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Backdraft How to recognise it and respond safely.

Part 1
There is still some confusion about what exactly a backdraft is. The IFE Dictionary of Fire Technology uses the following definition: "An explosion, of greater or lesser degree, caused by the inrush of fresh air from any source or cause, into a burning building, where combustion has been taking place in a shortage of air." The NFPA definition is: "The explosive or rapid burning of heated gases that occurs when oxygen is introduced into a building that has not been properly ventilated and has a depleted supply of oxygen due to fire." Basically there has been an accumulation of smoke gases in a compartment (containing unburnt fuel particles) due to a lack of ventilation. Heat will be present in the form of smouldering contents. The missing ingredient is sufficient oxygen to allow for combustion. The ignition mechanism can take a number of forms. a) Sometimes the inrush of air is sufficient to stir up embers or to gradually rekindle the smouldering contents. b) Where the smoke temperature is very high it is possible for the escaping gases to spontaneously ignite once diluted with the fresh air outside. The resulting fireball can propagate back into the burning compartment and trigger the backdraft. In the mid nineteen seventies, Swedish Fire Engineer Krister Giselsson used the termed Hot Rich Flashover to describe this ignition mechanism. Perhaps a better description is Hot Rich Combustion. No matter what it is called it is very important for firefighters to be aware of this trigger event.

This photo shows hot rich smoke leaving the compartment above the auto ignition temperature. At the point where the fuel in the smoke has diluted to the UFL, auto ignition occurs. Photo courtesy Tim Watkins. A very simple way of describing backdraft is:
FUEL + HEAT

OXYGEN=

BACKDRAFT

INDICATORS. Before we can attempt to safely deal with fire phenomena such as backdraft and flashover we must be able to identify the warning signs. A vital part of the dynamic risk assessment is being able to determine the various stages of fire development, and likely changes. The skill of reading the fire is essential in ensuring the correct firefighting strategy and tactics are deployed. To simplify the process of reading the fire I use the acronym SAHF. A Smoke, Air, Heat, Flame (SAHF). This assessment should be made by the OIC to determine the firefighting tactics and also by tasked teams to assess the risk in their area of operations. As more information becomes available it should be relayed to the Rapid Intervention Team (RIT) and the OIC so that a more accurate profile of the fire can be developed and maintained. 1. SMOKE Colour and density: Smoke colour can vary with the products and the ventilation available. There are some general principles that can be used in that initial size up. Dark smoke often indicates rich conditions due to restricted air supply. Where flaming or smouldering combustion is occurring the carbon in the product is released in the smoke and a very dark colour is the result. Where the temperature is low, or oxygen levels are too low to support flaming combustion, the product breaks down (pyrolysis) with out active flaming and most of the carbon remains on the material. This produces a lighter coloured smoke. It is important to realise that as the fire develops heat will be transferred to neighbouring compartments, which can result in pyrolysis and an accumulating of fuel laden white smoke. As the fire progresses the smoke layer will lower and the density of the smoke layer will increase. This photo clearly shows the lighter pyrolysis products on the top left-hand opening (no communication with the other compartments). The top right hand compartment is in communication with the base fire and the dark smoke indicates a rich (ventilation controlled) combustion process. Photo courtesy Wayne Atkins

Volume and location. While the location of the smoke can be a valuable aid in determining the location of the fire, it can also be deceptive in large or complex structures. Likewise the volume of the smoke discharging can be misleading as some products can produce surprisingly high volumes of smoke from a relatively small fire. Height of neutral plane. (The separation of the heated layer and the cooler lower layer). The height of the neutral plane gives an indication of the stage of fire development and the volume of unburnt fuel in the room. A very low neutral plane with dense smoke is a good indicator of the potential for a backdraft. Sudden lifting of the neutral plane can indicate that high ventilation has occurred. Sudden lowering can indicate that a confined fire may have broken out into the remainder of the structure.

This sequence shows the gradual lowering of the neutral plane. They were taking approximately 60 seconds apart. Photo courtesy Tim Watkins. Pulsations Smoke seen pulsing out of small openings can indicate a ventilation-controlled fire. This is due to variations in pressure due to limited oxygen supply. As the oxygen level decreases so does the combustion process, which decreases the temperature and leads to a contraction of the smoke gases. This causes air to be drawn in and the fire starts to increase and the pressure rises. As the fire starts to grow again there is an increase in the volume of smoke which is forced out through gaps. This continues until the air is consumed. The cycle then starts again. This pulsation cycle is a good backdraft indicator.

2. AIR TRACK The air track is the movement of air toward the firebase, and the movement of the super heated combustion products out of the compartment. Velocity and Direction When an opening is created the heated gases will flow out of the top of the opening and cool air will flow in through the bottom of the opening. A total and sudden inward movement of the air track could indicate a potential backdraft event. In some cases this will be followed by an out rush, and seconds later the backdraft. Flow Turbulent or smooth If the air track is slow and laminar (smooth) it could indicate that the fire is in the early stages and most likely still fuel controlled. If the air track is fast and turbulent (often the neutral plane

is lower as well) then this could indicate a working fire that is in the ventilation controlled phase. Vigorous pulsing of the air track is a strong indicator of an active ventilation controlled fire. Whistling Noises Whistling noises may indicate that air is being pushed in and out of the compartment through small gaps or openings due to pressure variations. This indicates a ventilation controlled fire. It should be noted that it might be difficult to detect this when there high background noise levels.

3. HEAT Blackening and or crazing of windows. The blackening indicates rich conditions (backdraft potential) and the crazing indicates high temperatures (hot rich combustion potential). Extreme caution should be exercised in opening up under these conditions. Blistering of paintwork. This can even give some indication of the height of the neutral plane and the compartment temperature. Sweeping a spray across a door or surface can also be used to test for surface heat. If the door is hot the film of water on the upper section will rapidly evaporate. In some cases it is possible to get an indication of the height of the neutral plane by observing the line at which the evaporation ceases. Sudden heat build up Often quoted as an indicator that flashover or backdraft is impending. It often indicates that some form of fire gas combustion has commenced in the ceiling area. This is often for the firefighter to see. This is a very late indicator and should not be relied upon to give adequate warning time. Temperature checks can be performed by placing a small burst of water on a very narrow pattern into the overhead layer. If the water returns to the ground without any hissing it is likely that the ceiling temperature is below 100 C in that area. If on the other hand the water does not come down and a hissing sound is heard it would indicate that the temperature is over 100 C. 4. FLAME While the of the flame can give an indication of what product is burning, this can however be misleading as the same product can burn with different coloured flame depending on the ventilation available and the amount of premixing of air and fuel before ignition. For example LPG that is premixed with air will produce a blue coloured flame (due to the presence of CO2). If the fuel and air are mixed by the process of diffusion, then the flame will be yellow due to the presence of carbon particles. Another example is the combustion of particleboard in a compartment. When the air supply is good it will burn with a yellow flame. If the oxygen concentration is reduced the flame becomes a reddish orange colour. So as a general guide, yellow flames indicate a reasonable air supply. Reddish orange flames are an indicator that there is less oxygen available and a rich combustion is occurring. The shape or form of the flame can also give an indication of the type of combustion occurring. The reddish orange flames that result from the rich combustion are often turbulent with a short wave form. The ignition of accumulated pyrolysis products produces a very light yellow flame, sometimes almost clear. The waveform is larger and the flames seem very slow. Pockets of blue flames igniting around the neutral plane are said to be due to the presence of carbon monoxide pockets that are forming flammable concentrations. In a compartment fire situation it is important to look at the initial flame colour and then note any changes.

Reddish orange flames can be seen in the upper area due to the fact that the oxygen concentration is lower.

The air track supplies fresh air to the base of the fire producing a yellow flame. Photo courtesy Wayne Atkins. When reading the fire it is essential not to look at only one indicator and draw a conclusion. They must be read in conjunction to ensure accurate assessment. It is important for crews to communicate the indicators to the Incident Commander so that a complete profile of the fire can be achieved as soon as possible. Once the fire profile is established, any changes in the indicators should be communicated and tactics amended as required. The effect of opening up a ventilation controlled compartment fire can be extremely dangerous and must be planned, communicated, controlled, and coordinated. Some Fire Services are not using tools such as PPV to it full advantage because they are not sure exactly how and when to use it. Ventilation techniques cannot be utilised in a random or routine manner. Fire tactics that rely on set practices of opening up are prone to fail. The thinking fire commander will use a

combination of ventilation techniques and tools (including PPV) in a planned and timed manner. Often this will be performed in conjunction with Antiventilation, which is the practice of keeping all, or part of the structure closed as part of the tactical plan. If the compartment is still intact, as would be encountered in a potential backdraft scenario, this can be very effective in containing the fire until other tactical benchmarks are achieved. Ventilation, including PPV, can only be safely utilised once the dynamic risk assessment has been performed, a tactical plan developed, and the necessary support is in position.

Swedish Firefighters have mastered the skill of reading the fire since the introduction of compartment fire behaviour training in the mid 1980s. Photo courtesy Ian Roberts. In Part 2, I will discuss in more detail Tactical Ventilation, entry procedures and other response strategies

Note on terminology. Sometimes scientific terms do not serve the needs of firefighters in emergency situations. This may be because the are too long or are not meaningful to firefighters. Many of the definitions used in this paper are designed to simplify the task of communicating the indicators in the urgent and dangerous situations encountered during firefighting operations. Some of these terms originated in Sweden and some have been adapted to suit UK and Australian Firefighters. They have proven very effective in aiding rapid and clear communication of fire conditions in all countries concerned. The opinions expressed in this paper are my own and do not necessarily reflect those of my employer. For more information contact Shan Raffel GIFireE at sraffel@uq.net.au

Shan Raffel is a professional firefighter in Brisbane, Australia. He has served as an operational firefighter for 19 years and a Station Officer for 13 of those years. He has studied realistic compartment fire behaviour training (CFBT) in Sweden and the UK and has pioneered the acceptance of CFBT in Australia. In 1999 he worked with a Swedish Fire Engineer on the design of compartment fire fighting simulation for the new QFRS training academy.

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