Paper About Tool Life

International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 17091733
Calculation of optimum cutting conditions for turning operations using a machining theory
Q. Meng, J.A. Arsecularatne *, P. Mathew
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia Received 17 January 2000; accepted 17 March 2000
Abstract A method is described for calculating the optimum cutting conditions in turning for objective criteria such as minimum cost or maximum production rate. The method uses a variable ow stress machining theory to predict cutting forces, stresses, etc. which are then used to check process constraints such as machine power, tool plastic deformation and built-up edge formation. A modied form of Taylor tool life equation where the constants are determined using the machining theory has been employed in predicting tool life for the optimisation procedure. The obtained results indicate that the described method is capable of selecting the appropriate cutting conditions. 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Optimum cutting conditions; Turning operations; Machining theory
1. Introduction For a machining process such as turning, the cutting conditions play an important role in the efcient use of a machine tool. Because of the high cost of numerically controlled (NC) machines, compared with their conventional counterparts, there is an economic need to operate these machines as efciently as possible in order to obtain the required payback. Since the cost of turning on these machines is sensitive to the cutting conditions, optimum values have to be determined before a part is put into production. This need is even greater in the case of rough machining since a greater amount of material is removed thus increasing possible savings. The optimum cutting conditions in this context are those which do not violate any of the constraints that may apply on the process and satisfy the economic criterion. Procedures reported so far to determine the optimum cutting conditions are various nomograms
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +612-9385-5698; fax: +612-9663-1222. E-mail address: j.arsecularatne@unsw.edu.au (J.A. Arsecularatne).
0890-6955/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 8 9 0 - 6 9 5 5 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 2 6 - 2
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Q. Meng et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 17091733
Nomenclature Cs d f F FC FT FS FR i kAB kchip le N Nbreak Prq r r R t2 t3 tc tch T Tint Tmod Topt U Uopt w W x y a an f hc hO sf sN tf tint tmax * side cutting edge angle (deg) depth of cut (mm) feed (mm/rev) frictional force at tool-chip interface (N) orthogonal force component in direction of cutting (N) orthogonal force component normal to FC acting in plane normal to cutting edge (N) shear force on AB (N) force component normal to FC and FT (N) inclination angle (deg) shear ow stress on AB (N/mm2) shear ow stress in chip at tool-chip interface (N/mm2) length of cutting edge (mm) normal force at tool-chip interface (N), spindle speed (rev/min) speed at which the power-speed characteristic of the machine changes (rev/min) power required (W) radius of cutting (m) tool nose radius (mm) resultant force in orthogonal chip formation model (N) machining time (min) tool change time (min) cut thickness (mm) chip thickness (mm) tool life (min) average temperature along tool-chip interface (C) velocity modied temperature (K) optimum tool life (min) cutting speed (m/min) optimum cutting speed (m/min) width of cut (mm) volume of metal removed (cm3) operating cost of machine ($/min) cost of cutting edge ($) tool rake angle (deg) tool normal rake angle (deg) shear angle (deg) chip ow angle (deg) chip ow angle due to the effect of the nose radius measured from the normal to the side cutting edge on the reference plane (deg) average normal stress on tool ank-work interface (N/mm2) average normal stress on tool rake face (N/mm2) average shear stress on tool ank-work interface (N/mm2) average shear stress on the tool-chip interface (N/mm2) maximum shear stress in the tool (N/mm2) star sign to indicate angles associated with equivalent cutting edge
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[1], graphical techniques [2], performance envelope [3], linear programming [4], geometrical programming [5], search procedures [6,7] and approaches based on classical mathematical optimisation [8,9]. Although many of these works consider the machine power as the only process constraint, some of the recent research workers have been able to consider constraints such as chip control [6,7], maximum allowable force [69], etc. From the above work it is clear that in order to determine the optimum cutting conditions, one has to estimate the tool life and cutting forces with a reasonable degree of accuracy since many of the constraints that may apply on the process are inuenced by these parameters. For a practical machining situation, since no adequate machining theory is available to predict the tool life and cutting forces, one is compelled to rely on empirical equations to predict these parameters. However, these empirical equations involve a number of constants which are not readily available. Furthermore these constants depend on many factors thus requiring a huge amount of data for a general workshop situation. To obtain and manage such a huge amount of data is an extremely difcult task. Therefore an alternative to this empirical approach that can be used to predict cutting forces, tool life, etc. will be of great value. This paper presents a method by which cutting forces, tool life, etc. and subsequently optimum cutting conditions can be predicted in turning with oblique nose radius tools using as a basis the orthogonal machining theory developed by Oxley [10] and his co-workers. This theory, which takes account of variations in work material ow stress with strain, strain-rate and temperature, has been applied with considerable success in predicting cutting forces, temperatures, etc. from a knowledge of the work material properties and the cutting conditions. 2. Determination of optimum cutting conditions Part programming, which involves preparation of control instructions for NC machine tools, is a time consuming task for complex parts and therefore, was one of the rst manufacturing activities where computers were employed (since the 1950s). In early computer-aided part programming systems, although the computer does the bulk of the calculations involved it was still necessary to dene part geometry, tool motions, etc. which is a tedious procedure for complex parts. Furthermore, even if a few of the available systems incorporate some cutting technology, the level of technology advancement, particularly in determining cutting conditions is clearly lagging and is another deterrent in achieving goals in productivity improvements. In order to overcome these problems, computer automated systems are being developed which are designed so that part programs can be prepared with minimum manual intervention. They cater for all the stages involved in generating part programs which include: determine the volume of material to be removed; sequence the operations; select the tools; determine the optimum cutting conditions; and generate the tool paths. The system TECHTURN [7] is such a programming system for NC turning centres. Once the operation planning and the appropriate tools have been determined, success of the machining process depends on the cutting conditions which are required to satisfy an economic criterion such as minimum cost or maximum production rate. In determining the cutting conditions, parameters that must be taken into account include type of operation, whether roughing or nishing; machine tool parameters such as available power, speed and feed ranges and rigidity of the spindle bearing system; cutting tool parameters which include tool material, geometry and the tool cost; work piece characteristics such as work material properties, geometry, tolerances
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and surface nish requirements. From the work described in [7] it is clear that in determining the optimum cutting conditions one has to estimate the tool life and cutting forces with reasonable accuracy since many of the constraints are inuenced by these parameters. The tool life and cutting forces are expressed using empirical equations which involve a number of constants. These constants which are affected by work material, tool material and tool geometrical parameters such as nose radius, rake angle and cutting edge angle, are not readily available. It has been shown that the amount of required data can be huge for a general workshop situation [11]. To obtain and manage such a huge amount of data is an extremely difcult task. When machining a batch of components, an on-line method devised to obtain the necessary force data using the motor armature current signals of an NC turning centre is described in [11]. However difculties were encountered in this work when calculating the cutting conditions for the rst component in the batch. Furthermore it was necessary to remove a substantial amount of material to obtain reliable constants. For tool life, data derived utilising those provided by the tool manufacturers were used. These tool life data are not accurate and are intended to be general guides since they often do not coincide with a specic combination of work and tool. Due to the aforementioned difculties with the empirical approach the machining theory [10] has been used in this work to predict cutting forces, stresses, etc. in determining the optimum cutting conditions. Another feature of this work is that the extended Taylor tool life equation constants which are needed for the optimisation procedure have been determined using the machining theory thus eliminating the need for a huge amount of experimental work.
3. Economics of a single-pass turning operation This section considers the economics of a single pass turning operation and is based on the work described in [7]. The cost of an operation can be expressed as cost x t2 t3 t2 T y t2 T (1)
The cost per cutting edge y for a turning tool with an indexable insert can be calculated as follows y cost of insert cost of holder 400 0.75number of cutting edges
Although the work set-up time is also sometimes included in Eq. (1), when considering the effect of cutting conditions on cost, it can be neglected. Using a modied form of extended Taylor equation, the tool life can be expressed as T A U t w dt
t bt ct c
(2)
where tc and w are cut thickness and width of cut with reference to the equivalent cutting edge
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(the equivalent cutting edge which, as will be seen later, is a single straight cutting edge, is determined using the chip ow direction and can be used in place of the actual straight and round cutting edges of an oblique nose radius tool). This form of tool life equation was used because, as will be seen later, the constants At, bt, ct, and dt do not depend on a number of tool geometrical parameters thus substantially reducing the amount of empirical data required. The volume of metal removed is given by W t2Utcw (3)
In developing the necessary equations only the minimum cost criterion is considered here. The results for the maximum production rate criterion can be deduced by setting x=1 and y=0. From Eq. (1), Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) the cost per unit volume of metal removed (that is specic cost) can be obtained as
c (xt3+y)Ubt1tct1 x cost W Utcw Atw1dt
(4)
By simplifying Eq. (4) further (xt3+y)Ubttctwdt 1 c cost x W Utcw At By eliminating U in Eq. (5) using Eq. (2) 1 xt3+y cost xT 1/bt 1/bt (btct)/bt (btdt)/bt W At tc w T (bt1)/bt (6) (5)
According to Eq. (4), for given values of U and tc the specic cost decreases continuously as w increases. Thus a given amount of material can be removed most economically by using the maximum possible width/depth of cut. From Eq. (6) the optimum value of T for minimum specic cost can be obtained as Topt (bt 1) t3 y x (7)
For given values of w and T, it can be shown that material can be removed more economically by using a higher tc and low cutting speed [7]. For given values of w and tc the optimum cutting speed is given by Uopt At Topttctwdt c
1 bt
(8)
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4. Optimisation procedure In turning, the cutting conditions that need to be optimised are depth of cut, feed and cutting speed. The method adopted here, in order to determine the optimum cutting conditions is similar to that used in [6,7] in that it uses a direct search procedure on the depth-feed (d-f) plane and optimises one pass at a time when more than one pass is required to remove the total depth (multi-pass situation). However one major improvement in the present method is in using the machining theory in place of the empirical equations used in [6,7] to determine the forces, etc. in checking the process constraints. The d-f plane is dened by the minimum and maximum values of depth of cut and feed for the operation, tool and work material. Alternatively these values can be specied by the user. To start with, the d-f plane is divided into a grid, say 1020, as shown in Fig. 1. Some of the grid points will not be feasible because of the constraints. The feasible region is usually separated from the non-feasible region by a curve, as shown in Fig. 1. The specic cost/time of machining at each of the feasible points can be determined. However, the point at which the cost/time is a minimum always lies on the boundary separating the feasible and non-feasible regions [6,7]. Therefore, it is not necessary to consider all the points on the df plane. The search procedure starts from point O in Fig. 1 and the steps involved are 1. Determine the equivalent cutting edge geometry for the given oblique nose radius tool, depth of cut and feed as discussed in section 6.3. Then determine tc and w with reference to the equivalent cutting edge. 2. For a grid point dened by (di, fj) the optimum cutting speed is calculated using Eq. (8). Topt is
Fig. 1. Region for optimisation and search for the optimum point.
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the tool life calculated using the appropriate objective criterion (i.e. minimum cost or maximum production rate). If the user does not have the relevant cost and time data (required for the economic criterion) then he/she can specify the tool life directly. 3. The optimum cutting speed calculated in step 2 is checked for the tool plastic deformation and power constraints discussed in sections 5.1 and 5.2. If it violates these constraints then the point may still be feasible but a sub-optimum speed U0 is calculated to satisfy these constraints. If it is non-feasible (eg. point 1 in Fig. 1) then the point with the next lower depth but with the feed on the same line (point 2) is tested and the method returns to step 1. 4. The optimum/sub-optimum speed is checked for built-up edge (BUE) constraint. If it violates this constraint or the resulting tool life is unacceptably high then the point becomes non-feasible. If it is non-feasible then the point with the next lower depth but with the feed on the same line is tested and the method returns to step 1. 5. If it is feasible (point 3) the specic cost/time of machining is calculated for this point using the appropriate values of d, f and U. The point on the grid with the same depth but a higher feed is considered next (point 4) and the method returns to step 1. 6. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated until the rst non-feasible point on the lowest depth line or point M is met. The optimum depth of cut, feed and cutting speed are given by the point at which the specic cost/time is a minimum. If the total depth to be removed is greater than the optimum depth determined in step 6 (which would normally be the case) then steps from 1 to 6 should be repeated and the optimum d, f and U for each pass should be determined until the sum of the optimum depths of cut equals or exceeds the total depth to be removed. If the latter occurs these optimum depths should then be modied in order to remove the exact total depth. This depth modication process will be further discussed in section 7.3.
5. Constraints 5.1. Tool plastic deformation Cutting tools have a tendency to deform plastically under the inuence of the high compressive stresses and temperatures encountered during machining at high speeds and feeds. Plastic deformation of the tool changes the geometry of the cutting edge which in turn causes accelerated rates of tool wear, resulting in a decrease in tool life and in the machined surface quality. Plastic deformation can also cause catastrophic tool failure which can damage the component, the tool and/or machine tool and thus interrupt the machining process substantially. In obtaining the optimum cutting conditions it is important to determine the conditions that cause tool plastic deformation and avoid them. In order to predict the conditions giving plastic deformation of the cutting edge it is necessary to calculate the maximum shear stress tmax in the region of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge. It has been shown that [12] tmax can be determined using Eq. (9).
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tmax
1 1 (t t ) 2 f int 2
(sfsN) (sfsN) (tint tf)2
p (t t ) 2 int f
2
p (t t ) 2 int f
2
(tint tf)2 , when (sf sN) p (t t) 2 int f 0
1 2
p (sfsN) (tinttf) 2
(tint tf)2
tmax
1 (t t ) 2 f int 1 2 (sfsN) p (t t ) 2 int f

2 2
(9)
p (sfsN) (tinttf) 2 p t) (t 2 int f 0
(tint tf)
1 2
(tint tf)2 p (sfsN) (tinttf) 2

2
, (tint tf)
2
when (sf sN)
When considering plastic deformation of a tool working at high temperatures, the failure criterion can be taken as |tmax|
| | | |
s0.05 2
scomp 2
(10)
where scomp is the uniaxial compressive strength of the tool material at the onset of plastic deformation. In practice, it is assumed that when tmax reaches a value of s0.05/2, i.e. when |tmax| (11)
the tool starts to deform plastically where s0.05 is the 5% proof stress for the tool material determined from high temperature uniaxial compression test data such as that given by Trent [13]. Thus tmax and hence the cutting edge plastic deformation conditions can be determined if sN, tint, sf, tf and Tint are known. For a given set of cutting conditions and tool geometry sN, tint and Tint are determined using the machining theory. The tool ank-work interface stresses sf and tf are determined using the empirical equations which are given in the Appendix. 5.2. Machine tool torque/power The power speed characteristics of a d.c. motor drive are shown in Fig. 2. In the speed range 0 to Nbreak1 available torque is a maximum and is given by
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Fig. 2. Power-speed characteristics of the machine.
Tmmax
Pbreak1 2pNbreak1
(12)
For given values of di, fj and U if the required torque to machine the component is greater than Tmmax the grid point di, fj becomes non-feasible. If it is feasible the power required to machine the component is calculated as Prq FcU/60 The cutting conditions di, fj and U are feasible if Prq Pav Pav is the maximum available power at spindle speed U/2pr. If Prq Pav and N Nbreak1 then the point di, fj may still be feasible but a new value for U should be calculated so that Prq=Pav. At cutting speed U=2prNbreak1, if Prq Pbreak1 then the grid point becomes non-feasible. 5.3. Minimum and maximum tool life values It is assumed that tool life equation (Eq. (2)) is valid for T only in the range Tmin T Tmax. For given tc, w and U the tool life is calculated using Eq. (2). If this value of tool life is less than Tmin, cutting speed is reduced so that T=Tmin. If, on the other hand, tool life is greater than Tmax, di, fj combination is considered to be non-feasible. (13)
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5.4. Minimum and maximum depths/feeds for tool and work piece A given di, fj combination must satisfy dtmin d dtmax ftmin f ftmax where dtmin and ftmin depend on the operation, tool and work material [7]. In accordance with tool manufacturers recommendations dtmax and ftmax are calculated as follows dtmax 2 l 3e
ftmax 0.8re If the stock (total depth) to be removed is less than dtmax then dtmax=stock. Alternatively dtmax and ftmax can be specied by the user. The region for optimisation in Fig. 1 is obtained using the above values of dtmin, ftmin, dtmax and ftmax. 5.5. Built-up edge formation For plain carbon steels it has been shown [10] that when the values of Tmod at the tool-chip interface are higher than (approximately) 700 K it follows that the layer of chip material adjacent to the interface that has the highest temperature in the chip is the weakest; therefore deformation should occur in this layer. However, as a result of dynamic strain ageing this is not true for values of Tmod in the range (approximately) 500 K Tmod 700 K, and for such cases the chip will generally be weaker some distance from the interface where the temperature is lower. Noting this and the experimental results obtained from machining tests it was proposed that [10] 1. if Tmod 700 K then there would be no built-up edge but that for lower values there will be, 2. even if Tmod 700K there will be no built-up edge if Tint 1,000 K. Using the experimental results obtained from bar turning tests it has been shown that the builtup edge range can be predicted exceptionally well using the above two criteria. These experiments were carried out under orthogonal conditions [10] and under oblique conditions using nose radius tools [14]. Thus for a given depth of cut, feed and cutting speed in order to consider the above constraints it is necessary to estimate the cutting forces, temperatures, stresses, etc. The following section describes the methods used to calculate the above parameters in oblique machining with nose radius tools. 6. Prediction of cutting forces, temperatures, etc. in oblique machining Using extensive experimental results it has been shown that the orthogonal machining theory [10] can be extended to predict the chip ow direction and cutting forces in oblique machining
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with nose radius tools by introducing the concept of an equivalent cutting edge [15]. It has also been shown that predicted tool temperatures can be used to determine the built-up edge formation range [14] and tool life [16] with reasonable accuracy. The method used in the present work to determine the equivalent cutting edge and subsequently cutting forces, temperatures, etc. which is based on this previous work, is now described. 6.1. Chip ow direction and equivalent cutting edge In order to predict the chip ow direction the method adopted for nose radius tools with nonzero rake and inclination angles is as follows. The chip ow angle due to the effect of the nose radius is determined rst by assuming a tool with zero rake and inclination angles irrespective of their actual values. The equivalent cutting edge for this case is taken to be at right angles to the chip ow direction. The line representing this equivalent cutting edge is now projected onto the face of the tool with non-zero rake and inclination angles with the projected line assumed to represent the equivalent cutting edge for the actual tool. Since this method is discussed in detail in reference [15] what follows is only a brief review of the method. 6.2. Chip ow angle due to the effect of nose radius In the method described in [15] the chip is treated as a series of elements of innitesimal width. The frictional force component for each element changes in magnitude as well as direction. These frictional force components are summed up in order to nd the resultant and it is assumed that this resultant coincides with the chip ow direction. In this way the resultant chip ow angle due to the nose radius effect, 0 can be determined from the relation
sin 0 tan
1
dA (14) dA
cos
where dA is the area of the cut element and 0 is the angle a chip element makes with the outward radial direction. By integrating the numerator and denominator of Eq. (14) over the entire area of cut section, the chip ow angle 0 is determined. These relations are given in reference [15]. It is also possible to dene the chip ow angle with reference to the normal to the straight side cutting edge of the tool. As depicted in Fig. 3, if this angle is denoted by h0, it can be related to 0 by the relationship h0 p Cs 2 0 (15)
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Fig. 3.
Equivalent cutting edge and tool angles.
6.3. Modied tool angles and equivalent cutting edge Using three dimensional geometric analysis the equation for h0, which is the projection of h0 on the tool rake face plane as shown in Fig. 3, is obtained as follows h0 cos1 secitanitanh0tanan {(tanitanh0tananseci) +sec h }
2 2 1 0 2
(16)
The same technique and h0 are then used to obtain the equations for the equivalent cutting edge normal rake angle, a, inclination angle i* and side cutting edge angle C which are n s given below i sin1(cosh0sini sinh0sinancosi) a sin1 n sech0sinisini tanh0cosi (17)
C Cs h0 s
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For a typical nose radius tool, modied tool angles associated with the equivalent cutting edge and the general tool angles are shown in Fig. 3. In summary, a tool with a nose radius r and side cutting edge angle Cs, inclination angle i and normal rake angle an can be replaced by a tool having a single straight cutting edge, i.e. the equivalent cutting edge, with a side cutting edge angle C, inclination angle i* and normal rake s angle a. Note that the cut thickness tc (Fig. 4) and width of cut w needed in the calculations n are determined from the feed f and depth of cut d in terms of the equivalent cutting edge angle Cs*, i.e. tc=fcosC, w=d/cosC. s s 6.4. Cutting forces, temperatures and stresses in oblique machining Once the geometry of the equivalent cutting edge is known, the method described in [15] can be applied to determine the cutting forces, temperatures, etc. The main assumption made in developing the oblique theory is based on the experimental observation that for a given normal rake angle and other cutting conditions, the force component in the direction of cutting, FC, and the force component normal to the direction of cutting and machined surface, FT, are nearly independent of the cutting edge inclination angle. Therefore it is assumed that FC and FT can be determined from the orthogonal machining theory by assuming zero inclination angle irrespective of its actual value and with the rake angle in the orthogonal theory taken as a. The actual forces n
Fig. 4. Model of orthogonal chip formation used in the analysis.
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on the oblique tool can then be determined in terms of FC and FT from the tool geometry. It is important to note that the force in the direction of cutting remains equal to FC. As it is FC which determines the power expended in chip formation, it can be seen that with this model, the oblique tool temperature can be taken as being equal to the temperature calculated from the orthogonal theory. Considering the relatively small inclination angles used with carbide tools it is also assumed that the uniform tool rake face (normal and shear) stress distributions determined from the orthogonal theory are applicable to oblique machining.
6.5. The orthogonal machining theory
In predicting the cutting forces, temperatures, stresses, etc. a shortened version of the orthogonal machining theory as described by Mathew [17] is used. The machining theory is based on a model of chip formation derived from analyses of experimental chip formation ow elds. Since the theory has been described in detail elsewhere [10,17] only a brief outline is given here. The model used in developing the theory (Fig. 4) assumes the chip formation process to take place under plane strain, steady-state conditions. The plane AB, near the centre of the chip formation zone and the tool-chip interface are both assumed to be directions of maximum shear stress and maximum shear strain-rate. The plastic zone in the chip adjacent to the tool-chip interface is represented in the theory by a parallel-sided boundary layer across which the velocity changes from zero at the interface to the chip velocity at its outer boundary. In order to predict cutting forces, temperatures, etc. it is rst necessary to determine the so called shear angle f which can be seen to dene the geometry of Fig. 4 for given values of tool rake angle a and cut thickness tc. This is achieved in the following way. The resultant force R (Fig. 4) transmitted across AB is calculated for a range of values of f by analysing the stresses along AB. In making the stress analysis account is taken of the variations in ow stress with strain, strain-rate and temperature. Once R is known it is resolved along the tool-chip interface to give the frictional force F. By dividing F by the interface area the average value of the interface shear stress tint is determined. In calculating the interface area it is assumed that the normal stress is constant along the interface with the tool-chip interface boundary layer extending over the full interface. For the same range of values of f the temperatures and strain-rates in the boundary layer are calculated and used to determine the average value of shear ow stress in the chip along the interface kchip. The solution for f is taken as the value which makes tint=kchip as the assumed model of chip formation is then in equilibrium. So far the machining theory has mainly been applied to making predictions for steel work materials with the required ow stress properties obtained from high speed compression tests made over a wide range of temperatures. The thermal properties used in calculating temperatures have been determined from well established empirical equations. The theory has been applied to the prediction of cutting forces, temperatures, stresses etc. for wide ranges of cutting conditions and steels [10]. Good agreement has been shown between predicted and experimental results.
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7. Results and discussion 7.1. Determination of tool life equation constants In order to estimate the tool life the extended Taylor equation (Eq. (18)) is normally used. In this equation the inuence of operator controllable variables d, f and U on tool life are independently considered. Although this type of equation can be used to obtain good estimates of tool life, one major disadvantage is that the constants At1, bt1, ct1, and dt1 depend on many parameters such as work material, tool material and tool geometrical parameters that include rake angle, nose radius and side cutting edge angle. Thus every time any one of the above parameters changes a new set of constants will be required. T At1 Ubt1f ct1d dt1 (18)
In the modied form of Taylor equation (Eq. (2)), cut thickness tc and width of cut w referred to equivalent cutting edge are used in place of f and d. Since the tool geometrical parameters such as nose radius and side cutting edge angle have been taken into account in determining the equivalent cutting edge, the constants At, bt, ct, and dt do not depend on these parameters. This will considerably reduce the amount of tool life data required. However these constants will depend on work material, tool material and tool rake angle. Due to the above reason Eq. (2) has been used in estimating the tool life in the present work. What follows is a brief description of the method used to obtain the tool life equation (Eq. (2)) constants for the two carbide grades (uncoated P25 and coated P15) used in the present work. For the uncoated P25 grade tool material in order to obtain the constants of Eq. (2) the approach used was as follows. Taking account of the observation that when machining with cutting tool temperatures above 800C, which would generally be the case for carbide tools in the normal cutting speed range for turning operations, the main wear mechanism is diffusion which is a temperature controlled rate process [10]. Therefore, if the appropriate tool temperature can be determined and the relationship between tool life and temperature is known then it should be possible to predict tool life. When the tool life is dened in terms of ank wear, the relationship between tool life, T and tool ank temperature, Tf can be written as [16] T AT B f (19)
where A and B are constants. It has also been shown that Tf could be determined from the relation [16] Tf 0.9Tint (20)
where Tint is the interface temperature determined using the machining theory and the temperatures are in kelvins. First the constants A and B in Eq. (19) were determined from a small number of tool life results obtained for near-orthogonal conditions. In these experiments nose radius tools with zero inclination angles were used. For the same cutting conditions the corresponding values of Tf were
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determined from the machining theory. When plotted on a log(Tf) versus log(T) graph the results fell close to a straight line and the corresponding equation was T 1035.323T 11.872 f (21)
In order to obtain the constants At, bt, ct, and dt, 15 combinations of width of cut/cut thickness/cutting speed values were rst selected from ranges w=1.5 to 4.5 mm, tc=0.1 to 0.4 mm and U=100 to 200 m/min, respectively. For each combination of cutting conditions Tint values were determined from machining theory. The rake angle of the actual tool which was 6 was used in calculations. The corresponding Tf values and tool life values were then determined from Eq. (20) and (21). Finally the values of w, t1, U and T were used to determine the constants At, bt, ct, and dt using the multiple linear regression analysis provided in the SPSS package [18]. These constants are given below At 281104 bt 2.56319 ct 1.66511 dt 0.0 As noted earlier the constants At, bt, ct, and dt will depend on work material, tool material and tool rake angle. However for a given tool material to account for variations in rake angle and work material composition, additional experimental data will not be required since these variations can be taken into account in calculating Tint using the machining theory. Only when the tool material changes will it be necessary to obtain a new set of constants A and B for Eq. (19) which can be done using a relatively small number of machining tests. Thus with the described method for determining the constants At, bt, ct, and dt reliance on experimental data has been minimised. For the coated P15 grade tool, since the constants of Eq. (18) can be obtained from [7] the constants At, bt, ct, and dt were determined using a different procedure. For 15 combinations of depth of cut/feed/cutting speed values selected from ranges d=1.54.5 mm, f=0.10.4 mm and U=100300 m/min, respectively, tool life values were determined using Eq. (18). The constants At1, bt1, ct1, and dt1 used were those given in [7]. Then for each combination, using depth of cut, feed and tool geometry tc and w values with reference to the equivalent cutting edge were determined. The values of w, tc, U and T were then used to determine the constants At, bt, ct, and dt using the SPSS package and are given below. At 278,351,778 bt 3.0 ct 1.2 dt 0.22
7.2. Worked examples In this section the optimisation procedure discussed so far is illustrated with examples. The cost rate of the machine used is assumed to be $150 per hour. The maximum depth dtmax is assumed to be 2.5 mm. The maximum feed ftmax when calculated as described in section 5.4 is 0.64 mm/rev. The minimum values for depth and feed, dtmin and ftmin are assumed to be 0.5 mm and 0.2 mm/rev, respectively. These values of dtmin, ftmin, dtmax and ftmax dene the d-f planes (Fig. 5 and Fig. 8) for the optimisation procedure. The tool life equation (Eq. (2)) constants used are given in section 7.1. All the remaining data used in these examples are given in the Appendix.
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Fig. 5. Example 1: feasible and non-feasible grid points on the boundary.
7.2.1. Example 1 It is assumed that a 50 mm diameter AISI-1045 steel bar has to be machined using a P25 grade carbide tool (Holder: PDNNR2525; Insert: DNGA150408). The search for the optimum cutting conditions is conned to the d-f plane and the optimisation procedure starts from the top left corner as shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 6a shows the variation of optimum cutting speed at considered grid points while Fig. 6b shows the variation of specic cost at these grid points. These results were obtained using the optimisation procedure discussed above with minimum cost as the economic criterion. The optimum tool life calculated is 6.12 min. At the rst grid point (d=2.5 and f=0.2 mm/rev) the optimum cutting speed corresponding to a 6.12 min tool life is 209 m/min. The maximum speed that can be used without violating plastic deformation constraint is 390 m/min. Therefore this constraint is satised. The estimated power requirement at speed 209 m/min is 4.33 kW. Since the available power at that speed is 11.15 kW power constraint is also satised. The calculated interface temperature is 1,180 K. Since it is above 1,000 K, BUE constraint is also satised. The specic cost of machining at this grid point is 26,198 $/m3. The grid points at which the calculations are performed are clearly labelled in Fig. 5; the specic costs corresponding to these grid points are shown in Fig. 6b. The encircled grid point results in the optimum depth/feed/speed combination, that is the position at which the specic cost is a minimum. It can also be seen that for grid points from O to N (Fig. 5) depth remains constant at 2.5 mm and feed increases from 0.2 to 0.64 mm/rev. With increase in feed both the unconstrained optimum cutting speed (Fig. 6a) and the specic cost of machining (Fig. 6b) decreases continuously. This clearly shows that, at a given depth, it is much more economical to machine using a high-feed/low-speed combination than a low-feed/high-speed combination. Fig. 7a and b show the results obtained using the optimisation procedure discussed above with maximum production rate as the economic criterion. The optimum tool life calculated is 3.126
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Fig. 6. Example 1: (a) optimum cutting speeds at feasible points; (b) specic cost values at feasible points.
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Fig. 7.
Example 1: (a) optimum cutting speeds at feasible points; (b) specic production time values at feasible points.
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min. Since this is lower than the minimum preset value (5 min), a tool life of 5 min is selected. Once again none of the grid points lying on the boundary ONM (Fig. 5) were found to violate any of the constraints considered. The encircled grid point at which depth and feed are maximum and speed is minimum represents the optimum point since these cutting conditions result in the minimum production time (Fig. 7b). For grid points from O to N with increase in feed both the unconstrained optimum cutting speed (Fig. 7a) and specic production time (Fig. 7b) decrease continuously. This conrms that, at a given depth, it is much more economical to machine using a high-feed/low-speed combination than a low-feed/high-speed combination. Note that at a given grid point (depth/feed combination) the optimum speed for minimum cost criterion is lower than that for maximum production rate criterion. This is due to the fact that tool life for minimum cost criterion is greater than the tool life for maximum production rate criterion. 7.2.2. Example 2 It is assumed that a 200 mm diameter AISI-1045 steel bar has to be machined using a tool with a P15 grade-coated carbide insert (Holder: PCLNR2525; Insert: CNMG120408). The d-f plane used in the search for the optimum cutting conditions is shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 9a and b show the results obtained using the optimisation procedure with maximum production rate as the economic criterion. The optimum tool life calculated is 3.99 min. Since this is lower than the minimum preset value (5 min), a tool life of 5 min is selected. At the rst grid point (d=2.5 and f=0.2 mm/rev) the optimum cutting speed corresponding to a 5 min tool life is 699 m/min. The maximum speed that can be used without violating the plastic deformation constraint is 390 m/min. Therefore, the optimum speed cannot be used; instead the sub-optimum value of 390 m/min is selected. With this relatively low sub-optimum value still the power constraint cannot be satised. Therefore the grid point becomes unfeasible. The grid point corresponding to the next lower depth is also unfeasible due to power constraint. At the third grid point
Fig. 8. Example 2: feasible and non-feasible grid points on the boundary.
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Fig. 9.
Example 2: (a) optimum cutting speeds at feasible points; (b) specic production time values at feasible points.
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considered power constraint can be satised. All the grid points that are considered by the optimisation procedure and the point corresponding to the optimum depth/feed combination are shown in Fig. 8. In this example all the unfeasible points are due to power constraint. At each feasible point the corresponding optimum cutting speed and specic production time are given in Fig. 9a and b. Note that, at a given depth and feed, the optimum cutting speeds are much higher due to superior wear characteristics of the coated tool used in this example than the corresponding speeds for the previous one (Fig. 7a) which are for an uncoated P25 grade tool. 7.3. Discussion For a given tool/workpiece material combination, the optimum cutting conditions determined using the described procedure were, in general, found to be less conservative than those recommended by the tool manufacturers. The cutting conditions recommended by the tool manufacturers have to be conservative since they do not take into account process constraints such as machine power, tool plastic deformation, etc. The given results show that the described optimisation procedure which uses the machining theory can be used to determine the optimum cutting conditions in rough turning. Although the procedure described in section 4 does not specically consider single pass or multi-pass situation it can be used to determine the optimum cutting conditions for either of the above two situations. In cases where the optimum depth for the rst pass is less than the total depth to be removed, a single pass operation is still possible if the maximum feasible depth on the d-f plane is equal to the total depth. The corresponding feed, speed and machining cost/time for the single pass operation can be obtained from the d-f plane (eg. Fig. 8), speed graph (eg. Fig. 9a) and specic cost/time graph (eg. Fig. 9b), respectively. In such cases the user can compare the cost/time for the single pass and multi-pass situations (the latter of which is discussed below) and choose the more economical option. In the case of multipass turning the procedure described in section 4 should be repeated and the optimum d, f and U for each pass should be determined until the sum of the optimum depths equals or exceeds the total depth to be removed. If the latter occurs these optimum depths should then be modied in order to remove the exact total depth. These modied depths should be maintained, as far as possible, close to their optimum values. Furthermore the geometry of the component should be taken into consideration. For example, if the machining prole is stepped, care should be taken to ensure that in any one pass, long lengths of the component are not machined with small depths, as this results in uneconomical machining. At the same time, it should be ensured that none of the other constraints, such as minimum depth of cut for the tool, are violated. Finally for each modied depth (and possible secondary depths in each pass due to stepped machining prole) the optimum f and U should be redetermined using the corresponding d-f plane, optimum cutting speed graph and specic cost/time graph. A similar procedure was used in the work described in [7] to modify the initial depths and to recalculate the optimum f and U. It is possible to develop a computer program to achieve the above depth modication process automatically. It is expected to develop and incorporate such a procedure in future work. The originality of the present approach is in using the machining theory to determine the forces, stresses, temperatures, etc. in checking the process constraints and to determine the constants in modied Taylor tool life equation. At this stage analysis has to be restricted to plane face tools which may limit the practical value of the work. In particular chip breaking constraint needs to
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be incorporated into the optimisation procedure so that the method can have wider application. This will require the machining theory to be extended so that cutting forces, tool life, etc. for chip breaker tools can be predicted. As a rst step towards the prediction of cutting forces for these tools a method has been developed [19] by which the cutting forces can be predicted in orthogonal machining with restricted contact tools. The method uses orthogonal machining theory [10] to predict the cutting forces and natural tool-chip contact length for the equivalent plane face tool. These parameters are then used together with suitable empirical equations to predict forces under restricted contact conditions. Further work has been planned for extending this approach to predict cutting forces, tool life, etc. in machining with commercial chip breaker tools. Once completed this work should offer an alternative, far more efcient approach to selecting cutting conditions when using tools with chip breakers than the empirical methods widely used at present for this purpose.
8. Conclusions In this work it has been shown that a modied form of the extended Taylor tool life equation can be used to predict the tool life in turning. The required constants for this equation were determined using a method based on machining theory. The approach used should greatly reduce the experimental work needed in collecting tool life data as it allows variations in work material properties and tool geometry to be allowed for independently of experiments. It was also shown that, in determining the optimum cutting conditions for economic criteria such as minimum cost and maximum production rate, the machining theory can be used to check the process constraints such as tool plastic deformation, machine power and BUE formation.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable help rendered by Professor P.L.B. Oxley during the course of this work. Thanks are also due to the Australian Research Council for nancial support.
Appendix A. Data for examples Work materials: nominal AISI-1045 plain carbon steel bars of chemical composition 0.45% C, 0.01% P, 0.66% Mn, 0.053% Si, 0.031% S, 0.01% Ni, 0.02% Cr, 0.01% Mo, 0.01% Cu and 0.001% Al. Tool materials: chemical composition of P25 grade tool insert was 7.68.4% TiC+3.5% Co+11 12% TaC. Same chemical composition was assumed for P15 grade-coated insert. The high temperature shear strength curve for these tools were obtained using the method described in [12]. The tool ank-work interface shear stress tf and normal stress sf are obtained using the empirical relations:
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sf
0.0528FT tc tf 0.0671FC tc
where tc, FC and FT are cut thickness, cutting force and feed force, respectively. Power-speed characteristics of the machine Nbreak1=1000, Pbreak1=11.3 kW; Nbreak2=3000, Pbreak2=10.4 kW; Nbreak3=4500, Pbreak3=6.9 kW t3=2 min Tmin=5 min Tmax=100 min x=1.67 $/min y=3.2 $
References
[1] R.C. Brewer, R. Rueda, A simplied approach to the optimum selection of machining parameters, Engineers Digest 24 (9) (1963) 131151. [2] B.N. Colding, Machining economics and industrial data manuals, Annals of the CIRP 17 (1961) 279288. [3] J.R. Crookall, The performance-envelope concept in the economics of machining, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 9 (1969) 261278. [4] D.S. Erner, D.C. Patel, Maximization of the production rate with constraints by linear programming and sensitivity analysis, in: Second North American Metalworking Research Conference, Madison, USA, 1974. [5] P.G. Petropoulos, Optimum selection of machining rate variables by Geometric Programming, Int. J. Prod. Res. 11 (1973) 305314. [6] S. Hinduja, D.J. Petty, M. Tester, G. Barrow, Calculation of optimum cutting conditions for turning operations, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs 199 (B2) (1985) 8192. [7] J.A. Arsecularatne, S. Hinduja, G. Barrow, Optimum cutting conditions for turned components, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 206 (B2) (1992) 1531. [8] E.J.A. Armarego, P.K. Kee, A.J.R. Smith, Computer aided optimisation of machining conditions in single pass turning operations, in: 3rd Int. Conf. Manufact. Eng., Newcastle, 1986. [9] E.J.A. Armarego, T.H. Chia, P.K. Kee, A development of computer-aided optimisation strategies for multipass turning operations, in: 4th Int. Conf. Manufact. Eng., Brisbane, 1988. [10] P.L.B. Oxley, The Mechanics of Machining: An Analytical Approach to Assessing Machinability, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1989. [11] J.A. Arsecularatne, S. Hinduja, G. Barrow, Force data acquisition using computer process monitoring, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 204 (B4) (1990) 275286. [12] Q. Meng, J.A. Arsecularatne, P. Mathew, Prediction of the cutting conditions giving plastic deformation of the tool in oblique machining, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manufact. 38 (1998) 11651182. [13] E.M. Trent, Hot compressive strength of cemented carbides, in: Proc. 8th Int MTDR Conf. Manchester, 1968, pp. 629642. [14] J.A. Arsecularatne, R.F. Fowle, P. Mathew, P.L.B. Oxley, Prediction of cutting forces and built-up edge formation conditions in machining with oblique nose radius tools, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 210 (B) (1996) 457469.
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[15] J.A. Arsecularatne, P. Mathew, P.L.B. Oxley, Prediction of chip ow direction and cutting forces in oblique machining with nose radius tools, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 209 (B) (1995) 305315. [16] J.A. Arsecularatne, R.F. Fowle, P. Mathew, P.L.B. Oxley, Prediction of tool life in oblique machining with nose radius tools, Wear 198 (1996) 220228. [17] P. Mathew, A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of the Mechanics of Machining, PhD Thesis, The University of New South Wales, 1983. [18] M.J. Norusis, SPSS for Windows: Base System Users Guide, Release 5.0, SPSS Inc., 1992. [19] J.A. Arsecularatne, P.L.B. Oxley, Prediction of cutting forces in machining with restricted contact tools, Int. J. Mach. Sci. Technol. 1 (1) (1997) 95112.

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 40 (2000) 17091733

(sfsN) (sfsN) (tint tf)2

(tint tf)2 , when (sf sN) p (t t) 2 int f 0

1 (t t ) 2 f int 1 2 (sfsN) p (t t ) 2 int f

p (sfsN) (tinttf) 2 p t) (t 2 int f 0

(tint tf)2 p (sfsN) (tinttf) 2

when (sf sN)

Fig. 2. Power-speed characteristics of the machine.

Equivalent cutting edge and tool angles.

Fig. 4. Model of orthogonal chip formation used in the analysis.

6.5. The orthogonal machining theory

Fig. 5. Example 1: feasible and non-feasible grid points on the boundary.

Fig. 8. Example 2: feasible and non-feasible grid points on the boundary.

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