CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS Circuit Symbols and Conventions In the symbols for the npn and pnp transistor the

arrowhead points in the direction of normal current flow in the emitter, which is also the forward direction of the base emitter junction. Figure 1.6 shows npn and pnp transistors biased to operate in the active mode.

Figure: 1.6 Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors biased in the active mode.

An npn transistor whose EBJ is forward biased will operate in the active mode as long as the collector voltage does not fall below that of the base by more than approximately 0.4 V. Otherwise, the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation region of operation. In a parallel manner, the pnp transistor will operate in the active mode if the EBJ is forward biased and the collector voltage is not allowed to rise above that of the base by more than 0.4 V or so. Otherwise, the CBJ becomes forward biased, and the pnp transistor enters the saturation region of operation. The Common-Base Characteristics

Figure: 1.7 Common Base Configuration.

Input Characteristics: The input characteristics give the relation between IE and VEB keeping VCB constant. Input side represents p-n diode and is forward biased (emitter base junction is forward biased).Therefore input characteristics of common base transistor are similar to diodes forward bias characteristics. As VEB increases, IE increases nonlinearly till VEB has reached its junction cut in voltage V. Once VEB > V, IE increases linearly.

Figure: 1.8 Common Base Configuration Input Characteristics.

The performance parameters of the transistor are 1. Input resistance Ri 2. Output resistance Ro 3. Voltage gain Av

4. Current gain AI Ri and Av can be calculated from input characteristics. Ri = 1/slope. Early effect :( or base width modulation)

The collector base junction is reverse biased. If this reverse bias voltage is increased, the space charge width at the collector base junction of npn transistor increases. This in turn results in a decrease in the effective base width W. Recalling that IS is inversely proportional to W, we see that IS will increase and that iC increases proportionally. The decrease in base width with increase in collector current is known as Early effect. When the base width decreases, the probability of recombination of holes and electrons in the base region is less. So * increases. Output Characteristics: The output characteristics give the relation between IC and VCB keeping IE constant. If IE = 0, there are no injected carriers in the base. Therefore no injected carrier current will come out at the collector junction. But a small amount of leakage current ICBO (ICO) at collector junction will flow due to thermally generated carriers in base, which is also called as collector reverse saturation current. If VEE (VEB) is increased IE also increases. For IE =2 mA (constant) if VCB is increased IC just increases and remains constant for further increase in VCB. The characteristic curves are nearly parallel i.e. IC is less dependent on VCB where as it is much dependent on IE. In active region IC depends much on IE.

Output characteristics of common base are divided into 3 regions. 1. Cutoff region 2. Saturation region 3. Active region. Below IE = 0 region is called Cut off region where emitter base junction and collector base junction are reverse biased. The region left to the ordinate VCB = 0 is called Saturation region where emitter base junction and collector base junction are forward biased. The region between Saturation and Cut off regions is Active region in which emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction reverse biased.

Figure: 1.9 Common Base Configuration Output Characteristics.

Dependence of iC on the Collector Base Voltage: From the output characteristics, the curves are not horizontal straight lines but shows a small positive slope, indicating that iC depends slightly on VCB in the active mode. At relatively large values of VCB, the collector current shows a rapid increase, which is known as breakdown.

The Common-Emitter Characteristics Input Characteristics: Input characteristics for common emitter configuration gives the relation between the input voltage VBE and input current IB by keeping output voltage VCE constant. If collector is open circuited, base emitter junction is forward biased, the input characteristics are same as characteristics of forward biased diode. If VCE is increased, that decreases base width due to early effect which results in decrease of recombination consequently decrease in base current. As VCE increases (that increase in VCB) the curves shifts away from the origin.

Figure: 1.10 Common Emitter Configuration.

Figure: 1.11 Common Emitter Configuration Input Characteristics.

Output characteristics: The output characteristics give the relation between IC and VCE keeping IB constant is called output characteristics. When IB = 0 there are no injected carriers hence IC = 0.But collector leakage current ICO flows due to thermal equilibrium of

carriers. When IB is increased (say 50 A), IC increases linearly with VCE .Further increase in VCE results in a nominal increase in IC. Cut off region: The region below IB = 0 is called cut off region where emitter and collector junctions are reverse biased. Saturation region: The left portion of OA line is saturation region in which both emitter and collector junctions are forward biased. Active region: The region between cutoff and saturation regions is an active region in which emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.

Figure: 1.12 Common Emitter Configuration Output Characteristics.