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Inc.
Giaphical and Mechanical Computation An aid in the solution of a large number of problems which the engineer, as well as the student of engineering, meets xiv + 259 pages, 6 by 9, 207 figures, in his work,
.
2 charts.
Also published in two parts. 119 pages, 6 by 9, Part I. Alignment Charts, xiv 130 figures, 2 charts. Cloth, net $2.00. 140 pages, 6 by 9. Part II. Experimental Data, xiv 77 figures. Cloth, net $2.00.
+ +
By HUDSON, LIPKA,
The Engineers' Manual
Howard B. Luther, S.B., Dipl. Ing., and Dean Peabody, SB., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, iv + 315 pages. 5 by 7M- 227 figures. Flexible " Fabrikoid
Jr.,
bincung, net $2.75. A consolidation of the more commonly used formulas of engineering, each arranged with a statement of its application.
LIPKA
S.B.,
132 pages.
by 7H-
95 figures.
"Fabrikoid" binding, net $1.50. A collection of mathematical tables and formulas covering the subjects most generally used by engineers and by students of mathematics, and arranged for quick reference.
Table
of Integrals
Ph.D.
Professors Ralph G. Hudson, S.B., and Joseph Lipka, Contains a Table of Derivatives, Table of Integrals,Natural Logarithms, Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions. 24 pages. 5 by 7%. Paper, net 20 cents.
By
COMPUTATION
PART
I.
ALIGNMENT CHARTS
BY
JOSEPH LIPKA,
Institute of
Ph.D.
Technology
NEW YORK
SONS,
Inc.
Limited
COPYEIGHT, I918,
BY
JOSEPH LIPKA
ISI
L7
192/
pi.
I
If.
PREFACE
This book embodies a course given by the writer for a number of
years in the Mathematical Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute It is designed as an aid in the solution of a large numof Technology.
meets
in his
work.
In the opening chapter, the construction of scales naturally leads to discussion of the principles upon which the construction of various a The second chapter develops the principles of a slide rules is based.
network of
of coordinate paper
showing their application to the use of various kinds and to the charting of equations in three variables. Engineers have recognized for a long time the value of graphical
scales,
Among
none are so rapidly constructed nor so easily read as the charts of the alignment or nomographic type a type which has been most fully developed by Professor M. d'Ocagne of Paris. Chapters III, IV, and V aim to give a systematic development of the construction of alignment charts; the methods are fully illustrated by charts for a large number It is the writer's hope that the of well-known engineering formulas. simple mathematical treatment employed in these chapters will serve to make the engineering profession more widely acquainted with this time
device.
formulas in the engineering sciences are empirical, and the value of many scientific and technical investigations is enhanced by the discovery pi the laws connecting the results. Chapter VI is concerned
Many
with the
fitting of
the case where the data are periodic, as in alternating currents and voltages, sound waves, etc., and gives numerical, graphical, and mechanical
methods
When
these data
may
and integration, by the numerical, graphical, and mechanical methods developed in the last two chapters. Numerous illustrative examples are worked throughout the text, and a large number of exercises for the student is given at the end of each chapter. The additional charts at the back of the book will serve
computation,
differentiation,
interpolation,
still
be
efficiently
IV
PREFACE
Bibliographical
the
Institute of Technology,
publications.
He owes
Mathematical Laboratory
to
Edinburgh. He is especially indebted to Capt. H. M. Brayton, U. S. A., a former student, for his valuable suggestions and for his untiring efforts in designing a large number of the alignment charts. Above all he is most grateful to his wife for her assistance in the revision of the manuscript and the reading of the proof, and for her constant encouragement which has greatly lightened the labor of writing the book.
Professor E. T. Whittaker of the University of
JOSEPH LIPKA.
Cambridge, Mass.,
Oct. 13, 1918.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Art.
1
.
I.
2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7.
2 5
-.
Stationary scales
Sliding scales
8.
on the logarithmic
slide rule
11
13
9.
10.
Curved
slide rules
15 16 18
Exercises
CHAPTER
n.
NETWORK OF
11.
SCALES.
Some
16.
Logarithmic coordinate paper Semilogarithmic coordinate paper the solution of algebraic equations of the Rectangular coordinate paper 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degrees Representation of a relation between three variables by means of perpen-
22
24
26
28-
"
dicular scales
Charts for multiplication and division Representing curves are straight lines 18. Three- variable charts. 19. Rectangular chart for the solution of cubic equations Representing curves are not straight lines 20. Three- variable charts.
1 7.
30
32
35 37
21
Use
of three indices.
Hexagonal charts
40
42
Exercises
CHAPTER
22.
III.
principle
44
h{w)
or fi{u)
fi^v)
=/s(w) Three
45-54
and division
V
45 47
VI
Art.
25.
26. 27.
CONTENTS
Pack
Combination chart
48 50 52
Equation of form
hiu)
Four or more
+Mv) +Mw)+'
=/,(/)
or /i() -f,iv)
-Mw)
=Mt)
55-63
55 56
parallel scales
Chart for equation (II) 29. Chezy formula for the velocity of flow of water in open channels 30. Hazen-Williams formula for the velocity of flow of water in pipes 31. Indicated horsepower of a steam engine
28.
57
61
Exercises
64
CHAPTER
IV.
(Continued).
of form/i()
= fiiv) Mw)
or },{u)
= /2(t;)A^"
<
Z chart.
65-67
65 66
S.
standard threads
fTT
lines
68-75
68 6g 70
71
34. 35.
Chart for equation (IV) Prony brake or electric dynamometer formula 36. Deflection of beam fixed at ends and loaded at center 37. Deflection of beams under various methods of loading and supporting 38. Specific speed of turbine and water wheel
(V) Equation of form /i()
73
inter-
Two or more
76-87
76
in pipes
40.
Chart for equation (V) Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft 41. D'Arcy's formula for the flow of steam 42. Distributed load on a wooden beam
39.
77 79 80
43. 44.
Combination chart
for six
beam
deflection formulas
General considerations
(VI)
84 87
87-91
45.
46. 47. 48.
Weight of gas flowing through an orifice Armature or field winding from tests
87 89 90
91
:
Lame
form
or
M^) Mv)
91-95
91
49. Chart for equation (VH) 50. Friction loss in flow of water
Exercises
94 95
CONTENTS
VU
CHAPTER
Art.
V.
(Continued).
Page
777
Parallel
or perpendicular
97-104
97 99
loi lOl
Moment
of inertia of cylinder
fi(u) '^f2{v)
Mw)
'
"^
'
'
/4(g)
104-106
104 106
Chart
curved
106-1 13
Chart for equation (X) Storm water run-off' formula 59. Francis formula for a contracted weir
57. 58.
106
107
60.
The
solution of cubic
no no
114-117
ii4
Combined methods
,-1
-re
/i()
for equation of
tt^
fz{w)
<
= /4(g)
114
form fi{u)
/4(g)
+U{v)
r ,
fsiw)
<
14
115 1^5
65. 66.
t^^ Mu)
+ vtx = Mv)
67.
Chart for equation of form/i(M) /2(g) +M^) ' M"^) = M"^) Chart for equation of form/i (u) /2(g) +Mi^) /(') = Mi) +M''^)
Exercises
116
1
17 117
118
CHAPTER
VI.
Experimental data
(I)
120
The
straight line
122-127
bx a 122
69. 70.
The The
straight line, y
straight line, y
= =
+ bx
125
Vlll
CONTENTS
(II)
AxT.
Pagb 128-139
128
131
is
Simple parabolic and hyperbolic curves, y = c** Simple exponential curves, y = ai'' hx^ (where n 73. Parabolic or hyperbolic curve, >" = a % X or - = a bx 74. Hyperbolic curve, y =
71.
72.
known)
135 137
(III)
140-152
75. 76.
77.
The parabolic or hyperbolic curve, y = The exponential curve, y = a^^ -\- c The parabola, y = a \- hx \- cx^ The hyperbola,
y =
X -7
Y
c
+c
140 14J
145
149
78.
79.
The
-\r
hx
-\r ex''
or y
= a^"^'
151
more constants
152-164
152
153 156
81.
82.
83. 84.
The additional terms ce^'^ and cx*^ The equation y == a + bx + ce^' The equation y ae^^ -\- ce^^ The polynomial y = a + to + cx^
+ dx^ +
159
161
Two
or
more equations
Exercises
164
CHAPTER
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
85. 86.
VII.
PERIODIC
CURVES.
170 170
173
Representation of periodic phenomena the harmonics of a trigonometric series 87. Determination of the constants when the function is known 88. Determination of the constants when the function is unknown
Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Even and odd harmonics Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Odd harmonics only Averaging selected ordinates ... 91. Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Averaging selected ordinates. 92. Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Odd harmonics only
89. 90.
.
198
93.
200
Harmonic analyzers
203 207
CHAPTER
VIII.
INTERPOLATION.
95.
96. 97.
Graphical interpolation
Successive differences and the construction of tables
209 210
Exercises
CONTENTS
IX
CHAPTER
Art.
loo.
IX.
Page
rules.
General formula for approximate integration Numerical differentiation 105. Graphical integration 106. Graphical differentiation The planimeter 107. Mechanical integration.
108.
Integrators
109. 110.
The integraph
Mechanical differentiation.
Exercises
<
The
differentiator
(l)
or axis on
which are marked a series of points or strokes corresponding in order to a set of numbers arranged in order of magnitude. If the distances between successive strokes are equal, the scale is said to be uniform (Figs, la, ib). If the distances between sticcessive strokes are unequal, the scale is said to be non-uniform (Fig. (lc). The strokes are drawn as fine as possible, perpendicular to the axis which
carries the scale.
I
T
ic.
Fig.
I a.
Fig. i&.
Fig.
u^ of a variable u.
^=0123456 789 = 49
u^
16
25
36
49
64
81
100
from the origin 0, lengths equal to ic = 0.04 u^ inches (Fig. 2a) mark at the strokes indicating the end of each segment the corresponding value of u. Thus, a stroke marked w is at a distance of 0.04 u^ inches from the origin. Fig. 2a is said to represent the function u"^ by a scale. The length 0.04 inches is chosen arbitrarily in this case to represent the unit segment used in laying off the values of u^ on the axis. This unit segment is called the scale modulus.
and on an
axis,
OX lay
;
ofif
or 2
rrn
-i
;:^
J 9
t,
fo
(u)
Fig. 20.
In general, any function f{u) of a variable u such that each value of the variable determines a single value of the function, may be represented
by a
scale.
Form
U = f{u) =
the table
Ui
U2
/(2)
. .
/(i)
f{Uz)
SCALES
AND THE
SLIDE RULE
Chap.
and on an axis OX lay off from the origin lengths equal to ic = mj{u) inches, and mark with the corresponding values of u the strokes indicating the end of each segment. Fig. 2h is said to represent the function /(m) by a scale. The length m inches is chosen arbitrarily to represent the unit segment used in laying off the values of /(w), and it is called the scale
modulus.
is
(u)
Fig. 2b.
The uniform
/()
o
I
scale
2c,
is
=
'1
1
1
u.
In Fig.
2
1 I
X
3
= mu, where
4
1
m=
6
1
0.5 inches.*
/
)
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
I
I
1 1
5
1
1
1
7
1 1 1 1 1
a
1 1 1
1
9
1 1 1 1
to
1
1 1
1 1
Fig. 2c.
The
j{u)
logarithmic scale
log u.
is
when
f
I
In Fig. 2d, X
= m
I
I I
log u,
where _w
a
5
IIII
I
12.5
cm.*
7
2
1 1
1 I
I
I
3
I I I I I I I I I I
e
1
a
I
I
9
[
'TO
j
l|
IHH
1 1
Fig. 2d.
The uniform and logarithmic scales.are the most important scales for our work. After we have constructed a scale for /() from a table of values of and /(m) we may wish to estimate the value of u corresponding t o a stro ke intermediate between two strokes of the scale, or to estimate on the scale the position of a stroke corresponding to a value of u intermediate between two values of u in the table. This process of interpolating on the scale is of course very much easier for uniform scales than for non-uniform scales. The accuracy of such interpolation evidently depends upon the interval between two successive strokes. Experience has shown that
,
in. (very rarely this interval should not be less than i mm. or about need it be as small as this) this may always be done by the choice of a proper scale modulus.
;
(^
Xi
Variation of
the scale
modulus.
is
_m with which a
By
mif(u), X2
W2/(m), X3
msfiu),
all
representing the
same
* The values of given in the text are those which were employed originally in the construction of the scales; these values do not however refer to t he cuts which, in most cases, are reductions of the original drawings.
Art, 3
Only one of these respectively. ntz, mz, need be constructed by means of a table of values of /(w), and the others may be derived graphically from this. In Fig. 3ai let OiXi carry the scale Xi = mif(u) we wish to construct Let be any conthe scale X2 = tn2f{u).
function with moduli mi,
scales
;
OOi and on this line choose O2 such that OO2/OO1 = W2/W1; through O2 draw O2X2 parallel to OiXi. If A is a point on OiXi marked ', then OiA = Wi/(m')> and OA will cut O2X2 in a point B ^^ such that O2B/O1A = 002/OOi. or O2B = Wi
venient
point;
join
X,
SCALES
transversal through
will
Chap.
u,
and
equation x^
-
niifiji).
need not be drawn, but simply their If the transversals through are drawn, then we may get a scale of any required modulus by merely drawing a parallel to 0\Xi dividing the segment OOi in the required ratio; thus a line midway between O and Oi will carry a scale with modulus
transversals through
The
Fig.
3C.'*
way from
modulus
This principle
is
and 3c
for
we mark
a uniform scale
.9, on the base line beginning at 0, then the lines through these points parallel to the left-hand scale with modulus will cut the transversals
m
,
in scales
w, .9 w, respectively. best to make the charts in these figures almost square, and to take w
.1
m,
.2
It is
10
Art. 4
in. for
STATIONARY SCALES
the uniform scale and
'
m =
The
chart of uniform
necessary the scales in either chart may be extended. Note, however, that in the case of the logarithmic scales, the segment representing
If
m = 10 is of the same length as the segment representing the interval from w = 10 to m = 100, or, in general, the segment representing the interval from u = 10" to m = 10"+^. It is convenient to draw Figs. 36 and 3c on durable paper. Only the primary scale with 'modulus m, the base line and the transversals need be drawn. The paper may then be creased along any parallel to the primary scale to give a scale of the required modulus. Charts of this nature have been used to assist in constructing a large number of the scales and charts that follow, and much time and energy have been saved thereby. (Such charts will be found in the back of this book.) A relation between two variables u and v ('4^ Stationary scales. of the form v = /(w) may be represented graphically by constructing the two scales x = mv and x = mf{u) on opposite sides of the same axis or on adjacent or parallel axes with the same jnodulus and from the same origin or with origins in a line perpendicular to the axes. If C represents degrees Centigrade and F represents degrees FahrenWe construct the uniform scales x = m (F 32) heit, then F 2,2 = 1.8 C. and X m (i.S C) on opposite sides of the same axis, and from the same In Fig.^a,\ origin, i.e., the points marked C = o and F = 32 coincide.
the interval from m
to
f
C -20
!0
20 30
40
SO
10
60
70
80 90
30
WO
40
770
-10
20
50
60
70
BO
90
lOO
Fig. \a.
m=
If
0.02
in.,
0.02 (F
and X = 0.036
pressure
By means
of such a figure,
we may immediately
in.,
32) con-
W, then
P =
'
i
0.434
^-
Draw
= mP and
10
'
w
'1
9
'
//
'
'
I'i
'
' 1
nM M MM
I
1'
'
1
'
1'
I'l'
'1
'i
i'i'
'
'
i'
\. \ \
' '
i'i'i
'
'
h'
'I
'
i
1' ['
I I'
I'
I'
r
I'
I'
I'
'
'
'
I'
r'
I'
'
I
I
'I
S
Fig.
ifh.
as
'I
I
'I
'
'
'I
'I
'
I I
'
10
m (0.434 W)
so that
origin.
is i in.,
we have
the scales x
= P and
SCALES
0.492
Chap.
scale has for equation x = 0.492 M. By (drawn with the aid of chartf36 or a pair of dividers) pressure may be read immediately in pounds per'sq. in., feet of water, or inches of mercury. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v = jogju, we construct the adjacent scales x mv and x = mlogu. If we take w = 25 cm., the logarithmic scale will be the same length as that of the logarithmic slide rule, and if the uniform scale is divided into 500 parts, we can use such a figure to read easily the values of the mantissas of the logarithms of all numbers to three decimals, and conversely to read the
P =
M, and
the
means of such a
figure
numbers corresponding
at
V |iM
/
i
The
0.$
slide
rule
0.2
iii,Ml,i
,
i
0.3
0.5
ipl,i
)|
i,,
,
0.6
0.7
i,^
i
0.8
ii|i
i i
1.0
ii
4ilVM
|ii,M;i|n,i|i^i^iJi, i|
i^||||)|||
l^li|n
(||
,|
3
Fig. 4c.
10
The
same purpose
if
we
primary logarithmic scale. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v u^, we may write this as log v = % log u. Here we construct the adjacent scales X = m log v and x = m (f log u), i.e., two logarithmic scales with moduli m and 3 m/5 respectively. We use chart 3c and get Fig. 4</, from
/
</
|
'
,
2
't,.v
i
3
i
4
.
56789/0
l
,
,i
20
i ,
30
in il^
,
40 SO 60 708090100
I
,.i
,
^n
i,i
i|
l^,.,
|, ,,
lp|,i
,
,||,
||,
|| |,
| ,
4
Fig.
56789
|
^H
n|4M
^1
,1
^
1,
,1
i(.
|
,^
10
20
4(f.
when u
i
lies
-20.
to lOO, or read
u when
u^,
to
The chart Fig.f3c may conveniently where is any positive number. be used for this purpose. We may write the relation as \ogv = p log m, and we pick out on the chart the scales x = m log v and x = {ptn) log u, Since the axes carrying these scales are i.e., with moduli m and pm. parallel with origins in the same perpendicular, any perpendicular to the axes will cut out corresponding values of u and v. If /> < i we may use lip > i we write the relathe primary logarithmic scale for the v scale, tion in the form u = v^/^ and proceed similarly. If in the relation v W, ^ is a negative number, say, g, then = 10 m~, we merely shift the position of the deciIf we write V = vr". mal point in the value of v; then logf = log 10 glogw. Construct
,
t;
Art. 5
SLIDING SCALES
= m
log v
;
and x
= m
(log lo
is
a.s
q log u)
m
and
= m
^liiili s
1
'
^-OttOt^^ M>
<.
L_L Till
i'i' i|
iV 'iVii'n'
i |
ii
iiili i|'iMi
ti i|
'r'('i
I
i]
I'll
Ok
2
Fig. 4e.
proceeding to the
left.
u~^ con-
Sliding scales.
and
F{v)
and con-
x =
and x =
mF{v).
any
pair of
we have OA = O'B
F{v).
(Fig. 5a),
and
mF (v),
or
f(u)
(I)
This relation was illustrated in the examples of Art. 4. If now one of the scales is slid along the other scale through any distance d, then for any pair of values of u and v opposite each other, we have OA - O'B = d (Fig. 56), or mf(u) - mF{v) = d, or/(w) - F{v) =
SCALES
Chap.
As an example,
log f or
= m
log
u and x
=
by
m log v.
(I),
If
log
V,
and
by
(II),
log
log w
constant, or
u log -
constant, or -
constant for
=
if
for
any two
u and
opposite
Thus
any three
Ui=5.2
/
8
I
9
I
10
I
7
v,-2.i
3/0.
1^-40
Fig. 5^.
fourth quantity
the scales until
in Fig. 5^, ^
may be
if
Ui, Vi, U2
Vi is
opposite
This
illustrated
'
^^^^-
scale
4.00 operation
tf3.7
u- 5.92
-I
7
u-3.7
to
n
V-2.S
Fig, 5e.
v.-
7
4.0
I I
tu
1st position:
= m
=
log
axis
2d position:
the
the scale x
opposite Ml of the
unmarked
unmarked
It is
axis.
evident that simple multiplication and division are special cases of the above, for if wi = i or 10, then ^2 = W2 ^i or 10 U2 Vi, and if
V2
or 10, then W2
Ui/vi or lo Ui/vi.
Art. 6
6.
and one uniform scale, some on the stock of the rule and others on the slide. Any two of these scales may be placed adjacent by means of a glass runner which has a fine hair line scratched on its under side and which is adjusted so that the hair line is always perparallel logarithmic scales
The
following
is
do not carry the. same number of scales. a description of the scales and their equations on the
4 S 6 7891
I. I I
1
4 S 6 7 691
I
,1
1
I
CI
^1
7
1
IT ^
6
CI rrnnr
I
J
7 8 9
T
a 9i^/
I
I'
'I
Fig. 6.
commonly
called
is
The
.
25
by m.
by the
letters
c,
.
A, B, C,
,
We
letters a, b,
= = =
ml.
:x
:
in log c.
D
CI
s).
= m log d.
10 = m log
1
X X
log a.
~ log k.
3
B
S
log b.
2
(100 sin
X X
'
Ci
^ l>ive{
'.X
= m log
= m log
(10 tan
/).
graduated so that we can easily read three Rules for the position of the decimal point may be given, but in computing it is best to disregard all decimal points and to estimate the position of the decimal point in the final result. The following are some of the relations which arise through the application of the principles of stationary and sliding scales to this type of rule. (Other illustrations will be found in the manuals issued by the manuscales are
figures in
The C and
any part
of these scales.
facturers.)
We
it
by
(I)
Gunter invented the logarithmic scale and used compasses to Oughtred invented the straight logarithmic slide rule, consisting of two rulers each bearing a logarithmic scale, which were slid along each other by hand (1630). Rules in which the slide worked between parts of a fixed stock were known in England in 1654. Robertson constructed the first runner in 1775. Mannheim designed the modern standard slide rule (1850). Roget invented the log-log scale
calculate with
(1620).
* Historical Note.
in 1815.
16
SCALES
RXJLE
Chap. I
and the position after sliding by (II). designated by the same subscript.
(i)
Numbers
LandD:
=
log
(I) /
d and d
antilog
:
/.
(I is
(2)
d.
.'.
-j
const.
Art. 7
II
in 45'.6, .045'6, .ooo'o45'6 are said to contain two figures, while the
We
read k in the first, left-hand group contains one, two or three figures.
(7)
middle or
CandX:
log c
(I)
^ log k,
.'.
\/k and k
.\
(?.
(II)
log c
^ log k
(or
const.,
-^ =
v^,
const.,
:.
-j~ =
-^'
^^
(8)
A
A
an^-X
I log a
and K)
.*.
(I)
I log ^,
Va =
or
k^
and k=a^.
(9)
and
S'.
(I) ^
\ log a
\ log (loosing),
.*.
loosing and
sin~*
100
^
^
(II)
loga
I log (loosing)
const.,
:. .
sin 5
const, or
sinji
sin 52
The
last relation
may
s,
be used
set
sin
To To
find
y ='a
y
sin
we
a 90
y
sin 5
find
sin 5
we
set
sin 5
sin
90
s).
*
We
(10)
(I)
sin (90
Dand
log d
T:
t),
.'.
10 tan
and
tan~^
(II)
\ogd
find
const.,
.'.
=
tan
t
const., or
tan
ti
tan
t^
To
To
y
y
=
=
d tan
-,
d
t,
set
tan 45
set
;
y tan
find
tan/
/
tan/'
tan 45
We
7.
tan (90
/)
The
The
between the D dnd CI scales expressed in Art. 6 (3), viz.: product of d and ci is the same for all such pairs of numbers opposite each other, may be used to assist in the solution of algebraic equations of the second and third degrees. Thus if we set ci = I over d = q, then over any number y on the D scale we shall find
relation
that, after sliding, the
- on the CI
scale (since
-j and
on the
scale; this Us
12
SCALES
Chap.
illustrated in the
accompanying diagram:
CI
(Fig. 7).
We
may
use
ci
lo instead of ci
if
must be taken
decimal point.
tst
fl/tf
6 7 8 9
I I I I
1
I
J
4
1
S
I
6 7
I I
891
I I I
a
Bl
19 6
I I
I
7
I
6 5
.1
I
""I
f"
n U
Fig.
7.
(i)
If
we
slide the
and CI
scales
=
>
q^
and
3/
db
Vg.
Thus,
if 3/^
5,
or
we have
CI
Art. 8
13
The nature of
only
real root;
if
is
+,
root
is
-+
4
-i 27<
+ +
if
is
root
is
3 real roots of which 2 are equal. 3 real and unequal roots; i root is
root? is
and
2 roots are
or
To
find
and 2 roots are +. the negative roots, we replace y by ji, and the positive
roots of the resulting equation are the negative roots of the original
equation.
We also
=
g
is zero.
sum of the three roots of the equation 'f -{- py The complete cubic equation z^ -\- az^ -\- bz -\- c = o must
y^
-\-
first
= y
To
the
facilitate the
comparison of the A and CI scales, it is well to invert C scale is transformed into a CI scale and slides along
scale.
if
Thus,
since
y+
3'
=
I
5 or
y+
^, there
is
y
is
+
4
27
5 4
>
o and g
positive.
found
A
by the
setting
1-33
CI
Again,
if
D y4
64 ^ 27
4-33 I-I53
3^
I-I53-
2 or
3/^
=y
^
4
p^
The
positive
root
'
27
14
the required scales
of
Chap.
we must
expressed
the
principle
Art.
^
5.
= -log wi, or 2__1 log log til - log Ci = log log W2 log 2
= _&
log
or log log
log c
const.
The
log
c.
m log log n
our scale
and x
=m
The
initial
point of the
would be marked n = 10 (since x = wlog 1=0), and the end point would be marked n = lo^"
scale
==''w) if
is
to be
cm, long.
10 to w
10^" is
what.
has been found best to modify the equation of this scale someAn instrument called the log-log rule (Fig. 8) has been constructed
l.0
lot
uo
LLi
LL3
'
'
'
'-n 4
r^
5
SCO
1000
1000
Fig.
8.
which the equation of the n scale is x = m log (100 In U) (where = loge // and e = 2.71828 the base of Napierian or natural logarithms). The scale is broken into three parallel scales of length m = 25 cm.
in
In//
. . . ,
the
first,
//
eO.oi,^^
qj approx.)
to
//
e^\
the second,
.
the
third,
marked LL2 with a range from // = e-^ to II = e,''^ marked LL3 with a range from II = e' to 11 =
approx.).
e*
(= 22,000
By
=
or
in log
(100 In
//)
and x
= w log c, we
VTl
-^
logc
const.,
const., or
const.,
v^ =
we
set
V^,
Ci
or
II2
Ih"';
we have II2 = lli^ or lU = lli^. Of and C2/10 have the same position, but on the LL scales the decimal poiht must be left in its original position. It is easy to see on which of the three LL scales the result is to be read;
I
or 10 opposite
= m
log
c, c^
thus
2*-^
LL2 LL3
22.6
4-5
I
.*.
22.6
C
and
y
2-^ gives
the setting
LL2 LL3
1.366 2
y~
1.366.
0.45
Am.
15
We
0.99
i.oi.
Values of
//
may
by
their reciprocals,
and the
reciprocals of
smce
jj-
=(77-)
The LL and
the
C scales
may
also
be used to
(100 In
//)
a number, for
we have log
log c or In ^
It
is
//
100
evident that compound interest problems are very easily solved Thus, the amount, A of the sum of $1 .00 placed i 1. 00 at
,
compounded
is
given b by
(r
I
-\
\"'
I
;
Many
9.
other illustrations
may be
is
then
LL
(+
the manufacturers.
Various other straight slide rules. -^ As another illustration of the use of sliding scales, let us construct a slide rule for the expression
-4--.
u
V
If
we choose
= m(-] and
\uj
have
= wfio
\
1
v)
),
we
1
shall
[10
const.
= U
I
const.,
or
Ui
=
Vi
U2
V2
If
we choose
be 10
the modulus, m,
to be
I in.,
and the
in.,
o
' '
'
T'
I'I'iiii'
'I
II
Fig.
9.
of
6) to y
=
(jc
o.i (x
10),
(Fig.
,
of v
is
00
10).
1
Now
if
we
read
set
off
^2=00
u,
we
shall
have
Vi,
- and we
may
any one
rule
jf
This
may be used
-5-
Kx
+ -5- = K2
J\.
d where R
is
the com-
/:
+h =
7-
-j,
where /
is
i6
SCALES
Chap. I
A large number of slide rules have been constructed for solving various
special equations in engineering practice.
Among these may be mentioned: stadia slide rules for measuring the horizontal distance and ver-
tical height when the rod reading and the elevation of telescope are known; Nordell's sewer rule for solving Kutter's formula for circular sewers; Hudson's horse power computing scale for obtaining the indicated H.Ps of an engine (this rule has two slides); Hazen-Williams
hydraulic rule for finding the velocity of the flow of water through pipes
(see chart
on
p. 6i).
/
10.
Curved
TT
point, viz., 2
the angular magnitude about a radians, into looo equal parts by straight rays drawn
slide
rules.
Divide
;
Choose one
(for
and mark
it
log i)
mark
Art
lo
with the number 2 (for 0.301 = log 2), and the ray at the end of 477 parts with the number 3 (for 0.477= log 3), etc. Then the angle will be divided logarithmically (Fig. 10). The circumference of any circle drawn with the point as center will likewise be divided logarithmically, the
points on the circumference carrying the
same numbers
,
as the rays
through them. Designating such a circumference by A the numbers on its radius by rg inches, the equation of the scale on ^ is x =
i.e.,
it
by
a,
and
(2 irra) log a,
is
tial
I,
and so constructed that the plane of the 5-circumference can rotate about the center. If in the initial position of the scales, i.e., when the numbers 0=1 and 6=1 are on the same ray, a ray cuts out the numbers ai and hi, then we have
(2 irra) log ai
)
If,
(2 irrb) log bi
=-
/-a
,
.-.
lo^ ai
log
I,
bi
J and
ai
U
&i.
Tb
in ai, bi
)
(
and
,
^2, 62,
then
(2 Trra) log
fli '
(2
Tn) log
bi
(2 irra) log a2
-)
, (2 Trrb) log 62
Ta =-.
?'6
logai
-loga2
1
log&i-log62.
I.
J,
fli
02
62
is
61
Hence the
ratio of
constant.
This prin-
straight scales.
Thus
3;
for
& or
Multiplication:
r^.
.
.
=a =T b
a
- = ^ we
,
set
^
one factor
dividend
divisor
product
other factor
Dimsion:
^^
i;
ay ~
b
1'
>
^^
set
A B
quotient
One advantage
difficulty of
of such
off
a circular rule
lies in
we avoid
the
running
Fig. 10 repro-
duces in part, the .4- and 5-circles have the same radius, about 3 inches, A so that it is approximately equivalent to a straight rule of 18 inches.
ray drawn on a strip of celluloid capable of revolving about the center aids in the setting of the scales. The plane of the 5-circle also contains the
scale X
(4
7r?'c)
log c\
and
for
c,
on the same
ray,
we
(2
irrb)
log b
re
-,
rb
2logc
or
-j
log b
^ =
I,
.*.
c^
and
= ^/r Vb.
l8
SCALES
Chap.
It is evident that if c is to vary from i to lo, the C scale must consist ot two concentric circumferences, on one of which c varies from c = i (or X = o) to c = Vio (or X = 2 Trrc) and on the other from c = Vio to The C and B scales thus serve for finding squares c = lo (or X = 4 TT^c). and square roots. We may also combine the C and A scales, and after The instrument also contains three rotation we have a\/c^ = ch./C'^. concentric circumferences for the scale x = (6 -wrk) log k and a combination with the J5-scale, in the initial position, gives b = k^ or k = v^. The instrument further contains scales for sines, tangents, and versines, and a scale of equal parts. There are other forms of curved rules. "Lilly's Improved Spiral
;
and a
of
Rule," a disk 13 inches in diameter, consists of a spiral logarithmic scale circular scale of equal parts, and is equivalent to a straight rule
about 30 feet long; it gives results correct to 4 figures. "Thacher's Rule" consists of two logarithmic scales one on a cylinder and the other on a set of 20 parallel bars external to the cylinder. This is really an amplification of the straight slide rule, involving the same principle in its use; the rule gives four figures correctly and a fifth may be estimated.*
EXERCISES.
(Note.
in Exs.
Vm
o to
= =
in.
100)
if
w is
i in.,
0.5 in.,
to
10)
if
w=5
in.,
10
in.,
3. 4.
if
w =
10
(7) to
centimeters (C)
we have
C=
2.54
5. Construct adjacent scales for converting cu. ft. per sec. (C) to million gallons per hour (G) we have G = 0.0269 C. 6. Construct three adjacent scales for converting foot-lbs. per sec. (F) into horsepower = 1.356 X lO"' F. (H.P.) and kilowatts (K)] we have H.P. = 1.818 X lo'^ F, and
;
7.
=-
(ft)
= =
(c)
= <^; =
'.
(d)v=^^;
8.
ie)v
u-i;
(/) r
A =
where
D = diameter
144
in inches
*
and
A =
ft.
and other
rules, see
"Methods
of
Calculation, a
Handbook
Bell
published
by G.
&
Sons, London.
EXERCISES
9.
19
= -^
02,5
where h
pressure head
in
ft.
and
P =
and
pressure in
lbs.
per sq.
in. for
10.
= j
where h
velocity
head in
11.
velocity in
ft.
Show how
k (cos
cos
/).
12.
(a)y
(c)
y'
+ 3y-7=o;
'f
(b)
y^
y^
6y
+y+5
-\-f
o;
1
-\- 1
0;
ie)
(d)
+y = o;
y^
- 3^ +
o.
CHAPTER
II.
perpendicular scales.
where f{u) and F{v) are any functions of u and v, on two perpendicular axes OX and OY, and through thepoints marked on these scales draw Any pair of values of u and v perpendiculars to the axes (Fig.(lio). that satisfy the equation (w, v) o will determine a point, viz., the
intersection of the corresponding perpendiculars to the axes; thus the
pair of values
Ui, Vi will
perpendicular to
V
OX through u =
all
vi.
The
locus of
(m, v)
such points
a curve which
is
said to represent
the relation
=
x
o.
The
X and
y,
mif(u) .a nd y = m2 F(v) for u and v in terms of and substituting these values in (w, v) = o.
Art. 12
21
from
P P
OF.
\g(\io]
On a
lines,
intersecting in a point P.
when
lu cuts
OX
in Uk,
will cut
OF in
(It is
a simple mechanical
Fignic)
strip.
Draw
the scale x
F until
Vk
the point Uk
falls
on the
on the u and
v scales is easily
done by
12.
(i)
sight.
<
Some
u^.
If
we
y = mv on OX and F respectively, and draw perpendiculars to the axes through the points marked on the scales, we shall have the (Fig. ,i2a^ rulings of an ordinary piece of rectangular coordinate paper. Here, v = u^ will be represented by the locus \yhose Cartesian equation We plot this curve from a table is y/m = x^/m'^ or x'^ = my, a parabola.
= mu and
Note that we could with different moduli have constructed the scales x y Wi and W2, but the corresponding Cartesian equation m^x^ = mi^y still represents a parabola.
of values of
u and
v satisfying the
equation
= miu and
= u^. m^v
22
NETWORK OF SCALES
set
niiu^ are
Chap. II
and the slope, 2, of the Hne. Note that the points on the marked with + and values of u.
In the former, the straight line
it is is
latter, the curve between plotted points is only approximated. Of course, it is easier to interpolate on the uniform M-scale in Fig. 12a than on the non-uniform w-scale in Fig. 126. Furthermore, in Fig. 126, we can project the point in which the representing line cuts f = 10 vertically on = o and thus draw a second section of the line parallel to the first seci;
tion, for
which
may
is
again be used to
A
(3)
u^
article.
&%2
X
ae~^"'.
We
can write
i;
we
miu^ and y
= nhln v,
is
our relation
line
whose equation
y = nh
mi u
\na.
easily con-r
structed
by means
of the points
o, v
6, b
\, nii
was used
on OY.
a,
-\-
where
q log V
and y
= m
we
log
shall
Art. 13
23
have the ruHngs of a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig/iO m = 25 cm. and u and y vary from i to 10. (Logarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges of the variables and with various Our relation will be represented by the straight line whose moduli.)
Cartesian equation ^
of
is
+ mm
:!c
log a,
which
may be
plotted
by means
two pairs
10
of corresponding values of
u and
v or
by means
of one pair
24
NETWORK OF SCALES
will
Chap. II
then represent the relation v = u^, where u varies from i to lo and V from i to lOO, and hence for all values of u and v since 4:he scale log u, for example, where u varies from lo^ to 10^+^ (p = integer) X = log u, where u varies from can be made to coincide with the scale x =
M'A,
must be determined independently in each case. In finding u when v is given, divide v into groups of two figures each beginning at the decimal point, as in arithmetic (see Art. 6 (4)) if the left-hand group contains only one significant figure, use
I
to 10.
The
OM, if it contains two significant figures, use the section M'A = 0.64, read u = 0.8, but when v = 0.064, read u = 0.253. (2) For the relation v = I iru^, the volume of a sphere 4n terms of its diameter, the representing straight line passes through the point u = 2, V = ^T and has a slope equal to 3; this gives the section BC in Fig.!a3^ We continue this line by projecting C into C on OX and drawing C^
the section
;
thus
when
to
CD, and
complete this
parallel to
is
last section
D into D' on OX and drawing D'E parallel by projecting E into E' on OF and
drawing E'F
D'E; F will project into the initial point B on completely represented by these sections for all finding u when v is given, divide v into groups of three figures each beginning at the decirnal point as in arithmetic (see Art. 6 (6)) according as the left-hand group contains one, two, or three significant
OX.
figures,
(3)
use the
first,
v^-'^^
10,
where u
;
is
is
the
volume
HK,
passes through
is
the point u
10, v
with slope
1/1.41
easily constructed
from
to ID.
If
Semilogarithmic
.
coordinate
are
paper.
Consider
We
the
relation
= p q^^ where p and q \ogv = ulogq -\- \ogp. If we and y = nh log v, and draw
any numbers.
we
shall
have the rulings of a sheet of semilogarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig. T4',; wi = W2 = 25 cm. and u varies from o to i while v varies from 0.1 to I. (Semilogarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges Our relation will be repreof the variables and with various moduli.)
sented
log p,
of
by the
straight line
is
= log 2 +
which can be plotted by means of two pairs of corresponding values The folv, or by means of one pair and the slope W2 log q/mi. lowing examples will serve to illustrate the use of semilogarithmic paper, -\(i) The relation v = o.i e^-^" can be written logy = (2.1 log e) u logo.i, where e is the base of natural logarithms, and is represented
u and
Akt. 14
25
by the
OA
in Fig. 14),
i,
points u
o, y
0.1
and u =
o.Sij.
To
our variables
tally into
horizon-
A' on OY, draw A'F' parallel to OA, project F' vertically into F" on OX, and draw F"E" parallel to OA ; then for OA, u varies from o to I and V from o.i to 0.817, while ior A'F' and ^"E", u varies from i to 2 and V from 0.817 to 6.668.
/.o
o.s
0.6
o.s
0.4
(V)
0.3
0.2
26
'
NETWORK OF SCALES
'
Chap. II
tion V = p q", and run our eyes along this line until we find the point where u and v are equal this is the required value of v. Thus to find the solution oi v = 0.6 e~-^^^ ", we draw the line BC representing the equation v = o.6e~9i" and run our eyes along this line (watching the u and v scales) to the point D where we read u = v = 0.46
;
(Fig. 14)-
draw the
equation
Again, to find the solution of the equation log line OA representing the equation log i'
is
t;
0.912 u
0.912
i,
i
we
[this
run our eyes along this line until we read u = V = 0.132. We can find another value of v satisfying the equation by running our eyes along the section F"E" until we read u = v = 1.17. 15. Rectangular coordinate paper the solution of algebraic equations of the 2d, 3d,
= i] and
of rectangular coordinate paper to solve graphically algebraic equations of the 4th, 3d,
and 2d degrees.
=
{x
v
^
where
4*
the modulus
(i)
If
is i
we draw
r^
the parabola
2 x
and the
hY
with center at {h, k) and radius r, the ordinates of their points of intersection are found algebraically by eliminating x between From the these two equations and solving the resulting equation for y. first equation v/e have x = y^/2, and substituting this in the second equaiy
ky =
tion
we
get I-
hj
(y
ky =
r^,
or
y + 4 (i If
h) y^
S ky
-{-
4{h^
+
t
k^
is
r"^)
o.
we
get
by
t^,
where
an arbitrary number,
we
or
z^
-{-
az^
-\-
bz
-}-
=
,
o,
where
-, a
=
j^
= -
Conversely, the real roots of the equation ^ -\- az^ -\r bz -\- c = o are found by measuring the ordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola y^ = 2 x and the circle with center at
fe
-\-
where
The
an arbitrary number, and dividing these ordinates by /. t allows us to throw the center of the circle to a Y, or as near to or as far convenient point always to the right of
t
is
introduction of
Akt. is
27
from the vertex of the parabola as is convenient such that the circle will not cut the parabola at an angle too acute for accurate reading of Note that the one parabola, y^ = 2 x, will serve for findthe ordinates. ing the real roots of all equations of the fourth degree (Fig. 15), To /w^ g^^ r& + 5 = o, we first substisolve the complete equation t/^
-2
28
NETWORK OF SCALES
and the other points
2^ -\-
Hence, the real roots az -\- b = o are found by measuring the ordinates of the equation ^ of the points of intersection of the parabola y^ = 2 x and the circle with
give the real roots of the cubic
az
-\-
o.
center at h
4.
at'^
'
bt^
^^"^''^
"x"
passing through the vertex of the parabola, and dividing these ordinates by /. Note that the one parabola y^ = 2 x will serve for finding the real
roots of
all
To
solve the
complete equation
pv^
-\-
qv
-{-
o,
we
-\-
first
substitute v
/)
and
this
z^ -\-
az
o,
a."
above.
Example
equation
33
-'if
=0.
at h
=
4
^^
=-=
8
i.
We
read z
y
3.
1.53,
Let us find the real roots of the equation v^ t^v"^ -\- v = 0. Let z = V -\- i; then the equation becomes 2^ 2 2 5 = o. Here 4 the center of the circle (Fig. 15) is at h = i -\- ^ f = 2,, k = ^ fi = 5, We read 3' = 4.18; hence 2 = y/t = 2.09, and v = z i = 1.09. if / = 2. If we draw the parabola y^ = 2 x and the straight line y = mx k (3)
Example
of slope
and
my
22k =0.
-\
If
we
f
divide this
-^
by
^ (where
z2
is
yj H
o or
the
+ as + 6 =
where
=
2^
equation
= + a2 + 6
'V
2
:
7.
2 ^= ^i^
Conversely,
and
^'-intercept ^
bt
(where
is
an arbitrary number), and dividing these ordinates by t. Note that the one parabola y^ = 2 x will serve for finding the real roots of all fourth, third, and second degree equations (Fig. 15). Example 4. Let us find the real roots of the equation :? 1.452
5.6 ^
o.
line is
m=
i.
22
=
read 2
. ,
145^
145
and
its ;y-in-
tercept \sk
3.20.
16.
145^
^^ =
3.86,
if ^
We
3/
= - 175 and
of perpendicular scales.
Representation of a relation between three variables by means An equation in three variables of the form
Art. i6
29
by generalizing the method an equation in two variables. Thus, if we assign to wa value, say Wi, we shall have (t){u,v,Wi) = o, an equation in two variables u and v, which can be represented by the method of perpendicular scales, x = mif{u), y = miF{v), as a curve; By assigning to w a succession this curve is marked with the number "Wi.
(f){u,
v,w)
=0 can be represented
graphically
we
marked with
ables
is
its
corresponding value of w.
The equation
in three vari-
network of curves. It is evident that the same equation (f){u, v,w) =0 can similarly be represented by a network of curves found by assigning a succession of values to u (or v) and marking each curve with its corresponding value of u (or v).
said to be represented
this
by
(W
30
until
NETWORK OF SCALES
Chap. II
OX
4,
passes through v
^,
and at
its
w =
best,
we
read u
3.7.
The
task of
drawing
and
it is
therefore
whenever convenient,
u and
This will not only lessen the labor of construction but will evidently increase the accuracy of our charts.
17.
Charts
for
multiplication
and
division.
This
example
will
illustrate
how
ing curves.
(i)
represented
= mv
scales,
4.^
Fig. 170.
^.'^
network. The equations of our representing w-curves are of the form xy = mhv, a set of rectangular hyperbolas (Fig. 17^) which are quite difficult to draw and for which the interpolation is very inaccurate. (2) The equation uv = w can be represented by choosing x = mu and y = mw/ ioioronr two perpendicular scales. The equations of our representing z/-curves are of the form y = y^r/io, a set of radiating straight lines of slope v/io. Fig.' 17^ illustrates this chart, where u and v vary from I to 10. The valuesljf v are placed at the end of the representing lines. For saving of space, the values of w are placed at the points
Art. 17
31
where the horizontals cut the Une f = 10 and the rulings above this Of course, the position of the decimal point diagonal need not be drawn. in the value of a variable may be changed with a corresponding change The great disadvantage of this chart is that the z;-lines in the result.
32
NETWORK OF SCALES
Chap. II
over a range from o to lOO or, in general, from o to lo*, similarly for the range of v, with corresponding change in the range for w. (3) The equation uv = w can be represented by writing it in the log v = log w and choosing x = m log u, y = m log v for form log u our two perpendicular scales, i.e., we have the rulings of a sheet of log-
arithmic paper.
The equations
form X
-^
= m\og
yd)
These
w =
k,
the point on IQP to I0P+^ with corresponding readings in the range for w.
= ^, and cuts v = i (or the x-axis) at u = k; w = k is a line joining the point on OX marked u = k with F marked v = k. The ranges for u and v may be read from
illustrated in (2)
The methods
tion of
and
(3)
may be
the form f{u) F{v) = 4>{w). If we choose x = mif{u) and mz<i>{'w) for our perpendicular scales, then the equations of our repre-
F{v)
=
x,
nh.
a set of radiating
lines.
But
if
we choose x = mi
'V -^
log f{u)
and y
dicular scales, then the equations of our representing w-curves have the
form
X Wi
f-
m^
18.
Three-variable charts.
lines.
equa-
(i) The equation w = V^a/S^ can be written 5 log w = log a + 4 log ^, and if we choose x = Wi log a, y = W2 log /3 for our perpendicular scales and let Wi = W2 = 10, the equations of our representing w-curves are of the form X + 4 >' = 50 log w, a set of parallel straight lines. These lines have the slope \. They are most easily constructed by noting that when a = /3 = ^, we have w = k also. We, therefore, draw a system of parallel lines through the points a = k, ^ = k with slope j and mark
w = k (Fig. 1 8a). = c, for adiabatic expansion of certain gases where /> = pressure and v = volume, can be written log p -f 1.41 log = log c. If we choose x = 10 log v, y = 10 log p for our perpendicular
these with the corresponding value
(2)
The equation
pv^-*^
scales, the
3'
1.41
=
V
10 log
c,
structed
I,
by noting p = k there
is
1.41,
=
,
k (Fig. i8a).
for the elastic limit of rivet steel,
(3)
-!^
where
Art.
i8
33
of the bar,
and/ is the
fiber stress in
niiP,
pounds per square inch. If we choose perpendicular scales, the equations of the repre-
^^
x,
For Fig.
18b,
Wi
by means
/o
34
NETWORK OF SCALES
Chap. II
SSjooa
Art. 19
35
the dis-
(4)
h-
= where u and
,
v are
tances of an object and its image from a lens and w is the focal length of the lens, or where w is the combined resistance of two resistances u and v
in parallel.
If
we choose
;
= m/u,
= m/v
36
z
NETWORK OF SCALES
0.4
Chap,
{p, q) falls
n
on
and
=
of,
0.5.
outside
of,
the boundary
left,
we
can read one, two, or three values of z, and the corresponding cubic equation has one real root only, 3 real roots two of which are equal, or 3
Art. 20
37
2^ -\- z
kz'.
Thus
4.
o,
let z
ife
=
2,
kz',
+ +
-r^
2'
o;
z'
if
we
choose
If
=
2
we
0.25
z'
0.5
o, for
which we read
c
0.69,
and hence
1.38.
+ clu^ +
2^
6w
is
given, this
must
stitution
+ ^2 + g
o by the sub-
3 In a similar way we may build a rectangular chart for the solution ^z -|- g = o, or for any trinomial equation of the quadratic equation 2^
z^
pz"
+g
o.
Representing curves not straight lines. chimney draft. Extensive researches have been carried (i) Chart for out by the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to determine an equation expressing the draftof a chimney in terms of its height and the temperature of the flue gases. No simple relation between these quantities has been found. From the experiments performed, it was found that if Ti is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the flue gases measured 3 feet above the center of the flue (the lowest temperature point recorded), H2 is the height of the chimney in feet, and T2 is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the flue gases at the top of the chimney, then
20.
Three-variable charts.
n= 0.32 I: (ila
3) L\
J f)"-]
("-
Now
if
is
D=
0.192 ^0.075
^j {H2 -
3).
If the value of 7*2 from the first of these equations is substituted in the second equation, we shall have an equation in three variables, D, Ti,
and H2.
where
75
In Fig. 20a, our two perpendicular scales are x = niiTi and y nti = 200 m^, and the representing i?-curves are drawn for
W2Z),
H = 50,
300 ft. Thus, for a chimney 150 ft. high and for an absolute temperature of 1139.5, we read that the draft is 0.955 iri. of water. (2) Experimental data involving three variables are often plotted by
means
of
of a network of curves, and such a chart takes the place of a table double entry. Fig. 20& gives a chart useful in heat flow problems where the temperature difference is an important factor. The chart gives the difference between the temperature of pure water under various gage pressures and the temperature under various vacuums. (Corrections must be applied for solutions.) Let P denote the gage pressure in
38
lbs.
NETWORK OF SCALES
per sq.
in.,
Chap. II
and
vacuum in inches. We first construct the perpendicular scales X = miP and y = nh.T (in Fig. 206, Wi = 2 W2) then the F-curves are constructed by means of a table, part of which is as follows:
F, the
;
Art. 20
39
Such a table
Thus, a
or 4.92
vacuum
of 25 in.
0.4912
Steam Tables. equivalent to a barometric pressure of 4.92 in. 2.42 lbs. per sq, in., and this gives a temperature of
is
equivalent to total pressure of 19.7 lbs. lbs.), and this gives a tempera-
Vacuum
28 Ji'
210
28'
27'/3'
PRESSURE
POUNDS
GAGE.
Fig. 2oh.
ture of 227. I
93-9-
we thus have a temperature difference of 227.! I33.2 In this way, we subtract the temperature for a 25-in. vacuum
; .
.
from the temperatures at gage pressures of o, 5, 10, lbs., and these corresponding values of P and T are plotted giving the curve marked V = 2^ in. The table is completed for various values of F = 26,
.
26^,
...
in.
The curve
40
NETWORK OF SCALES
Chap.
II
marked "atmospheric"
oration.
21.
OX
In Fig. 21a let Use of three indices. Hexagonal charts. and OF be perpendicular axes and let OZ be the bisector of tbeir
Fig. 2 1 a.
Fig. 2ib.
Fig, 21C.
angle.
From any
point
Ph
perpendicular to
in C.
OX,
OY
and
cut
OX\nA,OY\nB, OZ
to
OD, cutting OZ
Art. 21
HEXAGONAL CHARTS
if
4I
Thus,
z
the axes
the scales x
mf{u), y
mF(v),
V2
p^ (t){w)
them
so that
/-
V2
thus,
indices
/i,
V2
or
f(u)
F(v)
<f>(w}
any equation
h,
I3
of this type may be represented by three scales. The may be drawn on a transparent sheet and this sheet is
Fig. 2id.
moved over
- + - = - by this method. U V w We can choose the modulus on OZ the same as the moduli for OX and OF by following the construction illustrated in Fig. 216. Here OX and OF cut at an angle of 120 and OZ bisects this angle. Join OP and
Fig. 21C charts the equation
let
angle
COP =
a.
Then
42
NETWORK OF SCALES
Chap. II
OA = OP COS (60 + a) = OP (cos 60 cos a - sin 60 sin a). OB = OP cos (60 - a) = OP (cos 60 cos a + sin 60 sin a). OA -\-0B = 2OP cos 60 cos a = OP cos a = OC. .: Thus our three scales are x = w/(w), y = mF(v), z = m<i>{w). Fig. 2id charts the equation uv = w or log u + log = log w by this method.
z;
EXERCISES.
1.
2.
Represent the equation v = u^ by a straight line, using natural Represent the equations (a) 2 u' 2,v^ = 6, (b) m^ 3 z;2 = j^
scales.
by
and
the three equations taken in pairs. 3. Find graphically the simultaneous solutions of the equations v
i
= 6e~^ and
10 e
4.
u2
Solve graphically the equation u = 6 e ^^. 5. Construct a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper and draw on lines representing the relations:
(a)
V.
it
the straight
';
(b) V
u^;
(c)
-;
tr
(e)
.4
;
(d)
(f)
=
y
D"^
(area of circle);
gas)
(g)
= =
^2
^2
velocity head in
ft.,
velocity in
ft.
6.
it
the straight
0.2 e'-^"
and
0.85 (i.5)~3".
0.2 e'-^".
In {pv'')
8.
Show how
to solve for
p the equation
-\
-^
pv
c,
where
a, b, c, k,
and
R are known
various values are assigned to v. 9. Construct charts for the relations V = wr^h and S = 2 irrh (volume and lateral surface of a cylinder) using parallel straight lines only. ID. Plot the equation y = 2 x" for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as a set of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines. n. Plot the equation y = e"^ for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as a
set of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines.
12. Plot the following experimental data for the relative humidity obtained by a dew-point apparatus, using the wet bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as ordinates.
constants,
when
(DEG.
P.).
EXERCISES
43
13. Construct a chart similar to that of Ex. 12, using the difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature as ordinates. Which is the better representation, that oi Ex. 12 or that of Ex. 13? 14. From the chart of Ex. 13, with the aid of graphical interpolation, form a table
giving the relative humidity for dry bulb temperatures of 40, 50, ference between wet and dry bulb temperatures of 0, 5, 10
set of curves for the difference of
110,
45,
nates and the relative humidity as abscissas. 15. Plot the curves y = a sin bx for various values of a and
16.
of
of d in. diameter,
is
given by
B.H.P.
<Pn
.
2, 4, 6, 8, 12, letting
d range
from if
17.
lbs.
in.
to 5
nate paper.
The volume,
in.
per sq.
V, of one pound of superheated steam which has a pressure and a temperature of T degrees, is given by (Tumlirz's formula)
V-= 0.596 p
18.
0.256 cu.
ft.
by means
of parabola
(ft)
and
12 z
circle.
(Art.
isO
+ 3z -I-
z - 3 2^ I (e)2*+2-i=o;
= o; = o;
by means
3' z*
+z + 5 =
-32^
0;
(<f)
(/) z*
+ 7 = o; + 3 = o.
19.
- 2^ -
+ 3z -
o;
I
62
+ =
o;
(d) 2^
+ z + 5 = o; + + 2 - = o.
z2
I
CHAPTER
III.
Fundamental
principle.
The
methods employed
in
the pre-
number
(i)
great, especially
when
the rep-
resenting curves are not straight lines; (2) the interpolation must largely be made between curves rather than along a scale, and thus accuracy is
sacrificed; (3)
if
the
methods are extended to equations involving more than three variables. The methods to be explained in this and the following chapters are applicable to a large number of equations or formulas and possess certain distinct advantages over the previous method: (i) the chart uses very few lines and is thus easily read; (2) interpolation is made along a scale rather than between curves, with a corresponding gain in accuracy; (3) the labor of construction is very small, thus saving time and energy;
(4) the
The fundamental
ment charts consists
of
/(m,
V,
o,
by means
of three scales
lines) in
line cuts
v,
and
The transversal
We shall
vis called an isopleth or index line (Fig. 22)^ of the equations which can be rep-
resented in this way, and of the nature and relations of the scales representing the variables involved.*
nomographic or aJignment charts developed by M. D'Ocagne in his "Traite de Nomographie." Further references may be given to "The Construction of Graphical Charts," by J. B.
have been most
fully
*
The
Peddle; "Nomographic Solutions for Formulas of Various Types," by R. C. Strachan (Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 1359), and
to various smaller articles that have appeared from time to time in Engineering Journals.
44
AlKT.
23
(I)
45
(I)
EQUATION OF THE FORM /i(u) +/2(v) =Mw) or /i(u) /2(r) =/3M. THREE PARALLEL SCALES.
[The second form of equation (I) can Chart for equation (1). immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of both be brought
23.
members;
Let
base
line.
thus, log/i(w)
log/2(t')
log/sCw).]
AX, BY, CZ be
ABC any
transversal or
Draw any
^^
^EQ.:><>;
A^-
,^
_-Fig. 23a.
Fig. 236.
the points u,
'v,
respectively, so that
Au =
x,
Bv =
y,
Cw =
z.
How
are x, y, z related?
li
AC CB =
:
:
Wi
m^,
to
AB, then
'.Dv
the triangles
or
Ew
= AC CB
m^x
if through v and w we draw lines parallel uEw and wDv are similar, and Eu Dw = x z z y = mi m2.
and
+ m\y =
(mi
+ W2) z
or
X mi
mi
W1W2 mi + W2
Now
mi
if
AX, BY, CZ
mifi(u), y
mzfiiv), z
m^'
-fz{w), respectively,
fz{w),
line will
sponding values
We
X
fi{v) =
mifi{u)
and y
in Fig. 236.
Hence
(i)
to
-\-
Draw two
and
3'-axes)
mifi{u) and y
46
Chap. Ill
y-scales
W2 are arbitrary moduli. The graduations start at any points on the axes.
(2)
and
may
Draw a
and
3'-axes,
such that
= mi
m^.
This
B A
{y
may be the point C (z = o) cut out by the line from A {x = o) to = o). If the range of the variables u and v is such that the points
do not appear on the scales, a starting point for the w-graduanevertheless be found by noting that three values of u, v, w satisfying equation (1) must be on a straight line; thus, assign values to u and V, say Wo and Vo, and compute the corresponding value of w, say wo, from equation (I) mark the point in which the line joining u = Uq and V = Vo cuts the z-axis with the value w = Wo and use this last point as a
tions
and
may
From
...
mzfz{w)
W1W2 -7 /3(w). mi + m2
r r
General remarks.
lines
scratched on
i.e.,
under side or a thread can serve for reading the chart, one of the variables when two of them are given. The distance between the outside scales and the moduli for these scales should, in general, be so chosen that the complete chart is almost square. Then any index line will cut the scales at an angle n ot less than 45, and its points of intersection with the axes is more easily noted and It is the corresponding interpolation on the scales is more accurate. rarely necessary to choose the moduli so that the length of the longest
its
Charts of logarithmic and uniform scales similar to those described have been used in laying off the scales needed in the construction Much time and energy have been of most of the charts which follow. saved thereby. For greater convenience, the modulus of the primary or left-hand scale was taken to be 10 in. instead of 25 cm. In laying off the w-scale with the help of these charts, the following procedure will increase the accuracy of the construction. Assign two or three sets of values to u and v, and compute the corresponding values Draw the of w\ let these be (mq, z'o, wq), (mi, I'l, Wi), and {u^, V2, Wi). index lines (mq, Vq), (mi, Vi), and (w2, ^2), and mark the points in which these Fold the chart lines cut the z-axis with the corresponding values of w. along the scale with modulus ms, and slide this scale along the z-axis until the points of the scale numbered Wq, Wi, W2 practically coincide with the like-numbered points on the axis. This procedure is especially important when the modulus, mz, is quite small.
in Art. 3
The
Aet. 24
47
Chart for multiplication and division. The equation v = w. log v = log w, we have an equation If we write this equation as log u Let u and v range /o~, of the form (I). from I to 10; then w ranges from i
24.
to 100.
in.
and y =^m2 log W2 = i i, the 2-axis is mid\^ay between the x- and y-axes. The line joining w = i and v = i must cut = i, and using this last the z-axis
10 log u
:
i*
Since Wi
mw
=
construct
5 log w.
W1W2
(wi
+ W2)
w =
I-
Fig 240.
The index
V
line in the
3.
w =
21.
completed chart (Fig. 246) gives the reading m Since the u- and y-scales are logarithmic scales, we
100-1
= 7, may
JO
9
6
908070 60-
7
6
5-
50-
40-
k
30-.
20-.
4-.
-4
ft/}
fWJ
3-.
(V^
ro-
9: 87-
6-
5
i-
-2
2-
/J
7-J
CHART
FnOR
48
Chap. Ill
read these scales as ranging from lo^ to iqp+i where p is any integer, with a corresponding change in the position of the decimal point in the value of w.
25.
As a further
fi{v)
illustra-
/i(w)
>
Ji{w),
we
shall
now
same
same
Our chart (Fig. 25) represents six formulas and undoubtedly others could be added. In all cases, if Wi and m2 are the moduli of the scales on the x- and 3'-axes, then the modulus of
the scale on the 2-axis
2-axis is
is
ma
mirrh/inii
:
position of the
determined by the ratio mi nh. (i) U' V = w for multiplication and division. This has already been charted in Art. 24. The equations of the scales are
a:
=
i
:
10 log w,
i.
10 log
v,
5 log w,
and mi
mz
The
3, u
5,
w =
15.
(2) v'uTij* = w occurs in the McMath "run-off" formula. equation can be written log 4 log w = 5 log w and hence
The
X
Let mi
= mi log u,
10
2
2,
= ma
(5 log
:
w)
and mi
m2
i.
The
10 log w,
lologi',
10 log w.
A
V
then
w =
=
I,
is found by noting that when u = i and and by aligning these three points. The index line
3, u
5,
w =
4.5.
c gives the pressure-volume relation of certain gases under adiabatic expansion. The equation can be written \ogp 1.41 log V = log c, hence
x
If
mi\ogp,
1. 41
x=io\ogp,
=
is
lologv,
4.15 log
c.
A
V
and
then
V=
mi
The
index line
cylinder.
The equation
Z)
+
y
log
(log
X
If
(2 log D),
we
choose mi
= mi log H, z = nis (log V log 0.785). and m2 = 10, then ma = 3.33 and mi m2 = i
:
2.
r
/Ut.
25
49
a0)
y^
A-
H JO S3
lA
VA
N
il
I I I
I
g
I '
I
0,
00
1 1
I
N
1
<o
1.
I
I I
III
I I
II
TT
I I I I
*An/
cO PZSO'A.
I 1
I
l\
L
I
3a3HdS JO si/vniOA
II
I I
11
I,
...
V<?
'?
"?
y^
i
i
Hi
|i
II
1
1 I
o=,^.,Acf
s\^o
n jo^umoA
I i
3iinss3tid
"^
I'
'
I"'
'
I
"
I
'
<
'
'
'
'
1'
'
'
'
'
'
'
I'
' I
I I
I'
Miiiiiii
4\= A X ny
\
JO j.ono
'
^
"^^
>
^j HI
1'l
'II
J'
' '
'i
'
' '
I
'll
>
'
1 '
1 1
'
'
'
nn
'HfO
\
'
"
'
'
MM
1 1
\i
^Hzaf9-0 03SM3J
\
-J-jnO NI AJ.llNVnb
\
I"" "
I
1
1
1 I 1
'
|i""" ii|
""
I I
"
1
I 1
1 '
I 1
' I
I '
1 I
1 '
I 1
'
'
'
'
'
I
'
r-
a-d-n-a JO ssmtTA
50
Chap.
Ill
The
iologZ>,
lologiY,
3.33 log V,
where we have discarded the expression 3.33 log 0.785 in the value of z; this may be done since this expression merely helps to determine a starting point for the F-scale; thus the point
2
F =
is
at a vertical distance
= 3.33
log 0.785
line
AB
of Fig.
23a or 236.
We shall
however determine a starting point for the F-scale by noting that when D = I and = i, then F = 0.785, and by aligning these three points.
D = H = 5, V = t,^. ^ = 0.524 D^ the volume of a sphere. The equation can be written F = 0.524 D'D^or\ogD-\-2 log D = log V - log 0.524, hence X =^ mi log D, z = m^ (log V log 0.524). y = nh (2 log D),
The index
(5)
2,,
5,
then mz
3.33
and mi
m^
i.
10 log
Z),
10 log D,
3-33 log ^.
in the value of
2.
i,
We
V=
scale
D =
0.524 and
we
D2
D =
D=
i,
and
F=
0.524.
(6)
Q =
6.3
Vh
If
second which
flows
under a head
(log
H feet.
Q log
6.3).
gives the quantity of water, Q, in cu. ft. per through a pipe having a diameter D ft. when = The equation can be written 2 log D + I log we choose Wi = 5 and W2 = 20, then W3 = 4 and
200^
f54h-t
Wi
^^
W2
4.
The equations
of
y
'006-^
,
find
then
Q =
6.3
three points.
The
3,
the reading
D =
H=
5,
^04
Aiff-*
j-> -20
26. Grashoflf's
formula
D^Pi^-^''
M?
Q = 127. = 0.0165
for the steam in pounds per second flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds per sq.
CLOOi-
^Pi0 97
0.01296
Fig. 26a.
weight,
n;,
of dry saturated
sq. in.,
if
Pi
0.6 P2.
ZX)0-{
ISJO;
iso-
r300
o
250'
5U)-
4.0-
3,01000.90-
-200
2.0<o
0.80t.O
-ISO
^0.70^
0.S
0.4- -\
^0.50-i
It]
03
0.2
100
-90
^0.40^
0.1
-80
-70
k
0.30-
60
0.0S
Si
0.040.03-
-SO
a02
o.zo-\
40
o
k
0.010J>090.0060.007-
o
30
0./S
0.006
0.005-
0.0040.003-
a/<H
O.OOZ-'
20
0.97
P^
51
52
If
Chap.
Ill
2 log Z)
+ 0.97 log Pi =
(I).
(log
w
=
log 0.01296)
we have an
X
The
z
scales are
nis (log
= mi{2 logD),
= m2
w-
log 0.01296).
Let
vary from
then
if
to log 2
= 10 log D and the scale will be about 13 in. long. the D-scale will be Let Pi vary from 20 pounds to 300 pounds, then log Pi varies from log 20 = 1.301 to log 300 = 2.477, a range of 1.176; if we choose m^ = 10/0.97, the equation of the P-scale will be 3' = 10 log P and the scale will be about 12 in. long. Then W3 = minh/inii -f W2) = 3.37. The equations of our scales are now
X
10 log
Z),
10 log P,
3'-axes
3.37 log w.
in.
:
We have therefore from the x-axis and 4.04 in. from the 3'-axis. A starting point for the w-scale is found by aligning D = i, Pi = 100, and w = 1. 13. The completed chart is given in Fig. 26b.
m^
4.85
10.
drawn the
27.
Tension in
.
belts,
T ~ ii
=
first
e""^^^^^^",
and horsepower
is
of
belting,
H.P.
-^
stress in
33)000
In the
of these formulas. Pi
the allowable
working
pounds per
in. of
may be
by breaking a
Pi may vary from about 50 to 75 for and from 100 to 150 for double belts, a is the arc of contact in degrees of belt and pulley and may vary from 100 to 300. / is the coefficient of friction and is assumed (in this chart) to have the value 0.30 for leather belts on cast-iron pulleys. P2 is the tension in the loose side This formula may be written of the belt in pounds per in. of width.
factor of safety should be added.
single belts
log P2
log Pi
=0.01745 fa log e
(I).
or
log Pi
0.002274 a
log T^
which
is
in the
form
Pi,
The
y
scales are
m\ log
= W2
(0.002274 a),
nis
log P2.
from log 50 = 1.6990 to log 150 = 2.1 761, a range of 0.4771; if we choose Wi = 10, the equation of the Pi-scale will he x = 10 log Pi and the scale will be about 5 in. long. Again, a has a range of
Now
log Pi varies
200;
if
we
choose
ntz
-,
40 (0.002274)
Art. 27
TENSION IN BELTS
the scale will be 5
in. long.
S3
= 5V and
5.24.
Then m^ = mim^/iini
z
in.
+ nh)
The equations
X
lologri,
= iV
W2
must
:
10
002274)
^^
11.
x-
We
axis
from the
90^
T-IOO
and T2
is
reading Ti
^^150
36.5
806--
is
by the
belt
Ti
is
the
1.96'IJ9"vary from 10 to 200; horsepower which a belt of one inch width will transmit; then, knowing 10 the horsepower which we wish to Fig. 270. transmit we merely divide to get the width of the belt desired. The equation can be written
\300
log (ri
T^)
+ log 5
y
log
H.P.
+ log 33,000,
z
(I).
The
T2),
scales are
Wi log {Ti
nh log
S,
nis
log
H.P.
Now
of
log
(T*!
if
7*2)
to log 200
2.3010, a range
1. 3010;
we choose Wi =
(T'l
7'2)-scale will
be about 6.5 in. long. Log S varies from log 300 = 2.4771 to log 6000 = 3.7781, a range of 1.3010; if we choose nh = 5, the equation of the vS-scale wilt hey = $ log 5 and the scale will be about 6.5 in. long. Then W3 = WiW2/(wi W2) = 2.5. The equations of our scales are
be X
5 log (Ti
T2)
and the
5 log (Ti
-T2),
3;
=
i
.
5 log 5,
2.5 log
H.P.
this
in.
must divide
scale
is found by aligning Ti T2 = 10, 5 = 300, and H.P. = 0.091. The completed chart is given in Fig. 27c and indicates the reading Ti Ti =
100,
6"
1000,
H.P.
3.0.
54
Chap. Ill
NIlAl
I I
/
/
!?
/
I
I i
"" ii "
/
i 1 1 1 1
III
/l
i""i""i
nil
II
^<,
ui!?
*)
C,
<0
/ H2a/M JO HOMI
/
inii
I
I I
iJ3d 'dH
^^
I I
ji
II
I'lMimM. M
S33y930 N/
1
1 1
1
(-o)
lOVlNOO JO
1
OifV
|
1 1 1
II
\
II
I I I
I I
\ i\m
I
iiniiii
II
|i
i|
^ O
"
\
(
ll
|
ll
l[1lll|lll
I I
II|
I|" HIIII
I
|I
I I
si
<
>
^HJ.a/M
Art. 28
(II)
55
(II)
EQUATION OF FORM
or
fi{u)'f2{v)'Mw)
'
ALLEL SCALES.
[The second form of equation (II) 28. Chart for equation (II). can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of = log/4(/).] both members; thus log/i(w) logfsiw) ^ogfiiv) Equation (II) is merely an extension of equation (I) and the method of charting the former is an extension of the method employed in charting
the latter.
For
tion
in
This equation
in the
and the equaLet fi{u) -\- hiv) = q. and can therefore be charted by means
tt^f
<>~-(6Ly/
~<iv.
6w,
(U. V)
^w.
<5>
Fig. 28c.
Fig. 286.
but the g-scale need not be graduated. (Fig. = fi{t), which is also in the form (I) -\- fsiw) and can therefore be charted by means of three parallel scales one of which is the g-scale already constructed. The graduations of the u-, v-, and w-scales may start anywhere along their axes, but a starting point for the graduations of the /-scale must be determined by a set of values u = uo, V = Vo, w = Wq, t = to satisfying equation (II) thus, join Uo and Vo by a straight line and mark its point of intersection with the g-axis; join this point with Wo cuttfng the /-scale in a point which must be marked
We
then have q
/o;
t-
one joining points on the u- and y-scales, the other joining points on the wand /-scales, intersecting the g-axis in the same point. Fig. 28a illusscale.
To
we
lines,
trates the position of the scales. It is thus easy to find the value of any one of the four variables when the other three are known. The extension of this njethod to equations of the form (II) containing more than four variables is obvious.
56
Chap. Ill
Considering again the case of four variables, /i(w) fi{t), we can write this in the form fi(u) +/2(^) = fiit)
chart each of the equations /i(w)
-\-
+ fziv) + fsiw) =
fz{w) = q and fz{w) = q hy
fiiv)
q and
fi^t)
means of three parallel scales, with the g-scale (v/hich is not graduated) in common. Again, to read the cl art, we use two index lines, one joining points on the u- and w-scales and the other joining points on the w- and
/-scales, intersecting
Chezy formula
c y/rs.
Here,
c is
open channels,
is
per sec, r
the hydraulic
radius in
surface,
ft.
(area divided
and
by wetted perimeter) 5 is the slope of the water a coefficient depending on the condition of the channel. the construction of a chart computing c by the Bazin
r
formula.)
to 20
ft.
Let our variables range as follows: s from 0.00005 to o.oi, Writing the equation ft., c from 10 to 250.
^ log 5
from
o.i
^ log r
(II).
+ log c
log
t;
the form
ihgs
= Wi
-\-^\ogr
and
first
(2) g
+ log c
z
=
=
log
i>.
the
of these equations.
nf^q.
The
scales
to log o.oi
8.0
10,
we choose
Wi =
5 log 5
and the
scale will
be about 11.5
long.
Again, log
r varies
i. 3010, a range of 2.3010; and if we choose from log o.i to log 20 = 10, the equation of the r-scale is y = 5 log r and the scale will be W2 about 1 1.5 in. long. Then W3 = miW2/(wi -{- m2) = 5. The equations
= I
5 log
5,
5^ogr,
5q.
Construct (Fig. 29a) the x- and y-axes at any convenient distance, say 8 in. apart; the z-axis must divide this distance in the ratio Wi W2 = 1:1, and hence the z-axis is drawn midway between the x- and y-axes. The g-scale need not be graduated. We continue the construction by charting the second equation. The
:
scales are
ntaq,
m/^
log
c,
We
log 10
use the same g-scale as above so that = I to log 250 = 2.3979, a range of 1.3979; ^^^
varies from
choose mt
-\-
5,
the length of the scale will be about 7 in. The equations of our scales are 2.5.
z
Then
&
nts
= mzmj{m3
V.
m^ =
2.
5 log
c,
2.5 log
Art. 30
HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
57
Construct (Fig. 29a) the a-axis at any convenient distance, say 10 in. from the 2-axis. The graduations of the c-scale may start anywhere
along the a-axis for symmetry, we shall place the scale opposite the middle The 6-axis must divide the distance of the scales already constructed. and it is therefore i the z- and a-axes in the ratio ^3:^4=1 between get a starting point for the y-scale midway between them. drawn
;
: ,
We
by making a
o.ooi, r
single
com5
0.01 qqi^
-.
putation; thus,
when
c
^20
r-^SO
=
v
and
=
r
100,
we have
join s
3.16; hence,
O.OOI
and
=
in
i,
II
15
cL
^^100
cutting
point,
the
g-axis
this
cut-
S"
i_/^
3.16.
Starting at this
4'
o.otxx?s
^-0.02
*-0.f
graduated from v *
0.02
to v
^ Fig.
29a.
100.
The completed chart is given in Fig. 2gb. To read the chart we need merely remember that the {s, r) and (c, v) index lines must intersect on The index lines drawn in Fig. 296 show that when 5 = o.ooi, the g-axis. = I ft. and c = 100, then v = 3.16 ft. per sec. r Hazen- Williams formula for the velocity of flow of water in 30. The quantity of water discharged, pipes, V = CR^-^^S"^-^ (0.001)-'^. = 4 t:RW. The first of these formulas has been derived experimen^ tally by Hazen and Williams, who have also constructed a slide rule
is
V is
C
ft.
(area of
by wetted perimeter)
is
is
a coefficient depending on the material and the Williams and Hazen give the
Cast
*'
iron,
" "
"
"
"
60-100
105-115 90-105 1 10-135
Masonry conduits
Replacing (o.oi)~^ by its value 1.3 18 and expressing R in inches instead of in feet, the formula becomes V = 0.2755 CR-^S-^, and this can be written as
0.63 log
R + 0.54 log 5 +
log
C+
log 0.2755
log
58
Chap.
Ill
10-
9a-_
7-
6s-
.001-
0009-
oooa.0OO7-
9-e.7
6.59
J-
.0001.00009.ooooa.O0007-
.00006'
/tofxa'
AxT. 30
HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
of the
in.,
59
which
in.
is
form
(II).
to 20
5 from
o.oooi to 0.05,
R from o.i
q.
We
first
R+
0.54 log
S =
ntzq.
The
scales are
= mi
Now
= m2 = i
to log 20
1.3010, a range of
5/0.63, the equation of the i?-scale will be 2.3010; if we choose = 5 log i? and the scale will be about 11.5 in. long. Again, log 5' varies X
mi =
10 to log
10, a range of 8.6990 2.6990; if we choose W2 = 5/0.54, the equation of the 5-scale will
he y = $ log 5 and the scale will be about 13.5 in. long. Then W3
WiW2/(wi
X
+ W2)
= = =
4.27.
The
y
z
4.27
q.
:!C-
and y-axes 11.7 in. apart; the 3-axis must divide this distance
in the ratio Wii
:
"
/,,_r
1
^-o.aoa/
mz
= -4~
0.63
Fig. 30a.
=
in.
5.4
6.3.
We
drawn the
from the
z-axis at
y-axis.
The
be,
graduated.
We now
The
by charting
log V.
scales are
2
mzq,
C+
log 0.2755),
b
4.27.
= m^ log
Log C
V.
We use
log 25
nii
varies from
1.3979 to log 200 = 2.3010, a range of 0.9031; if 4.27, the equation of the C-scale will he a = 4.27 log
we choose
C and
2.14.
the
Then W5 = mzmJimz
W4)
The
4.27
q,
4.27 log C,
2.14 log V.
Construct (Fig. 30a) the o-axis at a distance of 4.8 in. from the 2-axis. Although the graduations of the C-scale may start anywhere along the o-axis, the C-scale is only about 4 in. long and we shall get a more symmetrical chart
by
6o
Chap. Ill
must divide the distance between the z-axis and a-axis in the W4 = i i, and is therefore midway between them. We get a starting point for the F-scale by making a single computation, thus, when R = 2, S = o.ooi and C = 100, we have V = 1.02 hence, join R = 2 and S = O.OOI, cutting the g-axis in a point, and then join this point and C = 1.00, cutting the 6-axis in a point which must be marked V = 1.02.
ratio
The
W3
OS
h04
st>n
/s
2O00
roon
100010
eo60.0/
9
676-
200JOO
.009
ooa 007
10
S
4-\
d Cj
:
.006
i^
.00s
.^90
BO
70
700^.
-
.6
6
.4
60SO 40-
-.O02 <0
I
.00s .006 .004
./ -
-oor
i
,
k.
-.0009
fS
I'"
^o.sA
2tOJO-A
08-
'-j0007^\
-.0006
-.aw5>i to r0004
210'.\
to'
/?-5
/fey;
/?
C
V
^.OOOk
o.'-'
Q-AV'47TR^V.
Fig. 306.
by adding a scale for For circular pipes, we have Q = 4 ttRW, where V is the velocity of discharge in ft. and R is the hydraulic radius (one-fourth of the diameter of the pipe) in ft., ov Q = 0.0873 RW, where R is expressed in inches. We write this equation in the form
enlarge the usefulness of our chart
ft.
We shall
now
per sec.
2 log
i?
-I-
log
V=
(log
(2
log 0.0873),
Art. 31
61
= Wi
(2 log
R),
m2 log V,
x
= W3
(log
Q
we
log 0.0873).
take Wi
=;
5/2,
to
scale
is
5 log R, as above.
We also want
= 2.14 and = 1.15, and
get
Then W3 = m\mi/{mi
W2)
the
1.15 log Q.
The
c-axis
must divide
Wi
W2
2.5
tance of 4.2
in.
accomplished by drawing the c-axis at a disfrom the x-axis. We get a starting point for the Q-scale
2.14; this is
2,
by
aligning
R =
2
V=
1.02,
and Q =
0.36.
The
that
when
R =
in.,
ft.
5 =
o.ooi,
and C
100, then
V=
1.02
ft.
per sec.
and Q
31.
0.36 cu.
per sec.
engine,
H.P.
=
33>ooo
Here,
the
mean
effective pressure in
ft.,
pounds per
sq. in.,
,
is
the
is
and
is
This formula
is
The
pressure, P,
is
area divided
by
its
water pumps we have the fluid acting on both sides of the piston alternately. Here we must apply the formula to each end and add the results in order to get the total power output. For purposes of illustration we shall here use the diameter, D, instead
pressors, air engines, or
of the area,
and write
H.P-
""^^^'w
0.000001983
PLDW
where
L
(i)
is
expressed in inches, as
is
more common.
We
(i)
PL = PL = q
X
g,
(2)
D^N =
t,
(3)
-f-
the
form
(I),
and our
m\ log P,
10 to 200, log
= nh log L,
W3 log g.
long.
If
if
P varies from
P varies from
we choose Wi =
be about 13
If
varies
if
from 2 to 40, log L varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of 1.3010; we choose W2 = 10, the L scale will be about 13 in. long. Then W3 mifrh/{'mi -f- nh) = 5, and the equations of our scales are
3c=iologP,
3'=iologL,
5log2.
62
Chap. Ill
The
z-axis
nh
and
is
therefore
must drawn
V^N =
a
form
(1),
D+
log
log
=
c
log
/,
= W4 (2 log D),
nts
N,
= m^ log
t.
to 40, log D varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of and if we choose W4 = 5, the equation of the Z)-scale will be a = If iV varies from 50 to 10 log D and the scale will be about 13 in. long. 1000, log iV varies from 1.6990 to 3.0000, a range of 1.3010; and if we choose ms = 10, the iV-scale will be about 13 in. long. Then wg = W4W6/(w4 + W5) = 3.33, and the equations of our scales are
If
D varies from 2
1. 3010;
10 log D,
10 log N,
3.33 log L
their scales
Since D and L in. apart. have the same modulus, ior y = 10 log L and a = 10 log D, we find g^
it
convenient to
make
the a-axis
The
use one scale for both L and D. c-axis must divide the distance between the a- and &-axes
in the ratio
m^
m^
2,
or
the c-axis
'
is
at a distance of
3.33
in.
F^G. 31a.
i-scale
(3)
H.P.
log 0.000001983),
z
0.000001983 qt can be written log g -f log / = (log H.P. which has the form (I). Our scales are
c
=
=
niQ
2,
log
3.33 log
t,
ntj
log H.P.,
and hence </ = 2 log H.P. The 2- and must divide this distance in the ratio W3 We = 5 3.33; thus the J-axis must be at a distance of 5 in. from the 2-axis and must coincide with the y- and a-axes. Thus, one side of this triple axis carries the scale for L and D, and the other side, the scale for H.P. To get a starting point for the H.P. scale we make a single comws)
and the
rf-axis
putation:
I>
line joining
P = 50, L = 14, P = 8, iV = 300 give i7.P. = 26.7; hence the P = 50 and L = 14 cuts the g-axis in a point, the line joining
= 8 and N = 300 cuts the /-axis in a point, and the line joining these two points cuts the rf-axis in a point which must be marked H.P. = 26.7. Fig. 31& gives the completed chart, and the index lines indicate that = 300 when P = 50 pounds per sq. in., L = 14 in,, D = 8 in., and revolutions per min., then H.P. = 26.7.
"""- "
'
I.. ...
....
^
, .
11
I 1
i
I
\
^
(N-a)
!\
^
i
o M
iiiii
1,1,1
t.
'j
i,i,j ,ii
'
?T
,
<
'ii Vi
'
' i I
i'
' i
n 'i
'
' I I
'
H.a
'
a3d(^13A3a(dHJy3AA0d 3Si/0f/
w
I
\
\
\
(I'd J
5S
//:^A//
A/t^J/V
1
CTT-T-rX-Trl
-1
M M
J ".'M"M
'
I.
03
64
Chap.
Ill
Construct charts for the following formulas. The numbers in parenthesis suggest limiting values for the variables. These limits may be extended if necessary. Additional exercises will be found at the end of Chapter V.
I-
W'
AP = -
D^Pu
It
pounds per
steam flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds (20 to 300) per sq. in. through an orifice of A sq. in. or of diameter D in. (o.i to 2.0) to a pressure of Pi pounds per sq. in., if Pi = 0.6 Pi.
sec. of
Francis' formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. ft. per sec. over a 2. Q = 3-33 btfirectangular weir h ft. (2 to 15) in width due to a head of ft. (0.5 to 1.5) over the crest.
3.
Z*
2 In
+ 0.5. Self-inductance,
each
r
two
cm.
axes d cm.
P=
50,210,000 ^25)
sq. in. of
Stewart's
steel
pounds per
(l
Bessemer
tubing
in.
and
in,
to 6) in external diametei.
5.
sec.
(0.1
Q = % ^2 gcbfP. Hamilton Smith formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. ft. per over a contracted or suppressed weir b ft. (2 to 20) in width due to a head of ft. to 1.6) over the crest, if the coefficient of discharge is c (0.580 to 0.660). [g = 32.2.]
6.
P
d
=
is
0.196
Load,
/.
spring;
B. S. gage), r
the diameter of the wire in inches (0.102 to 0.460 or No. 10 to No. 0000, is the mean radius of the coil in inches (0.5 to 2.0), / is the fiber stress in
pounds (30,000 to 80,000). Conveyor-belt calculations; p is the correct number 7. p = kgW {L + 10 H). of plies (i to 15) is the width of the belt in inches (10 to 60), g is the weight of material handled in pounds per cu. ft. (30 to 125), L is the length of the belt in ft. and is the difference in elevation between the head and tail pulleys in ft. (Z, -f 10 fl" 100 r to 1500), ^ is a constant depending on the type of drive {k 1/250,000 for a simple
H
k
= 1/300,000 for a sirnple drive with rubber-lagged pulleys, 1/375,000 for a tandem drive with bare pulleys, k = 1/455,000 for a tandem drive with rubber-lagged pulleys). [Charted in Metallurgical and Chemical Ertgineering, =
XIV,
8.
Vol.
Jan.
i,
1916.]
H^
= V
15 ird^VD.
Flow of
(i
is
to 30,000), d
steam at the mean pressure (use a steam table and plot D for values of the absolute pressure from i to 215 pounds per sq. in.) [Charted in Electrical World, Vol. 68, Dec.
9, 1916.]
9.
is
p = V^DK,
where
= ^^ ^i
^V Flow
of
the pressure drop between the ends of the pipe in pounds per sq. in. per 100 ft. of pipe (o.oi to 20), and V, d, and D are defined in Ex. 8. [Charted in Electrical World,
Vol. 68, Dec. 9, 1916.)
10.
/**
ft.
14.7*
0.0007
ft'
-fy
Blast-pressure furnace; H
is
furnace in
ft.
is the number of cu. (50 to ioo);D is the bosh diameter in ft. (10 to 25), of air at 70 F. per minute (5000 to 80,000), p is the blast-pressure in pounds gage (2 to
25).
[Charted in Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Vol. XIV, Mar. 15, 1916.]
(Continued). or
EQUATION OF FORM
/i(u)
= MvY'^^'
f,(u)
=f2{v)'Mw) CHART.
Chart for equation (III). [The second form of equation (HI) can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of both members.] The first form of equation (IH) is the same as the second form of equation (I), but in Art. 23 we used three parallel logarithmic
32.
-
scales,
while here
we
two
parallel
and a
axis
AX
and
BY
he two
parallel axes
and
AZ
any
and
respectively.
Draw any
Fig. 32a.
Fig. 326.
index line cutting the axes in the points u, v, w so that Au Aw = z; note that Au and Bv are oppositely directed.
y,
= x, Bv = y, How are x,
Then
:
Auw
or
and Bvw,
x
Au Bv = Aw wB,
or
z,
-r
y.
Now
if
rr^
r f^iv),
and
if
AZ
w such
that
W22
Wi
{k
z)
= hiw)
or
65
k
mifz{w) -\rnh\
66
Chap. IV
line will cut the
f2(f)
'
fz{w),
Hence,
to
Draw
three axes
AX
z
and
BY are
parallel
AB
y
is
any convenient
length, k.
With
and and
mifi{u),
nhf2{v),
!^/-^^.
mijaiw)
it is
+ W2
,
Note that
necessary to com-
pute the value of z for every value of w which is to appear on the chart. To avoid this computation, proceed as follows: On B Y, choose a fixed point F at any convenient distance, I, from B
(Fig. 326),
and on
AX
Then
AC =
AZ.
x'
fsiw).
From
in w,
F as
and
C on
the axis
Let
FC
cut
AZ
Aw =
z
z.
ACw
k
and BFw,
-^
:k
or
j.
I -\-
x'
niifsiw)
+ nh
first
Hence
x'
mifi{w)
fsiw)
,\
+ rrh
,
construct
the scale
on
AX, and
on
BY (where BF
/)
to the axis
is
D= =
1.24 '-^t \/
0.088.
Here D
we
j v| ^ ft
is
-{-
is
the
AD = ft x
if
,
0.088)2
r^
we have an equation
of the
form (HI).
X
The
r
scales are
m,L.
nnft,
Let
L vary up to
100,000 pounds;
we choose Wi =
0.0001 L and its length will be 10 in. Let/( he x vary up to 100,000 pounds; if we choose tth = 0.0001, the equation of the If we choose /rscale will he y = 0.0001 ft and its length will be 10 in. the fixed point or center of projection, F, on the y-axis so that / = 8.3 in., then the equations of our scales are
of the L-scale will
0.0001 L,
0.0001 ft,
x'
5.4
(D
0.088)2.
Art. 33
If
U.S.
STANDARD THREADS
67
we compute
of x'
and lay
We
the point
to the
'
9-
^.<^in-nn<,a,70r
ng
corresponding
same
The
point
final
chart,
F nor
the prois
jecting lines,
given
100.000
m Fig. 330.
side of
On one
the oblique
have been
ft
given.
The
37,000 pounds per sq. in., then D^= i in. and there are 8 threads to the inch. Similar charts can be built up for various other threads.
20.000
3Q000-.
u.s. st'd.
threiads.
Fig. 336.
68
Chap. IV
(IV)
TWO
of
INTER-
34.
large
number
such equations
in
equations
in-
as
-Mw) =
fi(t)
or
/i(w) -fiiv)
(IV)
is
but
we
Let
AX,
coincide with
BY and AZ, BTho: two pairs of parallel axes, where AZ may AX (Fig. 34a) or AZ may make any convenient angle with
Fig. 34a.
Fig. 346.
is
common
2,
transversal.
Through any
v,
P on AB
related?
w,
z,
and and
q so that
t
Au =
x,
Bv =
y,
Aw =
and Bq
t.
How
are x, y,
From
X
:
we have
:.
AP PB
:
and
= AP PB,
:
t.
Now
ii
scales
z
msfsiw),
/i(m)
:
ntifiiq),
:
where Wi rui = ms mi, the relation becomes and two index lines intersecting in a point on u, V, w, and q satisfying equation (IV).
Hence,
to
f-i.{v)
= fziw)
fiiq)
AB
:
will cut
out values of
as follows'.
/2(f)
=fz{w)
/4(g) proceed
AX
segment AB oi any convenient length, draw the and BY and the parallel axes AZ and BT, where AZ
of a
Art. 35
69
may
coincide or
AX.
i
On
these axes
niifiiu),
mifiiv),
= W3/3M,
=
:
mifi{q)
wg
= W3
W4.
To
and
ing
index
V,
one joining u
w and
The
35.
and
intersect-
ing in a point on
AB.
following examples
illustrate this
type of chart:
Fig. 35a.
Prony brake or
electric
dynamometer
formula, H.P.
for
^'^'^'^
.
33>ooo
The sketch
in Fig.
measuring the power of a rotating shaft. Either the prony brake or the electric dynamometer may be used. With such an arrangement the power is given by the above formula, where L is the length of brake arm in feet, is the speed of the
and
is
pounds.
If
we
H.P.
N
.T
W = 5260/L
of the
77-
we have an equa^
(IV),
tion
form
and our
scales are
X
400
miH.P.,
y
/
=
=
ntiN,
msW,
W4-
5260
O
Fig. 356.
60
The
following
table
exhibits
the limits of
choice of moduli, and the equations and approximate lengths of the scales.
Scale
Limits
Modulus
X
Equation
Length
H.P.
= y = z =
^
0.15 H.P.
0.00225
0.03
12" in III
-4
12'
2.37
1"
mj
In Fig. 35&, the x- and z-axes coincide, so that the H.P.- and 1^-scales common axis, and starting from the
70
Chap. IV
same
N- and
L-scales.
The
index
lines,
one
joining
L and
The completed chart is given in Fig. 35c, and the index lines show that = 50 pounds, and N = 2000 r.p.m., then H.P. = 38. when L = 2 it.,
31
36.
Deflection of
.
beam
fixed at ends
and loaded
at center.
A =
Here, A is the deflection of beam in inches, v^ 192 EI load on beam in pounds, L is the length of beam in feet,
is
the total
E is the modulus
Art. 37
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
and /
is
71
the
moment
of inertia in
inch units.
We
scales
shall take
30,000,000 for
,
steel, so
may be
written as
W
ji
3.333.000 /
= miA,
= nhU,
ntsW,
= W4
(3,333.000) 7.
The
of the scales.
Scale
Limits
to 1.5
Modulus
Wi W2
iris
Equation
8
Length
up up Up
10 to 35 to 300,000
to
3000
nii
0.000,224 L^
0.000,04
^
T
0.003,735 I
72
Chap. IV
may
be represented by
A =
LENGTH OF BEAM
I I I I
(L)
IN
FEET
I-
U-1
soo-
I.OOi
1,500-
2,000-
2.S00-
SjOOO^
r-T-T
I I I
'
'
'
'
'
I
I
DEFLECT/ON OF BEAM
(A)
fN /NCHES.
BEAM FIXED AT
is
assigned to
a.
In
all cases,
the
wiA,
m<JJ,
= msW,
= W4
(3,333.ooo) ^-
and
(i) to (4), the x- and z-axes are perpendicular, and in cases (5) the x- and z-axes coincide. The scales are arranged so that there (6), In all is only one common transversal joining the zeros of all the scales. and / and the index line joining A and L cases the index line joining
In cases
must
intersect
Art. 38
73
The completed
that there
oSS!5!2!S!i5
is
no
difficulty in reading
5 X
tion will
of charting this
composite equa-
N,
N VH.P. t
The formula
gives
74
Chap. IV
and
is
Here,
iVg is
the horsepower,
is
the
number
and
is
wheel in
tensively
and
in
work; the reaction turbine is used when the head is low and the quantity of water available
is
varying from lo to lOO, while wheel is used when the head is great and,
iVg
yo.oosN
Fig. 38a.
as is usual in such cases, the water limited, the value of iV varying from 2 to 6. Because
two
cases, it
we
form
(IV),
and our
scales are
= miN
= nhN,
= m^^.
of the
The
scales.
Reaction Turbine
Scale
Limits
10 to 100
Modulus
Equation
Length
N,
N
H.P.
up to 2000
" "
" 1000
H
Scale
" 200
= = = W4 =
mi W2 ms
0.1
0.005
0.28
= y = z =
X
t
0.1
Ng
9"
10''
0.005
0.28
^
H^
VTrF.
10"
^' = 0.014
0.014
Limits
2 to 6
Modulus
mi W2 W3
mi
Equation
Length
N,
N
H.P.
up
"
= = =
1.7
0.00476
0.28
^
X y
z
= =
=
1.7
Ns
7"
0.0047 6 0.28
N
H^
VKpI
9b"
10'
" 2000
= -^ =
0.000784
0.000784
Fig. 38a shows the position of the scales. The x- and z-axes coincide so that the N,- and iY.P.-scales are constructed on opposite sides of the
Art. 38
75
common
shown
N- and
H-scales.
action turbine
in the
and
diagram,
pendicular to the axes of the latter, and both charts use the same transSPECIFIC SPEED
(Ns)
OF REACTION TURBINE.
SI
J!
\horse power
(R. T.)!
200-
100
300- 200
400- -300
I
1000
500eoo-
400
-900
JSO-soo
BOO
^ BOO
-JOO
700
BOO
*
^
5;
600
^
y:^
k
<.
900
1000-
500
-mo
1100-
^00
Uj
%
-^1200-
ItOO
Iq
o
300-^
\l
/200
^'^'^IJOOi.
7
100
'Kl400-
1400
1500
Ig
Itl
>
1500-leoo
Key:
1600-
-1700
.1700-
BO
i
I I
I
I
-leoo
1900
\
^ leoo-
2000
ai
HEAD (H)
IN I
I
YT u
I
IR.T.)
^ %
.l
.
^
...',
|
.
^ J M ^
,|
.
i..l.,
I
,..l|
M
..,l
,..i i
<
,, ,. .T
.... n' .
"T^
SPEED
IN) IN REV.
PER MIN.
(R. T.)
SPECIFIC
Fig. 386.
versal
on which the index lines intersect, one Index and the other joining H.P. and H.
Fig. 386 gives the
lines
line joining iV
and JV
then
when
= =
completed chart; for the reaction turbine, the index = 1000 r.p.m., H" = 70 ft., and B..P. = 201, 70; for the tangential water wheel, the index lines show that = 700, and H.P. = 275, then N, = 4.6. 1000 r.p.m.,
76
(V).
Chap. IV
EQUATION OF FORM f,{u) = f2{v) fs{w) Ut) .... TWO OR MORE INTERSECTING INDEX LINES.
Charts for equation (V). A large number of equations involving three or more variables can be written in the form (V), which is similar to the second form of equation (II), but in Art. 28 we used log39.
we shall use natural scales. Equation (IV) a special case of equation (V) when there are four variables present. We shall here consider the cases where equation (V) contains three, five, or six variables. The method of charting to be employed is an amplifiarithmic scales, whereas here
is
cation of the
method described
Three variables.
/i(w)
:
in Art. 34.
Case
(i).
fi{u)
:
f2{v)
'
Mw).
is
be written as
scales are
oc
f2{v)
fz{w)
i,
which
z
of the
=
:
mifi(u),
:
niifiiv),
nisfsiiv),
nii,
where Wi W2 = W3 W4. Here the g-scale is replaced by a fixed point, P, on the y-axis and at a distance W4 from B. The first index line joins u and V, the second index line joins w and the fixed point P; the two lines must intersect in a point on AB. (Figs. 34a, 346.) The fixed point, P, may be used as a center of projection from which the w-scale may be projected on the transversal AB. We shall then have
two
parallel scales
and a third
and a
single index
and
in charting the
An example
Case
{2).
is
worked out
Six variables.
h{u)'fM)'Si{i')=h{v)'h{'^)'U\s).
This
h{u)
h{v)
=Mw)
and
p :Uq) = Mr)
Ms).
Each of these equations has the form (IV) and can therefore be charted by the method described in Art. 34. In Fig. 39a, the p-, v-, and r-scales
lie
common axis, but the ^-scale need not be graduated. To read the chart we need two pairs of index lines; the index lines (u, v) and (w, p) intersect in a point on AB, and the index lines (p, q) and {r, s) inalong a
tersect in a point
on BC.
is
An example
Case{^).
tion can
worked out
'
in Art. 41.
Five variables.
Mo)
and
Mi')
= Mv) M"^)
:
This equa-
be written as
Mu) Mv)
:
=M'iv)
Mo) ^ Mr)
and can be considered as a special form of case (2), where the 5 scale (Fig. 39a) is replaced by a fixed point through which the fourth index line must pass. An illustrative example is worked out in Art. 42.
Art. 40
TWISTING
MOMENT
IN A CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
:
77
We may also
and
f^iv)
described in Art. 34, and the equation described in Art. 32. The arrangement of the scales
p =
is
shown
in Fig. 396,
this
arrangement
is
of Fig. 39a,
and em-
Fig. 39a.
Fig. 396.
In Fig. 396, the r-scale lies along the transversal on the same axis the index lines (u,
;
AB and
v)
and
on the transversal AB, and the third index line aligns p, r, and q. An illustrative example will be found in Art. 43. = 0.196 FD^. Here 40. Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft, F is the maximum fiber stress in pounds per sq. in., D is the diameter of the shaft in inches, and is the
sect
twisting
If
moment
:
in inch
pounds.
we
M:
Our
D^
= F
we have an equation
(V), case (i).
of the
form
scales are
X
z
= miM, = msF,
of
y
t
= nhD^, = mi (5.1).
table exhibits
The
the
following
choice
moduli and
the
fixed
Fig. 40a.
Limits
Modulus
Wi W2 W3
Equation
Length
9-5" 6.4"
M
D
F
up up
to 190,000
i" to 4"
to 16,000
= = =
0.00005
0.1
X y
2
0.0005
8"
78
Chap. IV
'2.00020.000
4000- -40,000
6.000ao.ooo
<0
8,000-60.000
10,000-
-100,000
k k
^12.600^120.000
k o
14.000140.000
16.000- -160,000
i
-180.000
TWiST/NG
MOMENT IN
Fig.
402>.
CYLINDRICAL SHAFTS
M- 0.196 F D^
Art. 41
D'ARCY'S
79
hence / = 5.1, and we have a fixed point on the from the origin. We construct the M- and Fscales on the same axis from a common origin, and the Z)-scale and the (Fig. 40a.) The two index lines, one joinfixed point on a parallel axis.
minis/ m\
i,
Now nti =
ing
M and D and the other joining F and the fixed point, must intersect
common
transversal joining the zeros of the scales.
lines
2>
on the
J^
show that
in.
The completed chart is given in Fig. 406, and the index when F = 12,000 pounds per sq. in. and D in., then
pounds.
41.
M = 63,500
P=
fwd^
Here, P is the drop in pressure in pounds per sq. in., that is, the difference between the pressure, pi, at the entrance to the pipe and the pressure, p2, at the exit of the pipe; B is the weight of steam flowing in pounds per minute; L is the length of the pipe in feet; c is a quantity which varies
with the nature of the inner surface of the pipe w is the mean density of i.e., the average of the density at the entrance and the density at the exit of the pipe; d is the diameter of the pipe in inches. This formula is extensively used in engineering practice. We usually desire the pres;
steam,
The
We
any one of the six variables involved. have an equation involving six variables
in Art. 39,
and as suggested
we
shall separate
it
into
up a Z chart for
form (V), case (2), two equations each each of these. Taking
members
of the equation,
we
write
it
VLB = VPcVwVd^,
or
VP
r=r-
=
i/c
VP^^B
Vl
We
<2'
^^^ ^"
Q Vd^
^Vw
i/c'
now construct a Z chart for each of these equations, the two charts having the ^-axis in common.
For the
Scale
first of
these equations
we have
8o
Chap. IV
The P- and 5-scales (Fig. 410) are placed on the same axis and starting from the same origin, and the L- and (J-scales on a parallel axis, but the
Q-scale
is
not graduated.
Limits
Modulus
Equation
Length
Q
d
o to 10 o to 10 30 to 70
= Wb = We =
fHi
0.002
0.06
r
6 180
nti
s
t
= =
=
0.06
Vd^
19'
Vw
(a)
m^
= W5W6 =
180
The
iv-
scales are
and ^-scales are placed on the same axis hence the w- and Lon the common Q-axis. The d and c scales are placed on a
;
We
(c,
lines.
The
w) and
sect
on the common transversal and the {Q, B) and (L, P) lines must intersect on the common transIt is thus
when
known.
of
Fig. 41a.
41a)
tion of
(c,
w) and the
common
with L, cutting out the required value of P. Fig. 41 & gives the completed chart, and the index lines show that when c = 40, w = 2, d = y in., B = 300 pounds per minute, and
transversal
(/3)
L =
800
feet,
then
P=
1.34
pounds per
sq. in.
on a wooden beam.
pounds per
sq.
F=
in.;
WL
njii
-
Here, F
B
is
is
the
maximum
beam
of the
fiber stress in
is
in ft.;
is
beam
in
pounds;
beam
in inches;
and
is
beam
In
beam (depending on
the load
which the floor must support), the allowable fiber stress (depending upon the kind and quality of the wood), and the length of the beam, are usually known; and the width and height of the beam are to be determined.
Art. 41
D'ARCY'S
81
82
Chap. IV
we have two unknown quantities we can of course get various combinations of these to satisfy the equation. By means of the chart to be
Since
constructed
tions of
fixed
readily seen,
combinations
chosen.
may
then
be
we
shall
separate
it
into
F Y=
Fig. 42a.
W
-7^
and
Q IP ^=
We now
= mzW,
construct a
in
chart
common.
For the
X
first
ruxF,
= m2
(L),
nii (Q),
table:
Limits
Modulus
nil
Equation
F L
up up up
to
2000
to 40
to 15,000
W2 W3
= = =
0.003
0.3
0.0008
Art. 42
83
15.000
14.000-
13.000-
12000-
1.000-
40-'
3WL
84
Chap. IV
;
The H- and
L- and
parallel axis,
same
jy'-scales
are on the
common
is
Q-axis.
The
^-scale
on which there
from the
origin.
We use four index lines. The (L, F) and {Q, W) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales, and the {B, Q) and (/, H) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales. It is thus a simple matter to find the value of any one of the five variables when the other four are known. Thus to find the when F, L, W, and B are known, proceed as follows: (Fig. value of 42a) join the point of intersection of (L, 7^ and the transversal (jS) with
W,
cutting the Q-axis in a point, Q; join the point of intersection of (B, Q) (a) with the fixed point, /, cutting out the required
we wish we can
/, as a center of projection.
We
line
through
it,
Given
then F, L, and
the index line
W, we determine the point Q as above, and by rotating through Q we can cut out any desired combination of B
and H.
that
The completed chart is given in Fig. 426, and the index lines show = 10,000 pounds, L = 15 ft., F = 1,200 pounds per sq. in., when
and
B=
in.,
then
H
is
12 in.
six
43.
beam
deflection
formulas.
A =
192
EIP beam in
=^777".
Here, W
feet,
is
is
the
moment
is
the deflection
the modulus of elasticity (30,000,000 for steel), and factor which determines the method of loading and supporting.
in inches,
is
is
Thus
when
the
beam
is
(i)
(2) fixed at
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
both ends and uniformly loaded, both ends and loaded in center, supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, supported at both ends and loaded in center, fixed at one end and uniformly loaded, fixed at one end and loaded at the other,
fixed at
P P P P P P
= = = = =
Pi P2 P3 P4 Ft P^
= 2; = 1 =f = i = j\ =
;
^^:i'
The equation
is
of the
introduce an auxiliary quantity, Q, and separate the equation (3). into two equations; thus,
We
^3
2^
and
-3
= AP.
Art. 43
85
if
The
write
we
for
indeed
is
the deflection of a
beam
fixed at
loaded in center, i.e., for P = i. We shall here use the same method of charting and the same scales employed in Art. 36. The scales are
miQ,
= m^D,
= mzW,
m^.
(3,333.ooo) J,
of moduli:
Limits
Modulus
Wi = 8 m2 = 0.000,224 W3 = 0.000,04
3^
Equation
Length
;
x=8Q
W
I
10 to 35 up to 200,000
= 0.000,224 L^ 2 = 0.000,04 W
10"
8"
up
to 2000
W2W3 lUi = W4
= 0.000,000,00112
in
J 200,000^
The
43a);
the form
of
a rectangle
(Fig.
from one vertex, B, and the Wand (2-scales start from the opposite vertex. A, but the Q-scale The two inis not graduated. and / dex lines, one joining and the other joining L and Q must intersect on the transver-
sal
AB.
chart the equation
the
3000-'
Ax,ts-Q
We now Q = AP by
Fig. 430.
method described
in Art. 32.
s
miQ,
= W2A,
parallel
are
where the
the 5-axis
xis
and extend
in opposite directions,
and k
is
the
in Fig.
43a
(where the
ic-axis is
already constructed)
we make
with the 3'-axis,'and the ^-axis with the transversal from A to B. We have drawn AB 13" long, and we choose nh = 8, hence the equations
of our scales are (Fig. 43a)
= 8Q,
8 A,
13
P+i
The A- and L-scales are carried on opposite sides of their common axis. The six points Pi, P2, Pe of the P scale are easily constructed by means of the table
. . . ,
P.
s:
5^
^\
8.67"
6.5"
3.7"
2.6"
0.52"
0.2"
86
Chap. IV
fol-
To
A when
J,
W,
L, and
(/,
W) and
v>
>^
i?
VJ
MOM Erf T
^f-
Art. 45
CHART OF EQUATION
(VI)
87
the
= 100,000 lbs., L = 25 ft., and P = Pz, i.e., when / = 1000 inch units, beam is supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, then A = 1,17 in.
All the equations charted thus far 44. General considerations. can be brought under the general forms
fi{u)+Mv)+Mw)+
Most
'
=m
and
Mu)'Mv)'Mw)
=Mt).
We have used various methods of charting these equations, employing In the case of three variables, the underlogarithmic and natural scales.
lying principle has been that one index line will cut the scales in three
two index
on an auxiliary
;
axis will cut the scales in four values satisfying the equation
this
method
(VI)
EQUATION OF FORM Uu) Mv) =fs(w) Uq). PARALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR INDEX LINES.
:
45.
Consider
that
two pairs
of intersecting
axes
BT so constructed
BZ
is
either parallel to or
u
Fig. 450.
X
Fig. 456.
coincides with
(Figs. 45a, b).
AX
and
BT
is
AY,
Draw two
one meeting
AX and A Y,
BZ
and
BT m
u, v, w,
and q
respectively, so that
88
Chap. IV
Au =
Av =
y,
Bw =
z,
:
and Bq =
y
t.
Then,
if
t.
Hence
AX, A Y, BZ,
t
BT
carry
Wi/i(m),
y
nti
:
nhfiiv),
mzfziw),
niifiiq),
respectively,
where
nti
niz
mi, then
/i(w)
:
X :y
z :t
becomes
fziv)
fsiw) :fi(q),
which
equation (VI), and a pair of parallel index lines, (u, v) and {w, q) A pair of will cut out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying this equation. celluloid triangles will aid in reading the chart.
is
Consider again two pairs of intersecting axes AX, A Y and BZ, BT so constructed that BZ is perpendicular to -4-X' and 57" is perpendicular Draw two perpendicular index lines, one meeting to .4 F (Figs. 45c, d).
y /"
/^
;ff
\
\
A
K^ r
,-
Fig. 45c.
Fig. 45d.
AX
X :y
and
AY and
:
spectively, so that
Au =
X,
Av
=^ y,
our axes carry the scales described above, a pair of perpendicular index lines, {u, v) and {w, q), will cut out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying equation (VI). A sheet of celluloid with two perpenz
t,
and
if
its
under side
:
will aid in
the equation involves only three variables, i.e.,fi{u) = fiiv) 'fz{w), i; here the g-scale is the equation can be written /i(w) fziv) = Mw) replaced by a fixed point through which the second index line must always
:
pass.
It is evident that there are other positions for the axes
c,
d that
the problem.
Art. 46
89
46.
an
orifice,
576V
Here,
the weight of gas in pounds flowing per second, d is the diameter of is the velocity of the gas in ft. per sec, and V is the specific volume in cu. ft. of the gas in the orifice.
is
^^^
vo
CO
576 V
Fig. 46.
If
we
d^
183.5 V,
we have an equation
of
We shall
scales are
build
up a chart
z
by
The
miw,
m^d^,
m^v,
of
nti
(183.5 F),
moduli
Equation
Length
Limits
Modulus
w
d
V
o o O
to 0.4
to
0.2 to 2
3000
V
The
Fig.
to 200
X y
z
/
= low = d^ = 0.00135 ^
=
0.02475
{w, d) and {v, V) index lines must be parallel. The chart is given in 46 and the index lines drawn show that when v = 1500 ft. per sec, = 80 cu. ft., and d = 1.6 in., then w = 0.26 pounds per second.
^
47.
Chap. IV
^2 234.5 + t2 Here Ri and Rz are resistances in ohms and k and h are the initial and final temperatures Centigrade in an armature or field winding.
winding
from
tests.
^ = ^MiLlLli
__
3\
4
-JR,)
,60
Resista nee
at Initial Temperature
C. E. Lansil
* t2
* t,
Fig. 47.
We
X
have an equation
of the
shall build
up a chart
by
z
Fig. 45c.
The
scales are
^1),
/
miRi,
nhRi,
= mz
(234.5^4-
W4 (234.5
+ h),
Art. 48
LAMfi
91
are 23.45 in- from the point and /-axes, which are respectively perpenBut it is a simple matter to arrange the dicular to the X- and 3'-axes. axes so that the h- and./2-scales are within close range of the Ri- and R2The {Ri, R2) and (^i, k) index lines must be perpendicular. The scales. chart is given in Fig. 47, and the index lines drawn show that when = 2.71 ohms. ti = 65, ^2 = 33, and Ri = 3.04 chms, then R2
We
o and
^2
of intersection, B, of the 2-
48.
Lame formula
-77
pressure. "
d^
^ f~p
is
Here, D
sq. in.,
is
is
der in inches, d
fiber stress in
is
the
pounds per
and p
is
per sq.
in.
The formula
cylinders.
pump
and press
used in ordnance work on big guns, to determine what is known as the elastic resistance curve of the steel at various sections of the gun from breech to muzzle. We have an equation of the form (VI) and we shall build up a chart
It is also
by
Fig. 4$d.
z
The
scales are
t
ntid^,
niiD^,
nisif
p),
= mi{f -\-
p),
92
Art. 49
(VII)
93
inches apart, and an-
AX
and BY,
(Fig.
ki
CZ and DT,
the
first
AB
and
CD
49a.)
Draw two
parallel
index
lines,
one intersecting
AX
and
BY and
CZ
<r*
Fig. 49a.
Fig. 496.
and
Dq =
and q respectively, so that Au = x, Bv = y, Cw = z, L Draw vE and qF parallel to AB and CD respectively. Then in the similar triangles vEu and qFw, we have x y ki = z t k^. Hence if AX, BY, CZ, DT carry the scales
u, v, w,
:
:
DT xn
X
z
= =
:
Wi/i(m),
y
t
nhfsiw),
= =
mjiiv),
^2/4(2),
where Wi
^1
= W2
^2,
then
z
ki
k2
becomes
fi{u)
-Mv) =Mw)
-fiiq),
and a pair
and
out values of u,
are
v,
w, and q
CZ and
DT
instead of parallel to
is
Ax and
perpendicular to (Fig. 496), then a pair of perpendicular index lines, (u, v) and
{w, q), will cut out values of u,
v,
AB
w,
To
scales
in the
must be laid off in opposite directions. If the axes are arranged form of a square, or if the second pair of axes coincide with the first pair (Fig. 49c) then ^1 = ^2; hence, Wi = W2 and all four scales have the
94
Chap. IV
We shall
20
-1
20-^
50.
/ is
the length
of pipe in
v
is
is
the velocity in
ft. ft.
per sec, d
pipe in
ft.,
due to
friction,
is
and g
32.2.
Art. so
If
95
in
we
by
32.2,
and express
_
or
0.02
UP'
(12)
'
268.33
/
H _v^
d'
2 (32.2) d
(log B. of the
+ log 268.33)
.
log
2 log v
log
an equation
form (VII)
We
shall
The
X
scales are
(log
= mi
H + log 268.33),
3'
= Wi log
I,
= Wi
(2 log v),
nti
log
d.
The
of the scales:
Scale
96
4.
<
Chap. IV
pd
1. Thickness,
to 15,000).
.
t,
in inches o
(o to 60)
to withstand a pressure of
p pounds per
per sq.
5.
in. (o
p =
Rb
-77
Approximate
is
the
depth of the girder (20 to no), V is the vertical shear in pounds (50,000 to 275,000), R is the rivet value in pounds (1000 to 20,000), p is the pitch of the rivets in
effective
inches
6.
(i
to 9).
ft
-rrj-^
fiber of
^ij
Field
M ..'...
intensity,
(3 to 20)
and
H,
cm. at a point on a
line
through the center and normal to the plane of a circular turn of wire of negligible section conducting a current of / abamperes (o to 1000), the radius of the circular turn being r cm. (4 to 12) and the distance of the point from the wire being d cm. (4 V2 to 12 V2).
8.
C =
ft.
'.
Centrifugal
(i
-
force;
is
is
(i
to 150), v
is
the
velocity in
per sec.
to 50), r
(o.i
to 10), g
32.2,
C is
is
(o to 130),
the depth in
ft.
(o to 15),
is
the angle of
sq. ft.
pounds per
and
9,
CHAPTER
V.
{Continued),
PAR.
Consider two
AT m
u, v, w,
parallel axes,
AX and
AB.
BY, drawn
where
(Fig. 51a.)
axes,
AZ and ^J",
the transversal
one intersecting
AX and BY
AZ
and
and g
respectively, so
(ife^
c ,
Fig. 51a.
Fig. 51&.
that
Au =
lines,
X,
Bv =
index
y, Aw = z, Aq = AB = k inches. Then
t.
Draw
BC
=
parallel
to these
A CB
Now
if
or
-{
t.
the scales
z
tnifiiu),
:
y
:
mif2{v),
mzfziw),
mrji{g),
where Wi
fe
= ms
'.k
W4, then
/i() -\-h{v)
x-\-y
= z:t becomes
97
= fz{w) :Mq),
98
Chap. V
and
v,
{w, q), will cut the axes in This type of chart is illus-
In Fig. 516,
AC =
when
and are drawn in the same direction, and hence so that this arrangement serves to represent equation (Vm) fi{u) and f2iv) are opposite in sign, or an equation of the form
X
AX
BF
y,
fi(u)-f2iv)=Mw):Uq).
In the construction of the chart for equation (VUI), we note the folThe U-, W-, and g-scales are all laid oflf from the same origin, although we could have constructed parallel to and parallel
lowing: (i)
AZ
AX
AT
-^r
Fig. 51C.
to
AB
scales.
(2)
The
ti-
and
v-
same
direction -ac-
fiiv) have like or unlike signs. (3) The u- and yhave the same modulus, mi, and the moduli and the length of
k,
the transversal,
(w, v)
are connected
by the
relation k
miniA/nia.
(4)
The
always parallel. If the equation (VIII) has the form /i(m) fiiv) = fi{u) -.fiiq), containing only three variables, it can be charted in a similar manner. Here the w-scale coincides with the w-scale, so that the (w, q) index line coincides with the (m, v) index line; hence a single index line cuts the scales This type is illustrateci in values of w, v, and q satisfying the equation.
(w, q) index lines are
and
in Art. 53.
and drawn in the same Consider again two parallel axes, and two intersecting axes DZ and DT, where DZ is perpendicular to is perpendicular to the transversal AB (Fig. 51c). and Draw two perpendicular index lines, one intersecting and and
directions,
AX
BY
AX
DT
AX
BY
Art, 52
MOMENT OF
INERTIA OF CYLINDER
99
DZ
z,
and
DT m
L
u, v, w,
and q
respectively, so that
to the first of these
Au =
X,
Bv =
y,
Dw =
Dq =
Draw BC parallel
index lines. Then the triangles ACB and Hence sides are mutually perpendicular).
Dwq
AC AB = Dw
:
Dq,
or
Now
if
DT carry
the scales
z
wi/i(w),
:
y
:
= miMv),
then
msfziw),
niifiiq),
where mi
X
= mz
y :k
nii,
z :t
becomes
/i(w)
fiiv)
v)
= fz{w)
:fi{q)
and any
and
axes in values of u,
trated in Art. 54.
This type
is illus-
In Fig. ^id,
in opposite directions,
and hence
AC =
52.
-\-
y,
so
(Vni)/i(M) +/2(t')
Moment
is
of
of
cylinder.
(3 r^
fi^).
Here,
is
the total weight of a right circular cylinder in pounds, r the height in inches, and /
is
is
the radius
in inches, h
the
moment
its
of inertia in inch
Writing the equation as 3 r? + ^^ = 12 / form (VIII), and we shall follow Fig. 51a chart. Here
W, we have an equation
= Wi =
(3 r^),
mji^,
niz (12./),
= m^W.
Choosing k
Scale
r
15",
we have
Limits
Modulus
X
Equation
Length
= y = z =
t
0.024
^^
0.008 h^
15" 13"
0.000,002,4 I 14"
0.000,375
^"
The
r
(r,
h)
and
(7,
W)
and
Fig. 52
10* inch
lines
10
in.,
30
in.,
W=
20
units.
r2S
40-i
Fig. 52.
Art. S3
BAZIN'S
HYDRAULIC FORMULA
v
lOI
53.
c Vrs,
is
where c
=
0.552
Here, m
is
the
+ -7^
Vr
ft.
hydraulic radius in
of the
(area divided by wetted perimeter), 5 is the slope water surface, and v is the velocity of flow in ft. per sec. We shall first build a chart for the coefficient, c. The equation can
/-
be written
0.552
V?
+m
,
87 -^-,
Vr
or
m r V.+^^^
,
.
^^,
87
'
,
Vr
which
is
^-scale,
the special form of (VIII) where the w-scale coincides with the and hence only one index line is required. Hence
r = miVr,
m
^^
\
)>
ntii
r = miVr,
= mA^-^
/o.552 c\
!
Choosing k = 15
Scale
r
in.,
we have
Limits
0.2 to
Modulus
Wi = 2.7 m\ = 2.7 W4 = ^ = 15
out values of
r,
Equation
20
m
c
0.06 to 2
10 to 155
= y = t =
2.7
Vr
4.89
0.0952
15"
One index
that
line cuts
m, and
c
c satisfying
the equation.
line
drawn shows
when
ft.
and
m=
i.i,
then
78.5.
can consider the equation v = c y/Ts as an equation of the form and we can build up a logarithmic chart accordingly. We have already constructed such a chart in Art. 29 and Fig. 296 may therefore be used to supplement Fig. 53 for a complete solution of our problem. In Fig. 2()h, the (r, s) and (c, v) index lines must intersect on the g-axis. Thus, when r = 4 ft., 5 = o.ooi, and c = 78.5, we read v = 4.96 ft. per sec. R = (p D) tft. Here, 54. Resistance of riveted steel plate.
We
R
in
is
is the diameter of the the thickness of the plate in inches, and ft is the fiber stress of steel in tension and equals 55,000 pounds per sq. in. The
t
pounds, p
formula
is
used extensively
in boiler design
and
in structural
,
work.
written p
-D =
55:^^
an equation of the
mip,
= -miD,
m-iR/ $^,000,
t'
= m^.
aO
,aO
r-2
-J.9
,*P
-l.B
-1.7
o
,iP
-1.6
-2.
-7O
-1.5
to <0
-A
-1.4
-1.3
-1.2
,90
tr
-l.I
k
^oO
-10
k
-.9
A^O
k
,1^^
\-.7
k
6
,1^0
-.5
-.4
,aO
.3
-.2
io-^
.00
-./
Art. 54
iP3
'/2
\-l
\^
-l'/2
ft=
55000
Fig. 54.
104
Chap.
Choosing ^
Scale
lo
in.,
we have
Limits
Modulus
Wi mi Ws
D R
up up up
up
to 6
to 2 to 200,000 to
I
= = =
2 2
1.65
ruzk
mi
mi
8.25
Art. 55
(IX)
lOS
Now
if
AX
mifi{u), xi
mifz{w) and
^F carries
the scale y
m^f^iij),
then
=
X y
line cuts
xi
becomes
77-^fi{u)
u, v,
77-r + f2{v)
t-t-t-
fsiw)
out values of
3'-axes
we
note the
fol-
The
:v-
and
with each
(2)
The
between the
:
and
:
3'-axes into
mi,
i.e.,
AD Dw =
and
Wi
m^.
The
ac-axis
z-
m\fz{w),
this scale
is
projected on the
by lines parallel to the ^'-axis, the points and their projections being marked with the same value of w. If Wi = W2, then AZ bisects the angle XAY = a (Fig. 556). Then
Aw AD =
:
sin (180
a)
sin -, or
= Aw
.
= sm a a sm .
2
Xi
a sm .
22
2
cos -
a
Xi
a sm -
= Wi
2 cos - 1 fsiw).
may
y
mifi(u),
= Wi f 2
cos
^j f%{w).
Finally,
if
we take a =
X
simply
mifiiu),
mifiiv),
mifsiw).
is
The method
extension of the
method employed
merely an Consider
fM +
By
/,
f2iv)
+ Mw)
'
Mq)
we can
I
I
L. = i
1j I _ I rfz{w)~U{qy
by
Fig. 55c.
of these equations
means
a
common
and
g-scales.
which need not I5e graduated. (Fig. 55c.) Two index one cutting the u- and y-scales and the other the w^ The (, v) and {w, q) index lines must intersect on the /-axis.
io6
Chap.
common
in engineering prac-
tice.
56.
7+ r= ~
Here,
is
the focal
is
is
the
We shall
are
Let Wi
0.5,
o.sf,
0.5 F,
0.5 p.
line
that
The completed chart is given by Fig. 56. when / = 6 and F = 9, then p = 3.6.
The index
drawn shows
^<i'
Jo
^:
f<^'
Fig. 56.
may be
i?2
way
is
i?l
Rz
R
2?j,
where R
Rz,
. . .
is
connected in parallel.
(X)
-/sCtr) =/4(ii>).
in
(We note that the variable w occurs 57. Chart for equation (X). and both members of the equation.) Consider two parallel axes BY and a curved axis CZ (Fig. 57). *Draw any index line cutting these
AX
axes in u,
in
v, and w respectively. Draw wD parallel to AX, cutting AB D, and draw wE and vF parallel to AB. The triangles uEw and wFv
Akt. 58
107
if
Bv =
y,
AD
X
Therefore,
Au =
x,
z:z
=
X
zi: k
zx
Zi
or
{k
Zi)
-\-
Ziy
kz,
or
+k
Zi
=
k
nh
Zi
and
X
if
Wi/i(w),
Zi
kz
zi
\
mifiiv),
=
Zi
mifi{w),
this relation
becomes
niik
/i(w)
Solving for
Zi
and
we
get
mifziw)
+ W2
/4(w).
_ ~
Hence
x
W1W2
mifsiw)
W2
ceed as follows
= oti/i(m),
axes
= m2f2iv) on two
and
allel
AX
BY
extending
,,^aV
in the
same
direction.
U AB =
AB,
curved scale
to w,
CZ by
assigning values
Zt
and
=
Fig. 57.
AD = niifziw)
allel
m\k
-\-
mi
fz{w),
and parW1W2
^f-
to
AX,
z = D'w
mifziw)
+ nh fiiw),
v,
and
To
scales
fiiv)
fz{w)
fi{w),
we
construct the
mjiiu) and y = mifiiv) in opposite directions. This equation 58. Storm water run-off formula, q -f Nq^ = P. arises in the storm water run-off formula given by C. B, Buerger, in the Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.. Vol. LXXVIII, p. 1139, where and P are quantities which depend upon the sewer run, the area, and the rainfall, and q
X
is
ft.
we
P
Zi
Nq^
q,
we have an equation
z
of the
miP,
ntiN,
niik
Wi5^ -f
W2
=
i
W1W2
Wi5*
-\-
W2
10,
and take Wi
= m2 =
and k
14".
io8
Chap.
scales are
= P,
y= -N,
zi
2^
=
z*
"^/v
The
(Fig.
axes
AX
directions,
58a).
We
assign
Zi,
values to
q,
and on
AB
we
we
lay off
AD =
z
and
parallel to
AX
lay off
DD' =
with the value assigned to q. We join the points D' by a smooth curve, thus giving a curved scale for the variable q. Any index
line will
The completed chart is given by Fig. shows that when P = 6 and N = 5, then
then cut out values of P, N, and q satisfying the equation. 586, and the index line drawn
q
cu.
ft.
EXP/fSS/ON IN
BUERGER
RCf/V-OFF
FORMULA.
Fig. 58&.
Art. 59
109
-IS
2S
--f
-*S
CONTRACTED WE/R.
Q "3.33 (B-0.2H)
Fig. 59.
^S
no
Chap.
Here, Q
is
Francis formu a for a contracted weir. (? = 3.33 (B 0.2 H) hK is the quantity of water flowing over weir in cu. ft. per sec, B is the head over the crest of the the width of the weir in ft., and
59.
weir in
If
ft.
we
3.33 i?2j5
niiQ,
-rfrom o to
k
-3
(0.666 i^J).
to 33.
If
Let
vary from o to
0.3,
,
5,
8,
and Q from o
we choose Wi =
nh
0.6,
and
12,
o.^Q, y
= 2B,Zi=
H^
+2
z= ^^
H^
+2
2i,
B Y are drawn
in opposite directions,
We assign values to H, and on AB we lay ofi AD and parallel to 5 F we lay off DD' = z, and mark the point thus found with the corresponding value of H. We join the points by a smooth
is
AB
12 in.
H. Any index line then cut the scales in values of B, H, and Q satisfying the equation. The completed chart is given in Fig. 59, and the index line drawn shows
60.
that
= 1.2 ft., then Q = 12. i cu. when B = $ ft., and The solution of cubic and quadratic equations.
o,
M7^
first
ft.
per sec.
^
tu^
+ pw + q =
+ pw + q
;*,
o,
w?'
rvtxp-
+ pw + 9 =
0.
Let us consider
the equation as g The scales are
'
+ pw =
nhp,
we have an
km^
X
If
iniQ,
Zi
miw
+
,
W2
w,
mymi
niiw
+ W2
wp.
we
and k
10
to
q,
p,
Zi
= low
;
11^
;
and
. .
B
.
respectively.
,
w=
o, o.i, 0.2,
z,
ID,
we compute
and
and lay
off
AD
Z\
and
DD' =
values of w.
We draw a smooth
Then any index
p and
q will
We
YY'
u^
in
E (p =
+ pw +
A (q = o) and D' (w = Wo) will cut Wo^) since these values of q, w, and p satisfy the equation 2 = 0. This observation allows us to construct the points of
Art. 6o
III
OnAB, we
mark
vertical
through these points. Let the point D through this point. Then the
Zi = lo w/(w+i), and draw the verticals be marked Wq and let DD' be the
line
joining
{q
o)
with
E {p =
Wo^) will cut DD' in a point of the curve which must be marked with the value Wq. Thus the points of the scale
are rapidly constructed.
Interpolation on
either along
the w;-scale
may be made
by
projection, along
for the cubic
is
AB.
we can
i.
of the equation.
Example
-\-
w =
Fig: 60a.
The negative
roots of
the equation
w' and
w =
beyond the
w'^
lie
limits
10 and +10,
o,
let
w =
Up
+^w' a
-\r-^= a
2.
or w'^
+ p'w' + g' =
i
-L
o;
<?'
u.
10 and +10.
the
/3
Example
let
Solve
get
equation
la^
2\ow
9000
let
=
a
o.
If
we
and
w =
aw',
we
w _
210
a^
QOOO
a^
Now
10,
The index line joining p 2.1 and w'^ 2.1 w' g = o. = 9 cuts the curve in w' = 2.42; hence w = 24.2 (Fig. 606). g We may similarly build an alignment chart for the quadratic equaThe method of construction of the curved axis tion w^ + pw -\- q = o. we have
from the construction of the curved axis for the DD' = z = wi^/(w -\- i). Again we note that the points A (q = o), D' (w = Wq), and E {p = Wq) must lie on a straight line, since these values of q, w, and p satisfy the
for this equation differs
equation
w"^ -f-
pw
-{-
o.
We may
The complete curve is drawn in Fig. 60& marked "Q"); by means of it we can find the positive roots
points of the curve.
equation.
Example
line joining
3.
ii/^
5.15
-f-
2.42
o.
The
index
p = 5.15 and
w =
0.52 and
w =
4.65.
Art. 6o
II3
The complete cubic equation w^ + nw^ formed into the equation u^ + p'w' + g'
w'
,
or
we may proceed
to solve
it
directly
an alignment
3
chart.
we have
v^
AD = Zx =
low
let
and BD'
the curve
yl
w^ = -
+ ww^
7)+''(-^)'
In Fig. 60C,
A Co
i'
to the
Q correspond to the quadratic uP' + pw + 2 = o = o (where n = o). Then cubic liP -\r pw -\q_
DQ=- w w^ +
Thus
tance
off
DC,= we simply
up
w+
off,
starting at Co,
lay
DQ
We
the points
C_3,
. .
.
Ci,
C2,
C3,
C_i,
C_2,
corresponding
3,
. . . ,
to
the curves
I, is
2,
-I, -2,
-3
This
and for the values of w for which n = o was plotted, and the curves for = 10 For intermediate to w = 10 are drawn. interpolate between two values of n we
curves.
Fig. 606 gives the complete chart for
the
equation
u^
nw^
pw
-{-
o.
Thus
we draw
q
lie
To
when p and
beyond the
limits
proceed as in the case of the simple cubic w^ Example 4. Solve the equation lu^ -\- w^
index line joining
pw
-\-
o.
2.1
3.2
o.
The
i
p = 2.1 and
= 3.2
w =
in
w=
=
o
1.6.
Solve the equation ui^ -{- g6 w^ -\- 721.879 w 7,826.051 5. equation occurs in the problem of the equilibrium of arches). If we let w = aw' = 10 w', the equation becomes w'^ 7.22 w' 9.6 w'^ ~ 7-83 = O and the index line joining p = 7.22 and q = 7.83 cuts the curve n = 9.6 in w' = 0.59. Hence w = 5.9.
Example
(this
We
w^ pw
+
-\-
pw^
q
can similarly plot alignment charts for any trinomial equation niiP -f g = o and for the fourth degree equation /*
o.
114
Chap.
(XI)
COMBINED
form
6i.
is
and
AY and
a curved axis
CZ
(Fig. 6i).
AX
v, and w respectively, and draw wD parallel to A Y, so that Au = X, Bv = y, AD = x', and Dw = z. Then in the similar triangles, uDw and uAv, we have Dw Av = Du Au, or
axes in u,
=XX
if
/
:
X,
.'.
z/x' -; + ~y = X
,
Now
X
x'
= = =
Wi/i(w),
nhfziv),
mifi{w)
p = ^' /4(w)
or
tion
nhfsiw)
/4(w),
this
equa-
becomes
/i(w)^/2(t;)
Fig. 61.
/3(;)'
is
tnifsiw)
and
a smooth curve through the points determined by ifhfaiw) f^iw) and marked with the corresponding
values of w.
62.
Any
u, v,
w satisfy-
We
and write
Mw) =
and
(2)
Mu) +
= Mq).
Equation (i) has the form (III) and may be plotted by the method of Equation (2) has the Art. 32, but the /-scale need not be graduated. the method of Art. 23. The position of form (I) and may be plotted by the scales is illustrated in Fig. 62. The {v, w) and (w, q) index lines must intersect on the /-axis. In63. Chart for equation of form/i(tt) /4(q) +Si{v) 'Sz{u)) = i. an auxiliary variable t, we write troducing
(i) /x(w)
Uiq)
and
(2)
+ Mv) Mw) =
-
i.
Art. 32.
(i) has the form (HI) and can be plotted by the method of Equation (2) is a special case of the form (X), where /4(w) = i, and can be plotted by the method of Art. 57. The /-scale is not gradu-
Equation
* These forms, involving three or four variables, occur rarely in engineering practice, and are therefore treated very briefly.
Art. 65
(Xl)
"S
The
(w, g)
ated.
(v,
and
^^
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
64.
-f
'/2(f)
Uw)'
Introducing
an auxiliary variable
(i)
we
write
^
/4(g)
tH =
and
(2)
+ -=.
/2W
Mw)
Equation
Art. 32.
(i)
may be
plotted
by
the
method
of
Equation
of Art. 55.
may
method
must
intersect
on the ^axis.
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
65.
auxiliary variable
we
write
(i)
/i() -ii)^
Mu)
and
(2)
ii6
Chap.
Equation
Art. 32.
Equation
/-scale
The common
is
(III) and can be plotted by the method of a special case of the form charted in Art. 61. need not be graduated. The position of the scales
The
{u, q)
and
{v,
w) index
lines
must
intersect
on the
66.
^axis.
4-/3(1?) -f^iw)
=Mw).
and write
(2)
Mu)Uq) =
and
t-\-Mv)Mw) =h{w).
Equation
Art. 32.
(i)
Equation
of Art. 57.
is
has the form (HI) and ma,y be charted by the method of (2) has the form (X) and may be charted by the
method
The
The
position
of the scales
The
(w, g)
and
{v,
w) index lines
must
intersect
on the ^axis.
^9^
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.
is
An
nels,
given
by D'Ocagne.*
He
considers Bazin's formulaf for the velocity of flow of water in open chan-
Vrs,
where
=
0.552
m
V?
We
SjVrs
0.552
m
Vr
<
or
87
VI _ w _ 0.552 ~ r V}
Here
* Traits t
?^ =
V
and
1-^ = ^. r
Vr
We have charted
Art. 67
(XI)
II7
Fig.
66
r)
By
placing the
chart.
scales
on the same
we
get a very
compact
index lines must intersect on the /-axis. 67. Chart for equation of form /i(tt) hiq) -\-SM f^{w) We introduce an auxiliary variable t, and write /6(it?).
(m,
-
= Mq)
(l) /i()
/2(g)
- = Mq)
t
and
(2)
Mv) Mw)
= Mw).
Both equations have the form (X) and can be plotted by the method of Fig. 67 Art. 57 with a common /-axis, which need not be graduated. the positions of the scales. The (w, q) and {v, w) index lines illustrates must intersect on the /-axis.
EXERCISES
Construct charts for the following formulas.
limiting values for the variables.
tional exercises will
1.
The numbers in parenthesis suggest These limits may be extended if necessary. Addibe found at the end of this chapter.
-\-
V=
ft. ft.
tzH
{\IP
d^).
is
is
base in
(o to 10),
(0 to 10),
is
the
height in
ft.
the volume in cu. ft. (o to 800). 2. Q = 3.33 <& [(^ -f- A)* A^]. Francis' formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. per sec. over a rectangular, suppressed weir b ft. in width (2 to 15) due to a head of
(o to 10),
is
ft.
1.5),
ft.
(o to o.i)
due to the
velocity of approach.
3.
Sp. gr.
is
_
.
Here,
is
100), w'
the specific
gravity (o to 20).
4.
ST'
Gordon formula
is
for
9000 r^
mum
in.;
(i
is
the_ length of
the
column
(10 to 50), r
stress in
5.
pounds per
sq. in.
(1000 to 20,000).
Equivalent resistance, R, of a parallel circuit the respecD=D'"l""D""t~Er* "2 JCi 'vj tive branches of which have resistances i?i, i?2, and R3 ohms (i to 10) and containing no e.m.f. 6. s = Vo< 5 gP. Distance, s, in feet (260 to +260) passed over by a body projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of Vo ft. per sec. ( 260 to -|- 260)
rC
in
seconds (o to 17); g
7.
32.2.
V=
0.6490
j^.
Volume,
P
V, in cu.
ft.
of
pounds per
and a temperature
of
T degrees
(280 to 650).
Il8
Chap.
V.
Construct charts for the following formulas. The numbers in parenthesis suggest limiting values for the variables. These limits may be extended if necessary.
1. P' = x^Pi^P., and P" = \^PiPi^. First intermediate pressure, P', in pounds per sq. in., and second intermediate pressure, P", in pounds per sq. in. of a three stage air compressor which compresses air from a pressure of Pi pounds per sq. in. (14.4 to 15.2) to a pressure of P2 pounds per sq. in. (500 to 3000).
2.
Wr^.
Moment
T"^'
about
its axis;
is
of inertia, 7, in inch units of a right circular cylinder the total weight in pounds (o to 25,000) and r is the radius in inches
(o to 25).
3-
Y
its
Radius
of gyration,
K,
an
is
center of gravity and perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder; the radius in inches (o to 25), h is the height in inches (o to 40).
axis
4-
through
^=
3
361n -
Capacitance,
r
C, in microfarads of
two
parallel cylinders
10^
cm. in radius
(o.i
by
a
i
medium
ft.
^ = 0.596
-p
0.256.
Volume,
P
V, in cu.
of one
pound
of superheated of
pounds per
and a temperature
6. B.H.P. = 3.33 {a 0.6 Va) vT?. Boiler horse-power, B.H.P. (o to 500) for chimney design for power houses; A is the internal area of chimney in sq. ft. (6 to 16), is the height of the chimney in ft. (50 to 150).
7. '
H.P.
321,000
in. (o.i
nsd^
.
diameter d
to 6) at n revolutions per min. (50 to 2500) with a fiber stress in shear of 5 pounds per sq. in. (o to 50,000).
8. AT = I 6c sin A. Area of a and included angle A (0 to 90).
9.
</
sides b (o to 10)
and
c (i to 10)
(i
to 6) of a steam engine;
the piston diameter in inches (12 to 24), / is the length of the stroke in inches (12 to 60), p is the maximum steam pressure in pounds per sq. in. (80 to 150).
is
10.
A=
593
/y-T-'
Sectional
area.
A, in circular
mils, of
which the total annual cost of transmitting energy over a line conducting a constant current of / abamperes (o to 100) will be a minimum; c is the cost of generated energy in dollars per kilowatt hour (0.005 to 0.02), c' is the cost of the bare copper wire in dollars per pound (0.15 to 0.35), h is the number of hours per year that the line is in use (4 X 300 to 24 X 300), p is the annual percentage rate of interest on the capital invested in copper
(4 to 6).
11.
^
=B
(a*
-}.
b^),
Moment
T^ or Ti
an
in
is
pounds
12.
(o to 30,000),
is
the length in
(5 to 25), b
=
is
the breadth in
to 10).
Ti
+ VB^ +
is
B =
Bending moment,
is
B, in a circular
moment
T,
and
Tj
the twisting
give the
same
effect as
B and T acting
together.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
13.
II9
sq. in.
p =
st
.
p, in
pounds per
on a hollow
s is
inches;
is
the
working strength of the material (20,000 pounds per sq. in. for steel). Resistance, R2, in ohms (o to 5) of a conductor 14. R2 = Ri[i + o. {ti ti)\. of k C. which has a resistance of i?i ohms (o to 5) at tC. (20 to 30) and is made of a material which has a resistance temperature coefficient of a at ^1 C. (a = 0.00393 when /i = 20 and may be taken as a constant for copper). Fteley and Stearns' formula for the discharge, 15. Q = 3.31 ftW^ + 0.007 6. Q, in cu. ft. per sec. over a suppressed weir b feet in width (5 to 20) due to a head of H feet over the crest (o.i to 1.6). Depth, D, in ft. (i to 55,000) to a stratum, where A is the tan A. 16. D =
dip in degrees
17.
(l
(i
,T
H sin A. Thickness,
to 89),
and
is
ft.
(100 to 1,000).
to 1,000),
where
is
to 90),
and
is
ft.
(lOO to 1,000).
C is the dip of the projected 18. tan C = tan A sin B. -^ Projection of dips. angle in degrees (o.i to 89), A is the dip of the bed in degrees (i to 89), B is the angle of projection in degrees (i to 90). = f R^KC. Explosion formula. is the number of half-pound blocks 19.
R is
ft.
(0.5 to 15.0),
is
a constant
d^
=8rb 4lf.
of
a constant for tamping (0.1 to 5.0.) Diameter, d, of the base of a segment of a sphere of radius
is
and height
21.
segment
h.
h.
V, of a
and
height of segment
22.
N .^N
is
the
number of
teeth
(i
is
the angle
{0 to 80) of teeth
with axis,
T is
the number
6; 21-26,
of teeth for
14,
No. 8; 14-17, No. 7; .17-21, No. 135, No. 2; 135 up. No. 1).
No.
5;
INDEX.
Adiabatic expansion formula, 48 chart for, 33, 49 Alignment or nomographic charts
also
Charts,
alignment
or
nomo-
graphic)
Lame
ders, 92
McMath
moment
multiplication
scales,
104
division,
47
with three parallel scales, 45 with two intersecting index lines, 68 with two or more intersecting index
lines, 76 with two parallel scales and one inter-
speed
of
turbipe
wheel, 75
secting scale, 65
storm water
run-oflf
formula, 108
moment
in a cylindrical shaft,
by approximate integration rules, 227 by planimeter, 246 Armature or field winding formula, 90
chart
for,
78
90
volume volume
of circular cylinder,
34
temperature difference, 39
Chezy formula
chart
for,
56
Chezy formula
58
Chimney
draft formula, 37
chart for, 38
orifice,
89
wooden beam, 83
ated,
109
friction loss in pipes,
94
XI
by six-ordinate scheme, 179 by twelve-ordinate scheme, 181 by twenty-four-ordinate scheme, 185 -for even and odd harmonics, 179
xu
INDEX
Focal length of a lens, chart for, 35, 40, 106
slide rule for, 15
ated,
for for for
odd harmonics only, i86 odd harmonics up to the fifth, 187 odd harmonics up to the eleventh,
189
for
10
191
graphically, 200
Fundamental of trigonometric
series,
170
mechanically, 203 numerically, 179, 186, 192, 198 Constants in empirical formulas deter-
mined by method of averages, 124, 126 method of least squares, 124, 127 method of selected points, 124, 125
Coordinate paper, logarithmic, 22
rectangular, 21
semilogarithmic, 24
series,
170
81
224
chart for, 54 Hyperbola, 149 Hyperbolic curves, 128, 135, 137, 140
graphical, 244
Index
line,
44
89
chart
chart
for,
89
Distributed load on a
for,
wooden beam, 80
applications
of,
83
Durand's
rule,
226
chart for, 34
by by by by by
in, 124,
Durand's
Simpson's
rule,
Weddle's
rule,
233
.
Empirical formulas,
determination of constants
173. 174
graphical, 237
mechanical, 246
Integrators, 250
Interpolation, 209
Gauss's formula
graphical, 209
for,
219
involving 3 constants, 140 involving 4 or more constants, 152 Equations, solutions of {see Solutions of algebraic equations)
inverse, 219 Lagrange's formula for, 218 Newton's formula for, 214, 217
Experimental data, 120, 170 Exponential curves, 131, 142, 151, 153, 156
Isopleth, 44
INDEX
Lamd
formula for thick hollow cylinders,
XI II
method
definition of,
equation
of,
logarithmic, 2
representation
Scale modulus, 2
Scales,
of, 1
McMath
chart
"run-off" formula, 48
for,
49
Mean
effective pressure
by approximate
network
sliding, 7
of,
20
perpendicular, 20
stationary, 5
Moment
of inertia,
rules,
230
Slide rule,
circular, 16
Moment
chart
of inertia of cylinder, 99
for,
47
logarithmic, 9
log-log, 13
Newton's interpolation formula, 214, 217 Nomographic or alignment charts {see Alignment or nomographic charts) Numerical evaluation of coefficients, 179,
186, 192, 198
by by by by on
means of parabola and circle, 26 means of rectangular chart, 35 means of alignment chart, 1 10 method of inverse interpolation, 22I
the logarithmic slide rule,
1
73 chart
of,
for,
75
108
Amslef polar, 248 compensation, 249 linear, 249 principle of, 246 Polynomial, 159
Pressure and center of pressure,
Tables, construction
of,
213
Temperature
chart
for,
difference, 37
39
52
Tension
in belts,
by
231
chart for, 54
Tension on
chart
for,
bolts,
66
rules,
67
70
differ-
Trapezoidal rule, 225 Trigonometric series, 170 determination of constants in, 173, 174 Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft, 77 chart for, 78
XIV
by approximate integration 229 Volume, by approximate integration 229
Velocity,
INDEX
rules,
Volume
chart
of sphere, 50
for,
49
233
rules,
rules,
Weddle's
228
rule,
Volume
of
circular
cylinder,
48
chart for, 4Q
PLEASE
DO NOT REMOVE
FROM
THIS
CARDS OR
SLIPS
UNIVERSITY
OF TORONTO
LIBRARY
1
TA 151 L7 1921 pt.l
Engin.
Lipka, Joseph
^Jf-^-mUmmmmtBi
J;