Ch 4 Multiple access techniques for wireless communication Start of chapter 4.

1 Introduction Multiple access schemes allow many users to share the radio spectrum. Sharing the bandwidth efficiently among users is one of the main objectives of multiple access schemes . The variability of wireless channels presents both challenges and opportunities in designing multiple access communications systems. Multiple access strategy has an impact on robustness and interference levels generated in other cells. Therefore, multiple access schemes are designed to maintain orthogonality and reduce interference effects . 4.1.1 Need cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells where mobile units in each cell communicate with the cells base station. The goal in the design of a cellular system is to be able to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with the specifi ed blocking probability (reliability). Multiplexing deals with the division of the resources to create multiple channels.. Multiplexing can create channels in frequency, time, etc., and the corresponding terms are then frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), etc.. Multiplexing techniques aim to increase transmission efficiency by transmitting multiple signals or data streams on a single medium. The resulting increased capacity can be used either to deliver a higher data rate to a single user, or to allow multiple users to access the medium simultaneously without interference. Since the amount of spectrum available is limited, we need to find ways to allow multiple users to share the available spectrum simultaneously. Shared access is used to implement a multiple access scheme when access by many users to a channel is required. Efficient allocation of signaling dimensions between users is a key design aspect of both uplink and downlink channels, since bandwidth is usually scarce and/or very expensive. When dedicated channels are allocated to users it is often called multiple access.. Take Box R-449 4.1.2 Classification of Multiple access schemes

Multiple Access methods address the problem of how many users can share the same spectrum resources in an efficient manner. We distinguish between

Multiple access within one cell, i.e., a fixed assignment of resources in time or bandwidth to specific users Random access, i.e., a dynamic assignment of spectrum resources in time or bandwidth to users, according to their needs Frequency reuse, i.e., assignment of spectrum resources considering the location of users and the attenuation of radio signals that travel over sufficiently large distances.

Examples of multiple access schemes are Time Division Multiple Access Frequency Division Multiple Access Code Division Multiple Access

fig 4.1 The multiple access schemes can be either reservation-based or random.

Multiple access schemes can be classifi ed as reservation-based multiple access (e.g., FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) and random multiple access (e.g., ALOHA, CSMA) (see Figure 4.2) . If data traffic is continuous and a small transmission delay is required (for example in voice communication) reservation based multiple access is used. The family of reservation-based multiple access includes frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA) . In many wireless systems for voice communication, the control channel is based on random

multiple access and the communication channel is based on FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA. The reservation-based multiple access technique has a disadvantage in that once the channel is assigned, it remains idle if the user has nothing to transmit, while other users may have data waiting to be transmitted. This problem is critical when data generation is random and has a high peak-rate to average-rate ratio. In this situation, random multiple access is more efficient, because a communication channel is shared by many users and users transmit their data in a random or partially coordinated fashion. ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) are examples of random multiple access . If the data arrives in a random manner, and the data length is large, then random multiple access combined with a reservation protocol will perform better than both random- and reservation based schemes.

Figure 4.2 Multiple access schemes. 4.2 FDD and TDD In wireless communications, it is necessary to utilize limited frequency bands at the same time, allowing multiple users (MSs) to share radio channels simultaneously. The scheme that is used for this purpose is called multiple access. To provide simultaneous two-way communications (duplex communications), a forward channel (downlink) from the BS to the MS and a reverse channel (uplink) from the MS to the BS are necessary. Two types of duplex systems are utilized: 1. FDD 2. TDD Frequency division duplexing (FDD) divides the frequency used

Time division duplexing (TDD) divides the same frequency by time. FDMA mainly uses FDD, while TDMA and CDMA systems use either FDD or TDD

$ goto R-449 * * from R-450 4.3 Multiple Access Techniques and Wireless Communication In wireless communication systems it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send simultaneously information to the base station while receiving information from the base station. A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to increase the capacity of the channel i.e. to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service. There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the following: 1) Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA) 2) Time division multiple-access (TDMA) 3) Code division multiple-access (CDMA) 4) Space Division Multiple access (SDMA) FDMA,TDMA and CDMA are the three major multiple access techniques that are used to share the available bandwidth in a wireless communication system. Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users these techniques can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.

@ * * goto R-451 @@ from R-451 This was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems in which each individual user is assigned a pair of frequencies while making or receiving a call as shown in Figure 4.4.

Fig 4.4 One frequency is used for downlink and one pair for uplink. This is called frequency division duplexing (FDD). That allocated frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells during the call so as to reduce the co channel interference. Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a call is in place. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit at different times. Basic structure Figure 7.2 shows the basic structure of a FDMA system, consisting of a BS and many MSs. There is a pair of channels for the communication between the BS and the MS. The paired channels are called forward channel (downlink) and reverse channel (uplink). Different frequency bandwidths are assigned to different users. This implies that there is no frequency overlapping between the forward and reverse channels. For example, the forward and reverse channels for MS #1 are f1 and f _ 1, respectively. The radio antenna is at a much higher elevation and the MSs are shown at the same level in Figure 7.2, although these are not necessarily at the same relative height. Also, if the physical separation between the BS and MSs is drawn to scale, the MSs will become too small to be represented by a point, and all other details will be lost.

fig 4.5 % goto R-451 @+ from R-454 The structure of forward and reverse channels in FDMA is shown in Figure 7.3. A protecting bandwidth is used between the forward and reverse channels, and a guard band Wg between two adjacent channels (Figure 7.4) is used to minimize adjacent channel interference between them. The frequency bandwidth for each user is called subband Wc. If there are N channels in a FDMA system, the total bandwidth is equal to N . Wc.

fig 4.6 4.3.4 FDMA/FDD in AMPS The first U.S. analog cellular system, AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) is based on FDMA/FDD. A single user occupies a single channel while the call is in progress, and the single channel is actually two simplex channels which are frequency duplexed with a 45 MHz split. When a call is completed or when a handoff occurs the channel is vacated so that another mobile subscriber may use it. Multiple or simultaneous users are accommodated in AMPS by giving each user a unique signal.

Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to the mobile unit, and on the reverse channel from the mobile unit to the base station. In AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation (NBFM) is used to modulate the carrier.

fig 4.7 4.3.5 FDMA/TDD in CT2 Using FDMA, CT2 system splits the available bandwidth into radio channels in the assigned frequency domain. In the initial call setup, the handset scans the available channels and locks on to an unoccupied channel for the duration of the call. Using TDD(Time Division Duplexing ), the call is split into time blocks that alternate between transmitting and receiving. 4.3.6 FDMA and Near-Far Problem The near-far problem is one of detecting or filtering out a weaker signal amongst stronger signals. The near-far problem is particularly difficult in CDMA systems where transmitters share transmission frequencies and transmission time. In contrast, FDMA and TDMA systems are less vulnerable. FDMA systems offer different kinds of solutions to near-far challenge. Here, the worst case to consider is recovery of a weak signal in a frequency slot next to strong signal. Since both signals are present simultaneously as a composite at the input of a gain stage, the gain is set according to the level of the stronger signal; the weak signal could be lost in the noise floor.

4.3.7Advantages 1. Capacity can be increased by reducing the information bit rate and using an efficient digital speech coding scheme 2. Technological advances required for implementation are simple. A system can be configured so that improvements in terms of a lower bit rate speech coding could be easily incorporated. 3. Hardware simplicity, because multiple users are isolated by employing simple bandpass filters. 4.3.8 Disadvantages 1. The system architecture based on FDMA was implemented in first generation analog systems such as advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) or total access communication system (TACS). The improvement in capacity depends on operation at a reduced signal-to-interference (S/I) ratio. But the narrowband digital approach gives only limited advantages in this regard so that modest capacity improvements could be expected from the allocated spectrum. 2. The maximum bit-rate per channel is fi xed and small, inhibiting the fl exibility in bit-rate capability that may be a requirement for computer fi le transfer in some applications in the future. 3. Ineffi cient use of spectrum, in FDMA if a channel is not in use, it remains idle and cannot be used to enhance the system capacity. 4. Crosstalk arising from adjacent channel interference is produced by nonlinear effects.

4.5 Time Division Multiple Access Time division multiple access (TDMA) allows multiple users to access a single channel without interference by allocating specific time slots to each user. As shown in Figure 4.8, the time axis is divided into time slots that are assigned to users according to a slot allocation algorithm. TDMA splits a single carrier wave into several time slots and distributes the slots among multiple users.

fig 4.8

4.5.1 Basic structure of TDMA The communication channels essentially consist of many units, i.e., time slots, over a time cycle, which makes it possible for one frequency to be efficiently utilized by multiple users, given that each utilizes a different time slot (Figure 4.9 ). This system is widely used in the field of digital portable and automobile telephones and mobile satellite communication systems.

fig 4.9 A TDMA system may be in either of two modes: FDD (in which the forward/ reverse or uplink/downlink communication frequencies differ) and TDD (in which the forward/reverse communication frequencies are the same). That is, TDMA/FDD and TDMA/TDD systems may be as shown in Figures 4.10 and 4.11.

fig 4.10 and 11

A simple form of TDMA is time division duplex (TDD), where alternate transmit periods are used for uplink and downlink in a duplex communication system. TDD is used in cordless phone systems to accommodate two-way communication in a single frequency band. ?? goto R-455 $& from R-455 4.5.3 TDMA frame structure Figure 4.12 shows a frame structure of TDMA. For a TDMA system, there is guard time between the slots so that interference due to propagation delays along different paths can be minimized.

fig 4.12

$$$ goto R-455 < > from R-457 TDMA/FDD in GSM GSM is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of TDMA along with FDD. GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band. Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users can often continue to use their mobile phones when they travel to other countries. TDMA/TDD in DECT DECT is a pan European standard for the digitally enhanced cordless telephony using TDMA/TDD. DECT provides 10 FDM channels in the band 1880-1990 Mhz. Each channel supports 12 users through TDMA for a total system load of 120 users. DECT supports handover, users can roam over from cell to cell as long as they remain within the range of the system. DECT antenna can be equipped with optional spatial diversity to deal with multipath fading. 4.5.7 Advantages 1. TDMA permits a fl exible bit rate, not only for multiples of the basic single channel rate but also submultiples for low bit rate broadcast-type traffi c. 2. TDMA offers the opportunity for frame-by-frame monitoring of signal strength/bit error rates to enable either mobiles or base stations to initiate and execute handoffs.

3. TDMA, when used exclusively and not with FDMA, utilizes bandwidth more effi ciently because no frequency guard band is required between channels. 4. TDMA transmits each signal with suffi cient guard time between time slots to accommodate time inaccuracies because of clock instability, delay spread, transmission delay because of propagation distance, and the tails of signal pulse because of transient responses.

4.5.8 Disadvantages 1. For mobiles and particularly for hand-sets, TDMA on the uplink demands high peak power in transmit mode, that shortens battery life. 2. TDMA requires a substantial amount of signal processing for matched fi ltering and correlation detection for synchronizing with a time slot. 3. TDMA requires synchronization. If the time slot synchronization is lost, the channels may collide with each other. 4. One complicating feature in a TDMA system is that the propagation time for a signal from a mobile station to a base station varies with its distance to the base station.

4.6 Spread spectrum multiple access In wideband systems, the entire system bandwidth is made available to each user, and is many times larger than the bandwidth required to transmit information. Such systems are known as spread spectrum (SS) systems. Spread spectrum techniques spread information over a very large bandwidth specifically, a bandwidth that is much larger than the inverse of the data rate. Spread spectrum is a transmission technique wherein data occupy a larger bandwidth than necessary. Bandwidth spreading is accomplished before transmission through the use of a code that is independent of the transmitted data. The same code is used to demodulate the data at the receiving end. Figure 4.13 illustrates the spreading done on the data signal s(t) by the code signal c(t) resulting in the message signal to be transmitted, m(t). That is,

4.--

fig 4.13 Spread spectrum

Frequency hopping allows communicators to hop out of frequency channels with interference or to hop out of fades. To exploit this capability, error- correcting codes, appropriate interleaving, and disjoint frequency channels are nearly always used. A frequency synthesizer is required for frequency hopping systems to convert a stable reference frequency into the various frequency of hop set. &&& goto R-459 = from R-459 Frequency hopping allows communicators to hop out of frequency channels with interference or to hop out of fades. To exploit this capability, error- correcting codes, appropriate interleaving, and disjoint frequency channels are nearly always used. A frequency synthesizer is required for frequency hopping systems to convert a stable reference frequency into the various frequency of hop set. Frequency hopping communicators do not often operate in isolation. Instead, they are usually elements of a network of frequency hopping systems that create mutual multiple-access interference. This network is called a frequency-hopping multiple-access (FHMA) network. = + goto R-459

&$% from R-460 In CDMA, the same bandwidth is occupied by all the users, however they are all assigned separate codes, which differentiates them from each other (Figure 4.14 ). CDMA utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a spreading signal (which is uncorrelated to the signal and has a large bandwidth) is used to spread the narrow band message signal.

fig 4.14

fig 4.15

fig 4.16

a. Structure of a CDMA system. In a CDMA system, different spread-spectrum codes are selected and assigned to each user, and multiple users share the same frequency, as shown in Figures 4.15 and 4.16. A CDMA system is based on spectrum-spread technology, which makes it less susceptible to the noise and interference by substantially spreading over the bandwidth range of the modulated signal. In addition, because of its broadband characteristics, fading resistance can be achieved by the RAKE multipath synthesis. In a general CDMA system, received signals at the BS from a far away MS could be masked by signals from a close-by MS in the reverse channel. As a consequence, CDMA is the multiple-access system that is now attracting the most attention as a core technology for the next generation mobile communications system. A CDMA system is usually quantified by the chip rate, which is defined as the number of bits changed per second. Chip rate is usually applied to CDMA systems. Take box R-460 b. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)

There are two basic types of CDMA implementation methodologies: direct sequence (DS) and frequency hopping (FH). Since it is difficult to use FH on a practical basis unless a super-fast synthesizer is employed, DS is considered the most feasible generic method when the code is selected and assigned dynamically to each MS. This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own codeword which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the receiver must know the codeword used by the transmitter. c. CDMA/FDD in IS-95 In this standard, the frequency range is: 869-894 MHz (for Rx) and 824-849 MHz (for Tx). In such a system, there are a total of 20 channels and 798 users per channel. For each channel, the bit rate is 1.2288 Mbps. For orthogonality, it usually combines 64 Walsh-Hadamard codes and a m-sequence. d. CDMA and Self-interference Problem In CDMA, self-interference arises from the presence of delayed replicas of signal due to multipath. The delays cause the spreading sequences of the different users to lose their orthogonality, as by design they are orthogonal only at zero phase offset. Hence in despreading a given user's waveform, nonzero contributions to that user's signal arise from the transmissions of the other users in the network. This is distinct from both TDMA and FDMA, wherein for reasonable time or frequency guardbands, respectively, orthogonality of the received signals can be preserved. f. CDMA and Near-Far Problem The near-far problem is a serious one in CDMA. This problem arises from the fact that signals closer to the receiver of interest are received with smaller attenuation than are signals located further away. Therefore the strong signal from the nearby transmitter will mask the weak signal from the remote transmitter. In TDMA and FDMA, this is not a problem since mutual interference can be filtered. In CDMA, however, the near-far effect combined with imperfect orthogonality between codes (e.g. due to different time sifts), leads to substantial interference. Accurate and fast power control appears essential to ensure reliable operation of multiuser DS-CDMA systems.

Advantages of CDMA
Spread Spectrum Analysis 1.23 MHz channel vs. 30 kHz

 Each call is distinguished by a unique digital code different from others users transmitting at the same frequency band >= 10 times the capacity of analog networks Lower Power Terminals/Longer Battery Life

$& goto R-461 + => from R-461 4.6.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques The hybrid combinations of FHMA, CDMA and SSMA result in hybrid spread spectrum techniques that provide certain advantages. These hybrid techniques are explained below, a.Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA): An alternative to the CDMA technique in which the available wideband spectrum is divided into a smaller number of sub spectra with smaller bandwidths. (fig 4.17 R-462) The smaller sub channels become narrow band CDMA systems with processing gain lower than the original CDMA system. In this scheme the required bandwidth need not be contiguous and different user can be allotted different sub spectrum bandwidths depending on their requirements. The capacity of this hybrid FCDMA technique is given by the sum of the capacities of a system operating in the sub spectra. b. Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access Techniques (DS/FHMA): A direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudo random fashion is used in this technique. (fig 4.18 R-462) One of the advantages using this technique is they avoid near-far effect. However, frequency hopped CDMA systems are not adaptable to the soft handoff process since it is difficult to synchronize the frequency hopped base station receiver to the multiple hopped signals. c. Time and Code Division Multiple Access (TCDMA): In this TCDMA method different cells are allocated different spreading codes. In each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time slot. Thus at any time only one user is transmitting in each cell. When a handoff takes place the spreading code of that user is changed to the code of the new cell. TCDMA also avoids near-far effect as the number of users transmitting per cell is one. d.Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH): This technique has been adopted for the GSM standard, where the hopping sequence is predefined and the subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain frequencies which are assigned to a cell. The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of a new TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a particular channel. This technique has the advantage in severe multipath or when severe

channel interference occurs. 4.7 Space Division Multiple Access Space division multiple access (SDMA) is a technique which aims to multiply the data throughput of a wireless network by using spatial position as an additional parameter to control user access to the transmission medium.

SDMA utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to optimize the use of the frequency spectrum. A primitive form of SDMA is when the same frequency is reused in different cells in a cellular wireless network. The radiated power of each user is controlled by Space division multiple access. SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antenna. These areas may be served by the same frequency or different frequencies.

a.concept of SDMA. In SDMA, the omni-directional communication space is divided into spatially separable sectors. This is possible by having a BS use smart antennas, allowing multiple MSs to use the same channel simultaneously. The communication characterized by time slot, carrier frequency, or spreading code can be used as shown in Figure 4.19. Use of a smart antenna maximizes the antenna gain in the desired direction,

fig. 4.19 concept of SDMA. b.Basic structure of a SDMA system A simplified version of transmission using SDMA is illustrated in Figure 4.20.

fig 4.20 basic structure of a SDMA system As the BS forms different beams for each spatially separable MS on the forward and reverse channels, noise and interference for each MS and BS is minimized. This enhances the quality of the communication link significantly and increases overall system capacity. Also, by creating separate spatial channels in each cell intra-cell reuse of conventional channels can be easily exploited. Currently, this technology is still being explored and its future looks quite promising.

c. limitations However for limited co-channel interference it is required that the cells be sufficiently separated. This limits the number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits the frequency re-use factor. A more advanced approach can further

increase the capacity of the network. This technique would enable frequency re-use within the cell. In a practical cellular environment it is improbable to have just one transmitter fall within the receiver beam width. Therefore it becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques in conjunction with SDMA. Generally a second multiple access technique, such as TDMA or CDMA, is also used in combination with SDMA in order to allow multiple user access within a single spatial segment i.e. when different areas are covered by the antenna beam. 4.8 Comparison of Multiple Division Techniques SDMA is generally used in conjunction with other multiple-access schemes as there can be more than one MS in one beam. With TDMA and CDMA, different areas can be covered by the antenna beam, providing frequency reuse. when used with TDMA and FDMA, the higher CIR ratio due to smart antennas can be exploited for better frequency channel reuse. With CDMA the user can transmit less power for each link, thereby reducing MAC interference and hence supporting more users in the cell. However, there will be more intra-cell handoffs in SDMA as compared to TDMA or CDMA systems, requiring a closer watch at the network resource management. Table 4.1 shows a comparison of various multiple access schemes.

4.9 Packet radio

Packet radio access schemes break data down into packets, and each of the packets is transmitted over the medium independently. In other words, each packet is like a new user that has to fight for its own resources. This allows the transport medium to be exploited much more efficiently when the data traffic from each user is bursty, 4.9.1 Differences from TDMA and FDMA: Packet radio shows two main differences from TDMA and FDMA: 1. Each packet has to fight for its own resources, as described above. The most common methods for resource allocation are ALOHA systems, Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA), and packet reservation (polling). 2. Each packet can be routed to the RX in different ways i.e., via different relay stations. This aspect does not play a major role in cellular systems, where connection can only be to the closest BS, but it does play an important role in wireless ad hoc and sensor networks, where each wireless device can act as a relay for information originating from another wireless device. Appropriate routing is thus a very important aspect of sensor networks; { } from R-466 The commonly used random-access protocols are pure ALOHA, slotted-ALOHA, and CSMA/CD. a. Pure ALOHA In the pure ALOHA scheme, each user transmits information whenever the user has information to send. A user sends information in packets. After sending a packet, the user waits a length of time equal to the round-trip delay for an acknowledgment (ACK) of the packet from the receiver. If no ACK (i.e.NACK)is received, the packet is assumed to be lost in a collision and it is retransmitted with a randomly selected delay to avoid repeated collisions. ^ goto R-466 ^^^ from R-466 The maximum throughput occurs at traffic load R = 50% and is T =1/2e. This is about 0.184. Thus, the best channel utilization with the pure ALOHA protocol is only 18.4%. b. Slotted ALOHA In the slotted-ALOHA system, the transmission time is divided into time slots. Each time slot is made exactly equal to packet transmission time. Users are synchronized to the time slots, so that whenever a user has a packet to send, the packet is held and transmitted in the next time slot. With the synchronized time slots scheme, the interval of a possible collision for any packet is reduced to one packet time from two packet times, as in the pure ALOHA scheme. %%%% goto R-467 ### from R-467 The maximum throughput for the slotted ALOHA occurs at R = 1.0 and it is equal to 1/e or about 0.368. This implies that at the maximum throughput, 36.8% of the time slots carry successfully transmitted packets.

The best channel utilization with the slotted ALOHA protocol is 36.8% twice the pure ALOHA protocol

4.9.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) The carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) protocols have been widely used in both wired and wireless LANs. These protocols provide enhancements over the pure and slotted ALOHA protocols. The enhancements are achieved through the use of the additional capability at each user station to sense the transmissions of other user stations. The carrier sense information is used to minimize the length of collision intervals. For carrier sensing to be effective, propagation delays must be less than packet transmission times. a. Basic Principle A TX can determine (sense) whether the channel is currently occupied by another user (carrier). This knowledge can be used to increase the efficiency of a packet-switched system: if one user is transmitting, no other user is allowed to send a signal. Such a method is called CSMA. It is more efficient than ALOHA, because a TX does not disturb other users that are already on the air. The most important parameters of a CSMA system are detection delay and propagation delay. Detection delay is a relative measure for how long it takes a TX to determine whether the channel is currently occupied. It depends essentially on the hardware of the system, but also on the desired false alarm probability and the SNR. Propagation delay is the measure of how long a data packet takes to get from the MS to the BS. It can happen that at time t1, TX 1 determines that the channel is free, and thus sends off a packet. At time t2 another TX senses the channel. If t2 t1 is shorter than the time it takes data packet A to get from TX 1 to TX 2, then TX 2 determines that the channel is free, and sends off data packet B. In such a case a collision occurs. Thus detection delay and propagation delay should be much smaller than packet duration. Take box R-469 b. Implementation of Carrier Sense Multiple Access There are different methods of implementing CSMA. 1.Nonpersistent CSMA: A user station does not sense the channel continuously while it is busy. Instead, after sensing the busy condition, it waits for a randomly selected interval of time before sensing again. The algorithm works as follows: if the channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted; or if the channel is sensed busy, the user station backs off to reschedule the packet to a later time. After backing off, the channel is sensed again, and the algorithm is repeated again. 2. p-persistent CSMA: The slot length is typically selected to be the maximum propagation delay. When a station has information to transmit, it senses the channel. If the channel is found to be idle, it transmits with probability p. With probability q = 1 _ p, the user station postpones its action to the

next slot, where it senses the channel again. If that slot is idle, the station transmits with probability p or postpones again with probability q. The procedure is repeated until either the frame has been transmitted or the channel is found to be busy. If the station initially senses the channel to be busy, it simply waits one slot and applies the above procedure. 3. 1-persistent CSMA: 1-persistent CSMA is the simplest form of the p-persistent CSMA. It signifies the transmission strategy, which is to transmit with probability 1 as soon as the channel becomes idle. After sending the packet, the user station waits for an ACK, and if it is not received within a specified amount of time, the user station waits for a random amount of time, and then resumes listening to the channel. When the channel is again found to be idle, the packet is retransmitted immediately. 4. CSMA with collision detection: A node observes whether two TXs start to transmit simultaneously. If that is the case, transmission is immediately terminated. This approach is not commonly used for wireless packet radio. 5. Data Sense Multiple Access (DSMA): The downlink includes a control channel, which transmits at periodic intervals a busy/available signal that indicates the state of the channel. If a user finds the channel to be free, it can immediately send off a data packet. Note that for peer-to-peer networks, implementation of the control channel is more difficult than in a scenario with a central node (BS). [[ ]] goto R-469

& * & from R-471 b. Packet Reservation

Multiple Access

Packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) allows a variety of information sources to share the same communication channel and obtains a statistical multiplexing effect. In PRMA, time is divided into frames, each of which consists of a fixed number of time slots. For voice terminals, voice activity detection is adopted. The voice signal comprises a sequence of talk spurts. At the beginning of a talk spurt, the terminal transmits the first packet based on slotted ALOHA. Once the packet is transmitted successfully, that terminal is allowed to use the same time slots in the succeeding frames (reservation is made). The reservation is kept until the end of the talk spurt. The status reserved or unreserved of each slot is broadcast from the base station.
goto R-470