GLACIER MOVEMENT RESULTING IN THE FORMATION OF TERMINAL MORAINES, AND IMPLICATIONS ON SURROUNDING LANDFORMS

DANIEL WRIGHT THE GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY GEOG 2128 5/10/2012

ABSTRACT The impact of North American glacier movement in present-day landforms is evident in the terminal moraines scattered across the continent. Previous research has attempted to narrow the definition of moraines to better understand a specific type, terminal moraines, in the area. While researchers classify moraines differently, the focus must remain on the end deposit of soil, referred to as a terminal moraine. Glacier movement of previous eras eroded, transported, and deposited soil into mounds marking the maximum extent of glaciation. A prominent landform, Long Island, is an example of a terminal moraine. This paper looks at the causes and effects of the exampled moraines across North America, regarding the impact glacier movement had on the physical characteristics, location, and legacy of the terminal moraines.

INTRODUCTION The terminal moraine is one of many geomorphologic features, but one that is difficult to recognize. Today, traveling up a slight incline might seem inconsequential, but that change in elevation could be the result of a glacier. Even though the last glacial retreat occurred almost 18,000 years ago, the slight effects can still be felt. Research

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completed on terminal moraines has the need to take glacial history into its account. Similarly, the movements of these glaciers are the cause of moraines, which can differ in definition among researchers and should be classified correctly. Yet, as the causes of terminal moraines are perhaps important, the effects on the landforms in areas of previous glaciation are in need of a greater focus. The examples of terminal moraines in North America may be surprising, but this research will bring together the glaciers and the prominent landmarks in North America they create.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The Pleistocene era glaciers play a prominent part in the present day geomorphologic make-up of North America. For approximately 100,000 years, the most prominent glacier on the continent was known as the Wisconsin glacier. Covering the area north of the present day Missouri and Ohio Rivers, the glacier fundamentally changed the geography of the northern half of North America (Johnson, 1980). In addition, the glacier covered the entirety what is today Canada. The exposure of the land bridge and human migration to North America across the Bering Strait was also a noteworthy event of late Pleistocene glaciation. As well, research previously undertaken confirmed the presence of a glacier passing over present-day Pennsylvania, resulting in the formation of a terminal moraine. Completed in 1883, the methods were uniform for the technological limits of the time (Science, 1883). Elevation measurements were used as researchers navigated from end to end of the moraine. This confirmed the presence of a glacier and until geographical institutions used computer-based equipment to measure

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moraine height, this method was widely used to study late Pleistocene glaciers (Johnson, 1980).

GLACIER MOVEMENT Ellis points out the origin of the majority of glaciers particularly in the Brooks Range of mountains in Alaska (1979). The main point of origin is the cirque. This type of glaciation leads the pack ice downwards towards its maximum extent. At an average surface incline of 17, the glaciers move based upon the environmental factors affecting its accumulation and ablation zones. Ellis ignores this aspect in the description of glaciers and moraines in Alaska (1979). Perhaps in an attempt to provide more analysis, but given the latitude and altitude of the Brooks Range, an application regarding moraine formation is in need of a look at environmental factors. The period of Wisconsinan glaciation saw a 1.5 drop in mean annual temperature (Johnson, 1980). At this point, the northern latitudes of North America experienced glacial movement over its land (Science, 1883). Precipitation build-up in the accumulation zone forced outward movement. In terms of direction, the movement would first be downward, away from the cirque, or whatever the glacial landform may be. Next, the movement would be away and to the south, with regards to the Northern Hemisphere. Alley points to the pace at which the glacier moves (2003). An abundance of surface meltwater along the beds of the glacier correlates to an increase in speed. However, the main aspect of Alleys research is the erosive characteristics of glaciers, regardless of geographic location (2003). Conclusions reached were that the most erosive glaciers move downwards on slopes of at least 20 percent. At that angle, the downcutting

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of the glacier produced more erosion, which generates more heat (Alley, 2003). The increase in energy causes more melting on the undercarriage of the glacier. Alley researched the erosive aspect and melting, which speeds up movement of the glacier. The research attempted to interpret the glaciological changes, but emphasized that the sedimentary system needs more analysis in the future of glacier research (2003).

MORAINE DEFINITIONS The first instance of the term moraine was in the late 18th century, but the scientific community did not adopt the term exclusively until 1841. Yet, confusion still exists regarding the variety of terms still in use. By definition, a moraine a pile of unsorted glacial till. Lucas and Howarth put forth classification schemes to define the different forms of moraines that can be found in past and present glacial landscapes (1979). They include schemes such as contact with glacier ice, orientation of moraine to ice flow, source material, physical description, or even classification based on the name of the researcher. However, of the schemes put forth, two have been widely used by the scientific community. They will be the two used in this research. The classification schemes are as follows: Classification of the moraine based on location relative to the glacier (terminal moraine, lateral moraine, medial moraine) Classification of the moraine based on the process of formation (push moraine, ice-thrust) The latter only needs brief mention, as the terminal moraines to be focused upon are generally regarded to be push moraines (Lucas, 1979). But, Lucass research is useful for

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differentiation. The former classification scheme will be the most discussed. While, lateral and medial moraines could require much research relating to their formation and impact, their relationship to terminal moraines is minimal (Lucas, 1979). Lateral moraines are similar in formation to terminal moraines, as the glacier pushes some till to the side as it moves. The resultant pile is classified as a lateral moraine. Similarly, the combination of two glacier packs, and their respective lateral moraines, forms a medial moraine of till running down the middle of the new, more extensive glacier (Lucas, 1979). Another aspect of moraine classification is the regional differences in naming. Lundqvists Swedish study focuses primarily on moraines based on the name of the researcher (1981). Perhaps a Northern European habit, the designation gives little clue as to the shape, relative location or process of formation. While Lundqvist was correct to state that the ambiguity in definitions may lead to misinterpretations and misunderstandings, the differences in geomorphologic research in different areas of the world hinders future work (1981). Lucas concludes that research needs to reconcile the differences between form and process to create an accurate definition (1979). While a terminal moraine is can be composed of ice and till, and is formed by glaciers pushing till ahead of the ice pack, the tenuous differences in classification are important to understand. Previous research has shown the variety of groupings for moraines hinders clear and concise analysis of moraines (Lundqvist, 1981; Lucas, 1979). Future geomorphologic researchers should wholly embrace the standard definition put forth here.

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FORMATION OF TERMINAL MORAINES The bulk of this research must focus on the formation of terminal moraines. With the movement of glaciers discussed previously, the next logical step in the process an analysis of moraine formation. Moraines may be composed a variety of materials, all depending on the geographical location and underlying soil (Science, 1883). Given the common mountainous terrain glaciers usually form in, and Derbyshires Tasmanian research in which he questions the constitution of moraines, the general composition is of a sedimentary nature (1965). The exact rock type varies. The most understood location of the moraines is the limit of glaciation, typically marked by a collection of large boulders plucked from the ground and transported by the glacial ice. To pluck boulders, the glacier must use is large mass. The force of gravity, combined with the glacial mass, creates a shearing effect on the land underneath the ground (Derbyshire, 1965). Unevenness in elevation is reduced and the soil not pushed ahead of the glacier, after deglaciation, is relatively flat. The ice movement does not necessarily eliminate all soil and expose the underlying bedrock, but could in some cases (Derbyshire, 1965). Blewetts late Pleistocene Wisconsinan glacier research concluded that only partial soil removal, particularly in the Port Huron area of Michigan, was likely during said period of glaciation (1995). Figure 1 illustrates the glacier movement and the resultant alteration of the landscape (Krger, 1985). The rapid changes in elevation along the terminal moraine, as depicted, are quite common. Derbyshire points to the clumping as (1) the result of plucking of very large boulders affecting the pilling of till; (2) the influence of ice making its way into the till, and creating sizeable clumping; (3) as a result of the variation of the land elevation over which the glacier moved (1965).

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Figure 1

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During periods of deglaciation, the landform changes are amplified. The pushed till becomes noticeable as a variation in elevation. Although this process occurs over a large period of time, the terminal moraine is formed. The meltwater streams left by the glacial retreat will, over time, modify the newly formed moraine. This is the change seen in areas such as Long Island and Port Huron (Lewis, 2000; Blewett, 1995). Although, as Blewett only researched areas with changes in elevation, not areas previously designated as terminal moraines, critically asking questions is reasonable (1995).

IMPLICATIONS ON PROMINENT EXAMPLES As previously mentioned, the Wisconsin glaciation created the foremost landmarks still in existence today. Long Island is perhaps the most famous of these, a terminal moraine found in North America. The late Wisconsinan glacier move through Connecticut, it scoured the bedrock in the area (Lewis, 2000). Once it reached the maximum extent of glaciation, at approximately 40 North latitude, the glacial push of till ended. This left a 118-mile long mound. Just as the Wisconsin glacier leveled the bedrock during glaciation, the same scouring occurred during deglaciation. This created the contrast in elevation between the terminal moraine and the northerly bedrock, which would become Long Island Sound (LIS), the current body of water in between Long Island and the mainland (Lewis, 2000). During Wisconsinan glaciation, Lewis points to the rock type, previously mentioned, as an aspect of the moraine formation. The bedrock underneath LIS is believed to be predominantly igneous and metamorphic (Lewis, 2000). As sedimentary rock is usually the type to become exposed, and on occasion, sheared by the glacier, this

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difference is noteworthy. In conclusion, Lewis, on the topic of terminal moraines, does well to provide strong evidence for the hypothesis and conclusion reached regarding the landforms created as a result of the terminal moraine of the Wisconsinan glacier (2000). Figure 2 maps the extent of glaciation and the resulting terminal moraine.

Figure 2

Long Island has seen erosion over the past 18,000 years, as a result of the increased water flow into the Long Island Sound. During deglaciation, meltwater streams left behind dumped water onto the bedrock, forming Lake Connecticut. Thousands of years of sea level rise pushed saltwater into the lake, creating an estuary (Lewis, 2000).

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Continual sea level rise has eroded Long Island, although to the same extent that all coastal areas have seen erosion. Given that the drainage basin of Long Island is predominantly north of LIS, streamwater erosion has been minimal (Lewis, 2000). However, as approximately 30 percent of the island is within 20 feet of sea level, current rates and predictions for sea level rise will place the low-lying areas underwater in the next few centuries.

CONCLUSION The formation of terminal moraines is the result of glacier movement and retreat. Previous research, and that completed here, comes to this conclusion. After Wisconsinan glaciation ended, the current landscape was formed, particularly current moraine structures. The materialization of Long Island became one of the more prominent examples of a terminal moraine landscape. Yet, there are certainly other examples of these types of landscapes across North America.

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REFERENCES CITED Alley, R.B., Lawson D.E., Larson G.J., Evenson E.B. & Baker G.S. (2003). Stabilizing Feedbacks in glacier-bed erosion. Nature 424: 758-760. Blewett, William L. & Winters, Harold A. (1995). The Importance of Glaciofluvial within Michigans Port Huron Moraine. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 85: 306-319. Derbyshire, Edward (1965). The Internal Constitution of a Tasmanian End Moraine. The Journal of Geology 73: 377-383. Ellis, James & Calkin, Parker (1979). Nature and Distribution of Glaciers, Neoglacial Moraines, and Rock Glaciers, East-Central Brooks Range, Alaska. Arctic and Alpine Research 11: 403-420. Great Terminal Moraine across Pennsylvania, The (1883). Science 2: 163-167. Johnson, Peter G. (1980). Glacier-Rock Glacier Transition in the Southwest Yukon Territory, Canada. Arctic and Alpine Research 12: 195-204. Krger, Johannes (1985). Formation of a Push Moraine at the Margin of Hfdabrekkujkull, South Iceland. Geografiska Annaler 67: 199-212. Lewis, Ralph & DiGiacomo-Cohen, Mary (2000). A Review of the Geologic Framework of the Long Island Sound Basin, with Some Observations Relating to Postglacial Sedimentation. Journal of Coastal Research 16: 522-532. Lucas, A.E. & Howarth, P.J. (1979). A Process Model for Moraine Classification. Area 11: 298-304. Lundqvist, Jan (1981). Moraine Morphology: Terminal Remarks and Regional Aspects. Physical Geography 63: 127-138.

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