1

Life Process
Q.1 What are life processes? Ans. All the organism performs some basic functions to keep themselves alive. These basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this earth are called as Life Processes. The basic life processes common to all living organisms are:1. Nutrition & Respiration 2. Transportation & Excretion 3. Control & Coordination 4. Growth 5. Reproduction. Q2. What are living and non-living organisms? Differentiate between them. Ans. Living things are complex organizations of molecules, which perform certain life processes such as growth, metabolism, reproduction etc. on the other hand non living things doesnt show growth, metabolism, reproduction etc. the difference between living and non living organisms are as under:LIVING THINGS NON LIVING THINGS 1. A living thing has a self-built organization, 1. The organization imposed and limited. consisting of several components, that exists beyond the level of individual. 2. Living things obtain simple molecules from 2. Non-living things do not show such activities. outside and convert them into complex protoplasmic constituents. 3. Living things perform growth development 3. No such activities occur. and differentiation. 4. Living beings have property of self repair. 4. These do not have property of self-repair. 5. These organisms have ability to sense the 5. These do not have ability to sense the surrounding and protect themselves. surrounding and protect themselves. 6. Living things have definite life span. 6. They do not have definite life span. 7. Living beings reproduce and multiply. 7. Multiplication is imposed. 8. These have ability to evolve in time. 8. They do not have ability to evolve.

Nutrition
Q.3. What is nutrition, explain its various modes. Ans. Nutrition: - All living organisms need matter to build up the body and energy to operate the metabolic reactions that sustain life. Food provides these two primary requirements of life. The sum total of the processes by which the living organisms obtain food materials and prepare them for use in growth and repair of the body and in production of energy is termed as nutrition. Modes of nutrition (i) Autotrophic nutrition (iii) Mixotrophic nutrition. (ii) Heterotrophic nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION: - The term autotrophic is derived from the two Greek words i.e. Auto and troph. Auto means self where as troph refers to nutrition. All green plants and certain bacteria use the energy of sun for preparing organic food in their own body from simple materials. They take carbon dioxide from the environment and water from the soil and convert them into

2 glucose and oxygen with the help of suns energy and chlorophyll, this process of making food is called photosynthesis and mode of feeling is known as Autotrophic Nutrition. The organisms which do not take organic molecules produced by other organisms are called Autotrophs. Example: - All green plants, some bacteria. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION: - The term heterotrophic is also derived from Greek words i.e. Hetro and troph. Hetero means different or other, where as troph refers to nutrition. Animals, fungi, some protest and many bacteria cannot utilize suns energy. They use chemical bond-energy of organic molecules synthesized by other organism in building their own organic molecules. Such a mode of feeding is termed as heterotrophic nutrition. The organisms having this mode of nutrition are called heterotrophs. The Heterotrophic nutrition has the following types:(i) Saprotrophic Nutrition (ii) Parasitic Nutrition (iii) Holotrophic Nutrition Saprotrophic Nutrition: - The type of heterotrophic nutrition in which an organism obtain its food from dead and decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead animals etc. is called Saprotrophic nutrition. Some forms of fungi and bacteria are saprophytes. Parasitic Nutrition: - The process of heterotrophic nutrition in which one organism called parasite, feed on the body tissues of another organism known as host and this type of nutrition is called as parasitic nutrition. Examples: - plasmodium (malarial parasite) Holotrophic Nutrition: - The process of feeding on ready made solid food materials is called as holotrophic Nutrition. This solid food is then broken into simpler forms inside the body of organism with the help of different enzymes. Since this mode of nutrition is common among animals, hence it is also called as holozoic nutrition. Depending upon the type of food such organisms may be Herbivores (Plant eater), Carnivores (Flesh eater) and Omnivores (Plant and Flesh eater). MIXOTROPHIC NUTRITION: - Some organism carries both autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition at the same time this type of nutrition is called Mixotrophic Nutrition. Q .4 Differentiate between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Nutrition. Ans. The differences between Autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition are as under: Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition 1. The mode of nutrition in which an organism 1. The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food with the help of depends on plants for its food i.e. depends on photosynthesis is called as Autotrophic ready made is known as heterotrophic nutrition. Nutrition. 2. It is mode of nutrition in green plants and in 2. It is mode of nutrition in animals and nonsome bacteria. green plants. 3. In this nutrition raw materials are carbon 3. In this nutrition no exact raw materials are dioxide and water. required. 4. This process of nutrition takes place in 4. In the nutrition sunlight does not play a vital presence of sunlight. role directly. 5. Autotrophs do not depends on out side 5. Heterotrophs depends on plants for their food sources. etc. 6. The food manufactured is stored in different 6. The food received from other sources used for parts. energy production. 7. The food is digested inside the cells. 7. The food is digested inside the cells or inside the body organs.

Q.5. Differentiate between Saprophytic and Parasitic Nutrition. Ans. The difference between Saprophytic and Parasitic Nutrition are as under Saprophytic Nutrition Parasitic Nutrition 1. The type of heterotrophic nutrition in which 1. The process of nutrition in which one an organism obtains its food from dead and organism called Parasite, feed on the body decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead tissues of another organism known as Host and animals etc. called Saprophytic Nutrition. this type of nutrition is called as parasitic nutrition. 2. In this nutrition food is obtained from dead 2. In this nutrition food is obtained from living organic matter. organisms. 3. This nutrition is in no way harmful to the 3. This nutrition is beneficial to the parasite, but substratum harmful for the host. 4. In this nutrition enzymes are secreted by the 4. In this nutrition no enzyme is secreted. The organisms to hydrolyse the complex organic parasite directly absorbs its food from the body matter. of host. 5. Some forms of fungi, some bacteria, yeast, 5. Viruses, some bacteria, non chlorophyllous mushrooms, etc undergoes saprophytic mode of flowering plants show this mode of nutrition. nutrition. Q.6 Define Holozoic Nutrition. Describe the various steps involved in holozoic nutrition. Ans. The process of heterotrophic nutrition in which an organism generally take ready made sold food materials, is known as Holozoic Nutrition. The food in this type of nutrition may be a small bacterium, a plant or animal. The different steps involved in holozoic nutrition are as under:(i) Ingestion (ii) Digestion (iii) Absorption (iv) Assimilation (v) Egestion Ingestion: - The process by which solid or liquid food is taken inside the body is known as ingestion. Different organism consume food in different ways, human being use hands for ingestion, and some organism uses tentacles. Digestion: The process by which insoluble complex food materials is converted into simple and soluble form, with the help of digestive enzymes in known as digestion. It has two types i.e. Intra cellular and Extra cellular digestion. Absorption: - All the food which is digested by the mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum is ultimately absorbed by the cells of villi of small intestine by simple diffusion or by active transport and reach the circulatory system. In other words, the process by which the digested, soluble food materials pass through digestive tract and reach the circulatory system or body fluid system of an animal, is known as Absorption. Assimilation: - The process by which absorbed food materials are utilized to produce energy and protoplasm, in the body of an organism is known as Assimilation. Egestion: - The undigested food is sent to the large intestine and removed through the rectum and anus in the form of stool or faces. This process is termed as Egestion. Q.7. What is digestion? Explain its types.

4 Ans. Digestion: - The process by which insoluble complex food materials is covered into simple and soluble form, with the help of digestive enzymes is known as digestion. It has two types (i) Intra cellular digestion (ii) Extra cellular digestion Intra cellular digestion: - The process of digestion which takes place inside the cells of organisms is known as intra cellular digestion. E.g. it occurs in unicellular organism like Amoeba Extra cellular digestion: - The process of digestion which takes place outside but inside the cell organs is known as extra cellular digestion. E.g. It occurs in multicellular organisms including man. Q8. Distinguish between intra cellular and extra cellular digestion. Ans. The differences between intra cellular and extra cellular digestion are as under: Intra cellular digestion Extra cellular digestion 1. The process of digestion which takes place 1. The process of digestion which takes place inside the cells of organisms is known as intra outside cells but inside the cells organs, is known cellular digestion. as extra cellular digestion. 2. Here the food present in vacuoles is digested 2. Here the food passed through the alimentary by the enzymes secreted by the cells cytoplasm. canal, where the digestive enzymes are secreted to break the complex food materials into simpler substances. 3. It occurs in unicellular organism like amoeba. 3. It occurs in multicellular organism like man.

Q.9. Explain the process of digestion in human beings. Ans. The process of digestion of food in humans in is discussed as under following heads.

Digestion in Buccal Cavity: - Food first comes in the buccal cavity through the mouth. It is masticated with the help of teeth and mixed with saliva produced by the salivary glands (parotid, sublingual and sub maxillary glands) Saliva consists of water, salts, mucin and enzymes ptyalin. Water provides liquid medium to the food. Mucin lubricates the food for easy movement and ptyalin converts starch and glycogen into maltose. Thus carbohydrates digestion begins in the buccal cavity which is responsible for hydrolysis of about 30% of starch present in the food. When food is masticated then it is swallowed and reaches into the stomach through food pipe. Digestion in stomach: - The C shaped or J shaped muscular sac present on the left side of abdomen is known as stomach. Here the food is stored for 2-3 hours. Muscular walls of the stomach digest the food by the process of expansion and contraction. Here the food is called chime. The walls of the stomach contained gastric glands which produce gastric juice. It consists of hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzyme pepsin, Renin and gastric lipase.

5 Water provides liquid medium, mucus lubricates the food, pepsin converts proteins into peptones, rennin convert milk into curd and gastric lipase converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The functions performed by HCl are as under (I) It provides acidic medium to the food (II) It stops the action of ptyalin (III) It kills bacteria and germs present in food (IV) It acts as a catalytic agents (V) It converts inactive enzyme into active enzyme. Digestion in intestine: - The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is a narrow tube of six meters which lies coiled in the abdomen. It is divided into three parts- Duodenum, jejunum and ileum. DUODENUM:- The u shaped structures that starts after the pyloric of the stomach and ends into the jejunum is called duodenum. It is about 25 cm long. Here food is mixed with two types of juices i.e. Bile juice and pancreatic juice. Liver secrets bile juice, which is stored in gall bladder and flows through the bile duct into the duodenum, when needed. It contains bile pigments and bile salts but no enzyme, thus has no chemical action on the food. It helps in emulsification of fats. Pancreatic juice is secreted by the exocrine areas of pancreas (it is an elongated, yellowish gland lying parallel to and beneath the stomach) it passes through pancreatic duct and mixes with food in duodenum. It contains water, minerals and enzymes. It makes the medium alkaline for the action of enzymes. The enzymes present in pancreatic juice are (i) Trypsin:- It digest the proteins (ii) Pancreatic amylase: - It causes break down of starch (iii) Pancreatic lipase: - It breaks lipids. JEJUNUM: - It is the upper part, where as ileum is lower part of small intestine, the walls of jejunum is thicker than that of the ileum. Completion of digestion and absorption of digested food occurs in the small intestine. ILEUM: - The semi-final food that enters the small intestine is called chyle. The walls of intestine produce certain secretion called intestinal juices or succus entericus which is mixture of several enzymes. The enzymes present in intestinal juice are, aminopeptidases, dipeptidases, intestinal amylase, maltose, sucrose, lactase, intestinal lipase. All these enzymes act upon proteins, carbohydrates and fats and convert them into amino acids, glucose, fatty acid and glycerol. These products are simple and soluble, which are easily absorbed by the walls of intestine which contains blood capillaries with the help of numerous finger like projection called the villi the absorbed food is sent through blood to different parts of body and undigested food is sent to the large intestine. LARGE INTESTINE:- It has three parts caecum (6 cm), colon and rectum. Colon is greater part of intestine followed by 15 to 20 cm long rectum. Large intestine is shorter but wider than small intestine. The undigested food is collected as faeces in the rectum, followed by 2 to 5 cm long anal canal which removes the undigested food from the body. Q10. Explain the term metabolism. Ans. The chemical reactions occurring in living organisms are called bio-chemical reactions. The sum total of all biochemical reaction which are going or taking place in a body is called metabolism. The biochemical reactions are of two types. (i) Catabolic reactions

6 (ii) Anabolic reactions. Catabolic reactions: - The process in which complex molecules are break down into simpler ones in known as catabolism and the reactions involves in it are destructive in nature and gives our energy, mainly in the form of heat and are called catabolic reactions or exergonic reactions. Example: - Digestion, respiration. Anabolic reactions: - The process in which complex molecules are synthesis from simpler ones is called anabolism and the reactions involved in it are constructive in nature and require energy and are known as Anabolic reactions or Endergonic reactions. Example: - Photosynthesis, protein synthesis etc.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Q11. What is photosynthesis; describe the raw materials essential for it. Ans. The process by which the green chlorophyll containing cells of the plants manufacture the carbon compounds with the help of inorganic raw materials such as carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight is known as photosynthesis. During this process carbon dioxide from environment is used and oxygen as a product is released. The sites of photosynthesis are the chloroplasts. An overall simple chemical reaction equation of photosynthesis is as under. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 The sites of photosynthesis are as: (i) Carbon Dioxide (ii) Water (iii) Chlorophyll

(iv) Light

Carbon dioxide: - Plants use carbon dioxide for making their food. Plants on land make use of atmospheric CO2 through stomata. When stomata are closed the rate of photosynthesis is reduced and ultimately it becomes. On the other hand in submerged aquatic plants, CO 2 directly enters the plant through the epidermis and reaches the photosynthetic cells in the form of bicarbonates or carbonates. Water:- Water is an essential raw material for photosynthesis. It is absorbed through roots by the plants then transported upwards through xylem and reaches the leaves where it gets oxidized in presence of light to release necessary electrons and protons which pass through electron transport system to generate the assimilatory power. Water is also responsible for release of molecular oxygen which goes into the atmosphere. Chlorophyll: - It is the green pigment of leaves of light plants. Infacts it has four components i.e. chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, xanthophylls and carotene. Out of these, chlorophyll-a and chlorophyllb are green and are responsible for the transfer of energy i.e. they act as photoreceptors of light energy for photosynthesis. In plants chlorophyll is present mostly in the leaves, which are therefore called photosynthetic organs. Light: - The sunlight is the natural and prime source of energy for the photosynthesis in plants. The quality, intensity and duration of light received by plants greatly influence the rate of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll can absorb the violet, blue and red components of visible light. Blue and red regions of the visible spectrum are most effective. Green light has the minimum effect. In the total absence of

7 light, plants absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The rate of photosynthesis increases proportionally with an increase in light intensity till plants achieve saturation point.

RESPIRATION
Q12. What is respiration? Explain its types. Ans. The slow oxidation process in which complex molecules are oxidized in simpler molecules like carbon dioxide, water and liberate energy is called respiration. It involves gases exchange, called breathing and breakdown of simple food in cells, called cellular respiration. It is divided into two categories depending upon the availability of atmospheric oxygen. (i) Aerobic Respiration (ii) Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration: - The process of releasing energy with the use of oxygen is aerobic respiration. It brings about complete oxidation of the respiration substrates to form water and carbon dioxide as the end products, with the release of maximum energy. All animals respire aerobically. Anaerobic Respiration: - The process of releasing energy without the use of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. It results in complete oxidation of the respiration substrates and its end products are ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. It is common among the bacteria, yeast and muscle cells etc. Q13. Distinguish between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration? Ans. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration 1. The process of releasing energy with the use 1. The process of releasing energy without the of oxygen is called Aerobic Respiration. use of oxygen is called Aerobic respiration. 2. It causes complete oxidation of respiratory 2. It causes incomplete oxidation of respiratory substrate. substrate. 3. Its end products are CO2 and H2O. 3. Its end products are ethyl alcohol and CO2 or lactic acid only. 4. Large amount of energy is released. 4. Very small amount of energy is released. 5. Large amount of CO2 is released. 5. Large amount of CO2 is released. 6. It involved two steps i.e. Glycolysis and 6. It involves only one step i.e. Glycolysis. Krebss cycle. 7. Occurs both in cytoplasm and mitochondria. 7. It is complete in cytoplasm only. 8. It is common among higher plants and most of 8. It is common among bacteria, blue green animals. Algae and some parasitic forms. 9. It is very efficient process. 9. It is less efficient process. Q14. Describe the process of respiration? Ans. The process of respiration consists of a series of chemical reactions and each reaction is under the control of enzymes. The various events during respiration are as under. Glycolysis: - It is the first event in the process of respiration in which glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid with the release of energy equal to 2 ATP molecules. This process taken place in the cytoplasm and is common for both the aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

8 Break down of pyruvic acid: - The products formed due to breakdown of pyruvic acid depend on presence of absence of oxygen. Aerobic break down of pyruvic acid: - In the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is Complete oxidation to form carbon dioxide and water. With the production of energy equal to 38 ATP molecules. This aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria and involves a number of reactions in a cycle called KREBS CYCLE. C6H12O6 2CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP (686 K. cals)

Anaerobic breaks down of pyruvic acid: In the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is broken down into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. This anaerobic step takes place in cytoplasm without the production of any energy. C6H12O6 2C2 H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP (54 K. cals.)

Q.15 Give the mechanism of respiration in plants? Ans. In plants the gases exchange mechanism is very simple the air diffuses through the stomata of leaves and stems, lenticels of woody stems and surface of roots. Stomata are small openings, usually on the lower surface of leaves and on stem of flowering plants. When guard cells surrounding the stomata become turgid by absorbing water and the stomata are opened, exchange of gases takes place by simple diffusion (oxygen) when stomata are closed and no exchange of gases takes place. Q16. Give the mechanism of respiration in unicellular organisms? Ans. In unicellular organisms the exchange of gases takes place through the general body surface. The oxygen diffuses into the cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out from the cells as in paramecium, Euglena, chlamydomomonas. Q.17. Give the mechanism of respiration in higher animals? Ans. In higher organisms there are special systems which are concerned with intakes of fresh air containing oxygen and giving out of foul air containing carbon diode. It includes nostrils, trachea, lungs or gills or other specialized structure. In aquatic animals it the dissolved oxygen that diffuses into their body through general body surface or gills etc. such systems are called respiration system.

In man it comprises of nostrils, pharynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. When chest cavity expands the fresh air from outside enters the lungs through respiration passage in lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminates in balloons-like structure which are

9 called alveoli. The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can takes place. The walls of alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli. The blood brings carbon dioxide form the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

TRANSPORTATION
Q.18 What is circulatory system? What are its functions? Ans. The movement of the extra cellular fluid through the body is called circulation and the organs which bring about the circulation, constitute the circulatory system, called blood circulatory or Blood vascular system. It has two types: (i) Open vascular system (ii) Closed vascular system Function of circulatory system: The functions of circulatory system in all living organisms are basically the same. These are as under: 1. The nutrients are transported by the circulatory system from the site of absorption to the various parts of the body. 2. The circulatory fluid helps in the transport of respiratory gases. 3. Waste products of metabolism such as urea, uric acid etc. are removed out of the body by the circulatory system. 4. It transports hormonal secretions of the endocrine gland to the sites of their action. 5. It helps in the regulation of the body temperature. 6. It is also helps in the stoppage of flow of blood in case of injury. 7. The circulatory fluid contains certain antibodies which protect the body from microorganism. 8. It also helps in the maintenance of water content of the tissue. Q.19. What is blood? Give the composition and functions of blood? Ans. The fluid connective tissue that flows throughout our body vessels i.e. arteries and veins, called Blood. It is red vascular and softest connective tissue. It is salty in taste. It is heavier than water. It adults it is formed in bone marrow. The study of blood is called hematology. (i) Plasma (ii) Corpuscles PLASMA: It is straw yellow colored liquid part of the blood which forms 55-60% of the blood. It is composed of (i) Water 90-92% (ii) Plasma proteins (albumin globulin, prothrombin and fibrinogen) 6-8% (iii) Inorganic salts (captions) are Na, K, Mg, Ca; anions-chloride, bicarbonate 1-2% (iv) Others (a) Food materials (glucose, amino acid, fatty acids) (b) Waste materials urea, uric acid (c) Regularly substance (hormones, vitamins, enzymes) (d) Anticoagulants (heparin) (e) Antibodies (f) Dissolved gases (O2 and CO2) Functions of Plasma: - It performs the following functions:

10 1. It carries water which is transported to various parts of the body. 2. It contains protein called fibrinogen which helps in clotting. 3. The nitrogen waste like urea, uric acid, ammonia etc are carried from the site of their origin to the site of their removal. 4. It also transports O2 and CO2. 5. Different minerals, vitamins, soluble food is carried to various parts of the body through plasma. Blood Corpuscles: These constitute 40-50% of the total blood, these float freely in the plasma. It is of the three types: 1. Erythrocytes or Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) 2. Leucocytes or White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs) 3. Blood Platelets. 1. Erythrocytes: - These are corpuscles which are roughly spherical or concave like in appearance and are without nucleus in man. Their number is 5-5.5 million/mm 3 of blood in man while in women; these are 4.5-5 million/mm3 of blood. They contain an iron compound named hemoglobin, in dissolved from in plasma. Haemoglobin is the blood pigment and is carrier of oxygen. It becomes red coloured when it comes in contact with oxygen and gives red colour to the blood hence called Red blood corpuscles. These have short life span; average life span of RBCs is 120 days. They are formed in Red-bone marrow. 2. Leucocytes: - These are colourless. They are rounded or irregular in shape. Moreover they can change their shape. Their size varies from 12 to 20 m larger than RBC. Their numbers vary from 5,000 to 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood much less than RBCs. They are nucleated cells. Their cytoplasm contains mitochondria, spleen, etc. There are of two types i.e. (i) Agranulocytes (ii) Granulocytes. 3. Blood Platelets: - These lack haemoglobin and are colourless. These are rounded or oval in shape. They are fewer than RBCs and more than WBCs in number. These are 250,000 platelets in a cubic millimeter of blood. Function of corpuscles: 1. RBCs are the carrier of O2 from lungs to various parts. 2. They also bring CO2 from tissue back to lungs. 3. WBCs defend our body against the disease causing germs. 4. Platelets prevent excess flow of blood from the body. Q.20. Give the function of blood in the human Body. Ans. Function of Blood: It performs the following functions: 1. Blood transport oxygen from lungs to all parts of body. 2. It carries CO2 from tissues to lungs. 3. It transport food absorbed from alimentary canal to all parts of body. 4. It carries water from different tissues to the site of their elementary from body. 5. It defends our body temperature equal in all parts. 6. It regularly body prevents loss of blood from the body. 7. The clotting of blood prevents loss of blood from the body. 8. The hormones, antibodies etc. are also carries from the site of their information to the site of their action through blood. 9. It maintains pH of the body. 10. It regulates water level also.

11 Q.21. What is Heart? Give the structure of Heart. Ans. Heart is situated almost in the middle line, in the thoracic between the lungs. Heart is a hallow, muscular, cone shaped organ and it is 12 cm length and 9 cm in breadth. The weight of heart is about 300 gm. It acts like a pump to send the blood to all parts of the body with certain pressure. It has four chambers i.e. two auricles and two ventricles. Auricles lie towards anterior end and Ventricles towards posterior end. Auricles are smaller and less muscular than ventricles. Auricles receive blood and ventricles pump blood to all body parts. Auricles are separated by inner-auricles septum and two parts called left and right auricles, where as left and right ventricles are separates by inner ventricles septum. Left auricles open left ventricles and right auricles, opens into right ventricles. The left half of the heart is meant for pure blood while right half contain impure blood. Heart contracts and expands alternately to send or receive the blood. The contraction of heart is called systole while the dilatation diastole. The rate of heart beating in normal person is 72 times per minutes. The outer membrane of heart is called Pericardium. Q. Draw diagram to show circulation of blood in the human body. Ans.

Q.22. What is Blood Pressure? Ans. The pressure with blood is pumped from heart during systole is called systolic Blood Pressure and it is 120 mm/Hg. Similarly the blood pressure during the diastole of heart is called Diastolic Blood Pressure and it is 80mm/Hg in normal person. Thus normal blood pressure in man is 12080mm/Hg. It is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. Hypertension: A persistence rise in BP is called high blood pressure or hypertension. Hypotension: Fall in all arteries BP is called hypertension. Q.23. What are blood vessels? Ans. The elastic muscular tubes which carry blood are called vessels. There are three kinds of blood vessels in human body. 1. Arteries: -The blood vessels that distribute blood to all parts of the body are called arteries. 2. Veins: - The blood vessels that collect blood from different parts of body and brought back to the heart are called veins. 3. Capillaries: - The thin walled and extremely narrow blood vessels which occur at the terminals of artery and vein are called capillaries. These are permeable to water and dissolve substances so that the exchange of materials between the blood and body cells takes place. Q.24. Distinguish between arteries and veins? Ans. The following are points which differentiate arteries from veins: Arteries Veins 1. The blood vessels that distribute blood to all 1. The blood vessels that collect blood from parts of the body are called Arteries. different parts of body and bought back to the heart are called veins. 2. Arteries contains oxygenates blood except 2. Veins contains deoxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. pulmonary veins. 3. These are thick walled. 3. These are thin walled. 4. Arteries are deep located. 4. These are superficially located.

12 5. Arteries have smaller lumen. 6. Capillaries are present at the end of arteries. 7. These distributed blood. 8. Blood flows with high pressure. 9. Blood flows with jerks. 10. These are elastic. 11. The flow of blood is fast. 12. These become empty after death. 5. Veins have wider lumen. 6. Capillaries are present at the start of veins. 7. These collect blood. 8. Blood flows with low pressure. 9. Blood flows without jerks. 10. These are inelastic. 11. The flow of blood is slow. 12. These are full of bloods after death.

LYMPH
Q.25. What is lymph? What are its functions? Ans. The fluid from the blood plasma which leaves the blood capillaries formed from the Arterioles in the tissue is called tissue fluid most of this fluid re-enters the blood capillaries and is return back by veins. Some of it retained in the intercellular spaces from where it flows in a system of fine tubules called lymph vessels. The tissue fluid on reaching the lymph vessels is called lymph. It is usually clear, transparent fluid; it consists of plasma and leucocytes. Function of Lymph: Lymph performs the following functions in the body. 1. It carries carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste materials that diffuse into the tissue fluid to the blood. 2. It keeps the tissue moist. 3. It acts as middle man between blood and tissue cells. 4. It carries fats and fat soluble materials from the alimentary canal. 5. It destroys invaded micro-organism. 6. It defends our body against infections disease. Q.26. Distinguished between Blood and Lymph? Ans. Distinguished between Blood and Lymph is as under: BLOOD LYMPH 1. It is red coloured. 1. It is colour-less. 2. RBCs are present. 2. RBCs are absent. 3. It flows in blood vessels. 3. It flows in lymph vessels. 4. It contains RBCs, WBCs, Plasma & 4. It contains plasma and leucocytes only. platelets. 5. The plasma is rich in proteins. 5. The plasma is poor in proteins. 6. It is carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide. 6. It is not the carries of O2 and CO2. 7. Glucose concentration is high. 7. Glucose concentration is low. 8. It acts vehicles. 8. It acts as middle man.

TRANSPORTATION OF MATERIAL IN PLANTS

Q.27. What do you mean by transportation in plants? Ans. In Plants, the water and minerals are absorbed mainly from the soil and then transported upwards through specific tissue system, called xylem. Similarly, the organic food, which are synthesized in green leaves, and the hormones, which are synthesized in stem and root tips, are

13 transported though special tissues, called Phloem. Thus, the xylem and the phloem are important conducting tissues in plants. The xylem is a complex tissue. It is made up of our kinds of cellstracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres. The water and minerals are transported mainly through tracheids and vessels. The phloem is also a complex tissue. It is made up of sieve tubes, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Thus, there are two kinds of transportation in plants. (i) Transportation of water and minerals (ii) Transportation of food and other substances Q28. How does water rise in tall trees? Ans. In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plants. At the roots, cells in contacts with the soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in the concentration of these ions between the roots and soil. Water, therefore, moves into the root from the soil to eliminate this difference. This means that is steady movements of water into root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards. However, this pressure by itself in unlikely to be enough to move water over the heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants use another strategy to move water in xylem upwards to the highest points of plants body. The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plants is known as transpiration. The water which is lost through the stomata is replaced by the water from the xylem vessels in the leaf. In fact, evaporation of water molecules from the cells of leaf creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots. Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and upwards movements of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves. Q.29. How transport of food and other substance take place in plants. Ans. The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem. Besides the products of photosynthesis, the phloem transport amino acids and other substances. These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs. The translocation of food another substance takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upwards and downwards direction. The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy. Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the materials in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the phloem to move materials according to the plants needs. For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds which need energy to grow.

EXCREATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Q.30. What is excretion? Ans. All living organism perform different types of metabolic activities which result in the formation of different types of unwanted and toxic substances called waste products. These are harmful for the body if they remain in the body. The process by which these metabolic wastes of the body are eliminated from the body is known as excretion. The various organ of excretion in human beings are skin, lungs, large intestine, liver, kidneys etc.

14 Q. 31 Draw a well labeled diagram of kidney and explain its external as well as internal structure. Ans. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE

Kidneys are dark brown bean shaped structures with one side convex and other side concave. These are a depression on the concave surface called hilum through which renal artery enters and renal vein and ureter leave the kidneys. Each kidney is covered by capsule. These are found dorsal to the abdominal cavity, one on either side of spinal cord. Each kidney is about four and half inch in length and two half inch in thickness. INTERNAL STRUCTURE The outer covering of the kidney is called Tunica Fibrosa. Each kidney is differentiated into peripheral cortex and central medulla region. The medulla consists of pyramids. The pointed end of pyramids is called Papilla which is towards renal pelvis and broader end of pyramid is towards the cortex between the pyramids calyx are present. Renal pelvis is a cavity where urine collects and it leads to ureter. Q.32. Give the functions of kidneys. Ans. The functions of kidneys are as under: 1. Kidneys help in the removal of nitrogenous wastes from the body. 2. These help in the maintaining of water balance in the body. 3. These help in the regulation of pH level. 4. These help in the regulation of salt content. 5. These help in the regulation of blood pressure. 6. Kidneys secrete an enzyme that helps in re-absorption of sodium. 7. These also help in fluid homeostrains. Q.33. Explain the process of filtration and re-absorption in kidneys? Ans. The mechanism of excretion in kidneys has three main steps i.e (i) Ultra filtration (ii) Selective re-absorption and (iii) Tubular secretion UTRAFILTRACTION: The blood in the glomeruli is under pressure which causes water and other soluble molecule present in the blood to filter through capillary walls. This process is called ultra filtration. SELECTIVE RE-ABSORPTION: The glomerular filtrate contains both useful as well as harmful substance in it. Selected substances from this glomerular filtrate are re-absorbed by the converted Tubule by diffusion or active transport under the control of hormones etc. and it is called selective re-absorption. TUBLULAR SECRECTION: The harmful substances are rejection and waste still present in the peritubular capillaries is secreted into the glomerular secretion.

15 Thus, the waste passed from nephron into collecting duct contains only Urea, Uric acid, Excess of minerals etc. and is called Urine. Q.34. Describe the function and structure of Nephron. Ans.

Histology of kidney shows that it is made up of numerous microscopic tubules called NEPHRONS. Each nephron basically consists of two parts i.e. (i) Glomerulous and (ii) A long tubule GLOMERULOUS It is a network of fifty capillaries enclosed by double walled structure called Bowmans capsule. Function: The blood is filtered in the Bowmans capsule the filtrate fluid is called Glomerulous filtrate or nephric filtrate. A LONG TUBULE It consists of three distinct region i.e. (i) Proximal convoluted tubule (ii) Loop of Henle and (iii) Distal convoluted tubule (a) Proximal convoluted tubule: - It is the interior part of tubule and its lies in the cortex region of kidney. (b) Loop of Henle: - The next to proximal convoluted tubule is the loop of henle and it lies in the medulla region of kidneys. (c) Distal convoluted tubule: - The parts of the tubule which is next to the loop of henle and situated in the cortex region of kidneys is distal convoluted tubule. Function: The filtrate fluid passes through tubule and finally reaches the collecting vessels. During its journey tubule helps in selective re-absorption of the substance. Q.35. Describe the urinary system of man. Ans. The urinary system of man is concerned with the excretion of nitrogenous waste. It consists of a pair of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra. Kidneys are beans shaped and are located in abdominal cavity on either side of vertebral column. From each kidney a tabular structure emerges which store urine besides the two openings of ureter in the bladder it has another opening which opens in the urethra. Urethra forms the passage urine outside.

16

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Q.36. Explain the process of excretion in plants? Ans. The elimination of waste product in plants is much less as compound to animals. The plants are capable of using some catabolic product in anabolism. The various parts which produce waste products are leafs, bark, roots and seeds .The main methods of elimination of waste products are:3. Water and carbon dioxide, the waste product of the respiration are used in photosynthesis. 3. The oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in respiration. 3. Ammonia is used for the synthesis of proteins. 3. Some of the excretory products such as gums, resins, latex, sugar, etc. 3. Some waste products get collected in leafs and are removed by their shedding. 3. The plants growing along the sea-coast have mechanism for excudation for salt from the leaf. 3. The healthy roots excudes into the soil a large number of organic substances such as carbohydrates, amino acid and organic acid. 3. The water plants excrete their product in the surrounding water. 3. Some waste product are converted into harmful products such as oxalates crystals. Q37.Distinguish between excretion in Plant and animals. Ans. EXCRECTION IN PLANTS 1, There are no special organ for excretion in plants. 2. The rate of removal of waste products is low. 3. Some of the products of catabolism are utilized in metabolism by plants. 4. Excretion occurs in the form of shedding. 5. The product of excretion in plants are sugars, resin, latex, gun etc. 6. It is less efficient process. EXCRETION IN ANIMALS 1. There are special organs for excretion in animals. 2. The rate of removal of waste products is high. 3. Some of the products of the catabolism are not utilized in anabolism by animals. 4. Here shedding is not involved. 5. The products of excretion in animals are sweat, urine, carbon dioxide etc. 6. It is very efficient process.

Q.38. Write a note on kidney failure and technology for survival? Ans. Kidneys are most vital organs for survival of the organisms. They are active throughout the life, but their efficiency decline with ageing process. The kidney infection, injury or restriction blood flow to kidneys leads to kidney failure. The failure of both kidneys immediately needs medical intervention. There are two alternative of kidney failure (i) A matching kidney from a healthy person may be transplanted. (ii) An artificial kidney machine may be employed in order to get rid of metabolic waste from the blood and to maintain normal levels of water and minerals ion in the body fluids. The artificial kidney functions on the same principle as the normal kidney and the procedure is called dialysis. Renal dialysis: - The blood is pumped out of the body and made to flow into the dialysis machine. Heparin is added to the blood to prevent clotting. The blood circulates slowly through the long

17 cellulose tubes coiled in a tank filled with dialyzing solution. The cellulose membrane allows ions, very small molecules and water to diffuse through it. The blood corpuscles, platelets and protein molecules are too large and do not pass through the membrane. Finally the cleansed blood is pumped back into patient. TEXTUAL QUESTION Page no. 182 Q.1 Why is diffusion in sufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular organism like humans? Ans. Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. The have specialized cells and tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements. Q2. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive? Ans. Any visible movement such as walking, breathing or growing is generally used to decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive or not. Q.3. What are outside raw materials used for by as organism? Ans. An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials required by an organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its environment. Q4. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life? Ans. Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential for maintaining life. Page no. 188 Q1. What are differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition? Ans. The differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition are as under: Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition (i) Food is synthesized from simple inorganic (i) Food is obtained directly or indirectly raw materials such as CO2 and water. from autotrophs. This food is broken down with the help of enzymes. (ii) Presence of green pigment (chlorophyll) is (ii) No pigment is required in this type of necessary. nutrition (iii) Food is generally prepared during day (iii) Food can be prepared at all times. time. (iv) All green plants and some bacteria have (iv) All animals and fungi have this type of this type of nutrition. nutrition. Q2. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis? Ans. The following raw materials are required photosynthesis: The raw materials CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata. Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots. Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.

18 Q.3. What is role of the acid in our stomach? Ans. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium. In this acidic medium, enzymes pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which is a proteindigesting enzyme. Q.4. What is the function of digestive enzymes? Ans. Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking down of complex food particles into simple ones. These simple particles can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus transported to all the cells of the body. Q5. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food? Ans. The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood vessels are present that absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From stream, the absorbed food is delivered to each and every calls of the body.

Enlarged view of a villus Page no.192 Q1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration? Ans. Terrestrial organism takes up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen present in the water. Air contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in air is high, terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals, terrestrial animals do not have to show various adaptations for better gaseous exchange. Q.2. What are the different ways in which glucose ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organism? Ans. Glucose is first broken down in the cells cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called pyruvate. Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy. The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.

In yeast and human muscles cells, the break down of pyruvate occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of oxygen.

19 Q3. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings? Ans. Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration. The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O2 molecules that are obtained from breathing. It thus forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated. This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart. After giving away O 2 to the body cells, Blood takes away CO2 which is the end product of cellular respiration.. Now the blood becomes deoxygenated. Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2, CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved form. This de-oxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.

Transportation of O2 and CO2 in blood Q.4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of gases? Ans. The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with air during the process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs. Each lung contains 300-350 millions alveoli. These numerous alveoli increase the surface area for gaseous exchange making the process of respiration more efficient. Page no. 197 Q1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of these components? Ans. The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood and blood vessels. Heart pumps oxygen rated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2 and nitrogenous wastes. The blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) carry blood either from the heart to various organs or from various organs back to the heart. Q2. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds? Ans. Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen for more cellular respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory system is more energy to maintain their body temperature.

20 Q3. What are the components of the transport system in highly organized plants? Ans. In highly organized plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transport food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. Q4. How are water and minerals transported in plats? Ans. The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to from a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem calls of the roots. Then there is a steady movements of water if forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the rot xylem to all the plant parts through the interconnected water-conducting channels.

Components of xylem tissue Q.5 How is food transported in plants? Ans. Phloem transported food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into ht phloem tissue using ATP energy.

Page no. 199 Q.1 Describe me structure and functioning or nephrons. Ans. Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons, approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephrons are Glomerulous, Bowmans capsule, and a long renal tubule.

Functioning of a nephron: The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated with Glomerulous. The water solutes are transferred to the nephron at Bowmans capsule.

21 In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose and salts are selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine. The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where move water is absorbed. From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons. The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

Q.2 What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products? Ans. Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off. Q3. How is the amount of urine produced regularly? Ans. The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced. Page no.200 Q.1 The kidneys in human beings are apart of the system for (a) Nutrition. (b) Respiration. (c) Excretion. (d) Transpiration. Ans. (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion. Q.2. The xylem in plants are responsible for (a) Transport of water. (b) Transport of food. (c) Transport of amino acid. (d) Transport of oxygen. Ans. (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water. Q.3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires (a) Carbon dioxide and water. (b) Chlorophyll. (c) Sunlight. (d) all above the above. Ans. (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight. Q4. The breakdown mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in (a) Cytoplasm (b) Mitochondria (c) Chloroplast. (d) Nucleus. Ans. (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria. Q.5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?

22 Ans. Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes place in the small intestine. Q.6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food? Ans. Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for easy swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar. Q.7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its byproducts? Ans. Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for autotrophic nutrition. Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis. Q8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration? Ans. The difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration are as under Aerobic Respiration Aerobic respiration 1. It occurs in the presence of O2. 1. It occurs in the absence of O2. 2. It involves the exchange of gases between 2. Exchange of gases is absent. the organism and the outside environment. 3. It occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria. 3. It occurs only in cytoplasm. 4. It always releases CO2 and H2o. 4. End products vary. 5. It yields 36 ATPs. 5. It yield only 2 ATPs. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms, animal muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts. Q.9. How are the alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gasses? Ans. The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli, making it a total of approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The alveolar surface when spread out covers about 80 m2 area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.

Q10. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies? Ans. Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to th body cells for cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anemia.

23 Q.11. Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary? Ans. The human heart is divided into four chambers- the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle. Flow of blood in the heart: The heart has superior and inferior vena cave, which carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper and lower regions of the body respectively and supplies this de-oxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.

The right atrium then contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood to the right ventricle, through an auriculo-ventricular aperture. Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood into the two pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs where the blood becomes oxygenated. From the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle. The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arties that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

Schematic diagram of blood circulation in humans: Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart, this is known as double circulation. Importance of double circulation: The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very useful in warm-blooded animals such as human beings. As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, they require more O2 for more respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of the double circulatory heart. Q.12. What are the difference between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?

24 Ans. The difference between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem are as under Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem 1. Xylem tissue helps in the transport of 1. Phloem tissue helps in the transport of water and minerals. food. 2. Water is transported upwards from roots 2. Food is transported in both upward and to all other plants parts. downward direction. 3. Transport in xylem occurs with the help 3. Transport of food in phloem requires of simple physical forces such as energy in the form of ATP. transpiration pull. Q.13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to their structure and functioning. Ans. Alveoli Nephron Structure Structure (i) Alveoli are tiny balloon-like (i) Nephrons are tubular structure present structures present inside the lungs. inside the kidneys. (ii) The walls of the alveoli are one cell (ii) Nephrons are made of Glomerulous, thick and it contains an extensive Bowmans capsule and a long renal network of blood capillaries. tube. It also contains a cluster of thinwalled capillaries.

Function Function (i) The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes (i) The blood enters the kidneys through place between the blood of the the renal artery which branches into many capillaries that surround the alveoli capillaries in the Glomerulus. The water and the gases present in the alveoli. and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowmans capsule. Then the filtrate moves through the proximal tubule and then down into the loop of henle. From henles loop, filtrate passes into the distal tubule and then to the collecting duct. The collecting duct collects the urine from many nephrons and passes it to the ureter. During the flow of filtrate, some substances such as glucose, amino acids and water are selectively re-absorbed. (ii) Alveoli are the site of gaseous. (ii) Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.