Module E (4) : CNC System - Electrical Components

( 2 ) Encoders An encoder is a device used to change a signal or data into a code. These encoders are used in metrology instruments and high precision machining tools ranging from digital calipers to CNC machine tools. ( 2.1) Incremental encoders With incremental linear encoders, the current position is determined by stating a datum and counting measuring steps. The output signals of incremental rotary encoders are evaluated by an electronic counter in which the measured value is determined by counting "increments". These encoders form the majority of all rotary encoders. Incremental rotary encoders with integral couplings used for length measurement are also in the market. The resolution of these encoders can be increased by means of electronic interpolation. There are, of course, the precision rotary encoders specifically designed for angle measurement. If finer resolution is required, standard rotary encoders often utilize electronic signal interpolation. Rotary encoders for applications in dividing heads and rotary tables, with very small measuring steps (down to 0.36 arc second) have in principle the same basic design features as standard rotary encoders, but incorporate some overall varying construction.

Figure 24.2 Rotary encoders

( 2.2 ) Absolute encoders Absolute linear encoders require no previous transfer to provide the current position value. Absolute rotary encoders provide an angular position value which is derived from the pattern of the coded disc. The code signal is processed within a computer or in a numerical control. After system switch-on, such as following a power interruption, the position value is immediately available. Since these encoder types require more sophisticated optics and electronics than incremental versions, a higher price is normally to be expected. Apart from these two codes, a range of other codes have been employed, though they are losing their significance since modern computer programs usually are based on the binary system for reasons of high speed. There are many versions of absolute encoders available today, such as single-turn

or multi-stage versions to name only two, and each must be evaluated based on its intended application. ( 2.3 ) Rotary and Linear encoders A linear encoder is a sensor, transducer paired with a scale that encodes position. The sensor reads the scale in order to convert the encoded position by a digital readout (DRO). Linear encoder technologies include capacitive, inductive, eddy current, magnetic and optical. A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device used to convert the angular position of a shaft to a digital code, making it a sort of a transducer. Rotary encoders serve as measuring sensors for rotary motion, and for linear motion when used in conjunction with mechanical measuring standards such as lead screws. There are two main types: absolute and relative rotary encoders. Incremental rotary encoder uses a disc attached to a shaft. The disc has several radial lines. An optical switch, such as a photodiode, generates an electric pulse whenever one of the lines passes through its field of view. An electronic control circuit counts the pulses to determine the angle through which the shaft has turned. As the present trend of machine tools evolves toward increasingly higher accuracy and resolution, increased reliability and speeds, and more efficient working ranges, so too must feedback systems. Currently, linear feedback systems are available that will achieve resolutions in the submicron range.

Figure 24.3: Exposed and sealed linear encoders

Submicron resolutions, for example, are required in the semiconductor industry and in ultra-precision machining. Achieving these resolutions is possible with the use of linear scales which transmit displacement information directly to a digital readout. As in rotary, linear scales operate on the same photoelectric scanning principle, but the linear scales are comprised in an overall straight construction, and their output signals are interpolated or digitized differently in a direct manner. One of these signals is always used by the accompanying digital readout or numerical control to determine and establish home position on the linear machine axis in case of a power interruption or for workpiece referencing. Overall, there are two physical versions of a linear scale: exposed or enclosed as shown in the figure 24.3. With an enclosed or "sealed" scale, the scanning unit is mounted on a small carriage guided by ball bearings along the glass scale; the carriage is connected to the machine slide by a backlash-free coupling that compensates for alignment errors between the scale and the machine tool guide ways. A set of sealing lips protects the scale from contamination. The typical applications for the enclosed

linear encoders are primarily machine tools. Exposed linear encoders also consist of a glass scale and scanning unit, but the two components are physically separated. The typical advantages of the noncontact system are easier mounting and higher traversing speeds since no contact or friction between the scanning unit and scale exists. Exposed linear scales can be found in coordinate measuring machines, translation stages, and material handling equipment. Another version of the scale and scanning unit arrangement is one that uses a metal base rather than glass for the scale. With a metal scale, the line grating is a deposit of highly reflective material such as gold that reflects light back to the scanning unit onto the photovoltaic cells. The advantage of this type of scale is that it can be manufactured in extremely great lengths, up to 30 meters, for larger machines. Glass scales are limited in length, typically three meters. There are several mechanical considerations that need to be understood when discussing linear encoders. It is not a simple matter to select an encoder based just on length or dimensional profile and install the encoder onto a machine. These characteristic considerations include permissible traversing speeds, accuracy and resolution requirements, thermal behaviour and mounting guidelines.

Figure 24.4: Principle of rotary and linear encoders

( 3 ) CNC Controller There are two types of CNC controllers, namely closed loop and open loop controllers. These have been discussed in details in section 22.2. ( 3.1 ) Controller Architecture: Most of the CNC machine tools were built around proprietary architecture and could not be changed or updated without an expensive company upgrade. This method of protecting their market share worked well for many years when the control technology enjoyed a four-to-five year life cycle. Now a day the controller life cycle is only eight-to-twelve months. So CNC manufacturers are forced to find better and less expensive ways of upgrading their controllers. Open architecture is the less costly than the alternatives. GE Fanuc and other manufacturers introduced control architecture with PC connectivity to allow users to take advantage of the new information technologies that were slowly gaining acceptance on the shop floor. They created an open platform that could easily communicate with other devices over commercially available MS Windows operating system, while maintaining the performance and reliability of the CNC machine tool.