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Sayed hassan Beary

1
Data Structures
Data Structures: An aggregation of atomic and composite data
types into a set with defined relationships.
Space complexity of a program is the amount of memory it
needs to run to completion.
Time complexity of a program is the amount of computer time
it needs to run to completion.

Binary search:
First=1
Last=end
Loop(first<=last)
mid=(first+last)/2
if(target>list[mid])

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Data Structures
First=mid+1
Else if target <list[mid]
Last=mid-1
Else
First=last+1

Locn=mid
If target = list[mid]
Found=true
Else
Found=false
Return found

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Data Structures
A hash search is a search in which the key through an
algorithmic function, determines the location of the data.
A linked list is an ordered collection of data in which each
element contains the location of the next element:data and
link.
The nodes in a ll are called self – referential structures.
In the circularly – linked list, the last node’s link points to the
first node of the list.
A doubly ll is a data structure in which the node has a pointer
to both its successor and its predecessor.
A stack is a linear list in which all additions and deletions are
restricted to one end called the top of the stack.{LIFO
structure}.
Eg., coins and dishes(Balancing Symbols,Postfix…)

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Data Structures
Common operations:
Push
Pop
Stack top

Infix a + b
Postfix a b +
Prefix + a b

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Data Structures
Algorithm Queens8

Createstack(stack)
Set row=1 and col =0
Loop (row<=boardsize)
Loop(col<=boardsize and row<=boardsize)
add 1 to col
if (not guarded(row,col))
place queen at board [row][col]
pushstack(stack,[row][col])
add 1 to row
set col = 0

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Data Structures
Loop(col>=boardsize)
Popstack(stack,[row,col])
Remove queen at board[row][col]
Printboard(stack)

A Queue is a linear list in which data can only be inserted at

one end, called the rear and deleted from the other end called
the front.FIFO.

Operations:
Enq
Deq
Q front,rear.

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Data Structures
Recursion is a repetitive process in which an algorithm calls
itself.

Towers of Hanoi:

Void towers(int n,char src,char dst,char aux){

Static int step=0
If n==1
Printf(“Step %3d:move from %c to %c”,++step,src,dst)
Else
{towers(n-1,src,aux,dst)
Printf(“Step %3d”,++step,src,dst)
}return;}

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Data Structures
A tree consists of a finite set of elements called nodes and a
finite set of directed lines called branches that connect the
nodes.

The level of a node is its distance from the root.

The height of the tree is the level of the leaf in the longest
path from the root plus one.

A binary tree is a tree in which no node can have more than

two subtrees.
The balance factor of a binary tree is the difference in height
between its left and right subtrees.

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Data Structures
Preorder: - Root,left,right
Inorder – left,root, right
Post order – left,right,root

General algorithm:
If(root is not null)
Inorder(root->leftsubtree)
Inorder(root)
Inorder(root->rightsubtree)

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Data Structures
In the depth – first traversal, the processing proceeds along a
path from the root through one child to the most distant
descendent of that child before processing a second child.

In the breadth – first traversal, the processing proceeds

horizontally from the root to all of its children, then to its
children’s children and so forth until all nodes have been
processed.

A general tree in which each node can have an unlimited

outdegree.
Binary search tree:properties:
All items in the left subtree are less than the root.
All items in the right subtree are greater than or equal to the
root.
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Each subtree is itself a binary search tree.
Data Structures
An AVL(Adelson Velskii Landis) tree is a search tree in which
the heights of the subtrees differ by no more than one.It is a
height-balanced binary tree.(Depth – O(log N)).

A heap is a complete or nearly complete binary tree in which

the key value in a node is greater than the key values in all of
its subtrees and the subtrees are in turn heaps.

Two operations:Insert and delete a node.

Reheap up operation repairs the structure so that it is a heap
by floating the last element up the tree until that element is in
its correct position in the tree.

Applications of Heaps: Priority Queues.

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Data Structures
An m-way tree is a search tree in which each node can have
from zero to m subtrees , where m is defined as the order of
the tree.

A B – Tree is an m – way search tree with the properties:

The root is either a leaf or it has 2..m subtrees.
All internal nodes have at least [m/2] non null subtrees and at
most m nonnull subtrees.
All leaf nodes are at the same level;perfectly balanced.
A leaf node has at least [m/2]-1 and at the most m-1 entries.

Grows from bottom up.

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Data Structures
B – tree and B+ tree:
Each data entry must be represented at the leaf level.
Each leaf node has one additional pointer, which is used to
move to the next leaf node in sequence.(B+)

Sorting (internal – primary and external – secondary storage)

Insertion sort,heap,quick sort(look in the book)

Graph is a collection of nodes,called vertices and a collection

of line segments connecting pairs of vertices called lines.

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Data Structures
A directed graph or digraph is a graph in which each line has a
direction to its successor.
An undirected graph is a graph in which there is no direction
on the lines known as edges.

A path is a sequence of vertices in which each vertex is

adjacent to the next one.

A cycle is a path consisting of at least three vertices that

starts and ends with the same vertex.
The outdegree of a vertex is the number of arcs leaving the
vertex
The indegree of a vertex is the number of arcs entering the
vertex.

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Data Structures
A network is a graph whose lines are weighted.

Unsigned int gcd(int m,int n)

{
Int rem;
While(n>0)
{
Rem=m%n;
M=n;n=rem;}
Return m;
}

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Data Structures
Solution to collision:
Linear Probing
Quadratic probing(i2)
Double Hashing(R-(X Mod R), R – prime<X)
Rehashing(create a new table, twice as large as the old table
size)
Extendible hashing(00,01,10,11)

Algorithm(run time – worst case)

Insertion sort ( O(N) – presorted - O(N2))
Shell sort(O(N2))
Heap sort(2N log N – O(N))

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Data Structures
Merge Sort(O(N log N))
Quick sort(O(N log N) – O(N2))

External sort
Polyphase Merge
External selection
Multiway merge

NP stands for nondeterministic polynomial time. A

nondeterministic machine has a choice of next steps. It is free
to chose any that it wishes, and if one of these steps leads to
a solution, it will always choose the correct one.

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Data Structures
A simple way to check if a problem is in NP is to phrase the
problem as a y/n problem?

An NP – complete problem has the property that any problem

in NP can be polynomially reduced to it.

A problem p1 can be reduced to p2 as follows. Provide a

mapping so that nay instance of p1 can be transformed to an
instance of p2. Solve p2, and then map the answer back to the
original.

Given a function to compute on n inputs the divide – and –

conquer strategy suggest splitting the inputs into k distinct
subsets 1<k<=n, yielding k subproblems.

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Data Structures
Any subset that satisfies these constraints is called a feasible
solution. We need to find a feasible solution that either
maximizes or minimizes a given objective function.

Dynamic programming is an algorithm design method that can

be used when the solution to a problem can be viewed as the
result of a sequence of decisions.

A problem that is np – complete has the property that it can

be solved in polynomial time iff all other np – complete
problems can also be solved in polynomial time.

If an np – hard problem can be solved in polynomial time, then

all

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Data Structures
Np – complete problems can be solved inpolynomial time.

All np – complete problems are np – hard but some np –hard

problems are not known to be np – complete.

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