity Thus

By inserting the known values of ay (= eVd/dm) and vox this becomes The idealization made in connection with the foregoing An inspection of above Eq. that the electric field between the deflecting development, viz, shows that the sensitivity is independent of both the deflectingbeyond the edges of the plates is uniform and does not extend voltage Vplates, is never met in practice. d and the ratio e/m. Furthermore,result showsvariesof fringing of the electric field may of a cathode-ray tube Consequently, the that inversely This the sensitivityeffect the deflection on the screen be with the accelerating potential V. to the deflecting voltage Vd 40 isenough to proportional directly necessitate corrections amounting to as much as percent in the results obtained applied between the plates.from an application of Eq Typical measured cathode-ray tube may be used as a Consequently, avalues of sensitivity are

linear-voltage indicating device.

1.0 to 0.1 mm/V, corresponding to a voltage requirement of 10 to 100 V to give a deflection of 1 cm.
Bhimavaram

41

Vd=0

H a t

Bhimavaram

42

+ Vd +

- -

Bhimavaram

43

Vd

+ +

Bhimavaram

44

Bhimavaram

45

Bhimavaram

46

Bhimavaram

47

Horizontal sweep voltage applied on Horizontal Deflection plates

Bhimavaram

48

Horizontal sweep voltage applied on Horizontal Deflection plates. And a sinusoidal voltage applied for vertical deflection plates.
Bhimavaram

Return to Index
49

FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

To investigate the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field, the well- known motor law is recalled. It has been verified by experimentally that, if a conductor of length L, carrying a current of I, is situated in a magnetic field of intensity B, the force f, acting on this conductor is f = BIL sin where fm is in newtons, B is in webers per square meter (Wb/m),I is in amperes, L is in meters and is the angle between I and B. If is 900 then f= BIL

One weber per square meter is called tesla and equals to 104G
Bhimavaram 50

Force on an electron
If N electrons are contained in a length L of conductor and if it takes an electron a time T sec to travel a distance of L meters in the conductor, the total number of electrons passing through any cross section of wire in unit time is N/T. Thus the total charge per second passing any point, which, by definition, is the current in amperes, is I = Ne/T The force in newtons on a length L m (or the force on the N conduction charges contained therein) is f = BIL = BL(Ne/T) since L/T is the average, or drift, speed rn/sec of the electrons, the force per electron is fm = eBv The subscript m indicates that the force is of magnetic origin.
Bhimavaram 51

Current density
the current density, denoted by the symbol J, is the current per unit area of the conducting medium. That is, assuming a uniform current distribution, This derivation is independent of the form of the conducting J =I/A medium. is in amperes it does not necessarily represent a wire where J Consequently, per square meter, and conductor. It may represent equally well a portion of a gaseousA is the cross-sectional area (in meters) of the conductor. discharge tube or a volume element in the space-charge cloud of a This becomes, vacuum tube or a semiconductor. Furthermore, neither nor v J=Ne/ vary need be constant, but mayTA from point to point in space or may vary with time.But T = L/v. Then Therefore J= Nev/LA
it is evident that LA is simply the volume containing the N electrons, and so N/LA is the electron concentration n (in electrons per cubic meter). Thus n = N/LA and J=nev=v where = ne is the charge density, in coulombs per cubic meter, and is v in meters per second.
Bhimavaram

Return to Index
52

MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Now consider an electron moving with a speed v. to enter a constant uniform magnetic field normally, as shown in Fig Consider an electron to be placed in the region of Since the force fm is perpendicular to v and so to the motion at the magnetic field. is done on the electron.rest, fm = 0 every instant, no work If the particle is at

and the particle remains at rest. If the initial velocity of the particle is along the lines increased, and so flux, This means that its kinetic energy is notof the magnetic its speed remains unchanged.acting on the and B are each constant in there is no force Further, since v particle, particle magnitude, then fm is constant nomagnitude and perpendicular to whose initial velocity has in component normal to the direction magneticof the particle. This type ofmoveresults in a uniform of motion field will continue to force with motion in aspeed path with constantof flux. constant circular along the lines speed.
It is analogous to the problem of a mass tied to a rope and twirled around with constant speed. The force (which is the tension in the rope) remains constant in magnitude and is always directed toward the center of the circle, and so is normal to the motion. To find the radius of the circle, it is recalled that a particle moving in a circular path with a constant speed v has an acceleration toward the center of the circle of magnitude v /R where R is the radius of the path in meters.
Bhimavaram

Return to Index
53

DEFLECTION IN A CATHODE-RAY TUBE MAGNETIC the a cathode-field tube may employ a out of Hence the electronis taken in apointing line The magnetic ray moves as straight magnetic as well toan electric field oforder to from the cathodeasbeamboundary 0inupward. the paper, and the the is deflected the accomplish the In the region of the uniform magnetic field. deflection of thefield intensity It is assumed that the magnetic electron beam. However, since it is not feasible to use a magnetic field the electron experiences a force B is uniform in restricted region shown and field extending of this areav is the speed. the ofzero outsideeBv, where is magnitude over the entire length of tube, a short coil furnishing a transverse field The path OM will be the arc of a circle whose in a limited Q. The speed of the particles in center is at region is employed, as shownwill Fig. remain constant and equal to

The angle is, by definition of radian measure, equal to the length of the arc OM divided by R, the radius of the circle, if we assume a small angle of deflection, then Where

Bhimavaram

54

S=D/B is called the magnetic-deflection sensitivity of the tube. It is observed that this A modern CRT TV tube has a screen diameter comparable with the quantity is independent of B. This condition is length to the electric case for the angle, analogousof the tube neck. Hencewhich the is too large for the approximation tan is independent Under In electrostatic sensitivityis very much largerthe these circumstances it is most practical cases, L= to be valid. of than found potential. deflectingthat the deflection is no longer proportional to B . If the magneticl, so that little error will be made in assuming deflection line MP, if projected backward, that the straight coil is driven by a saw-tooth current waveform, the deflection of through electric case, willHowever,beamthe center 0of the sensitivity be linear with time. For passthe in theon the face of thetube will not region of such wide-angle deflection tubes, special linearity Correcting networks thevaries inversely with the anode voltage, magnetic field. Then So, weit added. whereasbe here varies inversely with the must can write square root of the anode voltage. A TV tube has two sets of magnetic-.deflection coils mountedper unit magnetic field The deflection around the neck at right angles to each other, corresponding to D/B,two sets of intensity, the given by Another important difference is in the plates in the oscilloscope tube Sweep currents are applied to both coils, appearance of elm in the expression for the with the horizontal signal much higher in frequency than that of the magnetic sensitivity, whereas this ratio did not vertical Sweep. The result is a rectangular raster of closely spaced lines enter into the final expression for the electric which cover the entire face of the tube and impart a uniform intensity to case. the screen. When the video signal is applied to the electron gun, it Because the sensitivity increases with L, and thus forms the TV picture. modulates the intensity of the beam the deflecting coils are placed as far down the neck of the tube as possible, usually directly after the accelerating anode.
Bhimavaram 55

Return
Bhimavaram 56

linearly increasing Magnetic field Direction into the Paper

Return to Index
Bhimavaram 57

MAGNETIC FOCUSING
The electronic motion can most easily be analyzed by resolving the velocity into two Imagine that a and v, along and transverse a components, vy cathode-ray tube is placed in to constant longitudinal magnetic the magnetic field, respectively. field, the axis of the tube coinciding with the direction of the magnetic force is perpendicular to B, there is Since the field. no acceleration in the Y direction. Hence vy The pitch of the helix, defined as the distance constant and equal to voy,. traveled along the direction of the considered is A magnetic field of the type here magnetic field in one revolution, use of a long exist, resulting from A force eBv normal to is given will obtained through the the pathby solenoid, pthe oyT being velocity. This force coil. reveals circular = vtube transverse placed within the gives rise to where T is the period, the circle beingone /eB, motion, the The Y of or the time the mv the motion. radiusaxis representsfor axis of revolution. the cathode-ray tube. with v, a constant, and equal to v0x. The resultant The origin 0 is the point at which the electrons path is a helix whose axis is parallel to the Y axis and emerge from the anode. The velocity of the displaced from it by a distance R along the Z axis, as origin is v0, the initial transverse velocity due to illustrated. the mutual repulsion of the electrons being vox It is now shown that the resulting motion is a helix, as illustrated.

Bhimavaram

58

Under electron to increase image ofathe of the is seen on the critical value, By continuing beam is defocused, smudge field beyond observed on the If the these conditions an the strength anode hole will be this The foregoing field is decreases,from the electrons travel through way: screen. As thethe applied magnetic bezero, zero. in the followingmore than the pitch of theconsiderations may field is the smudge on the screen screen when helix increased and generalized resulting from is perpendicular to the Y axis atstrike the screen atthe pointpoints, one completethe defocused beam will contract and will become a tiny sharp If the screen revolution. The electrons then a distance L from various of spot means that of the anodeelectrons in the magnetic field strength is so that a defocusedvarious again visible.a anode, then, for an anode-cathode emergence of the spot is hole) when This (the imagethe electron beam from theAcritical value of the field will beam reached. Thisthe anode holethat which makes the pitch focus at v0x, centerjustthe ultimatelyequal to Va,field electrondifferent transverse a of the helical path of critical the is with beam will come to velocities the and potential pass through equal to provided that the electrons make two complete revolutions in their path be reached at which L is distance, multiple of p. above. these conditions, screen the screen at different points. discussed Under so strike the anode-screenan integralasThis accounts for the from the anode to the screen, illuminated area instead will bright point equation may a broad, faintly and once appearance of be rearranged to read . again the spotof a be focused on the screen. is an where n on the screen. integer representing the order of the focus. This process may be continued, numerous foci being obtainable. AsIn fact, the current rating of the solenoid is the electrons will move in the magnetic field is increased from zero the factor that generally furnishes a practical limitation to the order of the focus helices of different radii, since the velocity v0x that controls the radius of the path will be different for different electrons. However, the period, or the time to trace out the path, is independent of v0x, and so the period will be the same for all electrons. If, then, the distance from the anode to the screen is made equal to one pitch, all the electrons will be brought back to the Y axis (the point 0 in Fig.), since they all will have made just one revolution. Return to Index
Bhimavaram 59

return

Bhimavaram

60

PARALLEL ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If both electric and magnetic fields exist where a component magnitude of the If, initially,a = e/m is theof velocity v0x other simultaneously and parallel to each perpendicular to the acceleration. velocity component, together magnetic field exists,negative sign results from with the magnetic and the initial The thisof the electron either the fact is rise to circular of fields, the field,zero orthat the direction motion, the radius of the circular path is will give directed along thethe acceleration of independent opposite to the the being an electron is of . However, because ofof electric field , magnetic field exerts no force ondirection the thethe electric field intensity . velocity electron. along the field changes with time. Consequently, the resulting path is motionwith a pitch thatupon The resultant helical depends solely changes with the time. That is, the distance traveled. along the Y axis per revolution the electric field intensity In other words, increases with eachmove in a direction parallel the electron will revolution. to the fields with a constant acceleration. If the fields are chosen as in Fig. the complete motion is specified by
Return

v y=v0y - at ; y= v0yt (at2)

Bhimavaram

61

PERPENDICULAR ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If the initial velocity fields are shown in to B The directions of the component parallel Fig. is zero, the The magnetic field is directed along path lies entirely in a plane perpendicular the Y axis, to B. and the Electric field in directed It is desired to investigate the path of an electron along the x axis. starting at rest at the origin.
The force on an electron due to the electric The initial magnetic force is zero, since the velocity is field is directed along the +X axis. zero TheAny force due to directed alongfield +Xalways the electron will electric force is the magnetic the is axis, and be accelerated in this direction.in a plane parallel normal to B, and hence lies to the XZ plane. As soon as the electron is in motion, the magnetic force will no longer be zero. Thus there is no component of force along the There will then be a component of this force which will be proportional to the X Y direction, and the Y component of component of velocity and will be directed along the +Z axis. acceleration is zero. Hence the motion along Y assuming that the electron starts at the origin. The path will thus bend away from the +X direction toward the +Z direction. is given by fy =0; v y=v0y; y= v0yt
Bhimavaram 62

The arguments given above do indicate the manner in The force due to the electric its path.is which the electron starts on field This path will now he shown to be a cycloid. along the +X direction. The force due to the magnetic field is found as follows: At any instant, the velocity is determined by the three components v x, v y and v z along the three coordinate axes. Since B is in the Y direction, no force will be exerted on the electron due to v y . Because of v x the force is eBv z in the +Z direction, Similarly, the force due to v z is eBv z in the X direction.

Bhimavaram

63

A straight forward procedure is involved in the Hence Newtons law, when expressed in first solution of these equations. If the terms of theequation of (3) is differentiated and combined three components, yields with the second, we obtain

This linear differential equation with constant coefficients is readily solved for v x . By writing for convenience Substituting this expression for v x in Eq. (3) this equation can be solved for v z Subject to the initial conditions v x = v z = 0, we obtain the xforegoing equationsv z = ube written in the form may u cos t v = u sin t In order to find the coordinates x and z from these expressions, each equation must be integrated. Thus, subject to the initial conditions x = z = 0,

Bhimavaram

6464

If, for convenience,

Bhimavaram

65

Straight Line are As parametric symbols From these interpretation and from Fig. of The physicalinterpretations of case of itintroduced Equations (5)Paththe a specialtheequationsis a importance, consider that the path generated clear that the as defined as theis as follows: above merely maximum displacement is common cycloid, abbreviationselectronof the by a released perpendicular to of a to the electron along the X axis isboth the electric and point on the circumferenceequalcircle of radius Q, magnetic fields rolling diameter of the so straight line, the rotation represents the angular velocity of Also, the of the which rolls along athat circle, or 2Q. Z axis. This is distance =0in Fig. 0z axis illustratedrollingvcircle. between cusps is v 0x, v 0y along the Z 0. and equal to the whose coordinates are xthrough which represents the number ofof the rolling circle, 0), The point P, circumference radians and z (y = or 2Q. At each cusp the speed of + X direction the circle e along electron at any time. The electricthe position rotated. the electron represents force ishas of the the is repre8ents the radius force velocity is Q zero, since at this pointof the rolling along the X (Fig.), and the magnetic the is eBv0z circle. reversing itscurve is force on the the point is zero, it The dark direction Fig. direction. If the net the locus of electron P. The Since u = Q,to moverepresents the velocity the reference then u drawn through with of will continueline CC isalong the Z axisthe center This is also of the center of the rolling circle. translation seenThis circle fact thatto thecusp is of the speed from the parallel each X axis. constant generating conditions is realized when along the circle rolls on the Z axis, then OC represents Since the Z axis, and hence at the same potential. Therefore 0z electron hashas already come the length ofe= eBv the the circumference that gained no energy from the electric field, and its speed in contact with the Z axis. This length is evidently must again be v0z =/B=u equals Q). zero. equal to the arc PC (and If an initial velocity exists that is directed parallel to gives the number theradians through The angle the magnetic field, of projection of the path on the XZ plane will From the cycloid it which the circle has rotated. still be a diagram, Note that this velocity u is independent of the charge but thefollows that now have a constant readily particle will or mass normal to the plane.force path mightsuch a system of perpendicular the ions. net This velocity of cos ; z =and Q sin is zero . In x=QQ Q ---(6) fields will a cycloidal helical motion. act as a velocity filter and allow only those particles whose velocity be called identical with Eqs. (5), thus proving that which are is given by the ratio /B to be selected. the path is cycloidal as predicted.
Bhimavaram

Return to Index
66

Bhimavaram

67