Matter Matter is anything which takes up space and has mass

Pure substances

Mixtures

Elements

Compounds

Metals

Non mentals

Semi metals

Organic

inorganic compounds

Pure substances cannot be separated by physical means, because of their fixed physical and chemical properties. Has definite composition and is represented by chemical formulas, eg, FeS, Au, s, NaCl, Typically not countred as a category. Mixtures can be separated by physical means, no fixed properties, no definite composition, not represented by chemical formulas, eg air, soil, salt water, alloys Elements, only one type of atom, cannot be decomposed, O2, P, Pb, Na, a substance that cannot be split to anything simpler, Compounds, more than one type of atom, can be decomposed, example MgO, CaCl2, a substance made up of more than one element, however they are not like the elements it contains, for the elements have joined chemically to create molecules. Thus the compound contains only one type of molecule. Metals, smooth shiny surface, usually solid, conduct electricity well in the solid state, eg sodium, calcium iron, copper and lead Non metals may be solids liquids or gas, does not conduct electricity well, eg nitrogen sulfur, bromine oxygen Metalloids/ Semi metals Organic All contain carbon, such as methan CH4 octane, C8H18 Inorganic form when metals combine with non metals or when different non mentals react , eg NaCL, HCl, CU(OH)2 and H2O Elements compounds and Mixtures, generally the three types of matter An atom is the smallest particle in an element. All the atoms of elements are identical to each other, however atoms are different to another element, atoms can join to form molecules.

Atomic structure and the periodic table Plum pudding model a ball of concentrated positive surfaces with negative electrons embedded in the surface. Latest accepted model an atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus with negative charges (electrons) orbiting around the nucleus. Nucleus is made out of neutrons (carries no charge but has mass) and protons (positive charged particles with mass) Atomic number (z), different numbers of protons gives rise to different atoms, the atomic number is the number of protons that an atom would contain. All atoms have no overall charge, just neutral, thus the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus the atomic number gives the indication of what the number of protons and electrons are there. Mass number is protons and neutrons. SO lithium has an atomic number of 3 so it has 3 protons and electrons, the mass number is 7 so 7 3 protons gives 4 neutrons. Elements are generally represented as say element X with A on the top left and Z on the bottom, as subscripts. Where A is the mass number and z = atomic number. Isotopes, it is possible for atoms to contain different numbers of neutrons, in such cases the atoms are called isotopes. Electron configuration, deals with how electrons are arranged around a positive nucleus. Electrons grouped in concentric (having a common centre, as circles or spheres) shells. The shell nearest to the nucleus is typically labelled as K then shell two L the followed by M, N, O, P, Q. The number of electrons that can fit into these shells = 2n^2 , where n is the number of shells so the first shell can hold 2, second can hold 8. Filling from the innermost shell first, the outermost shell contains 8 electrons even if not completely filled to achieve a stable state however the outer shell can hold a maxiumum of 8. When going down a group in the periodic table, the number of electrons Important points, all atoms except hydrogen contains protons, electrons and neutrons, relative masses, the type of element is determined by the number of protons, atoms of the same element but with different number of electrons are isotopes, electrons rotate around the nuclei in shells, outer shell can hold a maximum of 8 shells.

Check periodic table

Covalent compounds share electrons to result in stability, which is a full outer shell with eight electrons. Ionic compounds form when mental and non-metal combine and lose or gain electrons to become more stable Atoms that have lost or gained electrons and therefore carry an electric charge are called ions. Metal atoms form ions by losing electrons where as non-mentals form ions by gaining electrons. Electrovalency is the number of positive charges on the ion Writing formulas Valency of an element is the number of electrons that each atom needs to gain, lose or share to fill its outer shell. The number of outer sell electrons allows you to work out the number of electrons required to fill the outer shell Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Writing formulas for covalent compounds 1. Determine valency of the elements 2. Ratio of atoms needs to combine so that each atom can share the same number of electrons 3. Write the formula using the symbols of the elements and writing the ratios as subscripts. Carbon dioxide 1. Carbon has a valency of four and oxygen two 2. Ratio carbon : oxygen so that each atom share the same number of electrons 1:2 3. CO2 Sn4 Cl2 tin chloride Sn Cl2 Writing formulas for ionic compounds - Calcium phosphate 1. Determine the charge of the ion, Ca2 (PO4)32. Ratio of ions required to achieve electrical neutrality, ratio of negative to positive charges is 3:2 3. Write the formula using ratio as subscripts Ca3(PO4)2 Radicals: +1 : Aluminium (NH4) -2 : Hydroxide, Nitrate(NO3) Nitrite, (Just check book) Valency +1 +2 +3 4 -3 -2 -1

Balancing chemical equations General form: Reactants

(Catalyst) Products

Number of atoms of reactants = number of atoms of products Radioactivity Unstable nuclei, hence the tendency to release particles and/or energy to become stable. Radioactivity is the name given to anything which is emitted(given off). Overall process is called radioactive decay. Radioactive decay emit types of radiation: - Alpha and particles, 2 protons + 2 neutrons (What is it), (Symbol) - Beta B particles, 1 electron (what is it) - Gamma radiation, energy (What is it) Alpha particles canot penetrate through paper and stopped by outer layer of skin as oppose beta particles can and 20mm inside the body. Gama is highly energetic electromagnetic radiation can penetrate deep into body and most metals. Radioactive isotopes typically used to trace the path of chemicals or biological process are called tracers. Rates of reaction is the speed which a reaction happens. Reactions occur when particles collide with lots of energy. Which will break the bonds that hold them together causing combinations to occur. However must more strong collisions and the more collisions the faster the reaction rate. Factors which affect the speed of reactions and number of collisions. Concentration, more of a substance hence greater chance of molecules colliding, temperature raise of a system the molecules bounce around a lot more due to excess energy and a lower temp the molecules are slower and collide less. Surface area mean more frequence collisions, and the catalyst a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected. Catalyst results in less energy needed for collisions hence the faster reaction. Corrosion is the chemical reaction in which a metal reacts with one or more substances in its encouragement to produce a compound of the metal Decomposition one single ground breaks down in two or more simple chemicals A B -> A + B Example ZnCo3 Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that decay into daughter isotopes emitting different types of radioactive particles or rays in the process. For example uranium-238 decays to form thorium 234 Alpha decay rules: Mass number decreases by 4, atomic number decrease by 2 thus element changes. Beta decay rules: Mass number does not change, atomic number increase by 1 core neutron, changes into one pt and one ew. The proton remains and the electron as emitted. The element changes because the atomic number does. Radioisotopes can be used in chemistry and assisting in techniques such as tracer study. Which uses radioactive isotopes called radioactive tracer to.

Half life is the time required for half of the starting quantity to be reduced to half. Applications of radioactive isotopes, medicine with radioactivity destroying cancer cells without affecting the rest of the body. Biology to follow the movement of ions through plants, or to investigate the mechanism of complex reactions such as photosynthesis through radioactive traces. Important chemical reactions Acid + Metal -> salt + hydrogen pop test Acid + Base -> Salt + Water HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O Acid + carbonate -> Salt + CO2 + H2O (salt carbon dioxide and water) 2HCl + CaCO3 -> CaCl2 + CO2+ H2O Precipitation reactions, Mixing ionic compounds ionic substances can be either soluble or insoluble in water, when an ionic substance is dissolved in water it is called an aqueous solution. When two aqueous solutions of different ionic compounds are mixed they can either: 1) react to form a precipitate (ppt) an insoluble solid, this is called a precipitation reaction eg AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) -> AgCl(s) + NaNo3 (aq). Those that are not required in the reaction and remains as ions in solution they are called spectator ions 2) No precipitate is formed because neither of the new cation- an ion combinations is an insoluble compound Acid is a substance which in solution produces hydrogen ions and a base is a compound which contains the oxide or hydroxide ion. Salt are ionic compounds which form when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or by ammonium ion Chemical reactions are bonds between atoms in the original chemicals, the REACTANTS, are broken. The atoms are rearranged and new bonds are formed. Thus new chemicals, the products are produced. Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions. Physical change react with anything, without changing the chemical properties Dissolve being made into a solution Insoluble- incapable of being dissolved Solubility capable of being dissolved ion - atoms that is gained or lost cation-anion, the two sorts of ions cation positive and ion negative Metal forms cations as they have the tendency to lose electrons where as non-metals tend to form an ions Solubility rules: all nitrates are soluble All group 1 metal compounds are soluble All chlorides (Except silver, lead and mercury) are soluble All sulfates (except silver calcium barium and lead) are soluble All carbonates (except group 1 metals) are insoluble All hydroxides (except group 1 metals) are insoluble

Natural substances are made from plants and animal products where as synthetic substances are made through crude oil such as nylon Natural can then be split into organic and inorganic Biotechnology refers to the use of plants and animal cells and microorganisms to produce useful substances and to perform tasks for us. Such as cheese production and brewing. includes Stem cell research, genetic modification, cloning and production of antibiotics. Genes are instructions that control everything that happens inside a cell. Genes are different size stretches of Dna that code for the manufacture of proteins such as enzymes. Enzymes are behind all life processers such as growth, repair and reproduction. Gene: A length of Dna that codes for the production of a particular enzyme or protein Chromosome: A long single molecule of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid). Exists in the nucleus of cells all the time but are only visible during cell division. Genome: The full set of genes in a cell. The hyman genome consists of between 50000 100000 genes Nucleotides: Smaller sub units Locus: specific position of each gene on its chromosome Diplod: Contains two versions of every gene Haploid: one version of every gene Allele: one form of a gene, there may be two or more allels of any particular gene. Diploid organisms contain two allels. One on each pair of chromosomes. For example in pea plants the gene for flower colour may have a red and white allele. Genotype: genetic make up of an individual Phenotype: the physic e expression of the genotype Dominant: the allele which if present is expressed Recessive: the allele which is expressed only in the abscense of the dominant Homozygous: When both alleles of a particular gene are the same. In the pea plant for example an individual would be homozygous if it has two red alleles of two white alleles Heterozygous: the two allels of a gene are different Collagen: protein that give skin(?) and stretchiness Karyotype: chromosome arrangement Messenger RNA Carrier molecule Protein: Made out of amino acids The human baby has a unique set of genes called the genotype and those that affect the observable characteristics is the phenotype. Dna is the stuff which genes are made up of thus it is important for two reasons - it contains all the information for all reactions and structures in living things and - it can replication to ensure that information is passed down from generation to generation - made up of four nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine and made up of sugar and phosphate. - Made up of basic units called nucleotides - One nucleotide is made up of a base

- When two poly nucleotide chains line up together the bases attaches to each other like syeps on the ladder. - structure then twists into spiral or helix form called a double helix Mitosis cell division where daughter cells are produced identical to the parent cell, due to growth of an organism. Mitosis, the parent cell duplicates its DNA and condenses it into chromosomes then the cell is split to form two daughter cells. Meiosis this division produce gametes ( sex cells), the parent cell also duplicates and condenses it however the difference is four daughter cells are formed resulting in each daughter cells to have only one copy hence haploid Replication: The parent molecule acts as a template to create a copy, the first step is the separation(unzipping) of the molecule into two separate single strands of DNA, performed by a specific enzyme. (DNA helicase). Step two each old strand now serves as a template, free nucleotides floating in the nucleus are paired to the template by another enzyme DNA polymearase according to the base pair rules. Step three the nucleotides connect to form the new strands, each consist one old and one new strand. Identical to the start. Genes is the set of instructions that code for DNA. Transcription: The copy of the DNA is recoeed Translated: When the code/sequence passes through the pores of the membrane. Protein synthesis is important because it reproduces protein needed from repair and control over body. Cell division takes place for it is a major role in reproduction. Dna is important because it contains all the instructions, which is coded on to a carrier molecule (messenger RNA) which can pass the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm of the cell to translate into protein. Multicellular organisms have cells that perform different roles, and those cells that specialise in a role are called stem cells. Chromosome -> DNA -> Genes Selective breeding: selecting parents with desirable traits to mate to produce an offspring with that trait common in horse racing Heredity: passing on characteristics from one generation to another Hybrid: different genes for the same characteristics Dominant gene: the gene that gains preference when decoding characteristics Pedigree: genetic information drawn on a diagram Genetics: study of characteristics of generations of living things Allele: Alternative forms of each genome Karyotype: profile of a persons chromosomes Pedigree - see book, used to calculate probability of gaining a trait. Sex linked disease, haemophilla is an inherited disease, where their blood does not clot and can bleed to death. Men carry a X and a W chromosome, whereas women carry 2 X chromosomes. X

chromosome is much longer than the y chromosome. The man who inherits an X chromosome carry wthe recessive gene will be a haemophiliac because the Y chromosome has no equivalent. Where as a female with the X chromosome carry normal blood blotting gene and the other x carrying the haemophilia gene will have normal blood. This is known as a female carrier. CONSIDERING the dominant gene allows blood to clot and the recessive gene causes haemophilia. Both genes and environment affects phenotypes, environmental factors such as a proper diet can limit the optimum growth of what your genes dictate. Environmental factors include socioeconomic back ground, oxygen deprived birth, peers, traumatic events. Down syndromes karyotype shows an extra copy of chromosome 21. 46 chromosomes in a cell. Normal male has chromosomes arranged in pairs except for the sex chromosome. Negative types can always donate to positive not vise versa. O can donate to O, A, B, AB, A can donate to A and AB, B and donate to B and AB, AB can only donate to AB Blood groups, A and B > O (dominance), AB Blood group A and Blood group B, AO blood group A Each type of blood has a particular antigen(protein) located on the blood cells. O universal donor, AB + universal acceptor. Describe the process IVF What are the Ethical issues surrounding IVF? Describe the process of surrogacy What are the ethical issues surrounding surrogacy What is genetic engineering? Describe the processes involved on genetic engineering (e.g. recombinant DNA) What are some of the applications of genetic engineering? Find some information on genetic engineering portrayed by the popular market. Discuss the accuracy of the information presented the general tone of the articles

Describe the process of cloning What are the ethical issues surrounding cloning Desribe the production of transgenic species Outline the process of genetic engineering What are the benefits of genetic fingerprinting? What is the human genome project? Discuss the applications and implications of the human genome project Research a human genetic disease. Describe its symptoms Outline how it is passed on from generation to generation Research the work of a geneticist. What is his/her career What does the work entail Prepare a profile of a scientist working in biotechnology What is genetic counselling What are its uses Research the work of Watson, Crick and Franklin in determining the structure of the DNA