CHAPTER 6 ENTROPY

+ In chapter 5, the second law is being applied to

cycles and cyclic devices

+ The second law often leads to expressions that
involve inequalities

+ For example: The q
th
of an irreversible heat engine
is < than the q
th
of a reversible heat engine
operating between the same two temperature
reservoirs

+ Another important inequality in thermodynamics is
the Clausius inequality

+ The Clausius inequality is expressed as

0 s
}
T
Q o


+ The cyclic integral of oQ/T is always less than or
equal to zero

+ This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or
irreversible

+ The integral symbol with a circle in the middle is
used to indicate that the integration is to be
performed over the entire cycle

+ Any heat transfer to or from a system can be
considered to consist of differential amounts of
heat transfer

+ The cyclic integral of oQ/T can be viewed as the
sum of all these differential amounts of heat
transfer divided by the absolute temperature at the
boundary

+ The equality in the Clausius inequality holds for
totally or just internally reversible cycles

0
int
=
|
.
|

\
|
}
rev
T
Q o


+ The inequality in the Clausius inequality holds for
irreversible cycles

0 <
|
.
|

\
|
}
irr
T
Q o


+ It can observed that the cyclic integral of a property
is zero
+ For example: the cyclic integral of volume is zero

}
= 0 dV


+ Considering

0
int
=
|
.
|

\
|
}
rev
T
Q o


+ Therefore, the quantity (oQ/T)
int rev
must represent
a property in the differential form

+ Thus, Clausius had discovered a new
thermodynamic property

+ He chose to name this property entropy

+ Entropy is designated by S and is defined as

rev
T
Q
dS
int
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
(kJ/K) (6.1)


+ Entropy is an extensive property of a system and
sometimes is referred to as total entropy

+ Entropy per unit mass, designated s, is an intensive
property and has the unit kJ/kg K

+ The entropy change of a system during a process
can be determined by integrating Eq. (6.1) between
the initial and final states:

rev
T
Q
S S S
int
2
1
1 2
}
|
.
|

\
|
= = A
o
(kJ/K) (6.2)

+ Eq. (6.2) gives the change in entropy instead of the
absolute value of entropy

+ Engineers are usually concern with the changes in
entropy

+ To perform the integration in Eq.(6.2), one needs to
know the relation between Q and T during a
process

+ Entropy is a property and so it has fixed values at
fixed state


+ Thus, the entropy change AS between two
specified states is the same no matter what path,
reversible or irreversible is followed during a
process


+ However, the integral of oQ/T will give us the
value of AS only if the integration is carried out
along an internally reversible path/process between
the two states

+ The integral of oQ/T along an irreversible path is
not a property






Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer

+ Isothermal (constant temperature) heat transfer are
internally reversible

+ Some examples:
o Thermal energy reservoirs that can absorb or
supply heat indefinitely at a constant
temperature
o Pure substance undergoing a phase-change
process at constant pressure (temperature
remains constant)

+ The entropy change, AS of a system during an
internally reversible isothermal heat transfer
process can be determined by integrating Eq. (6.2):

( )
) 3 . 6 ( ) / (
1
0
2
1
int
0
2
1
int
0
2
1 int
K kJ
T
Q
S
to reduces which
Q
T T
Q
T
Q
S
rev
rev
rev
= A
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
= A
} } }
o
o o


+ T
0
is the constant absolute temperature of the
system
+ Q is the heat transfer for the internally reversible
process

+ The entropy change, AS of a system during an
internally reversible isothermal process can be
positive or negative, depending on the direction of
heat transfer

+ Heat transfer to a system will increase the entropy
of a system

+ Heat transfer from a system will decrease the
entropy of a system

+ Losing heat is the only way the entropy of a system
can be decreased



6.2 The Increase of Entropy Principle

+ Consider a cycle made up of two processes
o Process 1 2 : arbitrary (could be reversible or
irreversible)
o Process 2 1 : internally reversible












+ From the Clausius inequality,

0 s
}
T
Q o


or


0
int
1
2
2
1
s
|
.
|

\
|
+
} }
rev
T
Q
T
Q o o


the second integral is AS = S
1
S
2
, therefore


0
2 1
2
1
s +
}
S S
T
Q o


which can be rearranged as

}
>
2
1
1 2
T
Q
S S
o
(6.4)

it can also be expressed in differential form as


T
Q
dS
o
>
(6.5)

irr
rev
T
Q
dS
T
Q
dS
|
.
|

\
|
>
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o
int



+ T is the absolute temperature at the boundary
where the differential heat oQ is transferred
between the system and the surroundings

+ AS = S
2
S
1
is the entropy change of the system

+ For a reversible process, AS =
}
2
1
T
Q o
where
}
2
1
T
Q o
is
the entropy transfer with heat

+ For an irreversible process, AS is always greater
than the entropy transfer

+ This is because during an irreversible process,
some entropy is generated or created due to the
presence of irreversibilities

+ The entropy generated is called entropy
generation and is denoted by S
gen




+ Equation (6.4) can be rewritten as an equality as

gen sys
S
T
Q
S S S + = = A
}
2
1
1 2
o
(6.6)

+ S
gen
is always a positive quantity or zero

+ Its value depends on the process

+ S
gen
is not a property of the system

+ If there is no entropy transfer, the entropy change
of a system is equal to the entropy generation i.e
AS
sys
= S
gen

+ Equation (6.4) has great implications. For an
isolated system (or simply an adiabatic closed
system), the heat transfer is zero


+ Equation (6.4) for an isolated system becomes:

0 > A
isolated
S
(6.7)

+ Eq. (6.7) expresses that the entropy of an isolated
system during a process always increases or, in the
limiting case of a reversible process, remains
constant

+ The entropy of an isolated system never decreases

+ This is known as the increase of entropy principle

+ When there is no heat transfer, entropy change is
due to irreversibilities only, and their effect is
always to increase entropy

+ Entropy is an extensive property

+ The total entropy of a system is equal to the sum of
the entropies of the parts of the system

+ An isolated system may consist of any number of
subsytems


+ A system and its surroundings is an isolated system
since both can be enclosed by a sufficiently large
arbitrary boundary across which there is no heat,
work, or mass transfer




+ A system and its surroundings can be viewed as
two subsystems of an isolated system

+ The entropy change of this isolated system during a
process is the sum of the entropy changes of the
system and its surroundings and this is equal to the
entropy generation since an isolated system
involves no entropy transfer

m
Q,W
system
m
surroundings
Isolated system
boundary
m=0
Q=0
W=0


0 > A + A = A =
surr sys total gen
S S S S
(6.8)

or

process reversible for S S S S
surr sys total gen
0 = A + A = A =


process le irreversib for S S S S
surr sys total gen
0 > A + A = A =

+ The more irreversible a process, the larger the
entropy generated during that process

+ No entropy is generated during reversible
processes(S
gen
= 0)

+ The entropy of the universe (which can be
considered as an isolated system) is continuously
increasing since there is no truly reversible process

+ The entropy change of a system can be
negative(decrease) during a process and this
happens if heat is transferred from the system

+ However, entropy generation cannot be negative


+ The increase of entropy principle can be used as a
criterion in determining whether a process is
reversible, irreversible, or impossible

<
=
>
process impossible
process reversible
process le irreversib
S
gen
0
0
0



+ The increase of entropy principle dictates that the
entropy of an isolated system will increase until the
entropy of the system reaches a maximum value

+ At the maximum value, the system is said to have
reached an equilibrium state since entropy cannot
decrease


+ Remarks about entropy:

o Processes can occur in a certain direction only.
A process must proceed in the direction
that obeys the increase of entropy
principle, 0 >
gen
S

o Entropy is a nonconserved property
There is no such thing as the conservation
of entropy principle
Entropy is conserved during the idealized
reversible processes only
Entropy increases during all actual
processes

o Performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities
Entropy generation is a measure of the
magnitudes of the irreversibilities
The greater the extent of irreversibilities,
the greater the entropy generation
Entropy generation can be used as a
quantitative measure of irreversibilities
Entropy generation can be used to
establish criteria for the performance of
engineering devices

6.3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances

+ Entropy is a property

+ The value of entropy of a system is fixed once the
state of the system is fixed

+ Knowing two intensive properties fixes the state of
a system and thus the value of entropy and other
properties

+ The entropy values in the property tables are given
relative to an arbitrary reference state

+ In the steam tables, the entropy of saturated liquid
s
f
at 0.01
o
C is assigned the value of zero

+ The value of entropy at a specified state is
determined just like any other property

+ In the compressed liquid & superheated vapor
regions, it can be obtained directly from the tables

+ In the saturated mixture region,

s = s
f
+ xs
fg
(kJ/kg K)


+ If there is no compressed liquid data available, s
can be approximated by the entropy of the
saturated liquid at the given temperature:

T at f P T at liquid compressed
s s ~
,
(kJ/kg K)

+ The entropy change of a specified mass m (such as
a closed system) during a process is simply

AS = mAs = m( s
2
s
1
) (kJ/K) (6.9)

+ AS is the difference between the entropy values at
the final and initial states

+ Entropy is commonly used as a coordinate on
diagrams such as the T-s and h-s diagrams


+ General characteristics of the T-s diagram

o Constant volume lines are steeper than the
constant pressure lines
o Constant pressure lines are parallel to the
constant temperature lines in the saturated
liquid-vapor mixture region
o Constant pressure lines almost coincide with
the saturated liquid line in the compressed
liquid region


















6.4 Isentropic Processes

+ Entropy of a fixed mass can be changed by

1. heat transfer
2. irreversibilities

+ Thus, the entropy of a fixed mass will not change
during a process that is internally reversible and
adiabatic

+ A process during which the entropy remains
constant is called an isentropic process

Isentropic process: As = 0 (6.10)
or s
2
= s
1
(kJ/kg K)

+ Many devices such as pumps, turbines, nozzles,
and diffusers are essentially adiabatic in their
operation

+ These devices perform best when the
irreversibilities such as friction are minimized

+ An isentropic process can serve as an appropriate
model for actual processes

+ Isentropic processes allow us to define efficiencies
for processes to compare the actual performance of
these devices to the performance under idealized
conditions

+ A reversible adiabatic process must be an
isentropic process

+ An isentropic process is not necessarily a reversible
adiabatic process (the entropy increase as a result
of irreversibilities may be offset by a decrease in
entropy due to heat losses)

+ In thermodynamics and in our class/lectures, an
isentropic process implies an internally reversible,
adiabatic process

6.5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy

+ The two diagrams commonly used in the second-
law analysis are the T-s(temperature-entropy) and
h-s(enthalpy-entropy) diagrams

+ From the definition for entropy:

oQ
int rev
= T dS (6.11)

+ The total heat transfer during an internally
reversible process is determined by integration to
be
}
=
2
1
int
dS T Q
rev (kJ) (6.12)

+ Eq. (6.12) corresponds to the area under the
process curve on a T-s diagram

+ The area under the process curve on a T-s diagram
represents heat transfer during an internally
reversible process

+ The area has no meaning for irreversible processes


+ To perform the integration in Eq. (6.12), one needs
to know the relationship between T and s during a
process

+ An isentropic process on a T-s diagram appears as
vertical line since there is no heat transfer (Q = 0)

+ The T-s diagrams serve as valuable tools for
visualizing the second-law aspects of processes and
cycles

+ Another diagram commonly used in engineering is
the enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram

+ The h-s diagram is useful in the analysis of steady-
flow devices such as turbines, compressors, and
nozzles

+ Enthalpy is a primary property in the first law
analysis of steady-flow devices

+ Entropy is a property that accounts for
irreversibilities





+ For example: In the analysis of a steam turbine,

o the vertical distance between the inlet & exit
states on the h-s diagram is the Ah which is a
measure of the work output

o the horizontal distance As is a measure of the
irreversibilities associated with the process


+ The h-s diagram is also known as the Mollier
diagram

6.6 Entropy

+ Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular
disorder or molecular randomness

+ As a system becomes more disordered, the
positions of the molecules become less predictable
and the entropy increases

+ The entropy of a substance is lowest in the solid
phase and highest in the gas phase

+ Consider a rotating shaft: the energy of the
molecules is completely organized since the
molecules of the shaft are rotating in the same
direction together

+ This organized energy can readily be used to
perform useful tasks such as raising a weight or
generating electricity

+ Being an organized form of energy, work is free of
disorder or randomness and thus free of entropy

+ There is no entropy transfer associated with energy
transfer as work


+ In the absence of any friction, the process of
raising a weight by a rotating shaft will not produce
any entropy

+ Quantity of energy is always preserved during an
actual process (first law)

+ Quality is bound to decrease (second law)

+ This decrease in quality is always accompanied by
an increase in entropy

+ An example: the transfer of 10 kJ of energy as heat
from a hot medium to a cold medium at the end
of the process, we still have the 10 kJ of energy,
but at a lower temperature and thus at a lower
quality

+ Heat is a form of disorganized energy and some
disorganization (entropy) will flow with heat

+ From a statistical point, entropy is a measure of the
uncertainty about the positions of molecules at any
instant


+ Even in the solid phase, the molecules of a
substance continually oscillate creating an
uncertainty about their position

+ These oscillations fade as the temperature is
decreased

+ Molecules supposedly become motionless at
absolute zero

+ Absolute zero represents a state of ultimate
molecular order (and minimum energy)

+ The third law of thermodynamics:

o The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero temperature is zero (since there
is no uncertainty at that instant)

+ The third law provides an absolute reference point
for the determination of entropy

+ The entropy determined relative to this point is
called absolute entropy

6.7 The T ds Relations

+ The differential form of the conservation of energy
equation for a closed stationary system (a fixed
mass) containing a simple compressible substance
can be expressed for an internally reversible
process as

oQ
int rev
oW
int rev,out
= dU
but
oQ
int rev
= T dS
oW
int rev,out
= P dV
(note that the only work interaction for this
system in an internally reversible process is
the boundary work)
thus,
T dS = dU + P dV (kJ)
or
T ds = du + Pdv (kJ/kg) (6.13)

+ Eq. (6.13) is known as the first T ds, or Gibbs
equation

+ The second T ds relations is obtained by
eliminating du from Eq.(6.13) by using the
definition of enthalpy (h = u + Pv):


h = u + Pv
dh = du + P dv + v dP
T ds = du + P dv

T ds = dh - v dP (6.14)

+ Eqs. (6.13) & (6.14) are useful since they relate
entropy changes of a system to the changes in other
properties

+ They are property relations and are independent of
the type of the processes

+ They are valid for both reversible & irreversible
processes

+ They are aplicable for both closed and open
systems

+ Explicit relations for differential changes in
entropy are obtained by solving for ds in Eqs.
(6.13) & (6.14):

T
dv P
T
du
ds + =
(6.15)

T
dP v
T
dh
ds =
(6.16)

+ The entropy change during a process can be
determined by integrating either of these equations
between the initial and the final states

+ To perform these integrations, we must know the
relationship between du or dh and the temperature
as well as the equation state for the substance

6.8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids

+ Liquids and solids can be approximated as
incompressible substances since their specific
volumes remain nearly contant during a process

For liquids & solids:

( )
}
~ =
= =
~
2
1
1
2
1 2
) 18 . 6 ( / ln ) (
) 17 . 6 (
0
K kg kJ
T
T
C
T
dT
T C s s
T
dT C
T
du
ds
dv
av


+ C
p
= C
v
= C and du = C dT for incompressible
substances

+ C
av
is the average specific heat of the substance
over the given temperature interval







+ For an isentropic process:

1 2
1
2
1 2
0 ln T T
T
T
C s s
av
= = =
(6.19)

+ The isentropic process of an incompressible
substance is also isothermal

+ This behaviour is closely approximated by liquids
& solids


6.9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases

+ By subsituting du = C
v
dT and P =RT/v into Eq.
(6.15), the differential entropy change of an ideal
gas becomes:

v
dv
R
T
dT
C ds
v
+ =
(6.20)

+ The entropy change for a process is obtained by
integrating this relation between the end states:

1
2
2
1
1 2
ln ) (
v
v
R
T
dT
T C s s
v
+ =
}
(6.21)

+ A second relation for the entropy change of an
ideal gas is obtained by substituting dh=C
p
dT and
v=RT/P into Eq. (6.16) and integrating:


1
2
2
1
1 2
ln ) (
P
P
R
T
dT
T C s s
p
=
}
(6.22)

+ We need to know the relationship between C
v
and
C
p
in order to perform the integration in eq. (6.21)
& (6.22) above


+ Assuming constant specific heats for ideal gases
(where the constant specific heats are evaluated at
the average temperature) and performing the
integration:

) / ( ln ln
1
2
1
2
, 1 2
kgK kJ
v
v
R
T
T
C s s
av v
+ =
(6.23)

and
) / ( ln ln
1
2
1
2
, 1 2
kgK kJ
P
P
R
T
T
C s s
av p
=
(6.24)

Isentropic Processes Relations for Ideal Gases

+ Several relations for the isentropic processes of
ideal gases can be obtained from the entropy-
change relations (Eqs.6.23 & 6.24)

+ By setting Eqs. 6.23 & 6.24 equal to zero, and
using
R=C
p
-C
v
,
k = C
p
/C
v
&
R/C
v
= k-1
we have:

( )
( )
( )
) 27 . 6 (
26 . 6
25 . 6
2
1
tan
1
2
/ 1
1
2
tan
1
2
1
2
1
tan
1
2
k
t cons s
k k
t cons s
k
t cons s
v
v
P
p
P
P
T
T
v
v
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=



+ Equations (6.25), (6.26) &(6.27) are to be used
only for ideal gases undergoing an isentropic
process with constant specific heat assumption


+ Equations (6.25), (6.26) &(6.27) in compact form
can be written as:

( )
t cons Pv
t cons TP
t cons Tv
k
k k
k
tan
tan
tan
/ 1
1
=
=
=

6.10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work

+ The energy balance for a steady-flow device
undergoing an internally reversible process can be
expressed in differential form as

( )
( ) ( ) 29 . 6 /
,
28 . 6 ) / (
, int
, int
2
1
2
1
kg kJ dP v w
negligible are pe and ke in changes the when
kg kJ pe ke dP v w
obtain we egrating
dpe dke dP v w
obtain we equation energy above the o ng substituti
dP v dh q so and
dP v dh ds T
ds T q
but
dpe dke dh w q
rev
rev
rev
rev
rev
rev rev
}
}
=
A A =
+ + =
=
=
=
+ + =
o
o
o
o o



+ The resemblance between v dP and P dv is striking
but they should not be confused

+ P dv is associated with reversible boundary work in
closed systems
+ It is obvious from this equation }
=
2
1
dP v w
rev

that the reversible steady-flow work is closely
associated with the specific volume of the fluid
flowing through the device

+ The larger the specific volume, the larger the
reversible work produced or consumed by the
steady-flow device

+ Thus, the specific volume of a fluid should be as
small as possible during a compression process to
minimize work input

+ Thus, the specific volume of a fluid should be as
large as possible during an expansion process to
maximize work output

+ Work-producing devices such as turbines deliver
more work when they operate reversibly


+ Work-consuming devices such as pumps and
compressors require less work when they operate
reversibly

+ To integrate Eq. (6.28 & 6.29) , we need to know
v as a function of P for the process

+ When the working fluid is an incompressible fluid
such as a liquid (water), the specific volume v
remains constant & can be taken out of the
integration and Eq. (6.28) becomes

) 30 . 6 ( ) / ( ) (
1 2
kg kJ pe ke P P v w
rev
A A =

+ For the steady flow of a liquid through a device
that involves no work interactions such as a nozzle
or a pipe section, the work term is zero, and the
equation above becomes

0 ) (
2
) (
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
= +

+ z z g
V V
P P v


which is known as the Bernoulli equation in fluid
mechanics.



6.11 Minimizing the Compressor Work

+ One way to minimize compressor work is to
approach an internally reversible process by
minimizing irreversibilities such as friction

+ A second way is to keep the specific volume(v) of
the gas as small as possible during compression

+ This is done by maintaining the temperature of the
gas as low as possible since the specific volume of
a gas is proportional to temperature

+ Thus, reducing the work input requires that the gas
be cooled as it is compressed


+ This is clearly shown if we compare the work input
for 3 reversible processes: isentropic(no cooling),
polytropic (some cooling) and isothermal
(maximum cooling)

Isentropic(Pv
k
= constant):


( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

1
1 1
) (
/ 1
1
2 1 1 2
,
k k
in comp
P
P
k
kRT
k
T T kR
w



Polytropic (Pv
n
=constant):

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

1
1 1
) (
/ 1
1
2 1 1 2
,
n n
in comp
P
P
n
nRT
n
T T nR
w


Isothermal (Pv=constant):

1
2
,
ln
P
P
RT w
in comp
=



+ The three processes are plotted on a P-v diagram
for the same inlet state and exit pressure

+ On a P-v diagram, the area to the left of the process
curve is the integral of vdP which is a measure of
steady-flow compression work

+ It can be observed that for the 3 internally
reversible processes considered

o the isentropic compression requires the
maximum work input
o the isothermal compression requires the
minimum work input

+ One way of cooling the gas during compression is
to use cooling jackets (ex:water) around the casing

+ Another way is to use multistage compression with
intercooling where the gas is compressed in stages
and cooled between each stage by passing it
through a heat exchanger called an intercooler





















P-v diagram of isentropic, polytropic, and isothermal
compression processes between the same pressure
limits.
P
v
P
2

P
1


Isentropic (n=k)

Polytropic (1<n<k)
Isothermal (n=1)
1

6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow
Devices

+ Many steady flow devices such as turbines,
compressors and nozzles are intended to operate
under adiabatic conditions

+ An ideal process should involve no irreversibilities
since the effect of irreversibilities is always to
downgrade the performance of engineering devices

+ Thus, the ideal process that can serve as a model
for adiabatic steady-flow devices is the reversible
adiabatic process or the isentropic process

+ The more closely the actual process approximates
the idealized process, the better the device will
perform

+ It would be desirable to have a parameter that
expresses quantitatively how efficiently an actual
device approximates an idealized one

+ This parameter is the isentropic or adiabatic
efficiency which is a measure of the deviation of
actual processes from the corresponding idealized
ones


+ Isentropic efficiencies are defined differently for
different devices since each device is set up to
perform different tasks


6.12.1 Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

+ The isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as
the ratio of the actual work output of the turbine to
the work output that would be achieved if the
process between the inlet state and the exit pressure
were isentropic:
s
a
T
w
w
work turbine Isentropic
work turbine Actual
= = q
(6.31)

+ The changes in kinetic & potential energies are
small relative to the change in enthalpy & can be
neglected, thus:
s
a
isentropic
actual
T
h h
h h
h h
h h
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1

~ q
(6.32)

+ Well designed large turbines have q
T
above 90%

+ Small turbines may even have q
T
below 70%


w
a

w
s

1
2
s

2
a

Inlet state
Actual process
Isentropic process
P
2

h
s
h
1

h
2a

h
2s

P
1

s
2s
=s
1

The h-s diagram for the actual and isentropic
processes of an adiabatic turbine

6.12.2 Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors &
Pumps

+ The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is
defined as the ratio of the work input required to
raise the pressure of a gas to a specified value in an
isentropic manner to the actual work input:

a
s
c
w
w
work compressor Actual
work compressor Isentropic
= = q
(6.33)

+ Inlet conditions and the exit pressure of the gas are
the same for both the actual and the isentropic
processes

+ When the changes in kinetic & potential energies
are negligible, Eq. (6.33) becomes:

1 2
1 2
h h
h h
a
s
c

~ q
(6.34)

+ The value of q
c
depends on the design of the
compressor

+ Well designed compressors have isentropic
efficiencies between 75 to 85%







The h-s diagram of the actual and isentropic
processes of an adiabatic compressor
w
a

w
s

Inlet state
Actual process
Isentropic process
P
1

2a
2s
h
h
2a

h
2s

h
1

P
2
(exit pressure)
s
2s
=s
1

1
s


+ The isentropic efficiency of a pump( neglecting
changes in kinetic & potential energies is given by:

1 2
1 2
) (
h h
P P v
w
w
a
s
a
s
p

= q
(6.35)

+ For compressors that are cooled during the
compression process, a meaningful efficiency is the
isothermal efficiency given by:


a
t
c
w
w
process actual for input work
process isothermal reversible for input work
= = q (6.36)



6.13 Entropy Balance

+ Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder or
randomness

+ The second law states that entropy can be created
but it cannot be destroyed

+ The entropy change of a system during a process is
greater than the entropy transfer by an amount
equal to the entropy generated during the process
within the system

+ The increase in entropy principle is :

(Change in the total entropy of the system) =
(total entropy entering) (total entropy leaving)
+ (total entropy generated)

or

S
in
S
out
+ S
gen
= AS
system
(6.37)

+ Eq. (6.37) is also known as the entropy balance

+ Eq. (6.37) is applicable to any system undergoing
any process


+ Eq. (6.37) states that:
the entropy change of a system during a process
is equal to the net entropy transfer through the
system boundary and the entropy generated
within the system

+ AS
system
is the entropy change of a system:

Entropy change = entropy at final system
entropy at initial state

AS
system
= S
final
S
initial
= S
2
S
1
(6.38)

+ Entropy can be transferred to or from a system by 2
mechanisms:

o heat transfer
o mass flow

+ Entropy transfer is recognized at the system
boundary as it crosses the boundary

+ Entropy transfer is the entropy gained or lost by a
system during a process



+ The only form of entropy interaction associated
with a closed system is heat transfer

+ Entropy transfer for an adiabatic closed system is
zero

+ Entropy transfer by heat transfer:

S
heat
= Q/T (T = constant) (6.39)

+ The direction of entropy transfer by heat transfer is
the same as the direction of heat transfer since
absolute temperature T is always a positive
quantity

+ Heat is a form of disorganized energy and some
disorganization(entropy) will flow with heat

+ Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy of a
system

+ Heat transfer from a system decreases the entropy
of a system

+ Heat rejection is the only way the entropy of a
closed system can be decreased



+ Work is entropy-free

+ ENERGY is transferred by both heat and work

+ ENTROPY is transferred only by heat

+ Entropy & energy contents of a system are
proportional to the mass

+ Both entropy & energy are carried into or out of a
system by streams of matter

+ The rates of entropy & energy transport into or out
of a system are proportional to the mass flow rate

+ Closed systems do not involve any mass flow and
does not involve any entropy transfer by mass

+ When a mass in the amount of m enters or leaves a
system, entropy in the amount of ms, where s is the
specific entropy accompanies it

+ Entropy transfer by mass:
S
mass
= ms (6.40)


+ Entropy of a system increases by ms when mass in
the amount of m enters the system

+ Entropy of a system decreases by ms when mass in
the amount of m leaves the system

+ Entropy generation is a measure of the entropy
created by irreversibilities(such as friction etc)
during a process

+ For a reversible process, the entropy generation is
zero & the entropy change = entropy transfer

+ Entropy balance for any system undergoing any
process can be expressed as:

) / (
&
K kJ S S S S
entropy in Change
system
generation Entropy
gen
mass heat by transfer entropy net
out in


A = +
(6.41)

+ In the rate form:

) / (
&
K kW S S S S
entropy in change of Rate
system
generation entropy of Rate
gen
mass heat by transfer entropy net of rate
out in


- - - -
A = +

(6.42)





+ The rates of entropy transfer by heat and mass are:
s m S and
T
Q
S
mass heat
- -
-
-
= =


+ The entropy balance can also be expressed on a
unit-mass basis as:

( ) ) / ( K kg kJ s s s s
system gen out in
A = +
(6.43)

+ For a reversible process, the entropy generation
S
gen
drops out from all of the relations above

+ S
gen
represents the entropy generation within the
system boundary only

+ A process for which S
gen
= 0 is internally reversible
but not necessarily totally reversible

6.13.1 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems

+ The entropy change of a closed system during a
process is equal to the sum of the net entropy
transferred through the system boundary by heat
transfer and the entropy generation within the
system boundaries:

) / (
1 2
K kJ S S S S
T
Q
system gen
k
k
= A = +

(6.44)

+ For an adiabatic closed system (Q=0):

) / (
1 2
K kJ S S S S
system adiabatic gen
= A =
(6.45)

+ Any closed system & its surroundings can be
treated as an adiabatic system & the total entropy
change of a system is equal to the sum of the
entropy changes of its parts









+ The entropy balance for a closed system and its
surroundings can be written as

surr
surr
surr
system
gs surroundin system gen
T
Q
S
s s m S
where
K kJ S S S S
= A
= A
A + A = A =

) (
) / (
1 2

(6.46)


6.13.2 Entropy Balance for Open Systems(Control
Volume)

+ The entropy balance relations for open systems
differ from those for closed systems in that they
involve one more mechanism of entropy transfer:
mass flow

( ) ) / (
1 2
K kJ S S S s m s m
T
Q
cv gen e e i i
k
k
= + +
(6.47)

or in the rate form

) / ( K kW S S s m s m
T
Q
cv gen
e
e
i
i
k
k
- - - -
-
A = + +


(6.48)


+ Eq. (6.48) states that the rate of entropy change
within the control volume during a process is equal
to the sum of the rate of entropy transfer through
the control volume boundary by heat transfer, the
net rate of entropy transfer into the control volume
by mass flow, and the rate of entropy generation
within the boundaries of the control volume as a
result of irreversibilities


+ Most control volumes encountered such as
turbines, compressors, pipes etc operate steadily &
thus experience no change in their entropy

+ The entropy balance for a general steady-flow
process is obtained by setting
0 = A
-
cv
S
in Eq. (6.48)
to give:


-
- - -
=
k
k
i
i
e
e gen
T
Q
s m s m S
(6.49)

+ For single-stream(one inlet & one exit):

( )

-
- -
=
k
k
i e
gen
T
Q
s s m S
(6.50)


+ For an adiabatic steady-flow, single-stream:

( )
i e
gen
s s m S =
- -
(6.51)

since 0 >
-
gen S : the specific entropy of the fluid
must increase as it flows through an adiabatic
device


+ If the flow through the device is reversible and
adiabatic, the entropy will remain constant,
s
e
= s
i