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[ SATELLITE TYPES ] Earth observation satellite: observe Earth, monitor meteorology, terrain map making, etc.

| X | Weather satellite: monitor weather/climate,

city lights, fires, effects of pollution, sand/dust storms, snow coverage, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows | X | Environmental monitoring: detect changes in vegetation (drought=current veg vs. long-term avg), sea state, ocean color, ice fields, sea surface

[ MAIN EOS ] Terra: Earths changing climate, interactions in atmosphere/land/ oceans/ radiant energy, ASTER-advanced spaceborne thermal emission and

reflection radiometer, CERES-clouds and Earths radiant energy system, MISR-multi-imaging spectroradiometer, MODIS-moderate-resolution imaging

spectroradiometer, MOPITT-measurements of pollution in the troposphere, changes of landscapes, oceans and lower atmosphere, sun-synchronous orbit | X |

AQUA: precipitation, evaporation, cycling of water, sun-synch orbit, lead of A-train, radiative energy fluxes, aerosols, vegetation cover on the land, phytoplankton

and dissolved organic matter in the oceans, air/land/water temperatures, AMSR-E-Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer, EOS-measures cloud

properties/sea surface temperature/near-surface wind speed/radiative energy flux/surface water/ice and snow, MODIS-Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer/measures cloud properties/radiative energy flux/aerosol properties/cover and land use change/fires/volcanoes, AMSU-A-Advanced

Microwave Sounding Unit/measures atmospheric temperature and humidity, AIRS-Atmospheric Infrared Sounder/measures atmospheric temperature and

humidity, land and sea surface temperatures, HSB-Humidity Sounder for Brazil/VHF band equipment measuring atmospheric humidity, CERES-Clouds and the

Earth's Radiant Energy System, Flying Models 3 and 4, measure broadband radiative energy flux | X | AURA - ozone layer, air quality, climate, sun-synch orbit, last of A-train, atmospheric chemistry, HIRDLS-High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder/measures infrared radiation

from ozone/water vapor/CFCs/

methane/nitrogen compounds, MLS-Microwave Limb Sounder/emissions from ozone/chlorine/other trace gases/and clarifies the role of water vapor in global

warming, OMI-Ozone Monitoring Instrument/uses ultraviolet and visible radiation to produce daily high-resolution maps, TES-Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer/measures tropospheric ozone in infrared wavelengths/carbon monoxide/methane/nitrogen oxides LANDSATBANDNUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 APPLICATIONS coastal water mapping, soil/vegetation discrimination, forest classification, man-made feature identification vegetation discrimination and health monitoring, man-made feature identification plant species identification, man-made feature identification soil moisture monitoring, vegetation monitoring, water body discrimination vegetation moisture content monitoring surface temperature, vegetation stress monitoring, soil moisture monitoring, cloud differentiation, volcanic monitoring mineral and rock discrimination, vegetation moisture content Wavelength Interval 0.45-0.52 m 0.52-0.60 m 0.63-0.69 m 0.76-0.90 m 1.55-1.75 m 10.40-12.50 m 2.08-2.35 m Spectral Response Blue-Green Green Red Near IR Mid-IR Thermal IR Mid-IR

[LANDSAT COLOR COMP] RGB: NRG (Red/Green/Blue-Near Infrared/Red/Green, energy), Red-Near IR(ETM+ band 4), Green-Red(ETM+ band 3), Blue-

Green(ETM+ band 2) | X | Vegetation: reflects most near infrared light, Common band combination makes vegetation appear as shades of red, vegetation

reflects a lot of near infrared light, The brighter the red, the healthier the vegetation, Soils with little or no vegetation will range from white(for sand) to greens and browns depending on moisture and organic matter content, Water will range from blue to black, Clear, deep water is dark, and sediment-laden or shallow water appears lighter, Urban areas look blue-gray, Clouds and snow are both white

[ REMOTE SENSING ] examination of object/phenomenon/event w/o having sensor directly contacting object measured, Info transferred by EMS or nuclear particles | X | Shortest longest = purple red = darkest lightest | X | gamma ray, xray, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves [ REMOTE SENSING SYSTEMS ] Passive sensors: info on reflected/emitted radiation | X | imaging radiometers-visible/NI/TI/UV regions/create image | X |

| X | atmospheric sounders: radiant energy of atmosphere-water vapor/CO2/IR/microwave, result in temp inference/humidity of atmosphere | X | Active sensors: provide own radiation on target and collect radiation reflected back | X | imaging radar: emits pulses of microwaves from radar, collects scattered for image

| X | scatterometers: microwaves/sense amounts reflected over wide field for surface wind speeds/direction, cloud content | X | radar altimeters: narrow pulse of

microwave energy/college TIME for return of pulse/for distance above surface | X | lidar altimeters: narrow pulse of laser light (visible/IR)/TIME for return of pulse

[ MULTISPECTRAL IMAGING ] simultaneous detection and measurement of photos of diff energies from one scene, both spatial and spectral, over several EMS bands | X | Visible light: 0.4-0.7 um, IR waves are longer (begin at 0.7,NIR) travel at speed of light!, Thermal IR-10.6 um | X | Solar radiation: 0.2-3.4 um,

arriving at earth is close to 0.48(green light) | X | high transmittance regions of atmosphere: atmospheric windows, IR and visible light(only areas in which satellites can get multispectral imagery | X | Natural/human-made objects: grassland, salty water, red sand, concrete structures-sunlight reflected from visible portion up to NIR, Greenhouse effect-atmosphere(CO2)absorbs IR radiation, thus trapping heat/energy, warmth

[ RADAR IMAGING ] uses microwaves that create a footprint (illuminates area), operates on radio (RF), radar pulse energy scattered, the least rough surfaces have a mirrorlike/specular manner, longer radar antenna-finer spatial resolution (use synthetic aperture radar SAR instead)

[ RADAR IMAGES ] dark areas-low backscatter(little radar energy returned) | X | bright areas-lots of backscatter(lots of energy returned)/more backscatterrougher surface | X | vegetation: moderately rough, gray, light grey | X | nautral & human-made: inclined towards system-more backscatter than inclined away

| X | urban areas-double bounce(buildings)-bright streets/open roads/highways-dark/buildings-rough surface (grey) | X | wetter-brighter, drier-dark | X | smooth body of water-flat surface-little backscatter-dark in image | X | Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-CAR) on space shuttle

[ EARTH-OBSERVING SPACECRAFT (EOS) ] environmental satellites | X | Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1): Landsat-1, Landsat-7 | X |

multispectral imagery (global)-gets 8 bands of radiation | X | radiation-sensitive charge-coupled devices (CCDs) high-res pics in visible and IR | X | July 1972,

NIR photos for agriculture, water resource evaluation, forestry, urban planning, pollution monitoring | X | Landsat-2 Jan 1975, Landsat-3 March 1978, Sesasat-1, Radarsat-1, Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCCM), Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, Laser Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS), Earth Observing-1 First weather satellite: TIROS-1-April 1, 1960 [ ORBITS ] Geocentric orbit: orbit around the planet Earth, approximately 2465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth

[ALTITUDE CLASSIFICATIONS ] Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0-2000 km(0-1240 miles) | X | Medium Earth Orbit(MEO):

AKA intermediate circular orbit Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2000 km(1240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km(22240 miles)| X | High Earth Orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35786 km(22240 miles) [ INCLINATION CLASSIFICATIONS ] Inclined orbit: orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees | X | Polar orbit: orbit that

passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution, has an inclination of(or very close to)90 degrees | X | Polar sun synchronous orbit:

nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass, useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass

[ ECCENTRICITY CLASSIFICATIONS ] Circular orbit: orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle | X | Hohmann transfer orbit: orbital

maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine impulses | X | Elliptic orbit: orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and

less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse | X | Geosynchronous transfer orbit: elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit

(LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit | X | Geostationary transfer orbit: elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth

Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit, Molniya orbit-highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4 and orbital period of half of a sidereal

day(roughly 12 hours), Such a satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet | X | Tundra orbit: highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4 and orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours), Such a satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet

[ SYNCHRONOUS CLASSIFICATIONS ] Synchronous orbit: orbit where the satellite has an orbital period equal to the average rotational period (Earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds)of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body | X | Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): orbit with an altitude of approximately 20200 km(12544.2 miles)and an orbital period equal to one-half of the average rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of

the body being orbited | X | Geosynchronous orbit (GEO): Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35786 km(22240 miles) | X | Geostationary orbit (GSO): AKA Clarke Orbit, geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero | X | Supersynchronous orbit: AKA disposal orbit, A disposal/storage orbit above GSO/GEO,

Satellites will drift west | X | Subsynchronous orbit: drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO, Satellites will drift east | X | Graveyard orbit-: AKA disposal orbit AKA junk orbit, orbit a few hundred kilometers above geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their operation | X | Areostationary orbit (ASO):

circular areosynchronous orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557 miles) above the surface, To an observer on the ground this satellite would

appear as a fixed point in the sky | X | Heliosynchronous orbit: An heliocentric orbit about the Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation, These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm (0,1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than half of the orbital radius of Mercury |

[ SPECIAL CLASSIFICATIONS ] Sun-synchronous orbit: orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets' surface at the same local solar time, Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging/spy/ weather satellites | X | Moon orbit-orbital characteristics of earth's moon, Average altitude of 384403 kilometres(238857 mi), elliptical-inclined orbit [ GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM ] Familiar Latitude and Longitude | X | Latitude: 0-90 degrees north and south of Equator, distance per degree is constant globally | X | Longitude: 0-180 degrees east and west of Prime Meridian, distance per degree is NOT constant globally

[ UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR ] (UTM), Distances in METERS north of Equator and north of South Pole/Southern Hemisphere starts at 10,000,000 m | X | Distances in METERS east of false baseline, 500,000 m EASTING at center of ZONE | X | 60 Zones worldwide, each 6-degrees wide | X | Right-angle system allows direct computation of distances in zone

[ BIOMES ] "the world's major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of

organisms to that particular environment /human activities have drastically altered these communities | X | 6 major BIOME types: Freshwater Marine Desert Forests Grassland Tundra

Forests are important as they are home to the most diverse biotic communties in the world. Hidden within these biomes are potential medicines and many thousands of unseen and undiscovered species. Also, forests have a global climate-buffering capacity, so their

destruction may cause large-scale changes in global climate.Logging has depleted many old-growth temperate forests. The increased demand for homes, paper, and other wood products have not allowed for much conservation. More recently, people have begun to realize that

logging has cleared much of these forests. Wiser use of the forests and efforts to replant trees have helped to slow down the depletion of

these communities.Tropical forests have fallen victim to timber exploitation, slash and burn farming, and clearfelling for industrial use or cattle

ranching, particularly in Latin America. Our increasing demand for meat products has spurred these events. For years, this destruction was

occuring at a rapid rate. Over half of the world's original tropical forests are already gone. Public attention to this exploitation have helped to alleviate the problem somewhat, though many challenges are still to be faced. | X | A regular progression of species replacement is called a BIOME

[ FOREST BIOME ]About 420 million years ago, during the Silurian Period, ancient plants and arthropods began to occupy the land. Over the

millions of years that followed, these land colonizers developed and adapted to their new habitat. The first forests were dominated by giant horsetails, club mosses, and ferns that stood up to 40 feet tall. Life on Earth continued to evolve, and in the late Paleozoic, gymnosperms appeared. By the Triassic Period (245-208 mya), gymnosperms

dominated the Earth's forests. In the Cretaceous Period (144-65m mya), the first flowering plants (angiosperms) appeared. They evolved

together with insects, birds, and mammals and radiated rapidly, dominating the landscape by the end of the Period. The landscape changed again during the Pleistocene Ice Ages the surface of the planet that had been dominated by tropical forests for millions of years changed, and temperate forests spread in the Northern Hemisphere.

Today, forests occupy approximately one-third of Earth's land area, account for over two-thirds of the leaf area of land plants, and contain

about 70% of carbon present in living things. They have been held in reverence in folklore and worshipped in ancient religions. However, forests are becoming major casualties of civilization as human populations have increased over the past several thousand years, bringing deforestation, pollution, and industrial usage problems to this important biome. Present-day forest biomes, biological communities that are dominated by trees and other woody vegetation (Spurr and Barnes 1980), can be

classified according to numerous characteristics, with seasonality being the most widely used. Distinct forest types also occur within each of these broad groups.

[ TROPICAL FOREST ]Tropical forests are characterized by the greatest diversity of species. They occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes 23.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees S. One of the major characteristics of tropical forests is their distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry). The length of daylight is 12 hours and varies little. * Temperature is on average 20-25 C and varies little throughout the year: the average temperatures of the three warmest and three coldest months do not differ by more than 5 degrees. * Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, with annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm. * Soil is nutrient-poor and acidic. Decomposition is rapid and soils are subject to heavy leaching. * Canopy in tropical forests is multilayered and continuous, allowing little light penetration. * Flora is highly diverse: one square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different tree species. Trees are 25-35 m tall, with buttressed

trunks and shallow roots, mostly evergreen, with large dark green leaves. Plants such as orchids, bromeliads, vines (lianas), ferns, mosses, and palms are present in tropical forests. * Fauna include numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects. Further subdivisions of this group are determined by seasonal distribution of rainfall: * evergreen rainforest: no dry season. * seasonal rainforest: short dry period in a very wet tropical region (the forest exhibits definite seasonal changes as trees undergo developmental changes simultaneously, but the general character of vegetation remains the same as in evergreen rainforests). * semievergreen forest: longer dry season (the upper tree story consists of deciduous trees, while the lower story is still evergreen).

* moist/dry deciduous forest (monsoon): the length of the dry season increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous). More than one half of tropical forests have already been destroyed.

[ TEMPERATE FOREST ]Temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Well-defined

seasons with a distinct winter characterize this forest biome. Moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months distinguish temperate forests. * Temperature varies from -30 C to 30 C. * Precipitation (75-150 cm) is distributed evenly throughout the year. * Soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter. * Canopy is moderately dense and allows light to penetrate, resulting in well-developed and richly diversified understory vegetation and stratification of animals. * Flora is characterized by 3-4 tree species per square kilometer. Trees are distinguished by broad leaves that are lost annually and include such species as oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and spring-flowering herbs. * Fauna is represented by squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear. Further subdivisions of this group are determined by seasonal distribution of rainfall: * moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved forests: wet winters and dry summers (rainfall is concentrated in the winter months and winters are relatively mild). * dry conifer forests: dominate higher elevation zones; low precipitation. * mediterranean forests: precipitation is concentrated in winter, less than 1000 mm per year. * temperate coniferous: mild winters, high annual precipitation (greater than 2000 mm). * temperate broad-leaved rainforests: mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation (more than 1500 mm) evenly distributed throughout the year. Only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain.

[BOREAL FOREST]Boreal forests, or taiga, represent the largest terrestial biome. Occuring between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes,

boreal forests can be found in the broad belt of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. The length of the growing season in boreal forests is 130 days. * Temperatures are very low. * Precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm annually. * Soil is thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic. * Canopy permits low light penetration, and as a result, understory is limited. * Flora consist mostly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir, and spruce. * Fauna include woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats. Current extensive logging in boreal forests may soon cause their disappearance. [ FOREST FIRES/REGROWTH ] The four major natural causes of wildfire ignitions are lightning, volcanic eruption, sparks from rockfalls, and

spontaneous combustion. Many wildfires are attributed to human sources such as arson, discarded cigarettes, sparks from equipment, and power line arcs

The heat from the burning trees pops open the cones on those trees, releasing seeds that have been waiting to get loose for years. Millions of those seeds were dumped on the forest floor and within less than a month, a fraction of those seeds to germinate, pop through the soil and start growing into little seedlings. Fire is a natural part of the forests regeneration system. Most forest trees need to be exposed to fire every 50 to 100 years to invigorate new growth. As we found out in Yellowstone National Park nearly 20 years ago, suppressing forest fires too long can actually be detrimental to forests. But the power of the fire is just the first step in forest regrowth. Weather patterns in the affected area over the nest year will play a big role in how the new forests develop. A summer of drought could kill the newly released seeds and shortcircuit any new growth. That could give new species of trees a chance to grow in the area. Normal rains mixed with the nutrients left on the ground from the fire could be a great booster shot to getting the seeds off to a flying start. Other natural benefits can be seen from fires. For

instance, the once-rare black-backed woodpecker is now a regular site in the BWCA with the abundance of dead trees from recent smaller fires and the 1999 wind blow down of trees. New shrubs and ground vegetation is appealing to different kinds of wildlife to snack on.

[ DESERTIFICATION ] Desertification is the extreme deterioration of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas due to loss of vegetation and soil

moisture; desertification results chiefly from man-made activities and influenced by climatic variations. It is principally caused by overgrazing,

over-cultivation, increased fire frequency, water impoundment, deforestation, overdrafting of groundwater(diversion of water from rivers for

human consumption and industrial use), increased soil salinity, and global climate change., all of these processes fundamentally driven by overpopulation. A major impact of desertification is biodiversity loss and loss of productive capacity, for example, by transition from land dominated by shrublands to non-native grasslands.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING ] Timber harvest has short and long-term effects on your farm and the surrounding landscape; the subsequent land

use may have even greater impacts. Forest harvest can affect soil, vegetation, watershed characteristics, wildlife habitat, aesthetics and economics. Impacts can include: elimination of species (vegetation or wildlife species), and damage to the soil and water system. Logging

might affect the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of soils which in turn may have long term consequences for the soils productivity, nutrient regime and capability.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/SOIL ]Some of the negative impacts of harvesting on soil include: Wind erosion, Soil compaction, Rutting, Puddling.

Vegetative cover, including crop residue, is particularly important in reducing wind erosion. It anchors the soil, increases surface roughness, reduces wind speed, conserves soil moisture and adds organic matter which helps bind the soil particles into aggregates. Soil compaction is

the process of increasing soil density by packing the particles closer together and reducing pore space. Soil compaction can reduce and

disrupt soil porosity, and decrease water and air movement into and through the soil. The result is poor soil aeration, poor root penetration, limited water movement and reduced activity of soil organisms involved in nutrient cycling. Soil compaction can also increase surface water

runoff which may lead to soil erosion and increased sedimentation in watershed. Rutting is the creation of depressions by forest equipment.

Rutting usually occurs under wet conditions when the soil strength is not sufficient to support pressure from equipment. Rutting can effect the

surface hydrology, reduce aeration, reduce water infiltration, reduce root penetration, and dam surface water flows which can increase soil

saturation and create soil erosion Puddling is a physical change in soil properties due to shearing forces that alter soil structure and porosity. Puddling occurs when the soil is at or near the liquid limit. Wet, fine-textured soils are more susceptible to puddling than coarse soils.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/WATERSHED ] The negative impact of logging on watersheds include: runoff and gully erosion, in-field-water

erosion, sedimentation of streams, and changing watertable depth. Gully erosion and other runoff-related problems such as flooding can occur when surface runoff from rainfall or snowmelt becomes extreme. On forested land, the potential for such problems is low. The trees intercept

rain and dissipate rainfall energy, reducing the volume and energy of rain reaching the forest floor. Water on the forest floor moves within the

litter cover layer which slows water movement. This allows more water to infiltrate the soil, leaving less water to contribute to surface runoff. On cleared land, however, watersheds of only a few hundred acres can generate sufficient runoff to wash out culverts or flood low lying land and to form gullies too large to repair with farm equipment.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/INFIELD WATER EROSION ] In-field water erosion refers to soil removal by raindrops hitting the ground and runoff flowing as sheet flow or in small rills.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/STREAMS ] Tree roots help stabilize stream banks, and tree shade helps reduce algae growth in streams in some

cases. Streamside vegetation also traps sediments before they reach the stream and absorbs nitrates from groundwater. Clearing trees removes these benefits.Stream banks can also be damaged by equipment or livestock trampling, resulting in reduced water quality and increased sedimentation. In extreme cases, stream banks may be destroyed, and the diverted stream flow can cause flooding and

sedimentation in new locations.Trees left standing after selective harvesting are susceptible to windthrow. Excessive windthrow next to streams can reduce bank stability and increase sedimentation.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/WATERTABLES ] Trees act as living pumps that draw moisture out of the soil and release it into the atmosphere. At the same time, tree shade and shelter may prevent excessive evaporation from dry sites. Depending on topography, soil and availability of

water, clearing trees can have one or more of the following effects on watertables and associated site conditions: waterlogged soils that are

difficult to reforest or crop, reduced soil moisture and drying of existing wetlands, fluctuating watertables causing increased soil salinity or changes in soil pH, or problems with water quantity or quality in existing dugouts, springs or wells.

[ TIMBER HARVESTING/WILDLIFE ] Wildlife needs food, water, shelter and cover to hide in. Adequate wildlife habitat must contain all these

components. Although clearing may benefit some species, generally forested land provides habitat for more species than pastureland, and pastureland provides habitat for more species than cultivated land. Impacts on wildlife habitat from timber harvesting depend on the habitat

needs, characteristics and population of wildlife species in the area. It One type of habitat may be excellent for one species but not for another. Many wildlife species are very adaptable to forest changes while others have great difficulty adapting to changes.

[ DISEASE DAMAGE ] forest fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens have caused damage by reducing growth rates, tree vigour or have caused tree mortality. Only the outer perimeter of the damage events are generally mapped e.g. no distinction between smaller areas within that were unaffected. Examples of forest diseases include White Pine Blister Rust, Armillaria Root Rot etc.

[ INSECT DAMAGE ] Foliage feeding, bark beetles, fhloem boring, wood boring, sapsucking insects/mites, gall makers | X | produce large quantities of a sticky exudate known as honeydew, which often turns black with the growth of a sooty mold fungus. Some aphid species inject

a toxin into plants, which further distorts growth | X | The adult insects lays eggs in an opening in the bark. The larvae then bore large galleries deep into the wood. These "feeding" galleries disrupt the vascular functioning of the tree and eventually weaken the tree to the point that the tree literally falls apart and dies.

[ LAND USE ] Land use is the human modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and

settlements. The major effect of land use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant

effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization, and desertification. Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. [ LAND USE CHANGE/CLIMATE ] Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) is"A greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use, land-use change and forestry activities." LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon)

from the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Additionally, land use is of critical importance for biodiversity. Land-use change can be a factor in CO2 atmospheric

concentration, and is thus a contributor to climate change. IPCC estimates that land-use change (e.g. conversion of forest into agricultural

land) contributes a net 1.6 0.8 Gt carbon per year to the atmosphere. For comparison, the major source of CO2, namely emissions from

fossil fuel combustion and cement production amount to 6.3 0.6 Gt carbon per year. The IPCC also states that from 1850 to 1998, about 136

(+ 55) Gt carbon has been emitted as a result of land-use change, predominantly from forest ecosystems. For comparison, 270 (+ 30) Gt carbon has been emitted as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning and cement production.

[ LAND USE CHANGE/BIODIVERSITY ] The extent, and type of land use directly affects wildlife habitat and thereby impacts local and global

biodiversity. Human alteration of landscapes from natural vegetation (e.g. wilderness) to any other use typically results in habitat loss,

degradation, and fragmentation, all of which can have devastating effects on biodiversity. Land conversion is the single greatest cause of extinction of terrestrial species. Of particular concern is deforestation, where logging or burning are followed by the conversion of the land to

agriculture or other land uses. Even if some forests are left standing, the resulting fragmented landscape typically fails to support many species that previously existed there. [ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT OF HUMANS ] Within 50 years, 50-90% of the world's land area may be impacted significantly by human

activities. This will most likely result in a substantial increase in environmental problems related to habitats, biodiversity, food production, fresh water resources and health.

[ STATE OF ECOSYSTEMS, HABITATS AND SPECIES ] In the past, human interaction with nature, although often having a disruptive effect

on nature, often also enriched the quality and variety of the living world and its habitats - e.g. through the creation of artificial landscapes and soil cultivation by local farmers. Today, however, human pressure on natural environments is greater than before in terms of magnitude and efficiency in disrupting nature and natural landscapes, most notably:

* intensive agriculture replacing traditional farming; this combined with the subsidies of industrial farming has had an enormous effect on western rural landscapes and continues to be a threat. * mass tourism affecting mountains and coasts. * the policies pursued in the industry, transport and energy sectors having a direct and damaging impact on the coasts, major rivers (dam construction and associated canal building) and mountain landscapes (main road networks).

* the strong focus of forestry management on economic targets primarily causes the decline in biodiversity, soil erosion and other related effects. The clearest manifestations of the degradation of the natural environment are: * Reduction and fragmentation of habitats and landscapes

The expansion of humans activities into the natural environment, manifested by urbanisation, recreation, industrialisation, and agriculture,

results in increasing uniformity in landscapes and consequential reduction, disappearance, fragmentation or isolation of habitats and

landscapes.It is evident that the increasing exploitation of land for human use greatly reduces the area of each wildlife habitat as well as the total area surface throughout Europe. The consequences are: o A decreased species diversity, due to reduced habitable surface area which corresponds to a reduced "species carrying capacity".

o The reduction of the size of habitats also reduces the genetic diversity of the species living there. Smaller habitats can only accommodate smaller populations, this results in an impoverished gene pool.

o The reduction of genetic resources of a species diminishes its flexibility and evolutionary adaptability to changing situations. This has significant negative impacts on its survival. The conditions under which the reduction of habitats often occur prevent living organisms making use of their normal ways to flee their

threatened habitat. Those escape routes include migration to other habitats, adaption to the changing environment, or genetic interchange with populations in nearby habitats. Of particular concern is:

o The abrupt nature of human intervention; human projects are planned and implemented on a much shorter time scale than natural processes; o Furthermore human intervention, such as the construction of buildings, motorways or railways results in the fragmentation of habitats, which strongly limits the possibility for contact or migration among them;

o In extreme cases even the smallest, narrowest connections between habitats are broken off. Such isolation is catastrophic for life in the habitat fragments.

[ LOSS OF SPECIES OF FAUNA AND FLORA ] Although relatively few species of Europe's fauna and flora have actually become totally

extinct during this century, the continent's biodiversity is affected by decreasing species numbers and the loss of habitats in many regions. Approximately 30 % of the vertebrates and 20 % of the higher plants are classified as "threatened". Threats are directly linked to the loss of

habitats due to destruction, modification and fragmentation of ecosystems as well as from overuse of pesticides and herbicides, intensive

farming methods, hunting and general human disturbance. The overall deterioration of Europe's air and water quality add to the detrimental influence.

[ AGRICULTURE ] Europe's natural environment is inextricably linked with agriculture and forestry. Since agriculture traditionally depends on

sound environmental conditions, farmers have a special interest in the maintenance of natural resources and for centuries maintained a mosaic of landscapes which protected and enriched the natural environment.As a result of needs for food production since the 1940s, policies

have encouraged increased pro- duction through a variety of mechanisms, including price support, other subsidies and support for research

and development. The success achieved in agricultural production has however entailed increased impact on the environment.Modern agriculture is responsible for the loss of much wildlife and their habitats in Europe, through reduction and fragmentation of habitats and wildlife

populations. The drainage of wetlands, the destruction of hedgerows and the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides can all pose a threat to

wildlife. Highly specialised monocultures are causing significant loss in species abundance and diversity. On the other hand increased production per hectare in intensive areas, raising of livestock volume, and lower prices for agricultural products also caused marginalization of

agricultural land, changing the diversity of European landscapes into the direction of two main types: Intensive Agriculture and Abandoned land.

[ ENERGY ] Abandonment can be positive for nature, but this is not necessarily so. Land abandonment increases the risk of fire in the Mediterranean Region, causes a decline of small-scale landscape diversity and can also cause decrease in species diversity. All energy types have potential impacts on the natural environment to varying degrees at all stages of use, from extraction through processing to end use.

Generating energy from any source involves making the choices between impacts and how far those impacts can be tolerated at the local and

global scale. This is especially of importance for nuclear power, where there are significant risks of radioactive pollution such as at Chernobyl.

Shell Oil Company and IUCN have jointly drafted environmental regulations for oil-exploitation in Arctic areas of Siberia. Other oil companies

are aware of this and use these environmental regulations voluntarily for developing oil fields. Into the future the sustainability of the natural

environment will be improved as trends away from damaging energy uses and extractive methods reduce and whilst real cost market forces and the polluter pays principle take effect. [ FORESTRY ] Compared to other landuses, forest management has the longest tradition in following sustainable principles due to which over 30% of Europe is still covered with trees. Without such an organised approach, forests are likely to have already disappeared from Europe's

lowlands. However, as an economic sector, forestry has also impacted severely on the naturalness of Europe's forests: soils have been drained, pesticides and fertilizers applied, and exotic species planted. In many areas monocultures have replaced the original diverse forest

composition. Monocultures are extremely sensitive to insect infestations, fires or wind, and so can lead to financial losses as well as biological decline. The inadequate afforestation practices characterize new trends in impacting on the sustainability of the natural environment.

[ INDUSTRY ] Almost all forms of industry have an impact on the natural environment and its sustainability. The impact varies at different stages in the life cycle of a product, depending upon the raw materials used through to the final end use of the product for waste residue, reuse or recycling. Industrial accidents and war damage to industrial plants can also endanger the natural environment.

[ TOURISM AND RECREATION ]Tourism and recreation impact in various ways on the natural environment. On the one hand, natural areas

form the very basis of many touristic attractions by highlighting scenic value or exceptional encounters with fauna and flora. However, some

forms of tourism can be extremely detrimental to ecologically sensitive areas, resulting in habitat degeneration or destruction, in the

disturbance or hunting even rare or threatened species. The pressure from short holiday seasons and specific, sometimes small, locations of touristic interest result in conflicting land-uses, such as in the Alpine regions, at Mediterranean beaches and along many banks of inland waters.

[ TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE ] Transport is perhaps the major contributor to pollution in the world today, particularly global

environmental issues such as the greenhouse effect. The key impacts of transportation include fragmentation of habitats and species and

genetic populations, disruption of migration and traffic mortalities to wildlife. Since the 1970s transport has become a major consumer of nonrenewable resources, 80% of oil consumption coming from road transport.

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