Aircraft Design

CHAPTER 1
CLUSTER DIAGRAM
Cluster diagrams are graphs used to find the necessary data needed to start the preliminary
design of aircraft with historical figures.To plot the graph, data from similar kinds of aircrafts are
collected and fixing the cruise velocity the values are selected.the vales to be selected are Gross
take of Weight (WTO),Aspect Ratio(AR), Range (R), Thrust to Weight ratio (T/W)and Wing
loading (W/S).
Graph 1 Vcruise vs. WTO
Graph 2 Vcruise vs. AR
Graph 3 Vcruise vs. Range
Graph 4 Vcruise vs. T/W
Graph 5 Vcruise vs. W/S

Keeping the Cruise Velocity constant at 890 km/hr, the following values are chosen from the
Cluster Diagram,
Chosen Values from Cluster Diagram
Gross Take Off Weight,WTO
231000 kg (2266.11N)
Aspect Ratio,AR
7.62
Range,R
9620 km
Thrust to Weight ratio,T/W
0.294
Wing Loading,W/S
604.97 kg/m2
Fineness ratio,Lf/Df
10.11
CHAPTER 2
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
First Weight Estimation:
It is necessary to make the first estimate of the weight as it provides the basis for the preliminary
geometrical sizing of the aircraft. This method provides a quick estimation of the initial gross take off
weight which does not include any combat or payload drops.
The gross take off weight, WTO of the aircraft is broken into
1. weight of the payload, Wp
2. weight of the crew, Wcrew
3. empty weight, We
4. weight of fuel, Wf
WTO = Wp + Wcrew + Wempty + Wf

Weight of the payload includes the passengers weight in this case.
Empty weight includes structures, landing gear, fixed equipment weight and avionics.
For the ease of calculation empty weight and the weight of fuel are expressed as fraction of gross
take off weight.
WTO = ( Wp + Wcrew ) / 1 ( We / WTO ) ( Wf / WTO )
In the above equation the unknowns are the empty weight fraction and the fuel weight fraction.
2.1 Determination of Empty Weight Fraction (We / WTO ):
Empty weight fractions are determined from the historical trends plotted using data collected
from already existing aircraft of the particular type.
Empty weight fraction value varies from 0.3 to 0.7 where the highest weight fraction applies to
the flying boat and the lowest for the military aircrafts and the empty weight fraction diminishes
with increase in aircraft gross take off weight.
Empty Weight Fraction

We /WTO = AWC TO Kus
Sailplane- unpowered
0.86
-0.05
Sailplane-powered
0.91
-0.05
Homebuilt
1.19
-0.09
Homebuilt- composite
0.99
-0.09
GA- single engine
2.36
-0.18
GA- twin engine
1.51
-0.10
Agricultural
0.74
-0.03
Twin turboprop
0.96
-0.05
Flying boat
1.09
-0.05
Jet trainer
1.59
-0.10
Jet fighter
2.34
-0.13
Military bomber
0.93
-0.07
Jet transport
1.02
-0.06
K us = 1.04 for variable sweep wing

= 1.00 for fixed swept win
Fig 1 Empty weight fractions trends

The above graph shows the trend lines of various types of aircraft from which the values of A
and C are computed from the slopes of these trend lines. The negative exponential power is due
to the fact that the empty weight fraction decreases with increase in gross take off weight.
Since composite materials are used for the construction of major parts of the aircraft 0.95 is
multiplied to the obtained empty weight fraction.
2.2 Estimation of Fuel Weight Fraction:
The total weight of the aircraft fuel consists of the fuel used to complete the required mission and
the reserve fuel which also includes the trapped fuel.
Fuel weight fraction is calculated using approximations for specific fuel consumption and
aerodynamics.
6
Mission Profile for Transport Jet Aircrafts:

Mission profile is a pictorial representation of different phases the aircraft has to undergo to
complete the required mission
Fig 2 mission profile without loiter
Fig 3 mission profile with loiter

1-2 indicates taxi phase ; 2-3 indicates take off phase ;
3-4 indicates climbing phase ; 4-5 indicates cruise phase ;
5-6 indicates loiter phase (in case of fig 2); 6-7 indicates landing phase(in fig 1)
7-8 indicates landing phase( in fig 2)
In this manual, the gross take off weight is calculated without loiter phase
2.3 Steps for The Calculation of Gross Take Off Weight, WTO:
1. Determination of payload weight and the crew weight
According to the standards followed weight of 1079 N (110 kg) is allowed for each
passenger and the crew in which 196.2N (20 kg) is for the baggage carried
2. Determination of empty weight fraction (We /WTO) using table 1 mentioned according to the
type of the aircraft.
We / WTO = AW CTO Kus
Where WTO is the value chosen from the cluster diagram for the given cruising velocity.
3. Determination of fuel weight fraction using the mission profile which will be explained in
detail in the example to be followed.
4. The gross take off weight ( WTO ) is calculated using equation
WTO = ( Wp + Wcrew ) / 1 ( We / WTO ) ( Wf / WTO )
5. Using the obtained gross take off weight, empty weight fraction is calculated again until the
value of gross take off weight converges.
Following the above steps,
The problem given here is to design a 250 seater passenger high subsonic aircraft satisfying the
FAR regulations.
Determination of weight of payload and the weight of crew
Weight of the payload, Wp
= 242 * 1079.1 = 261.142kN
Weight of the crew, Wcrew
= 10 * 1079.1 = 10.791kN
Wp + Wcrew
= 271.933kN
Determination of empty weight fraction

The empty weight fraction, We /WTO = AWC TO Kus * 0.95
For jet transport A = 1.02 , C = - 0.06 , Kus = 1.00
From the cluster diagram ,WTO = 2266.110kN
We /WTO = 0.46185
Determination of fuel weight fraction
The Fuel weight fraction, Wf / WTO = 1.2 ( 1 - mff )
mff is the mission fuel fraction.
The mission fuel fraction is determined as follows
( W1 / Wto )
= 0.990 [ engine start up ]
(W2 / W1 )
= 0.990 [ taxi]
(W3 / W2 )
= 0.995 [ take off ]
Calculation for climb segment, ( W4 / W3 ):

Eclimb = (1/ c) climb (L / D) climb ln (W3 / W4 )..(3)
(L / D) max = 1 / [ 2 ( C do * K) 0.5 ]
C do
= 0.02 ( for Jet transport )
AR
= 7.62 ( from cluster diagram )
= 0.8
= 0.052242
(L / D) max
= 15.46838
Assume climb rate to be 1800 ft /min.

Let the cruising altitude be 36000 feet, so the time required to reach 36000 feet is 36000/1800
which equals to 20 mins ( 0.33 hr)
Eclimb
= 0.33 hr
Substituting the above values in (3)

( W4 / W3 )
=0.991 (climb phase)
Calculation for Cruise segment:

R = ( V/ sfc)*( L/D) cruise* ln ( W4 / W5)
R is the Range covered during cruise, in km.
V is the cruise velocity, in km / hr.
c for range is 0.33
Range covered during cruise = total range ( range covered during climb and descent )
Average climb speed is 592.64 km /hr and the time taken is 0.33 hr
Distance covered during climb
=592.64 * 0.33
=195.5712 km.
Let the descent rate be 970 ft/min and it descends from 36000ft, so the time taken is 0.618 hr.
Let the average descent speed be 518.56 km/hr and the time taken is 0.618 hr
Distance covered during descent
= 320.4700 km
10
Range covered during cruise
=9620 195.5712 320.47

= 9103.9588 km
( L/D)cruise
( L/D)cruise
= 0.98 ( L/D)max
= 15.1590
Substituting the above values in Range formula

( W5/W4)
=0.7643
Calculation for descent segment

Edescent = (1/ c) descent (L / D)descent ln (W5/ W6 ).(5)
Edescent is the time taken to complete descent, in hours
(L/D)descent = (L/D)max to cover maximum distance
c is 0.35 for descent, in lb/lbf-hr.
Edescent = 0.618 hr ; (L/D)descent = 15.46838
(W5/ W6 )
= 0.988 [ descent ]
(W5/ W6 )
= 0.992 [ shut down]
Mission fuel fraction, mff = (W1/ Wto )*(W2/ W1)*(W3/ W2 )*(W4/ W3 )*(W5/ W4)*
(W6/ W5)*(W7/ W6)
mff = 0.7239
Fuel weight fraction, Wf / WTO
= 1.2 ( 1 - mff )
Wf / WTO = 0.33132
From the cluster diagram, WTO is chosen to be 2266.11kN
11
s.no
WTO(initial,kN)
We/WTO
WTO(final,kN)
1.
2266.11
0.46185
1314.76
2.
1314.766
0.47719
1420.09
3.
1420.090
0.47499
1403.96
4.
1403.960
0.47531
1406.28
5.
1406.284
0.47526
1405.92
6.
1405.920
0.47527
1405.92
We/ WTO = 1.02* (WTO)-0.06*0.95 = 0.4618

Using the equation WTO = 1314.766kN
Using this value the iteration is proceeded until the value of WTO converges as shown below
WTO = 1405.92kN
2.4 SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATION:
In second weight estimation we choose an engine based on the WTO value obtained from the
first weight estimation and include the weight of the fuel to calculate the final WTO.
The procedure is illustrated below
Thrust to weight ratio , T/W = 0.294 ( from cluster diagram)
From this T = 413.362kN
Since we are employing two engines , thrust per engine
T = 232.516kN
For safety reasons, T = 1.2T
T = 279.019kN
So the engine selected to meet the above thrust requirement is GenX- 1B54
Weight of the powerplant , Wpp = 57.054kN
12
W pp / W TO = 0.081158
Weight of the fuel , Wf = (Ne * r * c * Talt * 1.2)/ V
Where Ne is the no of engines
r is the range, km
c is the specific fuel consumption of engine, lb/lbf-hr
V is the cruising speed, km/hr
T alt is the thrust at the cruising altitude
Talt = To *( )1.2
To is the thrust produced by the engine at sea level , lbf
is the density ratio = / SL
Wf
= 423.718 kN
Wf/ WTO = 0.30136

WTO = (W pl+Wcrew+Wpp) /(1-Wf/ WTO-We/WTO Wpp/WTO)
WTO =2714.551kN
13
s.no
WTO
Engine selected
We/ WTO
Wf / WTO
Wpp / WTO
WTO (final)
(initial,kN)
1.
1405.99
GenX-1B54
0.4752
0.3014
0.08116
2714.55
2.
2714.55
GE90-110B1
0.4569
0.3275
0.05986
2788.96
3.
2788.96
GE90-115BL
0.4561
0.3188
0.05826
2604.47
4.
2604.47
GE90-110B1
0.4580
0.3188
0.06329
2701.72
5.
2701.72
GE90-110B1
0.4570
0.3291
0.06015
2825.57
6.
2825.568
GE90-110BL
0.4567
0.3294
0.05751
2761.68
Since the error involved is less than 3% between the last two iterations WTO = 2761.68 kN
WTO = 2761.68 kN
So the engine selected is GE90-115BL
Engine specifications:
Type
: axial flow, twin shaft bypass turbofan engine.
Compressor
: axial, 1 wide chord swept fan, 4 low pressure stage, and 9 high pressure
stages.
Turbine
: axial,6 low pressure stages, 2 high pressure stages
Length
:7290 m.
Diameter
: 3.429m
Dry weight
:81.256kN
Pressure ratio
: 42:1
Thrust
c
: 514 kN( at sea level)

: 0.34 lb/lbf-hr
CHAPTER 3
14
Placement of Engines
Engines can be placed on the wings, above the wings, suspended on pylons below the wings or
mounted on the aft of the fuselage.
Buried engines:
These engines have the minimum parasite drag and the minimum weight
They pose the threat of damaging the wing structure in the event of blade damage
and in other similar kind of issues
Inlet efficiency is less
Accessibility during maintenance is difficult.
Podded engines:
Acts as vortex generators
When placed outboard this arrangement provides wing bending relief .
Ease of maintenance.
Reduce noise within the cabin.
The placement of pods in front of the wing prevents flutter of wing.
This type of arrangement increases drag.
The engines are prone to foreign object damages.
Aft fuselage engines:
This type of arrangement is preferred for smaller aircrafts to maintain adequate

clearance.
Drag is less due to the elimination of wing pod interference drag
Greater center of gravity travel range which causes balancing problem.
Vibration and noise reduction are difficult
Wing bending relief is not obtained in this arrangement.
So considering the advantages and disadvantages the engines are suspended by pylons under
the wings.
15
CHAPTER 4
DETERMINATION OF WING PARAMETERS
Wings are the most important component which produces lift and also produces drag and
pitching moment. The important issue to be kept while determining the necessary wing
parameters is to produce lift at its maximum efficiency and to reduce drag and pitching moment
while satisfying the mission requirements
The parameters to be determined are
1. Wing planform area, S
2. vertical position of the wing i.e. high, mid or low wing position
3. Aspect Ratio, ARw
4. Span, b
5. Taper Ratio,w
6. Root Chord, Cr
7. Tip chord Ct
8. Mean Aerodynamic Chord, C
9. Twist angle
10. Sweep Angle,
11. Wing setting angle, iw
12. High Lift devices

4.1 Wing vertical location:
The vertical loction of wing can be of four types
1. high wing
2. mid wing
3. low wing
High Wing:
16
Advantages:
facilitates loading and unloading of loads and cargo in the cargo aircraft
clearance is higher and thus prevents foreign particle damage to the engine.
High wing configuration increases the dihedral effect and lowers the stall speed since Cl
max will be higher
Disadvantages :
The frontal area is more and thus it produces drag.
Since the ground effect is low, it increases the take-off run distance
The landing gear length will be longer and requires more space to be stored while
retracted.
It requires the tail surface to be 20% larger when compared to low wing configuration
The weight of the wing is 20% greater when compared to low wing configuration
This type of configuration produces more induced drag as it produces more lift.
The lateral control of this configuration is weaker as it is more dynamically stable.
Low wing:
The aircraft take off performance is improved due to the influence of ground effect.
Landing gear is shorter and thus reduces weight
The wing has less induced drag
This type of configuration has more lateral control since the aircraft has less lateral
dynamic stability.
The wing has lesser downwash on the tail thus increasing the effectiveness of tail.
17
The tail is lighter when compared to high wing configuration
This configuration facilitates the use of wing carry through structure to effectively
transmit the loads and thus this type of configuration is usually selected for passenger
aircraft
Disadvantages:
Since the wing has two separate sections it produces less lift and has higher stall speed.
The take off run is increased due to less lift produced
This type of aircraft requires long landing length.
This type of configuration has negative effect on dihedral effect.
Mid wing:
The aircraft structure is heavier due to the need of reinforcing wing root at the
intersection of the fuselage
The wing is costlier to manufacture.
The mid wing is aerodynamically streamliner and it an attractive option compared to the
other two configurations.
In general high wing configuration is preferred for cargo aircrafts where as low wing
configuration for passenger aircrafts.
4.2 OVERVIEW OF WING PARAMETERS:
Aspect Ratio, AR:
Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between the span wing span to the wing Mean Aerodynamic
Chord (MAC).
AR = b/ MAC
For the rectangular or simple tapered wing planform area, S is defined as
18
S = b* MAC
AR = b*b / (MAC*b) = b2/S
As the Aspect ratio of the wing is increased the aerodynamic characteristics such as Cl,
Cd , Cm of 3-d wings gets reduced to 2-D characteristics.
Fig 4
Effect of increase in AR
As the aspect ratio of wing is increased the stall angle of the wing gets reduced to the
value of the stall angle of the airfoil section. This is the reason to have the tail with low
AR as it has higher stall value and it is more effective in recovery even if the wing stalls.
As the AR is increased the wing becomes heavier as the moment arm gets larger which
results in higher bending stress at the root section which requires the root to be large
enough to withstand the stress. So as the weight of the wing increases the manufacture
cost also increases.
The increase in AR facilitates an increase in the maximum lift to drag ratio.
As the AR is increased the induced drag is reduced as it follows the relation below
CDI = CL 2 / ( * e * AR )
19
The effect of wing tip vortices on the horizontal tail is reduced as the AR is increased.
As the AR is increased the aileron arm is also increased as they are placed outboard of
the wings which results in high lateral control but because the stiffness is reduced it
results in aileron reversal problem, so an optimum value of AR is to be selected
TYPICAL ASPECT RATIO FOR DIFFERENT AIRCRAFT TYPES
Aircraft type
Aspect Ratio , AR
Hang glider
4-8
Sail plane
20-35
Home- built
4-7
General Aviation
5-9
Jet trainer
4-8
Subsonic Aircraft
6-10
Super sonic
3-5
Tactical missile
0.3-1
Hypersonic
1-3
Span, b:
The span is the distance between the tip of one wing to the tip of other.
Increase in the span results in the reduction of induced drag but it has several constraints
also. There is the concern about wing bending as it affects the stability and results in the
flutter of the wing.
Increase in span results in the increase in the weight of the structure which in turn
increases the manufacturing cost.
Increase in span results in the reduced Reynolds numbers of the section which in turn
reduces the lift produced by the wing.
20
Taper Ratio, w:
Taper ratio is defined as the ratio of length of chord at the tip to the length of chord at the root.
The reason for providing taper to the wing is to reduce the lift produced at the tips and to obtain a
lift distribution near to the ellipitical lift distribution. The taper reduces the lift produced at the
tips the tips which in turn reduces the induced drag. The use of taper to the wings also results in
the reduction of the weight. Taper ratio for low swept wing is around 0.4 -0.5 whereas for a
highly swept wing it is around 0.2 0.3.This is because the swept wing diverts the air towards
the tip which results in the production of lift at the tips. So to make the lift distribution nearlt
ellipitical taper ratio has to be reduced.
Fig 5 Effect of taper ratio on CL

Sweep Angle, :
The angle between the wing leading edge and the longitudinal axis (y axis) of the aircraft is
called as the leading edge sweep angle, lew. Similarly the angle between the quarter chord line
and the longitudinal axis is the quarter chord sweep, c/4 . In the same way trailing edge sweep is
also defined.
21
Fig 6 leading edge sweep , lew
Fig 7 quarter chord sweep, c/4
Fig 8 trailing edge sweep, tew

The features of swept wing
Improving aerodynamic features of the wing i.e. lift, drag and pitching moment bby
delaying compressibility effect.
The main reason incorporating this feature is to increase the critical mach number of the
wing.
Wing maximum lift coefficient decreases with the increase in sweep as followed by the
relation ,
CLmax = Clmax [0.86 0.002] where Clmax is the maximum lift coefficient of the
airfoil.
22
Thus it increases the stall speed.
An increase in the wing sweep tends to reduce the wing curve slope, CL.
CL = 2AR/ ( 2+(AR2(1+tan2c/4 M2+4)0.5)
Swept wing tend to produce negative rolling moment due to the changes in the velocity
vector normal to the leading edge between the left and the right wing sections.
Tip stall is a very serious issue in swept wing. If the outboard section of the wing stalls,
the loss of lift is behind the aerodynamic centre of the wing while the lift maintained at
the inboard section of the wing ahead of the aerodynamic center produces a pitch up
moment moving the aircraft into deeper stall. This when combines with the pitching
moment produced by tail becomes a very serious issue.
The aircraft pitching moment is increased as the aircraft cg is in front the aircraft
aerodynamic center as the aerodynamic center tends to move behind with the increase in
sweep.
For low subsonic aircraft which travels at a speed less than mach of 0.3 as it tends to increase
the cost of manufacture while availing little benefit of sweeping the wing.
Twist Angle, t:
The main reasons for introducing the twist angle are
To avoid tip stall
To modify the lift distribution near to the elliptical distribution.
The twist can be provided in form of geometric twist or aerodynamic twist. In geometric twist
if the tip is at lower incidence than the root , it is said to be wash out or negative twist. If the tip
is at higher incidence than the root, it is known positive twist or wash in. If the whole wing
sections is composed of different airfoils each with a different zero lift angle , it is known as
aerodynamic twist.
23
The disadvantage of incorporation of the twist is that it results in the production of lower lift
since the incidence angle is decreasing towards the tip. The twist angle must not be high enough
such that it produces negative lift towards the tip.
Fig 9 effect of negative twist on lift distribution

The criterion to be followed in selecting the twist angle is
| t| + i w => | o |
Where o is the zero angle of attack.
For aircrafts usually only negative twist is provided. Typical value is between -1 to -4 degree.
Dihedral Angle, :
If the wing tip is higher than the x-y plane , it is said to have positive dihedral or simply dihedral.
If the wing tip is lower than the x-y plane , it is said to have negative dihedral or anhedral
24
The reason for incorporating this feature is to improve the lateral stability. Lateral stability is
mainly the tendency of the aircraft to return to the original trim level condition when disturbed
by gust and rolls around the x axis. The lateral static stability is represented by Cl which is the
change in lift co efficient with change in aircraft sideslip angle. For lateral stability this
derivative is negative which is due to positive dihedral.
Typical Values of Dihedral Angle for Different Aircraft types
Wing
Low wing
Mid wing
High wing
Unswept
5-10
3-6
-4 to -10
Low subsonic swept
2 to 5
-3 to +3
-3 to -6
High subsonic swept
3to8
-4 to +2
-5 to -10
Supersonic swept
0 to -3
1 to -4
0 to -5
Hypersonic swept
1 to 0
0 to -1
-1 to -2
4.3 DETERMINATION OF WING PARAMETERS:

Following the same example
Planform area, S = WTO / (W/S)
Where W/S and WTO (from 2nd weight estimation) are known
AR = b2 / S (to determine the span, b)
Where AR is known from cluster diagram
25
Fig 9 typical trapezoidal wing

The dimensions of the length of root chord, length of the tip chord and MAC aerodynamic chord
is calculating assuming the wing to be a trapezoidal wing.
Root chord, Cr = 2 S / b ( 1 + )
Tip chord , Ct = w * Cr
2
C = ( 2 / 3) * Cr * ( 1 + w + w ) / ( 1 + w )
Distance of the MAC from the aircraft centerline

Y = ( b / 6 ) ( 1 + 2w ) / ( 1 + w )
Position for aerodynamic centre is 0.25 MAC for subsonic aircraft
Position of the aerodynamic centre is 0.4 MAC for supersonic aircraft.
26
Fig 10 position of the MAC

Geometrical Wing Parameters:
Planform area, S
465.342m2
Span, b
59.55m
AR
7.62 (from cluster diagram)
Taper ratio,w
0.201
Dihedral angle,
5 deg
Root chord, Cr
13.014m
Tip chord , Ct
2.616 m
8.968 m
11.586m
4.4 Airfoil Selection:
27
Fig 11 typical airfoil
Chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
airfoil.
Mean camber line is the line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
Airfoil camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line
expressed as percentage of chord.
Thickness to chord ratio is the ratio between the maximum thickness of the airfoil to the
chord of the airfoil
The trailing edge of the airfoil is not perfectly sharp as it is difficult to manufacture, so the
trailing edge has finite thickness.
Requirements for the Selection:
1. highest possible lift co efficient
2. proper design lift co efficient
28
3. lowest minimum drag co efficient

4. highest lift to drag ratio
5. highest lift curve slope
6. lowest pitching moment co efficient.
4.4.1 Overview of airfoil parameters:
Thickness to chord Ratio:
t/c affects the maximum lift and stall characteristics by the effect of nose radius
high AR and large nose radius provides higher stall angle and greater Clmax
thickness also affects the structural weight. The airfoil at the root can be thicker than the
tip without causing much drag for accommodating landing gear and to reduce the
structural weight and hence the cost.
Figure 11 effect of t/c on Clmax
For low speed aircraft which requires high lift coefficient like cargo aircraft, (t/c) max is between
15% to18%.
For high subsonic aircraft, (t/c) max is 9% to 12%.
29
For supersonic aircraft, (t/c) max is 6 % to 9 %.

Note on NACA airfoils:
Basically there are three groups of airfoils
four - digit NACA airfoils
five digit NACA airfoils
6 series NACA airfoils
Four digit airfoil:

These airfoils are generated by two parabolas. One parabola from the leading edge to the
maximum camber and the other parabola from the maximum camber to the trailing edge. This
type of airfoil generates more drag compared to other airfoils.
The nomenclature is as follows
1st digit gives the maximum camber in % of chord
2nd digit gives the position of maximum camber in tenths of chord.
Last two digits gives the thickness of the airfoil.
For example, NACA 2415 airfoil has a maximum thickness of 15% with a camber of 2% located
at 40% from the airfoil leading edge.
Five digit airfoil:
These airfoils are generated using one parabola from the leading edge to the maximum camber
and a straight line that connects the end point of parabola to the trailing edge. The maximum
camber has been shifted forward to produce greater lift.
1st digit multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift co efficient in tenths
30
Next two digits divided by 2 gives the position of maximum camber in tenths of the
chord.
Last two digits gives the thickness of the airfoil.
For example, NACA 23012 airfoil has a design lift co efficient of 0.3,maximum thickness of
12% and maximum camber located at 15% behind the leading edge of the airfoil.
Six digit airfoil:
These airfoils were used to maintain laminar flow over a large portion of the airfoil and thus
maintain Cdmin when compared to other two series of the airfoil.
6 denotes the series
2nd digit shows the location of minimum pressure in tenths of the chord
The suffix and the digit next to the - denotes the range where low drag is maintained
Final two digits specify the thickness.
For example, NACA 641- 212 airfoil, 6 denotes the series, with the minimum pressure location
of 0.4C,low drag maintained between 0.1 to 0.2 with the thickness of 12%.
Supercritical airfoils:
The key elements in the design of the supercritical airfoil are
A relatively large leading edge radius is used to expand the flow at the upper surface
leading edge, thus obtaining more lift
To maintain supersonic flow along a constant pressure plateau, by slowing the flow going
into the shock , a relatively weak shock compared to the amount of lift generated used to
bring the flow down to subsonic speed
Another means of obtaining lift without shock is to use aft camber
31
To avoid flow separation, the upper and lower surfaces at the trailing edge is nearly
parallel, resulting in finite thickness trailing edge.
The major disadvantage is this kind of airfoil produces a large zero lift pitching moment.
The first two digits denote the design lift co efficient in tenths
The last two digits denote the thickness in %
For example, SC- 0612 airfoil has a design lift co efficient of 0.6 and thickness of 12%
Wing incidence, iw:
Wing incidence is the angle between the fuselage reference line and the wing chord line of the
airfoil at the root.
The conditions to be satisfied in selecting the incidence angle are
The wing must be able to generate desired lift co efficient during cruise
Minimum drag must be obtained from the wing and fuselage during cruise.
Figure 1 setting of wing incidence angle
32
The wing incidence angle corresponds to the ideal lift co efficient (Cli) in the Cl vs. graph.
4.4.2 Steps involved in selecting the airfoil: (along with example)
The first step in selecting the airfoil is to calculate the design lift co efficient (Cl design)
Cl design = WTO / ( 0.5* *V2*SW )
Cl design = 0.55 ( approx 0.6)
airfoils taken into consideration which produces the desired design lift co efficient are
1. 641- 412
2. SC 0612
In the figure shown below the center of the drag bucket indicated the ideal lift co efficient of the
airfoil and the right end of drag bucket indicates the design lift co efficient.
Fig 13 location of design lift co efficient
Sweep angle is calculated using the formula given below to satisfy the selected Mach
Number
33
( 1 M dd )/ (1 M dd =0 ) = (1 / 90 )
Where
Mdd is the drag divergence Mach number
M dd =0 is the drag divergence Mach number at = 0
For NACA 6 series airfoil, M dd =0 = 0.66
For Super Critical airfoil , M dd =0 = 0.78
For NACA 6 series airfoil
c/4w(deg)
Mdd
30
0.77
38
0.82
45
0.84
48
0.86
For Super Critical airfoil

c/4w(deg)
Mdd
30
0.85
33
0.86
35
0.87
43
0.89
It is to be noted that the drag divergence Mach number must be 0.05 greater than the
cruise Mach number.
So with a sweep of 43 deg we obtain the desired Mach number with Supercritical airfoil.
34
So we choose the SC -0612 airfoil.

Specifications :
Design lift coefficient
0.6
Thickness
1.1%
Max Cl
1.364
Stall angle
14 deg
Max L / D
25.94
Zero lift angle
-4 deg
zero lift pitching moment co efficient, C mo
-0.013
4.5 Selection of high lift devices :

High lift devices are used to produce additional lift by employing the following methods
Increasing the airfoil camber
Boundary layer control from improved pressure distribution and re energizing or

removing low energy boundary layer
Increment in the effective wing area.
Factors involved in the selection are
Incremental drag
Mechanical complexity
Maintenance cost
Development
Structural weight
A high lift devices tends to cause the following changes in the airfoil features
35
Lift coefficient is increased
Maximum lift coefficient is increased
Zero lift angle of attack is changed
Stall angle is changed
Pitching moment coefficient is changed
Drag coefficient is increased
Lift curve slope is increased.
Two main groups of high lift devices

1. leading edge high lift devices such as leading edge flap, leading edge slat and
Kruger flap modify the pressure distribution over the top surface of the main wing
body
2. Trailing edge high lift devices such as plain flap, split flap, slotted flap, double
slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap when deflected downward increase
the camber of the wing.
In designing the high lift device for a wing, the following items has to be determined
High lift device location along the span
The type of high lift devices
High lift device chord, Cf
High lift device span, bf
High lift device maximum deflection, max.

Types of high lift devices and the corresponding CL
s.no
High lift devices
CL
36
1.
Plain flap
0.7
2.
Split flap
0.7-0.9
3.
Fowler flap
1-1.3
4.
Slotted flap
1-1.3
5.
Double slotted flap
1-1.6
6.
Triple slotted flap
1-1.9
7.
Leading edge flap
0.2 0.3
8.
Leading edge slat
0.3 0.4
9.
Kruger flap
0.3 0.4
Placement of the high lift devices in the wing chord :

Plain flap 30% of wing chord
Split flap 25% of wing chord
Slotted flap 35 % of wing chord
Fowler flap 40 % of wing chord
Leading edge devices extends 15% to 20% of wing chord.
The span occupied by the high lift devices is about 70 % of the semi span of the wing.
4.5.1 Steps involved in Determination of high lift devices:
The take off speed of the aircraft is assumed and it is usually between 270 km/hr to
345 km/hr.
The Stall velocity of the aircraft is found using Vto = 1.2 Vs
37
The maximum lift co efficient produced by the aircraft is found using

CLmax
= WTO/ (0.5* Vs2*SW)
The landing speed of the aircraft is found using

V ls = 1.3 VS
CLI
The landing lift co efficient is found using

= Wlanding
/ ( 0.5** V
ls
* SW),[ aircraft lands with reserve fuel except for
emergency landing]
The lift produced by the wing is calculated using

CLW = 0.98 (Clmax r + Clmax t)/ 2
Where Clmax r and Clmax t is the maximum lift coefficient produced by the root airfoil
and tip airfoil respectively.
Difference in lift produced by the aircraft and wing helps us to determine the
required high lift devices.
Following the above steps

Lets assume the take off speed, Vto of 300 km/hr i.e. 83.33 m/s
Vs = 69.4441 m/s ; CLmax = 2.009;
V ls = 90.2733 m/s ; CLI = 0.9
CLW = 1.2958; Clmax = 0.7132

So we can use split flap to obtain the remaining lift coefficient.
C f /C = 0.20
f
= 45 deg (for take off)
=55 deg (for landing) to reduce the lift of 0.9
38
4.6 Placement of Aileron:

The aileron is placed at 20% of the chord of the wing.
C aileron / C = 0.20
So the rear spar is placed at 0.80C.
So the font spar is placed at 0.20C.
4.7 Volume of space available in wing for fuel:
Vwf =0.54[(S2 / b) (t / c)root {1+w w0.5 + w w / (1 + w )2}]
Where
w = (t/c)r/ (t/c)t
Density of fuel = 800 kg/m3
Substituting the data in the above equation
Vwf = 315.85m3
Weight of fuel that can be accommodated inside the wing = 2478.754kN.
But the weight of the fuel estimated = 930.995 kN
So the fuel can be accommodated without any external devices.
4.8 Winglets:
Winglets are near vertical extension of the wing tips which increase the effective aspect ratioof
wing with less added wing span. This could reduce the strength of the wing tip vortices and
hence lower the induced drag. The winglet converts the wasted energy at the tip into apparent
39
thrust which in turns helps in less consumption of fuel. But the use of winglets leads to the
increase of parasite drag.
Fig 14 Winglet Shape definition

Where
Cwr is the root chord length of the winglet
Cwt is the tip chord length of the winglet
lw is the length of the winglet
w25 is the sweep at the quarter chord of the winglet
Prescribed values for the design of winglets:
Root chord length , Cwr / Ct
= 0.5 -1.0
40
Taper ratio, Cwt / Cwr
= 0.3 1.0
Sweep angle, w25
= 24deg 50deg
Length, lw / Ct
= 0.5 2.0
Cant angle
= 0deg 84 deg
Toe out (twist) angle
= 0 deg 4 deg
The winglet parameters
Length, lw
2.0928 m
Cant angle
50 deg (assumed)
Sweep angle, w25
50 deg (assumed)
Toe out angle
2 deg.
Taper ratio
0.8
Sweep angle chosen is 50 deg as it uses the same airfoil as that of wing, increase in sweep angle
increases the critical Mach number.
As a result of which the span of the wing is increased to 61.8418 m and thus the aspect ratio is
increased to 8.21
CHAPTER 5
DETERMINATION OF FUSELAGE PARAMETERS
The fuselage must be strong, rigid and light to avoid fatigue and failure of the pressurized cabins
low stress level must be chosen Drag of the fuselage must be low as it represents 20 to 40% of
41
the zero lift drag. Larger fuselage results in higher fuselage consumption decreased range and
increased takeoff weight.
Circular cross section of the conventional fuselage has an optimum enclosed volume, minimal
structural weight and minimum wetted area. Circular shell will react to the internal pressure
loads by hoop tension. Usually the cahin altitude is maintained at 8000 feet. Circular cross
section is efficient and lowest in structural weight. Non circular sections impose bending stress
in the shell structure. Sometimes a small radius arc is provided on the upper deck to provide
adequate head room whereas in some design the upper and lower radii arc is blended with a short
straight section.
Fineness ratio which is the length to diameter ratio plays an influential role in the design of
fuselage. Low fineness ratio results in drag penalty but can be stretched in future to meet the
needs. High fineness ratio is a long thin tubular structure which will suffer from dynamic
instability and is not flexible for future stretch.
The geometrical parameters to be determined for the fuselage are
Length of the fuselage , Lf
Diameter of the fuselage , Df
Typically for a 3 class arrangement 8% of seats are allotted for the first class, 13% of seats are
allotted for the business class and remaining for economy class.
Typical seat pitch values

Class
Seat pitch, mm
Seat pitch, inches
First class
950 - 1050
38 42
Business class
900 - 950
36 38
42
Economy class
775 - 850
31- 34
Charter class
700 - 775
28 - 31
Fig 15 Seat Pitch
Allocation of flight attendants:
One attendant per 30 to 40 passengers in economy class.
One attendant per 20 to 25 passengers in business class.
One attendant per 10 to 15 passengers in first class.
Allocation of facilities:
10 to 60 passengers each galley in which lower value dictates to the business class and
the higher value for the economy class.
15 to 40 passengers each lavatory which follows the same allocation as mentioned above.
Size of Galley = 762*914 mm (30*36 inches)
43
Size of toilet = 914*914 mm (36*36 inches)

The nose and the tail of the fuselage has to be streamlined to provide a smooth and reduce drag
shape.
Nose fineness ratio
= 1.5; Tail cone fineness ratio = 1.8 to 2.0

Dimensions of the seats
First class
Economy class
a, cm
50
43.5
b, cm
120
102
l ,cm
5.5
h, cm
107
107
m,cm
20
22
n ,cm
81
81
44
Fig 16 Dimensions of seat ( for clear diagram refer Egbert)

class
k , cm
p / p max
/ max
(cm/cm)
(deg/deg)
First class
43
71/102
15/45
Economy
45
69/95
15/38
class
45
Fig 17 Dimensions of seat ( for clear diagram refer Egbert)

Emergency exits:
Emergency evacuation of the cabin plays an important role in deciding the fuselage layout. The
manufacturers should demonstrate to the airworthiness officers that all the passengers can
evacuate in 90 seconds or less in case of emergency
Requirements of emergency exits
Seats less than
Type 1
Type2
Type 3
Type 4
10
20
40
80
110
140
180
Dimensions of emergency exits:
46
Type 1: 24 wide * 48 high inches ( 610*1219 mm)

Type 2: 20* 44 inches (508*1118 mm)
Type 3: 20* 36 inches ( 508* 914 mm)
Type 4: 19* 26 inches ( 483* 600 mm)
Type A: 42*72 inches ( 1067*1829mm)
Type A exit is equivalent to passenger or service loading door. For more than 179 seats a pair of
additional type A exits allows an extra of 110 seats, a pair of type 1 exits will allow a extra of 45
seats. Above 300 seats, all exits must be of type A. Above 600 seats will require six type A exits
on each side of fuselage.
Flight deck:
The length of the flight deck varies from 110 inches (2.75m) for smaller aircrafts to 150
inches(3.75m) for larger aircrafts where the latter type can accommodate a third operator if
needed.
5.1 Steps for determining the geometrical parameters with the example
Total passengers = 242
Cabin attendants = 8 (as per the guidelines mentioned above)
No of passengers in economy class = 80% of 242=198
No of passengers in first class
=20% of 242 = 44
Single aisle is chosen for the cabin design.
Seating arrangement:
47
Economy class = 6 abreast [3+3 ] = 33 rows

First class
= 4 abreast [2+ 2] = 11 rows.
class
Economy
Seat
Aisle
toilets Galley
pitch(inches)
width(inches)
Total
length(m)
34
20.5
28.2988
38
28.5
10.6172
class
First class
The total length of cabin = 39.116 m

For better accommodation the economy class is divided in two sections in which the first section
contains 17 rows and the next contains 16 rows
50 ft i.e 15.24 m is accounted for the front and aft of the cabin width
2.54 m for the 2 crew cockpit
Emergency exits
First class
1 type III
Economy class
2 type III
48
Total length of fuselage, Lf
56.896 m (initial)
Diameter of the fuselage, D f
5.7 m (initial)
Length of nose, l nose
8.5 m
Tail cone ratio , l tail / D f
1.8 m
Length of tail con e , l tail
10.26 m
Total length of fuselage
= 39.116+8.55+10.26+6.096
Total length of fuselage, Lf
= 63.962m (final)
Diameter of the fuselage, D f = 6.33m (final)
49
CHAPTER 6
DETERMINATION OF HORIZONTAL PARAMETERS
The empennage is composed of horizontal tail and the vertical tail. The two primary functions
are trim and stability. The first and primary function of horizontal tail is longitudinal trim or
equilibrium or balance. The function of vertical tail is to provide directional stability.
The tail parameters to be determined are
1. Plan form area ,S ht
2. Aspect Ratio , AR ht
3. Span ,b ht
4. airfoil selection
5. Root chord length , C rht
6. Tip chord length , C tht
7. Taper ratio , ht
8. Tail setting angle , ht
9. Mean aerodynamic chord , Cht
10. Sweep angle , ht
The parameters given above have the same characteristics as that of wings. The major
differences which are encountered in the determination of tail parameters will be given below.
The different types of tail configuration are
Aft tail and one vertical tail
Aft tail and twin aft vertical tail

50
Canard and aft vertical tail
Canard and twin wing vertical tail
Triplane i.e aft tail as aft plane, canard as fore plane, wing as fore plane
Tailless i.e delta wing with one vertical tail
No formal tail
Planform area, Sht:

The tail volume co efficient, VHT plays an important role in determining the planform area of the
horizontal tail.
VHT = lt * Sht / C * SW
Where
lt is the tail arm, m
Typical values of VHT
Aircraft type
VHT
Glider and motor glider
0.6
Homebuilt
0.5
General aviation- single prop driven
0.7
General aviation- twin prop driven
0.8
General aviation with canard
0.6
agricultural
0.5
Twin turboprop
0.9
Jet trainer
0.7
Fighter
0.4
Fighter with canard
0.1
51
Bomber/ military
Jet transport
1
1.1
Tail arm, lt:

Tail arm is the distance between aircraft centre of gravity and the aerodynamic centre of the
horizontal tail. This serves as the arm for the tail pitching moment about aircraft centre of gravity
to maintain the longitudinal trim. Tail area is responsible in production of the lift and the tail arm
influences this parameter. As the tail arm is increased the tail area is decreased and the vice
versa.
Generally lt / Lf = 0.5
Differences between the ARw and ARt :
1. Elliptical distribution of lift is not required for the tail
2. Lower AR for tail than Wing. Lower AR results in smaller bending moment
3. For a single prop driven engine the tail span should be longer than the propeller
diameter as it avoids being fully immersed in the downwash region making the
tail inefficient.
Typically it follows the relation
AR ht = (3/5) AR w
The value is between 3 to 5.
Taper Ratio, ht :
52
Taper Ratio of the tail influences the aircraft lateral stability, control, aircraft performance, tail
efficiency, t and the aircraft weight and the centre of gravity. The main reason for tail taper
ratio is to reduce the weight of the tail.
Typical values for general aviation aircrafts is 0.7 to 1.
Typical values for transport aircraft is 0.4 to 0.7.
Tail incidence , ht :
Tail incidence angle is used to nullify the pitching moment about the center gravity at cruising
flight.
ht = CLt / CLt
CLt = Clt / (1 + Clt / * ARht )
Where
Clt is the lift curve slope of the tail airfoil section.
CLt is the lift coefficient of the tail.
Airfoil selection:
Requirements of empennage airfoil:
1. Since the CG moves during the cruising flight, the airfoil section must be able to create
both negative (-L ht) and positive (+L ht) lift, so the airfoil must be symmetrical.
2. The airfoil should have a low base drag co efficient.
3. Tail lift coefficient must be less than the wing lift co efficient
4. Horizontal tail airfoil section must be thinner than the wing airfoil section. Typically
around 9% thicknesses.
Sweep angle, ht:
53
Sweep angle influences the aircraft longitudinal and lateral stability and control, aircraft
performance and the aircraft center of gravity. As an initial value it is taken 5 deg greater than
the leading edge sweep angle of the wing.
Dihedral angle, ht:
The tail dihedral is same as the wing dihedral. The other dihedral angle which comes into play is
the longitudinal dihedral which has an effect on longitudinal static stability.
Tail vertical location:
The vertical location of the tail has two options
1. At the fuselage aft section
2. At the vertical tail
The wing influences the horizontal tail via downwash, wake and the trailing vortices. The wing
wake degrades the tail efficiency and decreases the tail dynamic pressure.
Three major regions for horizontal tail installation:
1. Out of wake region and downwash which is the safest and the best region.
2. Inside the wake region but out of wing downwash which is not recommended
3. Out of wake region but affected by the downwash which is the safe region from deep
stall and pitch up but tail is not efficient.
54
Fig 15 horizontal tail installation regions

Tail setting configuration:
There are three horizontal tail setting configuration
1. fixed horizontal tail
2. adjustable tail
3. all moving tail
Fixed horizontal tail is attached to the fuselage hinged with a longitudinal control surface
elevator to change the pitching moment of the aircraft. This design is easier and cheaper.
Whereas the in the all moving tail the whole of the horizontal tail plane is moved and it does not
employ an elevator. The trim drag of the fixed horizontal tail is greater than the all moving tail.
The all moving tail is also known as variable incidence tail plane.
Figure 16 various tail setting configurations
55
6.1 Procedure for Determining the Horizontal Tail Parameters:

VHT = l * S ht / MAC * S
VHT = 1.1
Assume
Tail arm , lt = 30 m ( as lt / L f = 0.5 approx)

Substituting the values in the formula for V H
S ht = 139.12 m2
Geometrical Parameters of Horizontal Tail
Plan form area ,S ht
139.12 m2
Span ,b ht
23.59m
Root chord length , C rht
7.863m
Tip chord length , C tht
3.932 m
Taper Ratio, ht
0.5 (assumed)
Sweep angle ht (leading edge)
50.562 deg
Sweep angle ht (quarter chord )
48.554 deg
Sweep angle ht (trailing edge)
41.427 deg
Dihedral angle, ht
5 deg
AR ht
4.572
Tail setting angle is determined in the Stability Section
56
Airfoil selected for tail section is NACA 63 009

Max C l
0.9
Cmo
-0.008
Stall angle
13 deg
Cdmin
0.004
CHAPTER 7
57
DETERMINATION OF VERTICAL TAIL PARAMETERS:

The same parameters determined for the horizontal tail plane must be determined for the vertical
tail also with the suffix vt used in the naming convention.
Planform area, S vt :
The vertical tail volume co efficient ,VV plays an important role in determining the plan form
area of the vertical tail.
VV = S vt*l vt / b*SW
Typical values for VVT
Aircraft type
VVT
Homebuilt
0.04
General aviation- single prop driven
0.04
General aviation- twin prop driven
0.07
General aviation with canard
0.05
agricultural
0.04
Twin turprop
0.08
Jet trainer
0.06
Fighter
0.07
Fighter with canard
0.06
Bomber/ military
0.08
Jet transport
0.09
Increasing the area will improve the lateral-directional stability, control and trim required. It will
also improve the directional and lateral control. If the vertical is too large, the aircraft will be
lateral directionally too stable but the directional control requirement are not satisfied.
Vertical tail arm, lvt:
58
The vertical tail arm must be long enough to satisfy the directional stability, control and trim
requirements. An increase in the vertical tail moment arm improves the directional and lateral
control. Since the vertical tail arm decides the position of the vertical plane it should be such that
it is out of wake region of horizontal tail.
Initially it is taken as lvt / lht = 0.95.
Vertical incidence angle, ivt:
The vertical incidence should be zero to maintain the symmetricity about the respective plane to
maintain equilibrium condition. But for propeller driven aircraft, the propeller will create a
torque so to maintain the equilibrium the vertical tail plane must be set at some incidence angle.
Aspect Ratio, ARvt :
If AR vt is higher it weakens aircraft lateral control but it has higher directional control. The
bending moment and the bending stress at the tail root will be higher which in turn makes the
vertical tail plane heavier. If the AR vt is large then the induced drag will be higher. For a T- tail
configuration, high AR vt keeps the horizontal tail from wake. Higher AR vt results in high
aerodynamic efficiency.
Typically it is around 1 to 2.
Taper Ratio, vt :
The main reasons for giving taper to vertical tail is to reduce the bending stress on the tail root
and to allow the vertical tail to have a sweep angle. But an increase in taper ratio reduces the
lateral stability. Typically the value is around 0.5
Sweep angle, vt :
If the sweep angle is increased it results in directional control and for T-tail configuration the tail
arm is increased which improves the aircraft longitudinal stability and control. For initial design
assume a same value as that of horizontal tail.
Airfoil selection:
59
The airfoil must generate lift with minimum drag coefficient. To maintain symmetricity airfoil
must be symmetrical. The airfoil must be thinner so that the Mach number is less on vertical tail
compared to the wing. High value of lift curve slope is preferred as the derivatives of directional
stability depends on the slope.
7.1 Procedure for determining the Vertical tail Parameters:
vertical tail volume co efficient , Vv =(l vt * S vt )/ (b * Sw)
l vt / l ht = 0.95
l vt
= 28.5m
The formulae used for the determination of wing parameters are used here.
Vertical Tail Parameters
Plan form area ,S vt
87.51m2
Span ,b vt
13.23 m
Root chord length , C rvt
8.82m
Tip chord length , C tvt
4.41m
Taper Ratio, vt
0.5
Sweep angle vt (leading edge)
50.562 deg
Sweep angle vt (quarter chord )
46.373 deg
Sweep angle vt(trailing edge)
28.772 deg
Cvt
AR vt
6.86m
2.0
The same airfoil used for horizontal tail plane is selected i.e NACA 63 - 009
60
CHAPTER 8
WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF THE COMPONENTS
Till now we have estimated the weight of the aircraft with historical data but in this section the
weights of the individual components are calculated to find the accurate weight of the aircraft.
Basically four methods are followed for the estimation of weight of the components.
1. Cessna method
2. USAF method
61
3. GD (general dynamics) method

4. Torenbeek method
The overall idea for the designer is to obtain an optimum weight of the aircraft. Over weight of
the aircraft will suffer reductions in range, reduced climbing altitude, reduced maneuverability
and increased takeoff and landing distances. Two methods which are widely used which offer
reduction in weight are the use of composites and relaxation in inherent stability of the aircraft.
Fig 17 various factors which influence the weight of the aircraft

As the payload weight and the fuel weight has been already estimated, in this section the
estimation of the empty weight is done.
The empty weight consists of
1. fuselage weight ,Wfuse
2. wing weight ,Wwing
3. horizontal tail weight, Wht
4. vertical tail weight, Wvt
62
5. engine group weight ,Weg
The estimation of the weight of the aircraft is done following the same example
8.1 Fuselage weight, Wfuse :[all units in fps]
The weight of the fuselage depends upon the size and the aircraft layout. The ratio
of Wfuse / WTO = 7 12 %
W fuse = 0.021K f (Vd lh / ( wf + hf
) } 0.5* S
Where
Sf is the surface area of the fuselage, ft2
Sf = * D f * L f
Kf = 1.08 (for pressurized fuselage)
= 1.07 (for main gear attached to the fuselage )
= 1.10 (cargo airplane with cargo floor)
VD is the dive speed., knots
Airworthiness requirement for civil aircraft set a minimum margin of M= 0.05 between the
cruise speed and the maximum dive speed
Dive speed is approximately chosen from the graph shown below
63
Fig 18 selection of dive speed

For the calculation we assume the dive speed, VD = 450 knots
Substituting the values in the above formula
W fuse = 368167.24 N
8.2 Weight of Wing , W wing : [ all units in fps]
Wwing = 0.0017 WMZF [ b / cos1/2 0.75 1 + {6.3cos1/2 / b}0.5 * ( nult
0.55
[b * S / (trWMZF cos1/2 )]
Where WMZF = maximum weight of aircraft with out fuel.
tr is the thickness of the airfoil
1/2 is the sweep angle at half chord, deg
nult is the ultimate load factor = 3.75
formula for calculating chord at half sweep
tanLn = tanLm 4 / ARw ( n m ) * ( 1 w /1 + w )
64
where n = ; m =
1/2 = 40.17deg
Substituting the values in the above formula
W wing = 350751.056 N
8.3 Weight of Horizontal tail:( all units in fps)
Wh = K h Sht [{3.81 Sht 0.2 VD / 1000 (cos1/2 ht )0.5 } 0.287]
Where
K h = 1 (for fixed incidence tail)

= 1.1 ( for variable incidence tail)
Wht = 33111.59 N
The same formula is applied for vertical tail with a suffix v

K v = 1.0 (for conventional tail)
Wvt = 17667.83 N
8.4 Weight of the Engine Group, Weg : (all units in fps)
Weg = Wew + Wtr + Wess + Wfs
Where Wew is the engine weight
Wtr is the thrust reverser weight
Wess is the electrical start system weight
Wfs is the fuel system weight
Wtr
= 50.38 [ Wew /1000] 0.459
65
Wess = 38.93 [ Wew /1000] 0.918
Wfs
= 80( Ne + Nt -1)+ 15 (Nt)0.5* (Wf /Kfs)
Where
Nt is the number of fuel tanks, here it is 6

Kfs = 5.87 lbs/gal ( for aviation gasoline)
= 6.55 lbs/gal (for JP4)
Weg = 39,603.44lb = 176.224kN

8.5 Weight of under carriage: (all units in fps)
Wug = K gr Ag + Bg ( WTO )
0.75
+ Cg ( WTO ) + Dg ( WTO )
1.5
Where
Wug is the weight of under carriage, lb

K gr = 1.0 for low wing aircraft
= 1.08 for high wing aircraft
For nose wheel,
Ag = 20.0; Bg = 0.10; Cg = 0; D g = 2*10-6
For main wheel,
Ag = 40.0; Bg = 0.16; Cg = 0.019; D g = 1.5*10-5
Wng = 14279.53 N
Wmg =101027.21N
8.6 Weight of fixed equipment, Wfe: (all units in fps)

W fe = W fc + Wels + Wox + Wfur + Wpaint + Wbc + Wiae
66
Where
Wfc is the weight of the flight control
Wels is the weight of the electrical system
Wox is the weight of the oxygen system
W fur is the weight of the furnishings
Wpaint is the weight of the paint
Wbc is the weight of cargo and baggage handling equipment , lb
Wiae is the weight of the avionics
Wels = 10.8 ( V pax )
0.7
* 1 0.018 ( Vpax )
0.35
Where V pax is the passenger cabin volume = volume allotted per passenger* no of passengers
Volume allotted per passenger = 65 ft3 [ transport jets]
Wfc = K fc * ( WTO )
0.67
Where
K fc = 0.64 (for powered flight controls)

= 0.44( for unpowered flight controls)
Wox = 30 + 1.2 ( N p )
Where N p is the number of passengers
Wpaint = 0.0045*WTO
Wbc = Kbc *
Np )
67
Where K bc =0.0646 (with no preload provisions)

= 0.316 ( with preload provisions)
Wiae = 0.575* ( Wengine )
0.566
( R)
0.25
Where R is the range, nm

Wfe = 13148.38 N
CHAPTER 9
BALANCE DIAGRAM
68
Balance diagram is drawn to locate the C.G of the aircraft and to verify the shift the C.G is
within 5% to 15%.
Guidelines to construct the balance diagram
C.G locations of the Components:
For wing , horizontal tail and vertical tail are at 40 % of their respective M.A.C
For fuselage at 42% of its length
For the engine at 40 % of its length
Nose landing gear at 13% of fuselage length
Main landing gear at 55 % of the fuselage length
Engine group is about 2 m from the leading edge of the.wing.
All other components have at 42 % of the fuselage length.
For the crew the centre of the nose plane

For the whole aircraft at the quarter chord point of the MAC of wing
The shift has to be verified by finding the C.G for the following cases
Full fuel and full payload
Reserve fuel and full payload
Full fuel and zero payload
Reserve fuel and zero payload
Full fuel and half payload
Reserve fuel and half payload
69
Fig 19 axis system to draw balance diagram

The nose of the aircraft is taken as the reference point. The distance from the nose to the leading
edge of the wing is denoted by Xle and the calculations are preceded for each case.
Components
Weight(N)
C.G Locations (m)
Wing
350751.056
Xle +12.71
Fuselage
368167.24
26.86
Horizontal Tail
33111.59
Xle + 41.617
Vertical Tail
17667.83
Xle + 42.192
Powerplant
176224.19
Xle + 2
Nose Wheel
14279.53
8.32
Main Landing gear
101027.21
31.81
Fixed Equipment
13148.38
26.86
Fuel
926674.38
Xle + 11.366
Payload
2794091.4
27.5
Crew
2158.2
3.2
Gross Weight
2447301.014
Xle + 11.366
The moment equilibrium is applied at the nose and the distance of leading edge of the wing from
the nose tip is calculated.
70
Xle = 18.16 m
The C.G location for the aircraft is at 28.992m from the leading edge
C.G locations for different cases

Cases
C.G Locations(m)
Full Payload + Full Fuel
28.992
Full Payload + Reserve Fuel
29.002
Zero Payload + Full Fuel
29.652
Zero Payload + Reserve Fuel
29.652
Half Payload + Full Fuel
29.26
Half Payload + Reserve Fuel
29.26
% shift of C.G =(most forward point of CG most Aft point of CG)/ MAC
= 7.3%
CHAPTER 10
DETERMINATION OF LANDING GEAR PARAMETERS
The parameters to be determined are
1. wheel base
2. wheel track
3. load on each gear
71
4. tyre selection
5. stroke length
6. oleo length and the diameter
The basic landing gear configurations are
1. bicycle
2. tail dragger
3. tricycle
4. quadricycle
5. multi-bogey
Bicycle arrangement:
This type of arrangement has two main wheels fore and aft of the C.G and a outrigger
wheels on the wing to prevent the aircraft from tipping sideways. This is the oldest of the design.
Advantages are design simplicity and low weight. Since the wheels are placed at equal distances
about the C.G , they carry similar loads.
Tail dragger:
This type of arrangement has two wheels forward of the C.G and a auxiliary wheel at the
tail. The main gears in front of the C.G carries most of the load. As the aircraft is always at an
high attitude the tail has to be lifted up during take off. This type of landing gear is directionally
unstable during ground maneuver i.e turn.
Tricycle arrangement:
72
This type of arrangement has two main wheels aft of C.G and an nose gear at forward of
C.G. this is the most widely used arrangement nowadays. The nose gear carries 5% 15% of the
load and the main gear carries 85%- 95% of the load. The nose gear configuration is
directionally stable on the ground as well as during taxing.
Quadricycle arrangement:
This type of arrangement is similar to the arrangement in cars with wheels on either sides of thr
fuselage. This type of arrangement requires a flat attitude for take off and landing as it is very
hard to rotate the aircraft during landing and taxiing.
Multi bogey:
As the aircraft becomes heavier it is necessary to employ multiple wheels to carry the loads,
which lead to Multi-bogey arrangement. When multiple wheels are used in tandem, they are
attached to a strut element called a bogey or truck. Aircrafts weighing above 50,000 lbs
employ multi bogey arrangement.
73
Fig 20 types of landing gear arrangements

The tip back angle is the maximum aircraft nose up attitude with the tail touching the ground and
the strut fully extended. This angle prevents the aircraft tipping at the tail during take off and this
should be greater than take off rotation angle. Typical take off rotation angle ( to) is 10 to 15 deg
74
so the tip back angle ( tb )should be around 15 to 20 deg. The tip back angle regulates the most
forward and the most aft position of centre of gravity in tricycle configuration.
Figure 21 tip back angle and the take off rotation angle
The overturn angle is the aircraft tendency to overturn when taxied around a sharp corner and
this angle should not be greater than 63 deg.
Wheel base:
The wheel base plays an important role in distributing the load between the main gear and the
nose gear. It is the distance between the nose gear and the main gear from the side view. Due to
ground controllability, the nose gear must carry load greater than 5% and not more than 20%
which implies that the landing gear must carry 80% to 90% of total weight.
Wheel track,T :
It is the distance between the left and the right of the main wheels. The minimum value for the
wheel track must satisfy the overturn angle required and the maximum value should satisfy the
structural integrity requirement. The wheel track should be such that it should satisfy the
following requirement that the overturn angle must be greater than or equal to 25 deg.
10.1 Loads acting on the gears: (all units in SI)
Maximum static load:
On nose gear : Fnmax = Bmmax*WTO/ B
75
On main gear: Fmmax = Bnmax*WTO/ B
Minimum static load:

On nose gear : Fnmim = Bmmin*WTO/B
On main gear : Fmmin = Bnmin*WTO/B
Figure 22 For the calculation of loads

Dynamic load :
On the nose gear, Fndyn = al* WTO * Hcg /g*B
On the main gear,Fmdyn = at* WTO * Hcg /g*B
Where Hcg is the distance from the ground to the C.G of the aircraft
al is the landing deceleration, 3 m/s2
at is the take off acceleration, 4 m/s2
g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
The load carried by the nose gear, Fn = Fnmax + Fndyn
76
The load carried by the main gear, Fm = Fmmax +Fmdyn

The nose gear must withstand both the maximum static and dynamic loads.
Following the steps above and as per the balance diagram

Bnmin = 20.672 m
Bnmax= 21.332 m
Bmmax = 2.989m
Bmmin= 2.329m
Fn = 39112.53kg = 383.694kN
Fm =230007.85kg = 2256.377kN.
We are employing two wheels for the nose gear and each wheel carries 191.846kN
The load calculated for the main gear gets equally distributed between two sides and we are
employing six wheels on each side which accounts to a total of 12 wheels. Each wheel carries
188.031kN
10.2 Braking kinetic energy:(all units in fps)
The braking kinetic energy , K.E braking = 0.5*Wlanding*Vstall2
Sometimes there is a need for emergengy landing, so consider Wlanding to be 90% of the WTO
K.E braking = 387*106 ft-lb/s
The western design employs brakes only on the main gear whereas the soviet design employs
brakes in both nose and landing gear.
Here we will employ the brakes in the main gear. So the K.E braking is 32.25*106 ft-lb/s per wheel
77
Figure 2 wheel diameter for braking

From the above graph, the wheel diameter should be around 22 inches.
10.3 Tyre selection :
Pressure recommended for different runways
Surface
Aircraft carrier
PSI
200+
Major military airfield
200
Major civil airfield
120
Tarmac runway,good foundation
70 90
Tarmac runway, poor foundation
50 70
Temporary metal runway
50 70
Dry grass on hard soil
45 60
Wet grass on soft soil
30 - 45
78
Soft sand
25 - 35
From the tyre data book,

Dimensions of Wheel Rim
Type of gear
Diameter
Width
Nose Gear
0.5334m
0.5334m
Main Gear
0.55m
0.34m
Dimensions of Tyre Selected

Type of gear
Size(inches)
Diameter
Width
Nose Gear
48*15.00 21
1.22 m
0.38m
Main Gear
50 * 15.75- 22
1.28m
0.4m
10.4 Pressure calculated:

Foot print area , Ap = 2.3 (d*w)*( d/2 Rr)
Where d is the diameter of the tyre , inches
w is the width of tyre, inches
Rr is the rolling radius = 2/3 of tyre radius
Ww = Ap * P Where Ww is the load carried by each wheel, lb
P is the pressure required, PSI
For nose gear , P = 87.6 PSI
79
For main gear , P = 77.64 PSI

10.5 Stroke :
Stroke is the required deflection of shock absorbing system to absorb the shocks of bad
landing. The most widely used shock absorbing system is oleo pneumatic shock absorbing
system. This type of shock strut absorbs shock by forcing a chamber of oil into the chamber of
compressed air and nitrogen and then compressing both gas and oil together. To improve the
efficiency of the device the orifices change its size as the oleo compresses.
The stroke is calculated using the formula,
E = LS + t L St
Where
E is the kinetic energy
is the efficiency of the shock absorber (for oleo 0.80)
S is the stroke to be calculated
t is the tyre efficiency (for tyre 0.47)
St is the tyre deflection = d/2 Rr
E = (0.5*Wlanding*V2)/ g
V is the vertical velocity at touch down, 10 ft/s
*S*N + t*St*N = V2 /2g + (1 N) ( S +St)
Where N is the design reaction factor (0.7 1.2)

With 1.2 most widely used for transport aircrafts.
From the above formula ,
80
stroke ,S = 10.77 inches

For safety purpose add 1 inch to the above value
S = 11.77 inches = 0.29 m
Typical value is 8 to 12 inches.
10.6 Oleo sizing :
Figure 24 oleo strut

Static position is approximately 84% of stroke. The total length of the oleo including the stroke
distance and the fixed position of oleo is 2.5 times of stroke.
The static position of oleo = 9.668 inches = 0.25 m
Length of oleo, loleo
= 29.45 inches = 0.74 m
Diameter of oleo, Doleo = 0.04*(Loleo)0.5
where
Loleo is the load carried by each oleo, lb
For nose gear,
81
Doleo = 8.31 inches = 0.21m

For main gear
Doleo = 8.22 inches = 0.21m
10.7 Calculation of wheel track:
For a jet aircraft a clearance of 1.5 m is allotted at the inlet of the engine
Hcg = 6.2 m
We are assuming a value of 30 deg in the above fig

From the above fig, tan 30 = (T/2 )/ Hcg
Wheel track, T = 7.14m
82
Figure 25 for track calculation

From the right hand side figure,
Tan 1 = AC / FC
1= 8.6 deg
Sin 1 = DE/AD
DE = 4.334 m
From the left hand side figure,
Tan ot = 4.334/ Hcg
ot = 35 deg
This satisfies the overturn angle criterion that it should be greater than 25 deg
So the minimum track length is 7.14 m but the fuselage diameter is 6.33 m, so the landing gear
cannot be attached to fuselage. But take into consideration the space available while the landing
gear is retracted.
83
CHAPTER 11
DRAG POLAR
Drag force is the summation of all forces resisting the motion of the aircraft. Usually drag force
is represented in form of non dimensional parameter,CD which is known as the drag coefficient.
This drag coefficient take sin to account every configuration which contributes to the drag. The
mathematical model of variation of CD vs. CL is given by
CD = CDO + KCL 2
The above equation clearly represents that the parabolic variation of CD vs.CL.
The first term CDO is the zero lift drag co efficient
2
The second term is the induced drag co efficient,CDi = KCL The constant K is the induced drag
correction factor which can be easily calculated using the formula

K = 1/(*e*AR)
Figure 26 typical variation of CD vs. CL
84
Zero lift drag coefficient, CDO:

This represents the drag associated with the frictional characteristics, shape and protuberances in
the aircraft structure not associated with production of lift. It increases with aircraft velocity and
it is the main factor in determining the maximum speed of the aircraft.
Induced drag coefficient, CDi:
This represents the drag produced by the aircraft wings as a result of induced vortices on a finite
aspect ratio wing. It first decreases with speed with its contribution highest at low velocities and
decreases with increase in speed.
Figure 27 drag classification

Induced drag coefficient can be easily calculated from the given expression but the calculation of
the zero lift drag is a tedious procedure. It has to be kept in mind that this calculation proceeded
85
is applicable for subsonic aircraft and the same smplified expression cannot be used for
supersonic flights.
11.1 CALCULATION OF CDO
CDO is the summation of all contributing components and each and every component of the
aircraft have only positive contribution to CDO
CDO = CDOf +CDOw + CDOht + CDOvt + CDOn+ CDOhld + CDOlg
Where CDOf is the zero lift drag produced by fuselage
CDow is the zero lift drag produced by wing
CDOht is the zero lift drag produced by horizontal tail
CDOvt is the zero lift drag produced by vertical tail
CDon is the zero lift drag produced by nacelle
CDOhld is the zero lift drag produced by high lift devices
CDolg is the zero lift drag produced by landing gear.
11.1.1 Fuselage:
The zero lift drag for the fuselage is given by
CDO f = C f * fld * fm * ( Swetf / S )
Where Cf is the friction coefficient
Cf = 0.455*( log Re ) -2.58 ( for turbulent flows)
Cf = 1.327 / [( Re)0.5]
( for laminar flows)
Reynolds number, Re = *V*l /

Where is the viscosity coefficient at that altitude
.
86
Mostly aircraft fly under the combined conditions of laminar flow and turbulent flow. But its
better to overestimate the values rather than underestimation in this case.
fld is the function of fuselage fineness ratio (Lf/Df)
fld = 1+ 60 /[ (Lf/Df)3]+ 0.0025(Lf/Df)
fm is the function of mach number
fm = 1- 0.08M1.45
Swetf is the wetted area of the fuselage
S is the wing reference area (mostly the gross area)
Swetf = *Df*Lf*[1- 2/(Lf/Df)]0.67*[1+ 1/( 2)]
Following the same example,
For cruise flight
At 11km
= 14.17 *10-6 ; = 0.364kg/m3 ; V = 250.92 m/s
Re = 4.12 * 108
Cf = 0.001758
fld = 1.083
fm = 0.9365 ( M = 0.85)
Swetf/S = 2.37
CDOf = 0.004227
87
11.1.2 WING, HORIZONTAL TAIL, VERTICAL TAIL:

The zero lift coefficients of wing is given by
CDOw = C fw * ftc * fm * ( Swetw / S ) * ( Cd minw / 0.04 )
0.4
The zero lift coefficient of horizontal tail is given by

CDOht = C fw * ftc * fm * ( Swetw / S ) * ( Cd min ht / 0.04 )
0.4
The zero lift coefficient of vertical tail is given by

CDOvt = C fw * ftc * fm * ( Swetw / S ) * ( Cd min vt / 0.04 )
0.4
Cfw, Cfht, Cfvt is defined in the same way as that of fuselage. The only difference is instead of lf
we use the MAC of the respective surfaces under consideration.
Cdmin is the minimum drag coefficient of the respective airfoils of the surfaces.
ftc is the function of thickness to chord ratio
ftc = 1+ 2.7 ( t/c ) max + 100 (t/c)max
Swet of lifting surfaces is given by
Swet = 2.0*[1+0.2(t/c)]*S
Following the same example,
For wing ,
CDOw = 0.00492
For horizontal tail,
CDOht = 0.00173
For vertical tail,
CDOvt = 0.000961
88
11.1.3 Nacelle :
As it is similar to the shape of the fuselage, the same formula can be applied. The diameter of the
nacelle is about 10 % larger than diameter of the engine and the fineness ratio is around 1.5 to 2.
CDOn = 0.00623
For cruise
CDO = CDOf + CDOw + CDOht + CDOvt + CDOn
CDO = 0.0168
11.1.4 Landing gear:
The zero lift drag coefficient due to landing gear comes into the picture only during
take-off and landing because during cruise they are retracted into their respective locations.
CDOlg = CDlg (Slg/S)
Where CDlg is the drag coefficient of each wheel = 0.3 (for landing gear with fairing)
= 0.15 ( for landing gear without fairing)
Slg is the frontal area of each wheel = diameter of tyre * radius of tyre (in meter)
Following the example,
CDOlg = 0.3 [ 12*1.28*0.40 + 2*1.22*0.38]/ 465.342
CDOlg
= 0.0045
89
11.1.5 Trailing edge high lift devices:

The zero lift contribution of high lift devices is also obtained during take off and landing. It is
given by
CDOthld = (Cf /C)* A* f B
Where
Cf / C is the ratio of high lift device chord to the wing chord
f is the deflection angle corresponding to take off or landing
Flap type
Split flap
0.00014
1.5
Plain flap
0.00016
1.5
Single slotted flap
0.00018
Double slotted flap
0.00011
Fowler flap
0.00015
1.5

For take off , f = 45 deg , Cf/C = 0.20 , A= 0.00014,B = 1.5 (as we are using
split flaps)
CDOthld = 0.00845
For landing , f = 55 deg
CDOthld =0.0114
11.1.6 Leading edge high lift devices:
90
The zero lift drag contribution of the leading edge devices is given by
CDOlhld = (Cle/C)*CDOw
Where
Cle/C is the ratio between average extended slat chord to the average wing chord
CDow is the zero lift parasite drag of wing
Since we are not employing any leading edge devices, the zero lift drag due to leading edge
devices is not added.
Induced drag coefficient,CDi = 0.05172
For landing , CDO =0.0298
For takeoff, CDO = 0.03275
Drag polar equations
For cruise,
CD = 0.0168 + 0.05172 CL 2
2
For take off , CD = 0.0298 + 0.05172CL
2
For landing, CD = 0.03275 + 0.05172 CL
In the same way the drag polar curves are constructed for takeoff and landing configurations.
CHAPTER 12
91
PERFORMANCE OF THE AIRCRAFT

The performance aspects of the aircraft to be studied are under unaccelerated flight
conditions and accelerated flight conditions
Under unaccelerated flight the following are studied
Steady level flight
Steady Climb
Descent and Glide
Range and Endurance
Under accelerated flight the following are studied
Take off performance
Landing performance
12.1 Unaccelerated flight

12.1.1 Steady level flight:
Under the steady level flight performance the maximum and the minimum level of speed for
each altitude is estimated.
The equations of motion for steady level flight are
TD=0;LW=0
1
1
2
2
W = L = ( ) V S wC L ; TR = D = ( ) V S wC D
2
2
Velocity ,V = (
2W 2
)
SC L
92
TR = W (
CD
)
CL
Steps involved:
1. Choose the altitude and find out the density of the corresponding altitude.
2. Choose a particular velocity
3. Calculate CL for that particular altitude and velocity chosen using
CL = (
2W
)
SV 2
4. Calculate the CD for the calculated CL using the drag polar equation found for cruise
(project Phase I)
5. Calculate the Thrust required(TR) using
1
2
TR = ( ) V S wC D
2
6. Then choose a different velocity and repeat from step 2 to step 5

7. Thrust available (TA) is calculated using
TA = TSL (
)
SL
Where TSL is the thrust produced by the engine at sea level

is the density at altitude chosen
SL is the density at sea level

Thrust available is constant for the particular altitude.
93
2
CD = 0.0168+ 0.05172 CL ( at cruise condition)
Velocity (m/s)
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
TR at 11000 m (kN)
376.88
274.4
214.13
179.086
158.934
148.24
144.288
145.372
150
158.161
168.61
181.34
TA=152.73kN
Similarly the plot has been carried out for different velocities at different altitudes.
The point of intersection of the thrust Available (straight line) and the thrust required curve gives
the maximum and minimum velocity at that altitude.
94
The altitude where the thrust required and the thrust available curve becomes tangent to one
other gives the service ceiling of the aircraft.
12.1.2 Steady Climb:

Under steady climb performance, the following are evaluated for the aircraft
Maximum rate of climb
maximum angle of climb
maximum attainable ceiling
Maximum angle to climb, max :

The maximum angle to climb is given by
Sin max = T / W
( 4*C DO * K )
0.5
max = 8.68
Velocity Required to attain maximum angle to climb, Vmax :
Vmax = [ 2 / * ( K / CDO )0.5 *( W / S) * cosmax ]0.5

Vmax =122.0366 m/s
Service Ceiling and Absolute Ceiling:

Service ceiling:
The altitude at which the climb rate is 100ft/min for the aircraft is known as service ceiling.
Absolute ceiling:
The altitude at which the climb rate is 0 ft/min for the aircraft is known as Absolute ceiling. It is
also the maximum altitude the aircraft can achieve.
95
Steps involved:
1. Choose the sea level altitude to start with and note the density for the altitude.
2. The rate of climb, R / Cmax of the jet aircraft is given by
R / Cmax = [{( W / S ) * Z / 3* * CDO }0.5 ( T / W)
1.5
* 1 Z / 6 3 / 2( T / W)
L / D)
2
max
*Z ]
3. The value of Z is found using
2
2
Z = 1 + 1 + 3 / ( L / D ) max * ( T / W )
0.5
4. All the other values are known from the project phase I
5. Substituting all the values in the formula given in step 2 R / Cmax is calculated for that
altitude.
6. Increase the Altitude and calculate the R / Cmax for each altitude and tabulate the values
using which the graph is plotted to indentify the service and absolute ceiling.
Altitude (m)
R/C (m/s)
R/C (ft/min)
24.166
4639.98
1000
21.379
4208.413
5000
12.10
2381.8608
10000
2.582
508.436
11000
0.7787
153.2855
96
11100
0.2797
55.06
11200
0.18405
36.23
11300
0.0789
15.53
11400
-0.05
-9.138
R /C m a x v s . a ltitu d e
5000
4000
R/C max
3000
2000
R /C m ax
1000
0
0
-1 0 0 0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
a l ti tu d e (m )
From the graph

Service ceiling = 11000 m; Absolute ceiling =11350m
12.1.3 Gliding flight:
The following are determined for the gliding flight performance,
Minimum descent angle
Maximum range
Equilibrium glide velocity
Rate of descent
97
Minimum descent angle, min :
tan min = 1/ ( L / D) max
min = 3.37
Maximum range covered over the ground, Rmax :

tan min = h / Rmax
Rmax
=187.074km
Equilibrium glide velocity, V( L / D ) max :

V( L / D )
max
V( L / D )
= [2 / * ( K / CDO )
max
0.5
* ( W / S ) ]0.5
= 71.76 m/s
Rate of descent, Vvmin :

Vv = [2 / * ( C L 3 / C D 2 ) * (W / S ) ]0.5
CL 3/2 / CD = 0.25* (3 / K *CDO ) 0.33

C L 3 / CD 2
= 213.0140
Vvmin
= 3.718 m/s
0.75
= 14.595
12.1.4 Range, R:
Range is the total distance traversed by the aircraft on a full tank of fuel.
Steps involved:
1. Calculate (CL0.5/CD)max using
98
(C
0.5
L
/ CD )
max
= 0.75* ( 1/ 3* K * C DO 3 )
0.25
[for maximum Range]
2. The range of the jet aircraft is given by

R = 2 / c * (2 / S ) * C L 0.5 / C D * (W o 0.5 W 10.5
From the above mentioned steps,

(CL0.5/CD)max = 25.608
R = 9390.87537 miles = 15154.587km
12.1.5 Endurance, E:
Endurance is the total time the aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel.
Endurance of the jet aircraft is given by
E = 1/ c * ( L / D ) * ln (W TO / W Landing )
L
For maximum endurance the aircraft must fly at ( ) max .
D
L
( ) max = (1/4*K*CDO)0.5
D
For the aircraft under consideration,

L
( ) max = 16.95
D
E = 16 hours
12.1.6 Level turn:
Under level turn the following are determined,
Minimum turn radius
Velocity for minimum turn radius

99
Load Factor corresponding to minimum turn radius
Minimum Radius Speed usually occurs at full flap configuration gives the highest lift harvest for
the lowest speed input
Minimum turn radius, Rmin :
Rmin = 4* K * ( W / S ) / g * * (T / W ) * [ 1 4* K * C DO * (T / W
0.5
Rmin = 1451.1651m
Velocity corresponding to minimum turn radius, VRmin :
VRmin = [4* K * ( W / S ) / * ( T / W ) ]0.5

VRmin = 119.3139 m/s
Load factor corresponding to minimum radius, nRmin :

2
nRmin = 2 4* K * C DO / ( T / W )
nRmin = 1.0522
The two categories in turn are
Maximum sustained turn rate( MSTR)
Sharpest sustained turn (STR)
The conditions to be satisfied for the above mentioned turn to take place are
n nmax ; CL CL max
The maximum constant altitude turning rate that can be sustained by the aircraft is known as
Maximum Sustained Turn Rate. This will result in bleeding of speed and eventually reduction in
turn rate.
100
The aircraft to make sharpest turn or the turn with minimum radius of curvature whilr holding
the altitude constant is the Sharpest Sustained Turn Rate.
Steps Involved:
1. The value of Z and Vmin drag is calculated in common to both turn using
Z = ( T / W ) * ( CL / CD ) max ; Vmindrag = (2W / S )0.5 * ( K / CDO )
0.25
2. The load factor(n),turn rate ( ) and the radius of turn (R) are calculated for both the
categories for different altitudes using the formulae given below
For maximum sustained turn rate,

n = ( 2Z 1)
0.5
= g * ( 2Z 2 )
0.5
/V
R = V 2 / g *1/ ( 2Z 2 )
0.5
For sharpest sustained turn,

n = ( 2Z 2 1)
0.5
/Z
= g * ( Z 2 1) / Z 0.5 *V
R = V 2 / [ g * ( Z 2 1) ]
Following the above mentioned steps,

At sea level
N
101
MSTR 2.47
0.1809
678.04
STR
1.4070
0.1447
449.044
0.0934
1682.849
0.0800
1343.979
At 5000 m
MSTR 1.808
STR
1.33
At 11000 m
n
MSTR
1.0566
0.0149
2083.493
STR
1.0522
0.147
1964.583
12.2 Accelerated Flight:

Under accelerated flight the Takeoff and Landing performance are studied.
Regulations FAR 25 specify that:
Aircraft should lift off 10% above the stalling speed
Aircraft should climb initially at 20% above the stalling speed
102
Aircraft speed during a regular approach should be 30% above the stalling speed
During take off the aircraft should clear an imaginary 11m obstacle
During landing aircraft should cross the run way threshold 15m above the ground
The above mentioned conditions should be taken into account to estimate the run way length
12.2.1 Take off Performance:
ground run
transition length
Steps Involved:
103
1. The stalling velocity of the aircraft is calculated using

Vstall = [2 / * (W / S ) *(1/ C Lmax )]0.5
2. The velocity for lift off, is calculated using

VLO = 1.1Vstall
3. 70% of the lift off velocity is calculated which is to be used to find the ground roll
distance i.e. 0.7 of VLO

4. The ground roll distance is calculated using
Sg = { 1.21( W / S ) } / { g CLmax [( T / W ) ( D / W) r( 1 L / W) ]}0.7 VLO +1.1N (N

= 1 for small aircrafts; N = 3 for large aircrafts)
5. The radius of take off and the angle for take off is calculated using
R = 6.96 ( V stall ) / g ; = cos 1( 1 h / R)
2
6. The transition length is calculated

Sa = Rsin
7. The total take off distance is calculated
STO = S g + Sa

Vstall = 65.375m/s ; VLO = 78.45m/s; 0.7 of VLO = 54.915m/s
S g = 3395.07m ; R= 3032.2404m ; = 4.8; S a = 253.7313m
STO = S g + Sa = 3648.8013m
104
12.2.2 Landing Performance:
Hf
Point of touch down

approach
flare
ground run
Steps Involved:
1. The stalling velocity of the aircraft is calculated using
Vstall = [2 / * (W / S ) *(1/ C Lmax )]0.5
2. The velocity required for landing, VLA is calculated
VLA = 1.3Vstall
3. 70% of the lift off velocity is calculated which is to be used to find the ground roll
distance i.e. 0.7 of VLA

4. The velocity for touchdown, , VTD and velocity for flare, Vf is calculated as
105
VTD = 1.15 Vstall
; Vf = 1.23 Vstall
5. The ground roll distance, Sg is calculated using
S g = 3 * VTD + { W *VTD2 / 2 gCLmax * [1/ (Trev + D + r ( W L) 0.7VLA )]}

6. The radius for landing, R and the angle for landing, is calculated using
R = ( Vf ) / 0.2g ; a 3 (for transport aircraft)

2
7. The height at which the flare phase begins, H f is calculated using
H f = R (1 cosa )
8. The approach distance, S a and the flare distance, S f is found using
Sa = 50 hf / tan a ; S f = Rsin a
9. The total landing distance, SLA is
SLA = Sg + Sa + Sf
Vstall = 65.375m/s; VLA =84.9875m/s; VTD = 75.18m/s; Vf = 80.411m/s
Sg =1483.29 m; R=3295.5805m; H f = 4.5164m; S a =204.6184m
S f =172.4773m
SLA = 1860.38m
12.3 V-n diagram:
106
The restrictions on the speed and the load factor (n) for the aircraft is given in form of V-n
diagram in which the load factor is plotted against the velocity. The operating limits represented
by the V-n diagram are the limits dictated by the airframe.
Steps Involved:
1. The maximum limit load factor on the positive side is found by velocity constraint and
the CL max using which n max is found for different velocities
For velocity constraint,
V 2
T
V 2
[(
)
* CDO ]}
n max =
W W max
W
2K ( )
2K ( )
S
S
{
For velocity constraint,

C
1
* V 2 * L max
n max = 2
W
( )
S
2. The graph is plotted using the tabulated values with velocity along X-axis and n max along
Y axis. The point of intersection of the two curves gives the positive limit load factor.
3. To find the maximum velocity the aircraft can travel, the thrust required and the thrust
available curves are plotted with velocity and the maximum velocity is found.
4. The negative limit load factor is half of the positive limit load factor .
5. The positive ultimate load factor is 1.5 times of positive limit load factor and the negative
ultimate load factor is 1.5 times of negative limit load factor.
Ultimate limit load factor = limit load factor * 1.5
6. For the construction of V-n diagram on positive side and negative side the following
formula is used
107
n = 0.5* S/W CLmax v2

Where for the positive side + CL max is used
For the negative side- CL max is used which are the function of airfoil chosen
7. The Vstall is identified using the + CL max and - CL max on the positive and negative side using
Vstall = [2 / * (W / S ) *(1/ C Lmax )]0.5
8. For the construction of gust V-n diagram, the gust velocities vary linearly from 20000ft.
At 20000ft and below,
66ft / sec at VB (velocity at maneuver point)
50ft / sec at VC (cruise velocity)
25ft / sec at VD (dive velocity or maximum velocity)
At 50000ft and above,

38ft / sec at VB (velocity at maneuver point)
25ft / sec at VC (cruise velocity)
12.5ft / sec at VD (dive velocity or maximum velocity)
So a graph has to be plotted and the gust velocities for that particular altitude must be
identified from the graph.
9. The gust lines are constructed using the formula( all in SI units)
n = 1 + [ aKUV / 2( W / S) ]
Where K = 0.88/ 5.3+ ; = 2 ( W / S ) / Cag
108
10. The gust lines are plotted in the graph with velocity along x- axis and load factor (n)
along y axis.
CLmax constraint
V(m/s)
n max
100
1.588
120
2.28
140
3.13
150
3.574
Velocity constraint
V(m/s
n max
)
100
2.07
150
2.89
200
3.44
210
3.505
220
3.54
240
3.5543
241
3.5507
250
3.51
260
3.44
280
3.16
300
2.62
320
1.49
328
Using the above tabulated

values,
positive
factor
= 2.5
Negative
r
limit
limit
load
load
facto
= -1.25
Ultimate positive load factor

= 3.75
109
Ultimate Negative load factor
= 1.875
To find Vmax :
T (kN)
T vs V (at sea level)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
TR
TA
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
V (m /s)
From the above graph, Vmax = 323.69 m/s

For positive side
n = 0.5* S/W CLmax v2 = 1.5862 * 10-4V2
For negative side

n = 0.5* S/W CLmax v2 = 6.9878* 10-5V2
V(m/s)
V(m/s)
80
1.01516
120
1.0062
100
1.5862
130
1.18
110
1.9193
140
1.36
120
2.2841
150
1.57
130
2.6806
140
3.1089
110
The equation for gust lines is

for VD,
n =10.003129V
For VC ,
= 10.0069V
For VB
= 10.009V
111
CHAPTER 13
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE AIRCRAFT
While designing the aircraft it is necessary to prove that the stability of the aircraft is within the
acceptable limits. Basically stability means the ability of the body to return to its original
position if disturbed by some external forces. This stability in the aircraft design is divided into
two major categories
Static stability
Dynamic Stability
Static stability means when the aircraft is disturbed from the original flight path, forces will be
activated in such a way the aircraft returns to its original position
112
Fig 1. Different types of static Stability
Positive static Stability means to return to its original position after the restorative forces act on
the body.
Neutral static Stability means the body will obtain equilibrium in the disturbed position after the
restorative forces act on the body.
Negative static stability means the body continues to be moving away from the original position
as the restorative forces act on the body or in other words the body has no stability.
Dynamic stability means the way in which the restorative forces act on the body with respect to
time. In other ways it is the property which dampens the oscillations set up by the statically
stable aircraft.
113
Fig 2 Different modes of Dynamic stability.

The assumptions in the Analysis of Aircraft Stability and Control:
The flow is incompressible
Airframe is rigid i.e the distortion or deformation of airframe due to aerodynamic forces
and loads not considered.
The relationships between various parameters are generally linear which implies the
disturbances are assumed to be very small
The longitudinal motion is independent of lateral and directional forces.
Under Static stability of the Aircraft we have three different categories
Longitudinal Static stability
Lateral Static stability
Directional Stability.
Longitudinal stability:
Longitudinal stability refers to the tendency of the aircraft to return to trim condition after a
nose up or nose down disturbance.
The criterion for longitudinal stability
114
Cmomust be positive
Cm
must be negative
Lateral Stability:
Lateral stability refers to the ability of the aircraft to generate the rolling moment to stabilize
the rolling effect.
l
Cl
=
0.5* *V 2 * S w * b
The criteria for lateral stability is
Cl
must be greater than zero.
Directional stability:
Stability about the aircrafts vertical axis i.e. the sideways moment is known as
directional stability or weather cock stability.
Cn
=
N
0.5* *V 2 * S w * b
Cn
The criteria for directional stability is must be positive for directional stability.
Stick fixed stability:

Stick fixed stability is concerned with the calculation of the trim angle and the stability of
the aircraft held at a constant location. Here there is no freedom for the control surface to move
and there are fixed at a particular position.
Stick free stability:
In stick free stability the control surface is allowed to float. So when the aircraft
encounters a vertical gust its pitch angle is altered and the elevator which is free to move seeks
115
some momentary equilibrium position from its original position before disturbance. This will
have an effect on the stability characteristics of aircraft.
Neutral point:
Neutral point is the location of C.G where the stability becomes zero and it is usually the
aerodynamic centre where the lift vector acts. It gives the most aft position of C.G of the aircraft
beyond which the C.G moves the aircraft becomes unstable
Maneuver point:
The position of C.G where the stick force required to accelerate the aircraft becomes zero
is the stick free maneuver point.
The position of C.G where the elevator angle required to accelerate the aircraft vanishes is
known as stick fixed maneuver point.
It is always behind the neutral point of the aircraft.
13.1 Longitudinal Stability

13.1.1 Steps involved in determining stick fixed longitudinal stability of the aircraft:
1.
Cm
Cm
must be evaluated which is equivalent to
since CL is proportional to .
CL
Cm X cg X ac
Cm
at *Vht *ht
=
+(
) fuselage +
(1)
CL
CL
aw
2. Xcg can be found out from the balance diagram( from the phase I) and X ac is assumed to
be around 0.25 C
3. (
Cm
)
is found from the formula given by Gilruth
CL fuselage
K f *W f 2 * L f
Cm
(
)
=
C
CL fuselage S w *( L )W * C
4. at and aw are the slope of the lift curve found from the equation
116
a=
1+
CL
CL
* AR
5. ht is around 0.90 to 0.80

6. Vht is the tail volume co efficient computed from the formula
Vht =
7.
lt * St
Sw * C
is evaluated from the formulae given below
C
2*( L ) w
=
* AR
8. Using the above known values the derivative
Cm
is found to be negative if positive
CL
some changes in the design has to be made.

9. The stick fixed neutral point ( No)is found as it making
Cm
is zero from the equation
CL
mentioned in step 1
10. From the stick fixed neutral point, the static margin for the aircraft is calculated within
which the movement of C.G of the aircraft should be restricted.
Static margin = No Xc.g
11. Using the stick fixed neutral point the C.G of the aircraft for different cases is evaluated.
12. Using the newly found C.G of the aircraft for different cases,
Cm
for each case is
CL
evaluated.
13. The zero lift pitching moment co efficient is evaluated using
Cmo = at *Vht *ht *(iw + o it ) where iw is known from phase I, o =
2* CLW
* AR
And it is found using the method given below.
117
14. Steps for finding, it:
During the trim condition, Cm = 0 and substitute CL for cruise
Substitute Cm=0 in the equation Cm = Cmo + (
Use the value of
After evaluating Cmo substitute in the equation given in step 14 and determine the
Cm
)* CL
CL
Cm
found from step 9
CL
tail setting angle it

15. Substitute it in the equation of Cmo in step 14 and Cmo is found
16. Using the equation below the variation of CL vs. Cm is evaluated for different cases
Cm = Cmo + (
Cm
)* CL ; Cmo = at *Vht *ht *(iw + o it o e )
CL

Xcg = 0.31 C ; X ac = 0.24 C ; aw = 4.8433 rad 1 ;at = 4.09 rad 1
Vht= 0.6290;
Cm
=0.4049; (
)
= 0.08589; ht = 0.90
CL fuselage
Cm
= -0.13003
CL
So the aircraft has longitudinal static stability.
Substituting
Cm
= 0, No = 0.42
CL
Static Margin for different cases

Full payload+ Full fuel
0.2295 C
Full payload+ reserve fuel
0.225 C
118
Zero payload+ Full fuel
0.228 C
Zero payload+ Reserve fuel
0.231 C
Half payload+Full fuel
0.22605 C
Half payload + Reserve fuel
0.22603 C
(CL)cruise = 0.2 , Cmo = 0.026006 , it = 0.0610 rad 1 ;
e =0.5 using
Se
=0.207( Perkins and Hage)
S ht
For the design condition i.e are formulated as follows for different elevator deflection,
Elevator deflection, e (rad)
Equations
-5
Cm = 0.19072 0.23991* CL
-10
Cm = 0.3332 0.23991* CL
-15
Cm = 0.4757 0.23991* CL
-20
Cm = 0.6186 0.23991* CL
-25
Cm = 0.76076 0.23991* CL
25
Cm = 0.6642 0.23991* CL
20
Cm = 0.5217 0.23991* CL
15
Cm = 0.3792 0.23991* CL
10
Cm = 0.2367 0.23991* CL
Cm = 0.0942 0.23991* CL
Graph for Cm vs.CL for different elevator deflection
119
For different cases where C.G varies equations are formulated. For eg. Equations for first three
cases are formulated as follows
Cm = 0.0483 0.52991* CL
Cm = 0.0483 0.53401* CL
Cm = 0.0483 0.53791* CL
For different values of CL ranging from -0.2 to 2.2 Cm is evaluated and graphs are drawn
120
13.1.2 Determination of Stick- Fixed Stability Characteristics:

Cmo = at *Vht *ht *(iw + o it o e )
For different values for e , Cmo is evaluated as follows
e (deg)
Cmo
-25
0.76076
-20
0.61826
-15
0.4757
-10
0.3332
-5
0.19072
0.0483
-0.0942
10
-0.2367
15
-0.3792
20
-0.5217
25
-0.6642
121
13.1.3 Estimation of elevator control power (
Cm
):
e
Elevator control power is the rate at which the pitching moment changes with the deflection of
the elevator.
Cm
= at *Vht *ht * o
e
Cm
e
= -0.02858 rad 1
13.1.4 Extreme elevator deflections:

Steps Involved:
1. The value CL during cruise is identified and (
Cm
) min is found from the stick fixed
CL
stability analysis.
2. The above values are substituted in Cm = Cmo + (
Cm
)* CL assuming trim condition where
CL
Cm = 0 and (Cmo ) minimum is obtained.

3. (Cmo )cruise is obtained from the previous section.
4. Substituting the above obtained values the formula below
e max = [(Cmo )min imum (Cmo )cruise ] / (Cm e )

Maximum down elevator deflection is found.
5. For maximum up elevator deflection, CL during landing and (
Cm
) max is obtained from
CL
stability analysis.
6. Repeat step 2 assuming trim condition (Cmo ) maximum is obtained. Repeat step 3
122
7. Substituting the above obtained values the formula below
e max = [(Cmo )max imum (Cmo )cruise ] / (Cm e )

Maximum up elevator deflection is found.
e max
= 4.4 deg ( maximum down elevator)

= 19.1deg ( maximum up elevator)
13.1.4 Stick Fixed Maneuver point ( N m ):
Nm = N
0
63* *
Cm
* g * lt
e
2* *(W )
S
N m =0.52
13.1.5 Steps involved in determining the Stick free longitudinal stability:

1. Free elevator factor, F has to be evaluated using the formula
Ch
Ch
Ch
F = 1 ( t ) , where
= -0.003 deg 1 ;
= -0.005 deg 1
Ch
t
e
e
2. Evaluate
Cm
using the formula for stick free longitudinal stability
CL
Cm X cg X ac
Cm
=
+(
)
CL
CL
C
fuselage
at *Vht *ht
(1)*F and all the other parameters

aw
are same as in stick fixed longitudinal stability.
123
3. Determine the stick free neutral point, N 0 ' by keeping
Cm
= 0 in the formula given in
CL
step 2
4. Evaluate Cmo as given by the formulae in stick fixed longitudinal stability
5. Formulate equations for Cm in terms of CL as given below for different elevator angle
deflections (all angles in degree)

Cm = Cmo + (
Cm
C
)stickfree * CL + ( m ) * e
CL
e
6. Graphs are plotted for the above formulated equations

7. In a similar way for different cases (
Cm
)
is calculated and the graphs are plotted
CL stick fixed
for Cm vs. CL
13.1.6 Stick force , Fs :
Ch
C
C
W
Fs = K * *V 2 *0.5 *( A + h * t ) K *( ) * e *( m )stickfree (at sea level)
Cm CL
t
S
e
Where
K = G * Se * Ce *ht ; G = 1.5, ht =0.90,
Ce
=0.20
C
K= -24.929
A=
Ch
C
*( o iw + it ) + h * eo
t
e
A= -0.05230
(
2*(W / S )*(Ch / e )*(Cm / CL )stickfree

Ch
* t )trim =
A
t
*V 2trim *(Cm / e )
124
Ch
* t )trim =0.04637
t
Cm
) stickfree = -0.3073 (for full payload +full fuel)
CL
Ch
Ch
Cm
= -0.002 deg 1 ;
=-0.005 deg 1 ;
= -0.02858 deg 1
C e
t
e
Substituting the given values in the equation for Fs
Fs =-7048.3914+0.09054*V2
For different values of Velocity , Fs is calculated and graph is plotted.
From the graph the trim velocity, Vtrim = 270 m/s. The slope of the curve at this point is the
measure of stick force to produce a change in speed.
125
13.1.7 Steps involved in determining the Directional Stability of the aircraft:

1. Contribution of the wing to Directional Stability:
(
Cn
) wing =-0.00006*() 0.5
Where, is the sweep back angle in degree

2. Contribution of fuselage and nacelle to Directional Stability ( all units in SI):
S
L
0.96* K
Cn
h
w
) fuselage &nacelle = (
)*( f ) *( f )*[( 1 ) *( 2 )]0.5
57.3
Sw
b
h2
w1
Where, h1 and w1 is the height and width of fuselage at Lf/4

h2 and w1 is the height and weight of fuselage at 3Lf/4
K is found from K vs. (d/Lf) i.e fineness ratio of fuselage ( Perkins and
Hage)
3. Contribution of Vertical Tail to Directional Stability (all in SI units)
(
Cn
) verticaltail = av *Vvt *vt *(1

)
Where
Vvt =
Sv * lv
; = 0.9
S w * b vt
vt (1 +
4. (
( Sv / S w )
) = 0.724 + 3.06*
(Perkins and Hage,Pg.71)
1 + cos c /4w
Cn
C
C
C
) = ( n ) wing + ( n ) fuselage &nacelle + ( n ) verticaltail
5. The variation of Cn vs. is found using the relation
Cn = Cno + (
Cn
)*
126
6. Evaluate Cno = av *Vvt *vt * r * r and for various rudder deflection angle r , Cno is
evaluated
7. For a particular rudder deflection angle r equation is formulated which gives the
variation of Cn with respect to sideslip angle and graph is plotted

Following the above mentioned steps
(
Cn
C
C
C
) = ( n ) wing + ( n ) fuselage &nacelle + ( n ) verticaltail
Cn
) =-0.003 deg 1
Variation for r vs. Cno
r (deg)
Cno
30
-0.06075
-30
0.06075
20
0.0405
-20
-0.0405
15
-0.0303
-15
0.0303
10
-0.02025
-10
0.02025
-0.010125
-5
0.010125
The equations formulated are
r (degree)
-30
equation
Cn = +0.06075 0.003*
127
30
Cn = 0.06075 0.003*
-20
Cn = 0.0405 0.003*
20
Cn = 0.0405 0.003*
15
Cn = + 0.0303 0.003*
-15
Cn = +0.0303 0.003*
10
Cn = 0.02025 0.003*
-10
Cn = +0.02025 0.003*
+5
Cn = 0.01025 0.003*
-5
Cn = +0.01025 0.003*
For different values of (25 deg to -25 deg), Cn is evaluated and the graphs are plotted to show
the variation.
vs. Cn
Cn
0.15
-30
r = 30 deg
0.1
r =20 deg
0.05
r = 10 deg
r = 5 deg
0
-20
-10
-0.05
10
20
30
r = 0 deg
r = - 5 deg
r = -10 deg
-0.1
r = -20 deg
-0.15
r = - 30 deg
128
Under cross-wind conditions,

( r ) floating =
(Cn / )
V
* ; = sin 1 ( crosswind ) ; where Vcrosswind =7.5m/s
(Cn / r )
VT .O
( r ) floating =-8.979 deg

13.1.8 Steps involved for determining Lateral Stability of Aircraft:
1. Contribution of the wing fuselage interface to lateral stability
(
Cl
) wingfuselage
= 0.0006 deg 1 (high wing)
=0
(mid wing)
=-0.0008 deg 1
(low wing)
2. Contribution of vertical tail to lateral stability (all units in S.I)

(
S
Z
Cl
)verticaltail = av *( v )*( v ) *vt
Sw
b
3. Contribution of Wing interference on vertical tail to lateral stability

(
Cl
) wingonverticaltail =-0.00016 (high wing)
=0
(Mid wing)
= 0.00016 ( Low wing)

4. Contribution of wing to lateral Stability
129
Cl
C
C
) wing =0.0002() + ( l )tip shape + ( l ) sweepback
Where
(
5.
Cl
C
C
) sweepback =-0.5* ( n ) wing ; ( l )tip shape is found from Perkins and Hage
Cl ( Cl ) wingfuselage Cl
C
C
)verticaltail + ( l ) wingonverticaltail + ( l ) wing
(
)=
+(
6. Effective Dihedral, = (
Cl
) wing /0.0002
Following the above mentioned steps
Cl
)=0.00144 deg-1
Effective Dihedral, = 2.14 deg-1
13.1.9 Lateral Control:

The common way of determining the lateral control effectiveness is by the use of the non
dimensional parameter
Pb
. The lateral control deflection is the measure of lateral control power
2V
available.
Aileron Rolling power relation is given by
Pb
2*(1 )( K 23 K13 ) + 3 ( K 2 2 K12 )
= 2* a *[
]
2V
+3
Where K 2 is the distance to the point of starting of the aileron on half span
130
K1 is the distance to the end of the aileron on half span
is the taper ratio of the wing.

Pb
=0.006306 deg-1
2V
P = 0.006306 * a * (2V / b)
Substituting for different aileron deflection angle ( a ) and for different velocities, P is found
V(m/s)
a = 5deg
a =7.5deg
a =10deg
100
0.1058
0.1588
0.2117
120
0.1269
0.1905
0.2546
140
0.1481
0.2223
0.2963
160
0.1692
0.2541
0.3386
180
0.1904
0.2858
0.3810
200
0.2116
0.3172
0.4233
220
0.2327
0.3493
0.4657
240
0.2539
0.3811
0.5080
260
0.2750
0.4128
0.5504
V v s. a
0 .6
P(rad / s)
0 .5
0 .4
a = 5deg
0 .3
a = 7.5 de g
0 .2
a = 10 deg
0 .1
0
0
50
100
150
V (m / s)
200
250
300
131
13.1.10 Dynamic Stability of the aircraft

Steps involved:
1.
Mass moment of inertia about the three principal axis is calculated by taking into account
the c.g position of each component from the reference axis.
I xx = M*(Y2+Z2); I yy = M*(Z2+X2); I zz = M*(X2+Y2)
2.
Parameters required for the dynamic Stability analysis like Time constant (), Relative
density factor () and Radius of Gyration about the three axes K x, K y, K z are calculated.
3.
The stability derivatives required for the determination of co efficients of the quartic
equation to study the dynamic stability is evaluated.(Refer Perkins and Hage)
4.
Using the above determined stability derivatives the constants A , B , C , D and E are
determined using the formulae provided which are the co efficients of the quartic equation which
is given by the form
A4 + B3+C2+D+E = 0.
5.
The roots of the quartic equation are found using Quartic Calculator.
6.
Based on the roots, the modes of the dynamic response are studied using the time period and
damping factor evaluated.
7.
Steps from 2 to 4 are used seperately to study longitudinal dynamic stability and the
lateral directional dynamic stability.
Following the steps mentioned above, keeping C.G of the aircraft as reference
132
components
Mass(kg)
Z(m)
Y(m)
Ixx(kg-m2)
nose wheel
1455.6095
2.107
6462.104139
main wheel
10298.39042
2.137
11.586
1429438.886
fuselage
37529.79001
2.038
155877.8811
wing
35754.43996
-0.809
11.586
4822912.008
H.T
3375.289501
4.929
6.11
208009.442
V.T
1801.002039
11.818
251537.1731
payload
28482.07339
2.038
118298.6968
F.E
1340.3037
2.038
5566.876361
Pilots
220
2.038
913.75768
Fuel
94462.22018
0.809
11.586
12741997.26
Engine
17963.72987
1.147
11.586
2435001.637
I xx = 22176015.72kg-m2
components
Mass(kg)
X(m)
Z(m)
Iyy(kg-m2)
nose wheel
1455.6095
19.226
2.107
544512.2547
main wheel
10298.39042
4.267
2.137
234536.1407
fuselage
37529.79001
26.86
2.038
27232105.17
wing
35754.43996
27.546
-0.809
27153230.21
H.T
3375.289501
30.381
4.929
3197412.426
V.T
1801.002039
30.708
11.818
1949848.352
payload
28482.07339
0.046
2.038
118358.9649
F.E
1340.3037
0.686
2.038
6197.617921
Pilots
220
24.346
2.038
131313.8552
Fuel
94462.22018
0.809
61823.72833
Engine
17963.72987
9.366
1.147
1599446.766
133
I yy = 62228785.49kg-m2
components
Mass(kg)
X(m)
Y(m)
Izz(kg-m2)
nose wheel
1455.6095
19.226
538050.1506
main wheel
10298.39042
4.267
11.586
1569914.287
fuselage
37529.79001
26.86
27076227.29
wing
35754.43996
27.546
11.586
31929341.02
H.T
3375.289501
30.381
6.11
3241416.274
V.T
1801.002039
30.708
1698311.179
Payload
28482.07339
0.046
60.26806729
F.E
1340.3037
0.686
630.74156
Pilots
220
24.346
130400.0975
Fuel
94462.22018
11.586
12680173.53
Engine
17963.72987
9.366
11.586
3987181.914
I yy = 82851706.75 kg-m2
Time constant, =
m
= 5.313 s;
* S w *V
Relative density factor, =
Kx =
m
= 164.228;
* S *C
I
I xx
I
= 9.4282 m; Ky = yy 15.7937; Kz = zz = 18.2239 m
m
m
m
134
Evaluation of Stability Derivatives: ( Refer Perkins and Hage)

CL /
CD /
= 4.84412 rad-1
= 0.10123 rad-1
Cm / CL
= -0.726618
Cm / (d )
= -0.020449 rad-1
Cm / (d )
= -0.0555 rad-1
Cm /
= -1.2397rad-1
Cm / ( d )
= -1.6825*10-3rad-1
Ch /
= -0.10299 rad-1
Ch /
= -0.2865 rad-1
Ch / (d )
= 2.1156*10-3rad-1
From the above known values

A =1;
1 CL
1 Cm
1
Cm
) + CD *(
) *(
) = 3.1472;
B = *(
2
h (d ) h (d )
C=
Cm
Cm
Cm
C
C
C
C
C
C
1
1
1 C
1
* CD *( L ) + ( L )2 *(
)*( L ) D *(
) *( m ) *(
) * CD L *( D )
2
2
2 h ( d )
h
( d ) h
h ( d )
2
C = 34.0313;
135
D =
Cm
CL CD Cm
C C
C 2 Cm
C 2 Cm
C C
(
)(
) D ( L )(
) L (
) L (
) D ( m )
2h (d ) 2h (d )
2h ( d )
2h (d )
h
D=
0.58310 ;
E =
CL 2 Cm
(
) = 0.65423
2h
The Quartic Equation is given by
4 + 3.14723+34.03132+0.58310+0.65423 = 0.
= i , in which real part represents the damping and the imaginary part
represents the frequency
The roots of the above equation are
1,2 = -1.5659 i 5.6135 9
3,4 = - 0.0076 i 0.1385
Phugoid oscillations are lightly damped and low frequency oscillations. So the Eigen value
chosen should have small real and imaginary part.
Short period oscillations are highly damped high frequency oscillations. So the Eigen value
chosen should have large real and imaginary part
For phugoid or long period motion
3,4 = - 0.0076 i 0.1385 is selected
Damping factor,
ph =
1
2 .
1 + ( ) ph
Damping factor = 0.055

Time period, Tph =
n ph 1 sp
; natural frequency, n ph =
ph
ph
136
Time period
= 44.957 s
For Short period mode

1,2 = -1.5659 i 5.6135
Using the same formulae,
Time period
= 1.12 s
2.1.11 Following the same steps for lateral directional dynamic stability
1. = 5.313 s; = 164.228; K x = 9.4282 m; K y = 15.7937; K z = 18.2239 m
2. Evaluation of damping derivatives

C nr
= -0.24409 rad-1
C lr
= 0.05 rad-1
Cnp
= -0.0025 rad-1
= 0.1719 rad-1
C n
C l
= -0.0825 rad-1
C lp
= - 0.45 rad-1
3. Based on the above derivatives (Refer Perkins and Hage for the formulae)
A = 1; B = 1.1916; C = 24.94727; D = 108.52602; E = 7.6138
5. The Quartic equation is given by
4 + 1.19163+24.94722+108.5260+7.6138 = 0
6. The roots of the above equations are
1
= -0.071322
= -3.318945
3,4
= 1.09933 i 5.563813
137
Aperiodic Roll is a very fast motion and very highly damped. The Eigen value is negative.
The Spiral Motion is unstable and the divergence will occur very slowly. The Eigen value is
positive and small.
The Dutch Roll is slightly low damping and slightly high frequency motion. The aircraft
performs alternately yawing and rolling motion.
7. The Aperiodic modes is given by the roots
= -0.071322 ( mildly convergent)
= -3.318945 ( heavily convergent)
8. The Dutch roll mode is given by the root (using the same formulae as mentioned above
for longitudinal dynamic Stability)
3,4
= 1.09933 i 5.563813

Time period
= 1.1285 secs
138
CHAPTER 14
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF THE AIRCRAFT
In the construction of aircraft two types of structures are used
Monocoque structures which are unstiffened shells and has to be relatively thick to resists
the different kinds of load acting on it
Semi-Monocoque structures which are consist of stiffening members along with the skin.
This is the most efficient type of construction which is widely used now days.
Fig 1.Semi Monocoque Construction of Fuselage
Fig 2.Semi Monocoque Construction of Wing
139
Functions of different structural members:

Skin:
Reacts to applied torsion and shear forces, transmits aerodynamic forces to the
longitudinal and transverse structural members.
Acts with the longidutinal members in resisting the applied bending and axial loads
Acts with transverse members in reacting the hoop or circumferential load when the
structure is pressurized.
Ribs and Frames:
For the structural integration of the wing and fuselage
To maintain the aerodynamic profile of the structure
Spar:
Resists axial and bending loads
Form the wing box for stable torsion resistance.
Stiffener or Stringers:
Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin
Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its buckling and failing stresses
Act with the skin in resisting the axial loads caused by pressurization
14.1WING DESIGN
The first step towards the Structural Design is to find the lift Distribution of the wing.
The lift distribution of the wing is best approximated using Schrenks Curve which is the average
of the Elliptical Distribution of the lift over the wing and the Trapezoidal Distribution of the lift
140
over the wing. So the elliptical and the trapezoidal distribution of the lift over the wing should be
approximated.
14.1.1 Steps involved in plotting the elliptic lift distribution:

1. The area under the elliptic curve is given by
A = *b* w o / 8
This gives the lift produced by a single wing.
2. In steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight
*b* w o / 8 = W TO / 2
From the above w o can be calculated
3. Using the equation of ellipse the curve is plotted for different values of y
w y =(4 W TO/ *b)/ [ 1- (2y/b)2]0.5

Using the above mentioned Steps the elliptic lift is given by
w y = [52352.32426 ( 1 0.00112y2) 0.5]
elliptic curve
60000
50000
40000
30000
elliptic curve
20000
10000
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
14.1.2 Steps involved in plotting trapezoidal lift distribution:

1. The area under the trapezoid is given by
A = b ( w 1 + w 2)/4
141
This gives the lift Distribution

2. In the steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight
b ( w 1 + w 2)/4 = W TO / 2
3. The lift produced by any section of wing is directly proportional to the chord of the wing.
w 2 / w 1 = c t / c r = ( taper ratio)
w 1 = 2 W TO / b (1+ )
w 2 = 2 W TO / b (1+ )
4. Using the equation of trapezoid, the lift distribution is given by
w y = 2 W TO / b (1+ )*[ 1 + 2y/b*( 1)]
Following the above the steps the trapezoidal lift distribution
w y = 68437.25985 [ 1- 0.02683y]
trapezoidal curve
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
trapezoidal curve
30000
20000
10000
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Schrenks curve is the average of the elliptical lift distribution and trapezoidal lift distribution
So the lift distribution by Schrenks curve is given by
w y = 26176.162 [( 1 0.00112y2)0.5]+ 34218.6299 ( 1- 0.02683y)
142
lift per unit span (N/m)
lift per unit span vs. span

80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
trapezoidal curve
elliptic curve
schrenk's curve
10
15
20
25
30
35
b(m)
14.1.3 Steps involved in plotting the Shear force diagram:

1. The different loads acting on the wing are identified and their distribution is evaluated
2. The loads whose distribution is to be known are the lift load, the wing structural weight
and the fuel weight. The point loads acting on the wing are engine weight and the landing
gear and their locations are identified.
3. The lift load distribution is obtained from the Schrenks curve, the fuel and the wing
structural weight is assumed to have trapezoidal distribution and the load acting depends
upon the thickness and the chord of the section of the wing.
4. The shear force diagram is obtained integrating the loads acting on the wing along its half
span taking into account the point loads at their positions with the tip of the wing as
origin.
Following the above steps, for 0 y 29.775
143
The lift distribution is given by

w y = 26176.162 [( 1 0.00112y2)0.5]+ 34218.6299 ( 1- 0.02683y)
Fuel weight Distribution:

The fuel load varies linearly as shown below
Y = 6.208m
Y = 20.876m
Y -2.76m
The weight of the fuel is proportional to the chord of that section.

The chord at any section can be computed using C = Croot [1+
( 1)
y]
b/2
W1 C1t1 1
=
; * lengthoffuel tan k *(W1 +W 2) = W wing
W2 C2t 2 2
The fuel weight distribution is given by

w y = 4854.7392 + 1862.6888 ( y 2.76)
3.3.2 Structural weight Distribution:
Structural weight varies linearly from the root to tip of the wing and the intensity of the load is
proportional to the chord of the section.
W1 C1t1
=
where point 1 and 2 represents the Root and the tip of the wing
W2 C2t 2
144
W1 = 24.74W2
1
* semispan *(W1 +W 2) = W wing
2
W2 =915.015N; W1 =22645.088N
structural weight distribution
w1
w2
Y = 29.775m
The structural weight distribution is given by
w y = 729.80y +915
At y = 6.665 m , the weight of the landing gear is taken into account
At y = 8.968 m , the weight of the engine is taken into account
So the shear force diagram plotted for the wing is
Shear force vs. Spanwise distance
Shear force(N)
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Spanwise distance(m)
145
y (m)
Shear force (N)
9605004.42
6.665
562308.572
6.665
511794.967(with L.G)
7.165
540671.640
8.968
617816.536
8.968
536560.536 (with eng)
27.015
158845.485
29.775
For plotting the bending moment diagram, the obtained shear force is once again integrated.
Bending Moment(N-m)
Bending moment vs. Spanwise distance

5000000
0
-5000000
10
15
20
25
30
35
Y
-10000000
-15000000
-20000000
Spanwise distance(m)
146
y (m)
Bending
moment (N-m)
16574205.32
6.665
7697715.201
7.165
7486345.164
8.968
6377850.355
27.015 219209.8237
29.775 0
14.1.4 Design of the Spar:

Steps involved:
1. Plot the airfoil in the graph and identify the spar location. The front spar is placed near
the maximum (t/c) max of the airfoil and the rear spar is placed at 2/3rd of the chord
location.
2. Using the co ordinates of the airfoil chosen, the height of the front spar and the rear spar
is identified.
To identify the area of Flanges

3.
The maximum bending moment is identified from the bending moment diagram
plotted and is given by
147
M max = M 1 + M 2
Where M 1 is the bending moment at the front spar
M 2 is the bending moment at the rear spar
4. M 1, M 2 is proportional to the height of the front and the rear spar respectively i.e
M 1/ M 2 =( h 1 / h 2 )2
Where h 1 is the height of the front spar
h 2 is the height of the rear spar
5. For the material selected, the
yield
is identified for the material. Based on the yield , the
area of the flanges are calculated using the formula

A flange = M / yield * h
To identify the thickness of the web:
8.
The shear force experienced by the spar is again proportional to the height of the spars
Which is given by
V1/V2=h1/h2
Where V 1 is the shear force acting on the front spar

V 2 is the shear force acting on the rear spar
V 1 + V 2 = V max (identified from the graph plotted for shear force)
7. Based on the material selected the shear strength of the material is selected and based on
this shear strength the thickness of the web is calculated using the formula
= V/ A = V / h*t
h 1 = 1.468 m; h 2 = 1.061 m
Material Selected is 7075 T6
Area of the rear flange = 7.07 * 10 -3 m 2
148
Area of the front flange = 9.78 * 10-3 m 2

Thickness of the web = 0.0010317 m
14.1.5 Torque Distribution over the wing:

Before going into the construction of the torque diagram, the known quantities are C.G of the
aircraft, the centre of pressure of the aircraft and the shear centre which is assumed to be around
0.35 C
(torque) lift
=integration of lift distribution (Schrenks curve)*(S.C C.P)
(torque) structuralloading
Torque(N-
integration of structural load

distribution *(S.C C.G of wing)
(torque) fuel
=integration
of
fuel
weight distribution*(S.C C.G

of the fuel)
X (m)
0
6.665
6.665
7.165
8.968
8.968
27.015
29.775
m)
947973.4266
591379.3779
840532.6832
830465.3153
578187.3949
759930.8956
90377.8379
0
149
14.1.6 Steps involved in finding the thickness of the wing:

1. The torque produced by the various forces acting on the wing is calculated and the torque
diagram is constructed for the wing.
2. The aerofoil is assumed to be of 2 cell structure i.e from the leading edge to the front spar
is considered as one cell and from the front spar to the rear spar is considered as second
cell.
3. The total torque acting on the root airfoil is found from the torque diagram.
4. The total torque acting on the root airfoil is divided between the two cells and expressed by
the following equation.
T = 2Aq = 2 (A 1 *q 1 + A 2 * q 2)
Where A 1 is the area of the first cell
A 2 is the area of the second cellss
150
q 1 is the shear flow in the first cell

q 2 is the shear flow in the second cell
5. The area of the first cell, A 1= ( 0.23 * C r *h 1)/ 2
The area of the second cell, A 2 = ( 0.55 * C r * { h 1 + h 2})/2
Where the constant 0.23 denotes the position of the front spar from the
leading edge
The constant 0.55 denotes the position of the rear spar from the front spar.
5. The twist equation for the two cells are formulated.
For the first cell it is given by

2G 1 = 1/ A 1 * [ q 1 * a 10 + ( q 1 q 2) * a 12 ]
For the second cell it is given by
2G 2 = 1/ A 2 * [ ( q 2 q 1)* a12 + q 2* a 20]
6. The constants a 10 , a 12 and a 20 is found as following
From the above figure

S 1 = L 1 + L 2 ; S 2 ; S 3= L 3 + L 4
151
In which L 1,L 2,L 3, L 4 are measured using threads on the airfoil co ordinates shown.
Therefore
a 10 = S 1 / t ; a 12 = S 2 / t w ; a 20 = (S 3 / t) + ( h 2 / t w)
7. The values obtained in the above step is substituted in the equations given in the step 5 and
the twist in both cells is assumed to be the same
G 1 = G 2
8. Using the above mentioned condition q 2 is obtained in terms of t and q 1 and using the
torque equation q 1 is obtained in terms of q 2
9.Using the equation for critical shear buckling stress,
q 2 / t = cr = { * E * K s / [ 12 * ( 1 2 ) ] } * ( t / b ) 2 }
q 2 is obtained in terms of t
10. Substituting the q 2 obtained in step 8 in the q 2 obtained in step 9, a quartic equation is
obtained in terms of t which is solved using the quartic calculator available online.
Following the above procedure
Area of the first cell , A 1 = 2.56705 m2
Area of the second cell , A 2 = 9.23118m2
a 10 = 6.22724/t ; a 12 = 1692.3966 ; a 20 = 13.56546/t + 852.6689
2.4258
q1 + 659.2730q1 659.2730q2
t
1.46491
2G2 =
q2 + 275.6814q2 183.3203q1
t
2G1 =
Assuming twists in both cells are same, we obtain

q2 = (
2.4258
1.46491
+ 842.596)q1 / (
+ 934.954)
t
t
152
From the critical shear stress equation

q 2 = 1.53756*10 12 * t 3
Equating and solving the above two equations, skin thickness (t) = 0.002834m
Skin thickness (t) = 0.002834m
14.1.7 STRINGER DESIGN:
General Procedure
1. The first step towards to the stringer design is to find the spacing required for the
placements of the stringer in the upper and lower surface.
2. Using the spacing obtained in the above step the number of stringers to be placed on the
upper and lower surfaces are decided.
3.
The appropriate material required for the stringer and the stringer size are decided
4. Bending stress developed in the each stringer is calculated and stress obtained should be
less than the ultimate stress of the material. If the stress is more it indicates the failure of
the stringer and the area of the stringer has to be increased appropriately to develop stress
less than the ultimate stress of the material.
14.1.7.1 Spacing of Stringer:

Using the expression for critical bending stress of the material, the spacing for the stringer
placement is calculated.
cr
= { 2 * E * K b / [ 12 * ( 1 2 )]* [ t/b] 2 }
where E is the Youngs Modulus of the material, Pa

K b is the bending buckling co efficient of plates,( 8.5 for aircraft applications)
is the Poissons ratio of the material.
153
t is the thickness of the skin, m

b is the spacing of the stiffener, m
Using the above mentioned formula and substituting the required values,
The stringer spacing , b = 0.1408 m
14.1.7.2 Number of Stringers:
The root airfoil is plotted in the design software and the distance are measured between the
points from which the number of stringers are calculated. Usually there are more stringers on
the upper surface than on the lower surface and the placement distance can be modified
slightly according to it.
Following the above mentioned procedure,
For the upper surface 0.12 m stringer spacing is decided and 88 stringers are placed.
For the lower surface 0.14 m stringer spacing is decided and 72 stringers are placed.
14.1.7.3 Stinger Size And Bending Stress Calculation Of The Stringers:
Steps Involved:
1. The stringer size is chosen from chapter A3 of Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle
Structures, Bruhn and the area of the stringer is calculated.

2. The x and y of the stringers is obtained using the design software and the centroid is
calculated .
X c = AX / A
Y c = AY / A
3. The moment of inertia about the three axis I xx , I yy , I xy are calculated using the
expressions given below.
I xx = [ A ( y Y c ) 2 ]
I yy = [ A ( x X c ) 2 ]
154
I xy = [ A ( x X c) ( y Y c) ]
4. The x and y component of the bending moment is calculated since the wing is placed
at the wing setting angle and the value of the bending moment at the root airfoil is read from the
moment diagram constructed.
M x = M cos
M y = M sin
5. The bending stress experienced by the stringers are calculated using the following
expression
ZZ =
M X IYY + M Y I XY
M I + M X I XY
Y + Y XX
X
2
I XX IYY I XY
I XX IYY IXY 2
6. After calculating the bending stress , it is checked with the ultimate strength of the material.
If the bending stress is greater than the ultimate strength of the material then the area of the
stringer has to be increased proportionately and again the bending stress has to be checked.
Tabulation for finding the Centroid:
Upper Surface of the wing:
Stringe
r
X(m)
Y(m)
Area(m2)
Ax(m3)
0.00001759
Ay(m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0.0153
0.0614
0.14
0.23
0.33
0.43
0.541
0.65
0.76
0.87
0.98
0.11
0.21
0.3019
0.369
0.421
0.47
0.5105
0.5439
0.5742
0.6006
0.624
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00007061
0.000161
0.0002645
0.0003795
0.0004945
0.00062215
0.0007475
0.000874
0.0010005
0.001127
0.0001265
0.0002415
0.00034719
0.00042435
0.00048415
0.0005405
0.00058708
0.00062549
0.00066033
0.00069069
0.0007176
155
12
13
14
1.09
1.2
1.32
0.6466
0.6674
0.6866
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.0012535
0.00138
0.001518
0.00164622
0.00074359
0.00076751
0.00078959
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
1.4315
1.54
1.65
1.762
1.874
1.987
2.102
2.212
2.323
0.704
0.719
0.7339
0.7478
0.7606
0.7729
0.7855
0.796
0.8065
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.001771
0.0018975
0.0020263
0.0021551
0.00228505
0.0024173
0.0025438
0.00267145
0.00280381
0.0008096
0.00082685
0.00084399
0.00085997
0.00087469
0.00088884
0.00090333
0.0009154
0.00092748
24
25
26
27
2.4381
2.55
2.665
2.7764
0.8158
0.8202
0.8334
0.8412
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.0029325
0.00306475
0.00319286
0.00331947
0.00093817
0.00094323
0.00095841
0.00096738
28
2.8865
0.8487
0.00115
5
0.00344804
0.00097601
29
2.9983
3.1233
0.8553
0.86282
0.00115
0.00423
5
0.01322118
0.0009836
30F
3
0.00372266
0.00365235
31
32
33
34
35
3.2371
3.3516
3.4664
3.5792
3.6926
0.8685
0.8742
0.8801
0.885
0.8895
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00385434
0.00398636
0.00411608
0.00424649
0.00437264
0.00099878
0.00100533
0.00101212
0.00101775
0.00102293
36
3.8023
0.8937
0.00115
5
0.00450029
0.00102776
37
38
3.9133
4.0264
0.8969
0.9003
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00463036
0.00476157
0.00103144
0.00103535
39
40
4.1405
4.2546
0.9084
0.9061
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00489279
0.00502446
0.00104466
0.00104202
41
4.3691
0.9074
0.00115
0.00104351
156
0.00515694
42
43
44
4.4843
4.5952
4.7052
0.9081
0.9128
0.919
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00528448
0.00541098
0.00554081
0.00104432
0.00104972
0.00105685
45
4.8181
0.9121
0.00115
5
0.00566892
0.00104892
46
4.9295
0.9119
0.00115
5
0.00579795
0.00104869
47
48
49
5.0417
5.1562
5.2752
0.9125
0.9122
0.9118
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00592963
0.00606648
0.00619861
0.00104938
0.00104903
0.00104857
50
5.3901
0.9096
0.00115
5
0.00632626
0.00104604
51
5.5011
0.9094
0.00115
5
0.00645437
0.00104581
52
53
54
55
5.6125
5.7262
5.8414
5.9528
0.9081
0.9057
0.9035
0.9013
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00658513
0.00671761
0.00684572
0.00697256
0.00104432
0.00104156
0.00103903
0.0010365
56
6.0631
0.899
0.00115
5
0.00710412
0.00103385
57
58
59
6.1775
6.2932
6.4092
0.8962
0.8926
0.8892
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00723718
0.00737058
0.00750386
0.00103063
0.00102649
0.00102258
60
6.5251
0.8856
0.00115
5
0.00763266
0.00101844
61
62
6.6371
6.7506
0.8811
0.8765
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00776319
0.00789440
0.00101327
0.00100798
63
6.8647
0.8721
0.00115
5
0.00802803
0.00100292
64
65
66
67
6.9809
7.0974
7.2088
7.3233
0.8665
0.8607
0.8546
0.8477
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00816201
0.00829012
0.00842179
0.00099648
0.00098981
0.00098279
0.00097486
157
5
0.00855301
0.00868031
68
7.4374
0.8407
0.00115
0.00096681
69
70
7.5481
7.6628
0.8329
0.8248
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00881222
0.00894550
0.00095784
0.00094852
71
7.7787
0.8168
0.00115
5
0.00907522
0.00093932
72
7.8915
0.8082
0.00115
5
0.00920540
0.00092943
73
8.0047
0.7991
0.00115
5
0.00933880
0.00091897
74
8.1207
0.7894
0.00115
5
0.00946921
0.00090781
75
8.2341
0.7787
0.00115
5
0.00959801
0.00089551
76
8.3461
0.7674
0.00115
5
0.00972796
0.00088251
77
8.4591
0.7561
0.00115
5
0.00985584
0.00086952
78
79
8.5703
8.6804
0.7438
0.7319
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00998246
0.01010884
0.00085537
0.00084169
80
81
8.7903
8.8998
0.7191
0.7058
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.01023477
0.01036437
0.00082697
0.00081167
82
83
9.0125
9.126
0.6921
0.6772
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.0104949
0.01062588
0.00079592
0.00077878
84
9.2399
0.6624
0.00115
5
0.01075468
0.00076176
85
9.3519
0.6467
0.00115
5
0.01088141
0.00074371
86
87
9.4621
9.5714
0.6314
0.6154
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.01100711
0.01112498
0.00072611
0.00070771
88
RF
9.6739
9.7605
0.5998
0.58693
0.00115
0.00213
5
0.02081914
0.00068977
0.00125192
158
Lower Surface of the wing:

Stringe
r
X(m)
0.0260
Y(m)
Area(m2)
Ax(m3)
Ay(m3)
3
0.0997
-0.1406
0.00115
2.99345E-05 -0.00016169
0.00011475
2
3
9
0.2074
-0.2614
-0.3544
0.00115
0.00115
9
0.00023851
0.00038168
-0.00030061
-0.00040756
0.3319
-0.4266
0.00115
5
0.00052957
-0.00049059
5
6
7
0.4605
0.5928
0.7238
-0.4832
-0.5282
-0.5656
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00068172
0.00083237
0.00098888
-0.00055568
-0.00060743
-0.00065044
8
9
0.8599
0.991
-0.5991
-0.6274
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00113965
0.00129225
-0.000688965
-0.00072151
10
1.1237
-0.6537
0.00115
5
0.00144888
-0.000751755
11
12
1.2599
1.3956
-0.6777
-0.6997
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00160494
0.00175915
-0.000779355
-0.000804655
13
1.5297
-0.7164
0.00115
5
0.00189140
-0.00082386
14
1.6447
-0.7536
0.00115
5
0.00207149
-0.00086664
15
1.8013
-0.7573
0.00115
5
0.00222421
-0.000870895
16
17
1.9341
2.07
-0.7702
-0.7863
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.0023805
0.00253494
-0.00088573
-0.000904245
18
19
20
2.2043
2.3388
2.4726
-0.7996
-0.8117
-0.8238
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00268962
0.00284349
-0.00091954
-0.000933455
-0.00094737
159
0.00299977
21
22
23
2.6085
2.7428
2.8798
3.1233
-0.8346
-0.8423
-0.8451
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00423
5
0.00315422
0.00331177
0.01322118
-0.00095979
-0.000968645
-0.000971865
-0.86283
3
0.00374980
-0.003652351
24
3.2607
-0.8752
0.00115
5
0.00390390
-0.00100648
25
26
3.3947
3.5298
-0.8866
-0.8866
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00405927
0.00421555
-0.00101959
-0.00101959
27
3.6657
-0.8924
0.00115
5
0.00436988
-0.00102626
28
29
3.7999
3.9324
-0.896
-0.9001
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00452226
0.00467417
-0.0010304
-0.001035115
30
4.0645
-0.9024
0.00115
5
0.00482988
-0.00103776
31
4.1999
-0.9053
0.00115
5
0.00498398
-0.001041095
32
4.3339
-0.9076
0.00115
5
0.00513762
-0.00104374
33
4.4675
-0.9089
0.00115
5
0.00528988
-0.001045235
34
4.5999
-0.9099
0.00115
5
0.00544513
-0.001046385
35
4.7349
-0.9093
0.00115
5
0.00559969
-0.001045695
36
4.8693
-0.9077
0.00115
5
0.00575333
-0.001043855
37
38
5.0029
5.1384
-0.9066
-0.9046
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00590916
0.00606498
-0.00104259
-0.00104029
39
5.2739
-0.9019
0.00115
5
0.00621816
-0.001037185
40
41
5.4071
5.5456
-0.8985
-0.8943
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00637744
-0.001033275
-0.001028445
160
0.00653142
42
43
5.6795
5.8162
-0.8897
-0.883
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00668863
0.00684744
-0.001023155
-0.00101545
44
5.9543
-0.8762
0.00115
5
0.00700246
-0.00100763
45
6.0891
-0.8685
0.00115
5
0.00715564
-0.000998775
46
6.2223
-0.8594
0.00115
5
0.00731043
-0.00098831
47
48
6.3569
6.4912
-0.8488
-0.837
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00746488
0.00762024
-0.00097612
-0.00096255
49
50
51
52
6.6263
6.761
6.8974
7.0316
-0.8236
-0.8101
-0.7952
-0.779
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00777515
0.00793201
0.00808634
0.00824216
-0.00094714
-0.000931615
-0.00091448
-0.00089585
53
7.1671
-0.7613
0.00115
5
0.00839672
-0.000875495
54
55
7.3015
7.438
-0.7424
-0.7217
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.0085537
0.00870699
-0.00085376
-0.000829955
56
57
58
7.5713
7.7066
7.84
-0.7004
-0.6785
-0.6556
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00886259
0.009016
0.00916998
-0.00080546
-0.000780275
-0.00075394
59
7.9739
-0.6325
0.00115
5
0.00932707
-0.000727375
60
61
8.1105
8.2424
-0.6082
-0.5839
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.00947876
0.00963343
-0.00069943
-0.000671485
62
8.3769
-0.5584
0.00115
5
0.00978684
-0.00064216
63
8.5103
-0.5325
0.00115
5
0.00994163
-0.000612375
64
65
8.6449
8.7793
-0.5056
-0.478
0.00115
0.00115
5
0.01009619
-0.00058144
-0.0005497
161
5
0.01024696
0.01040106
0.01055493
0.01071133
0.01086646
66
67
68
69
8.9104
9.0444
9.1782
9.3142
-0.451
-0.4239
-0.3953
-0.3694
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
-0.00051865
-0.000487485
-0.000454595
-0.00042481
70
9.4491
-0.3403
0.00115
5
0.01101964
-0.000391345
71
9.5823
-0.3125
0.00115
0.00213
5
0.02081914
-0.000359375
RF
9.7605
-0.2772
-0.000591264
A=0.194432m2 ; Ax = 0.939154737m3 ; Ay = 0.019534231m3

X c = 4.9529 m;Y c = 0.11 m
Tabulation for calculating the moment of inertia:
Upper surface of the wing
stringe
r
Area(m2)
X(m)
Y(m)
Ixx(m3)
Iyy(m3)
0.02803
Ixy(m3)
0.00115
0.0153
0.11
7
0.02751
0.00115
0.0614
0.21
1.15E-05 6
0.02663
-0.00056
0.00115
0.14
0.3019
4.23E-05 9
0.02565
-0.00106
0.00115
0.23
0.369
7.71E-05 2
0.00011 0.02457
-0.00141
0.00115
0.33
0.421
1
0.00014
7
0.02352
-0.00165
0.00115
0.43
0.47
9
0.00018
5
0.02238
-0.00187
0.00115
0.541
0.5105
4
0.00021
5
0.02129
-0.00203
0.00115
0.65
0.5439
-0.00215
162
0.00024
0.02021
0.00115
0.76
0.5742
8
0.00027
7
0.01917
-0.00224
10
0.00115
0.87
0.6006
7
0.00030
1
0.01815
-0.0023
11
0.00115
0.98
0.624
4
0.00033
-0.00235
12
0.00115
1.09
0.6466
1
0.00035
0.01716
0.01619
-0.00238
13
0.00115
1.2
0.6674
7
0.00038
7
0.01517
-0.00241
14
0.00115
1.32
0.6866
2
0.00040
-0.00241
15
0.00115
1.4315
0.704
6
0.00042
0.01426
0.01339
-0.00241
16
0.00115
1.54
0.719
7
0.00044
5
0.01254
-0.00239
17
0.00115
1.65
0.7339
8
0.00046
6
0.01170
-0.00237
18
0.00115
1.762
0.7478
8
0.00048
9
0.01090
-0.00234
19
0.00115
1.874
0.7606
7
0.00050
2
0.01011
-0.0023
20
0.00115
1.987
0.7729
5
0.00052
6
0.00934
-0.00226
21
0.00115
2.102
0.7855
5
0.00054
7
0.00863
-0.00221
22
0.00115
2.212
0.796
1
0.00055
9
0.00795
-0.00216
23
0.00115
2.323
0.8065
8
0.00057
4
0.00727
-0.00211
24
25
0.00115
0.00115
2.4381
2.55
0.8158
0.8202
3
0.00058
0.00060
3
0.00664
-0.00204
-0.00196
26
0.00115
2.665
0.8334
2
0.00061
0.00602
0.00544
-0.0019
27
0.00115
2.7764
0.8412
-0.00183
163
0.00062
0.00491
28
0.00115
2.8865
0.8487
8
0.00063
1
0.00439
-0.00176
29
0.00115
0.00423
2.9983
3.1233
0.8553
0.86282
9
0.00239
4
0.01416
-0.00168
30F
9
0.00066
9
0.00338
-0.00583
31
0.00115
3.2371
0.8685
2
0.00067
6
0.00294
-0.0015
32
0.00115
3.3516
0.8742
2
0.00068
9
0.00254
-0.00141
33
0.00115
3.4664
0.8801
2
0.00069
-0.00132
34
0.00115
3.5792
0.885
1
0.00069
0.00217
0.00182
-0.00122
35
0.00115
3.6926
0.8895
9
0.00070
7
0.00152
-0.00113
36
0.00115
3.8023
0.8937
6
0.00071
2
0.00124
-0.00104
37
0.00115
3.9133
0.8969
2
0.00071
3
0.00098
-0.00094
38
0.00115
4.0264
0.9003
8
0.00073
7
0.00075
-0.00084
39
0.00115
4.1405
0.9084
3
0.00072
9
0.00056
-0.00075
40
0.00115
4.2546
0.9061
9
0.00073
1
0.00039
-0.00064
41
0.00115
4.3691
0.9074
1
0.00073
2
0.00025
-0.00054
42
0.00115
4.4843
0.9081
3
0.00074
3
0.00014
-0.00043
43
0.00115
4.5952
0.9128
1
0.00075
-0.00033
44
45
46
47
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
4.7052
4.8181
4.9295
5.0417
0.919
0.9121
0.9119
0.9125
3
0.00074
0.00074
0.00074
7.06E-05
2.09E-05
6.3E-07
9.07E-06
-0.00023
-0.00012
-2.2E-05
8.2E-05
164
1
0.00074
0.00073
48
0.00115
5.1562
0.9122
4.75E-05 0.000188
0.00011
49
0.00115
5.2752
0.9118
9
0.00073
0.000297
50
0.00115
5.3901
0.9096
5
0.00073
0.00022
0.00034
0.000402
51
0.00115
5.5011
0.9094
5
0.00073
0.000504
52
0.00115
5.6125
0.9081
3
0.00072
0.0005
0.00068
0.000605
53
0.00115
5.7262
0.9057
8
0.00072
8
0.00090
0.000708
54
55
0.00115
0.00115
5.8414
5.9528
0.9035
0.9013
4
0.00072
0.00071
8
0.00115
0.00141
0.000811
0.00091
56
0.00115
6.0631
0.899
6
0.00071
7
0.00172
0.001007
57
0.00115
6.1775
0.8962
1
0.00070
5
0.00206
0.001107
58
0.00115
6.2932
0.8926
4
0.00069
6
0.00243
0.001206
59
0.00115
6.4092
0.8892
8
0.00069
9
0.00284
0.001305
60
0.00115
6.5251
0.8856
2
0.00068
3
0.00326
0.001402
61
0.00115
6.6371
0.8811
4
0.00067
2
0.00371
0.001493
62
0.00115
6.7506
0.8765
6
0.00066
6
0.00420
0.001585
63
0.00115
6.8647
0.8721
8
0.00065
0.001676
64
0.00115
6.9809
0.8665
8
0.00064
0.00473
0.00528
0.001764
65
0.00115
7.0974
0.8607
8
0.00063
9
0.00585
0.001851
66
0.00115
7.2088
0.8546
0.001932
165
0.00062
0.00646
67
0.00115
7.3233
0.8477
6
0.00061
2
0.00709
0.002011
68
0.00115
7.4374
0.8407
4
0.00060
9
0.00774
0.002088
69
0.00115
7.5481
0.8329
1
0.00058
5
0.00844
0.002157
70
0.00115
7.6628
0.8248
8
0.00057
5
0.00918
0.002228
71
0.00115
7.7787
0.8168
5
0.00056
3
0.00993
0.002297
72
0.00115
7.8915
0.8082
1
0.00054
1
0.01071
0.002359
73
0.00115
8.0047
0.7991
6
0.00053
0.002418
74
0.00115
8.1207
0.7894
1
0.00051
0.01154
0.01238
0.002475
75
0.00115
8.2341
0.7787
4
0.00049
1
0.01324
0.002523
76
0.00115
8.3461
0.7674
1
0.01413
0.002565
77
0.00115
8.4591
0.7561
0.00048
0.00046
7
0.01504
0.002605
78
0.00115
8.5703
0.7438
2
0.00044
8
0.01597
0.002637
79
0.00115
8.6804
0.7319
5
0.00042
8
0.01693
0.002666
80
0.00115
8.7903
0.7191
7
0.00040
4
0.01791
0.002688
81
0.00115
8.8998
0.7058
5
0.01895
0.002704
82
0.00115
9.0125
0.6921
0.00039
2
0.02002
0.002718
83
0.00115
9.126
0.6772
0.00037
0.00035
7
0.02113
0.002722
84
85
0.00115
0.00115
9.2399
9.3519
0.6624
0.6467
1
0.00033
5
0.02225
0.002723
0.002715
166
1
0.00031
4
0.02338
86
0.00115
9.4621
0.6314
3
0.00029
0.002704
87
0.00115
9.5714
0.6154
4
0.00027
0.02453
0.02563
0.002684
88
0.00115
0.00213
9.6739
0.5998
0.58693
6
0.00048
0.002659
RF
9.7605
0.0493
0.004891
Iyy
0.02791
Lower Surface of the wing:

stringe
r
area
X
0.0260
Ixx
Ixy
0.00115
3
0.0997
-0.1406
7.22E-05 5
0.00015 0.02708
0.00142
0.00115
-0.2614
9
0.00024
6
0.02589
0.002073
0.00115
0.2074
-0.3544
8
0.00033
8
0.02455
0.002534
0.00115
0.3319
-0.4266
1
0.00040
7
0.02320
0.002852
0.00115
0.4605
-0.4832
5
0.00046
9
0.02186
0.003065
0.00115
0.5928
-0.5282
8
0.00052
2
0.02056
0.0032
0.00115
0.7238
-0.5656
5
0.00057
8
0.01926
0.003286
0.00115
0.8599
-0.5991
8
0.00062
6
0.01805
0.003338
0.00115
0.991
-0.6274
5
0.00067
1
0.01686
0.00336
10
0.00115
1.1237
-0.6537
1
0.00071
2
0.01568
0.003363
11
0.00115
1.2599
-0.6777
0.003345
167
0.00075
0.01455
12
0.00115
1.3956
-0.6997
4
0.00078
3
0.01347
0.003312
13
0.00115
1.5297
-0.7164
5
0.00085
6
0.01258
0.003253
14
0.00115
1.6447
-0.7536
8
0.00086
6
0.01142
0.003286
15
0.00115
1.8013
-0.7573
5
0.00089
0.003143
16
0.00115
1.9341
-0.7702
1
0.00092
0.01048
0.00955
0.003056
17
0.00115
2.07
-0.7863
4
0.00095
8
0.00868
0.002972
18
0.00115
2.2043
-0.7996
1
0.00097
8
0.00785
0.002875
19
0.00115
2.3388
-0.8117
7
0.00100
9
0.00707
0.002771
20
0.00115
2.4726
-0.8238
3
0.00102
5
0.00632
0.002664
21
0.00115
2.6085
-0.8346
6
0.00104
1
0.00561
0.002547
22
0.00115
2.7428
-0.8423
3
0.00104
7
0.00494
0.00242
23
0.00115
0.00423
2.8798
3.1233
-0.8451
9
0.00400
2
0.01416
0.002277
-0.8628
6
0.00111
9
0.00329
0.007534
24
0.00115
3.2607
-0.8752
6
0.00114
3
0.00279
0.001917
25
0.00115
3.3947
-0.8866
2
0.00114
2
0.00232
0.001786
26
0.00115
3.5298
-0.8866
2
0.00115
9
0.00190
0.001631
27
0.00115
3.6657
-0.8924
6
0.00116
5
0.00152
0.001484
28
29
0.00115
0.00115
3.7999
3.9324
-0.896
-0.9001
4
0.00117
9
0.00119
0.001334
0.001185
168
3
0.00117
8
0.00090
30
0.00115
4.0645
-0.9024
9
0.00118
8
0.00065
0.001034
31
0.00115
4.1999
-0.9053
5
0.00119
2
0.00044
0.000879
32
0.00115
4.3339
-0.9076
1
0.00119
1
0.00027
0.000724
33
0.00115
4.4675
-0.9089
4
0.00119
1
0.00014
0.000569
34
0.00115
4.5999
-0.9099
6
0.00119
0.000414
35
0.00115
4.7349
-0.9093
5
0.00119
5.47E-05 0.000256
36
0.00115
4.8693
-0.9077
1
0.00118
8.04E-06 9.78E-05
37
0.00115
5.0029
-0.9066
8
0.00118
2.88E-06 -5.8E-05
38
0.00115
5.1384
-0.9046
4
0.00117
3.96E-05 -0.00022
0.00011
39
0.00115
5.2739
-0.9019
8
0.00023
-0.00037
40
0.00115
5.4071
-0.8985
0.00117
7
0.00040
-0.00053
41
0.00115
5.5456
-0.8943
0.00116
0.00114
4
0.00060
-0.00068
42
0.00115
5.6795
-0.8897
9
0.00113
7
0.00085
-0.00084
43
0.00115
5.8162
-0.883
4
0.00111
7
0.00115
-0.00099
44
0.00115
5.9543
-0.8762
8
0.00110
3
0.00148
-0.00114
45
0.00115
6.0891
-0.8685
1
0.00108
5
0.00185
-0.00128
46
0.00115
6.2223
-0.8594
1
0.00105
3
0.00226
-0.00142
47
0.00115
6.3569
-0.8488
-0.00155
169
0.00103
0.00272
48
0.00115
6.4912
-0.837
1
0.00100
-0.00168
49
0.00115
6.6263
-0.8236
2
0.00097
0.00322
-0.0018
50
0.00115
6.761
-0.8101
4
0.00094
0.00376
0.00434
-0.00191
51
0.00115
6.8974
-0.7952
2
0.00090
8
0.00496
-0.00202
52
0.00115
7.0316
-0.779
9
0.00087
9
0.00563
-0.00213
53
0.00115
7.1671
-0.7613
3
0.00083
8
0.00634
-0.00222
54
0.00115
7.3015
-0.7424
6
0.00079
3
0.00710
-0.0023
55
0.00115
7.438
-0.7217
5
0.00075
2
0.00788
-0.00238
56
0.00115
7.5713
-0.7004
5
0.00071
-0.00244
57
0.00115
7.7066
-0.6785
5
0.00067
0.00872
0.00958
-0.0025
58
0.00115
7.84
-0.6556
4
0.00063
6
0.01049
-0.00254
59
0.00115
7.9739
-0.6325
4
0.00059
5
0.01146
-0.00258
60
0.00115
8.1105
-0.6082
3
0.00055
6
0.01244
-0.00261
61
0.00115
8.2424
-0.5839
4
0.00051
4
0.01348
-0.00262
62
0.00115
8.3769
-0.5584
4
0.00047
2
0.01455
-0.00263
63
0.00115
8.5103
-0.5325
5
0.00043
3
0.01567
-0.00263
64
0.00115
8.6449
-0.5056
6
0.00039
5
0.01683
-0.00261
65
66
0.00115
0.00115
8.7793
8.9104
-0.478
-0.451
8
0.00036
8
0.01801
-0.00259
-0.00255
170
2
0.00032
1
0.01925
67
0.00115
9.0444
-0.4239
8
0.00029
1
0.02053
-0.00251
68
0.00115
9.1782
-0.3953
4
0.00026
1
0.02187
-0.00246
69
0.00115
9.3142
-0.3694
4
0.00023
4
0.02324
-0.0024
70
0.00115
9.4491
-0.3403
3
0.00020
8
0.02464
-0.00233
71
0.00115
0.00213
9.5823
-0.3125
-0.00225
RF
9.7605
-0.2772
0.00032
0.0493
-0.00397
I xx
= 0.1121 m 3
I yy
= 1.6241 m 3
I xy
= 0.0237 m 3
zz
= 1806359273Y 30724010.12 X
Tabulation for finding the stress:

Upper surface of the wing:
stringe
r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
X(m)
0.0153
0.0614
0.14
0.23
0.33
0.43
0.541
0.65
0.76
0.87
0.98
1.09
Y(m)
0.11
0.21
0.3019
0.369
0.421
0.47
0.5105
0.5439
0.5742
0.6006
0.624
0.6466
stresss (Pa)
44967669.14
85651073.36
122818172.1
149756555.9
170448319.5
189911147.7
205824916
218842399.4
230583885
240727754.5
249642688.6
258229906.5
171
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
1.2
1.32
1.4315
1.54
1.65
1.762
1.874
1.987
2.102
2.212
2.323
2.4381
2.55
2.665
2.7764
2.8865
2.9983
3.1233
0.6674
0.6866
0.704
0.719
0.7339
0.7478
0.7606
0.7729
0.7855
0.796
0.8065
0.8158
0.8202
0.8334
0.8412
0.8487
0.8553
0.86282
266079763.2
273213209.3
279661125.7
285144187.4
290577137.7
295588247.2
300148747.1
304498326.5
308958603.8
312589115.5
316213529.4
319321367.9
320441458.3
325147522.7
327663455.5
330064422
332086341.5
30F
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
6
3.2371
3.3516
3.4664
3.5792
3.6926
3.8023
3.9133
4.0264
4.1405
4.2546
4.3691
4.4843
4.5952
4.7052
4.8181
4.9295
5.0417
5.1562
5.2752
5.3901
5.5011
5.6125
5.7262
5.8414
5.9528
8
0.8685
0.8742
0.8801
0.885
0.8895
0.8937
0.8969
0.9003
0.9084
0.9061
0.9074
0.9081
0.9128
0.919
0.9121
0.9119
0.9125
0.9122
0.9118
0.9096
0.9094
0.9081
0.9057
0.9035
0.9013
334407554.4
336037493.4
337674268.1
339391142.5
340710567.4
341862475.6
342914052.2
343548056.5
344251184.4
346873546.6
345235599.2
345069935.3
344654215.8
345903297.6
347772335.2
344257337.6
343496109.2
343057718.7
342236622.6
341347121.6
339745260.5
338986471.3
337774633.3
336098160.6
334494470.2
332913951.6
172
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
6.0631
6.1775
6.2932
6.4092
6.5251
6.6371
6.7506
6.8647
6.9809
7.0974
7.2088
7.3233
7.4374
7.5481
7.6628
7.7787
7.8915
8.0047
8.1207
8.2341
8.3461
8.4591
8.5703
8.6804
8.7903
8.8998
9.0125
9.126
9.2399
9.3519
9.4621
9.5714
9.6739
0.899
0.8962
0.8926
0.8892
0.8856
0.8811
0.8765
0.8721
0.8665
0.8607
0.8546
0.8477
0.8407
0.8329
0.8248
0.8168
0.8082
0.7991
0.7894
0.7787
0.7674
0.7561
0.7438
0.7319
0.7191
0.7058
0.6921
0.6772
0.6624
0.6467
0.6314
0.6154
0.5998
0.58693
331299176
329454576.8
327274334.3
325174191.4
322992729.3
320466368.1
317889895.6
315391693.5
312389111.7
309302771.6
306124636.9
302599882.8
299036603.3
295166340.3
291148792.4
287164891.7
282954107.1
278536060.9
273855153.6
268780455.5
263468507.3
258150461.3
252433746.3
246887596.9
240973986.5
234857992.6
228558627.6
221762810.2
215005518.1
207891131.3
200951578.6
193730762.4
186715269.6
RF
9.7605
180915637.2
Lower surface of the wing:

Stringe
r
X(m)
0.0260
Y(m)
stresss (Pa)
1
2
3
0.0997
-0.1406 -57754834.32
-0.2614 -107689744.6
173
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
9
0.2074
0.3319
0.4605
0.5928
0.7238
0.8599
0.991
1.1237
1.2599
1.3956
1.5297
1.6447
1.8013
1.9341
2.07
2.2043
2.3388
2.4726
2.6085
2.7428
2.8798
3.1233
-0.3544
-0.4266
-0.4832
-0.5282
-0.5656
-0.5991
-0.6274
-0.6537
-0.6777
-0.6997
-0.7164
-0.7536
-0.7573
-0.7702
-0.7863
-0.7996
-0.8117
-0.8238
-0.8346
-0.8423
-0.8451
-146442931.7
-176778492.3
-200748589.7
-219989365.5
-236108910.9
-250661939.2
-263054323.6
-274637174.3
-285299183.5
-295138853.5
-302797647.7
-318737698.7
-321208307.4
-327302522.9
-334726506.1
-340993726.4
-346770592.1
-352543189.3
-357796053.2
-361769260.7
-363751671.1
F
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
6
3.2607
3.3947
3.5298
3.6657
3.7999
3.9324
4.0645
4.1999
4.3339
4.4675
4.5999
4.7349
4.8693
5.0029
5.1384
5.2739
5.4071
5.5456
5.6795
5.8162
-0.8628
-0.8752
-0.8866
-0.8866
-0.8924
-0.896
-0.9001
-0.9024
-0.9053
-0.9076
-0.9089
-0.9099
-0.9093
-0.9077
-0.9066
-0.9046
-0.9019
-0.8985
-0.8943
-0.8897
-0.883
-372499050
-378404657.1
-383891722.2
-384715540.3
-387920178.6
-390213231.1
-392700740
-394448448.4
-396462066.8
-398221361.1
-399568571.1
-400785570.2
-401362991.5
-401527108.9
-401891170.5
-401898137.5
-401618352.8
-401037791.6
-400161832.7
-399093965.7
-397182917.9
174
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
RF
5.9543
6.0891
6.2223
6.3569
6.4912
6.6263
6.761
6.8974
7.0316
7.1671
7.3015
7.438
7.5713
7.7066
7.84
7.9739
8.1105
8.2424
8.3769
8.5103
8.6449
8.7793
8.9104
9.0444
9.1782
9.3142
9.4491
9.5823
9.7605
-0.8762
-0.8685
-0.8594
-0.8488
-0.837
-0.8236
-0.8101
-0.7952
-0.779
-0.7613
-0.7424
-0.7217
-0.7004
-0.6785
-0.6556
-0.6325
-0.6082
-0.5839
-0.5584
-0.5325
-0.5056
-0.478
-0.451
-0.4239
-0.3953
-0.3694
-0.3403
-0.3125
#REF!
-395239442.6
-392907163.7
-389991625.1
-386470155.7
-382455282.8
-377789856
-373081025.5
-367809058.1
-361991136.8
-355566674.9
-348643931.3
-340996631.9
-333084032.2
-324937841.2
-316370419.2
-307724117
-298602704.8
-289452632.8
-279826841
-270030483.4
-259831798.2
-249345141.8
-239084149.6
-228799876.6
-217899916.4
-208119413.2
-197021338
-186445435.2
-173070859.1
So from the above tabulation it is found that the stress calculated for each stringer and it is found
to be less than the ultimate strength of the material selected.
175
So the selected stringer dimensions are shown below.
14.1.8 SHEAR FLOW OF THE AIRFOIL: ( using K method)

General procedure:
1. The shear force acting on the root airfoil is obtained from the shear force diagram
constructed and the shear force obtained is resolved into x and y since the wing is
attached at a wing setting angle ()
176
V x = V sin ; V y = V cos
2. The root airfoil is considered as a 2 cell box and the cut is made at the origin and at
top of the front spar.
3.. K 1 , K 2 , K 3 are evaluated using the following relations given
I xy
K 1 = I xx I yy I xy 2
K2=
K3=
I yy
I xx I yy I xy 2
I xx
I xx I yy I xy 2
4.. The basic shear flow equation is given by

q = ( K 3Vx K 1V y )AX + ( K 2V y K 1V x) AY
Where A(X X c) and A(Y- Y c)have been already evaluated.

5. The shear flow due to torque and bending has to be added to the above obtained basic
shear flow for the closed cell. So the twist equation for cell1 and 2 are considered here
again and shear flow obtained in cell 1 and cell 2 are added as constants to the respective
twist equation. There force the equation will be in the form
2G1 = a1q1 + b1q2 const
2G2 = a 2q1 + b2q2 const
Constants are found by substituting thickness of the skin in q 1 and q 2 which
were evaluated in finding the skin thickness.
6. Assuming twist in both cells are equal one equation is framed and other equation is
framed by taking the moment contribution of the components of shear force.
177
7. Solving the two equations we get q 1 and q 2 which is added to the basic shear flow and
the shear flow is evaluated in the root airfoil section.

K 1 = 0.13105 m 3
K 2 = 8.9496 m 3
K 3 = 0.6176 m 3
q = -85344.66581A ( X X c ) -6972868.162A (Y Y c)
The shear flow due to torsion and bending
q 1 = 29436.4041 Nm -1
q 2 = 34276.4386 Nm -1
Tabulation for Shear Flow of the wing:
Cell 1 of the root airfoil:
stringe
r
area
X-Xc
Y-Yc
A(X-Xc)
A(Y-Yc)
basic q
q(net)
0.00115
-4.9376
-0.00567824
484.6074951
28951.7966
0.00115
-4.8915
0.1
-0.01130346
0.000115
0.00033568
162.8106042
29273.5935
0.00115
-4.8129
0.1919
-0.0168383
5
0.00063353
-903.6281628
30340.03226
0.00115
-4.7229
0.259
-0.02226963
5
0.00099118
-2516.961474
31953.36557
0.00115
-4.6229
0.311
-0.02758597
5
0.00140518
-4557.086939
33993.49104
0.00115
-4.5229
0.36
-0.02758597
-7443.854358
36880.25846
0.00115
-4.4119
0.4005
-0.03265965
0.00186576
0.00236474
-10222.37116
39658.77526
0.00115
-4.3029
0.4339
-0.03760799
-13279.41378
42715.81788
178
0.00289857
9
0.00115
-4.1929
0.4642
-0.04242982
5
0.00346276
-16590.2221
46026.6262
10
0.00115
-4.0829
0.4906
-0.04712516
5
0.00405386
-20123.52279
49559.92689
11
0.00115
-3.9729
0.514
-0.05169399
5
0.00467095
-23855.25946
53291.66356
12
0.00115
-3.8629
0.5366
-0.05613633
5
0.00531196
-27779.01708
57215.42118
13
0.00115
-3.7529
0.5574
-0.06045216
5
0.00597505
-31880.36181
61316.76591
14
0.00115
-3.6329
0.5766
-0.06463
5
0.00665815
-36147.44503
65583.84913
15
0.00115
-3.5214
0.594
-0.06867961
5
0.00735850
-40564.99865
70001.40275
16
0.00115
-3.4129
0.609
-0.07260444
-45113.48314
74549.88724
17
0.00115
-3.3029
0.6239
-0.07640278
0.00807599
-49792.24382
79228.64792
18
0.00115
-3.1909
0.6378
-0.08007231
0.00880946
-54593.45819
84029.86229
19
0.00115
-3.0789
0.6506
-0.08361305
0.00955765
0.01031998
-59508.30558
88944.70968
20
0.00115
-2.9659
0.6629
-0.08702383
-64532.87472
93969.27882
21
0.00115
-2.8509
0.6755
-0.09030237
0.01109681
-69669.76756
99106.17166
22
0.00115
-2.7409
0.686
-0.09345440
0.01188571
0.01268668
-74901.65388
104338.058
23
0.00115
-2.6299
0.6965
-0.09647879
5
0.01349835
-80228.63183
109665.0359
24
0.00115
-2.5148
0.7058
-0.09937081
5
0.01431508
-85641.48125
115077.8853
25
0.00115
-2.4029
0.7102
-0.10213414
5
0.01514699
-91100.59596
120537.0001
26
0.00115
-2.2879
0.7234
-0.10476523
5
0.01598787
-96676.84564
126113.2497
27
0.00115
-2.1765
0.7312
-0.10726820
-102326.5755
131762.9796
28
0.00115
-2.0664
0.7387
-0.10964456
0.01683738
-108047.2522
137483.6563
179
0.01769447
29
30F
0.00115
-1.9546
-
0.7453
0.00423
1.8295
0.75282
4
-
-0.11189235
0.00115
7
-
-113831.8257
143268.2298
-135391.4637
164827.8678
-132898.3985
162334.8026
0.02088119
-0.11963679
4.9268
1
6
0.02059300
-0.2506
-0.12530269
4.8531
6
0.02016589
0.00115
-0.3714
-0.13088377
6
0.01963183
-129443.9016
158880.3057
0.00115
-4.7455
-0.4644
-0.1363411
6
0.01901474
-125254.2181
154690.6222
0.00115
-4.621
-0.5366
-0.14165525
6
0.01833256
-120497.7965
149934.2006
0.00115
-4.4924
-0.5932
-0.14682151
6
0.01759863
-115300.1326
144736.5367
0.00115
-4.3601
-0.6382
-0.15183562
6
0.01682169
-109754.6075
139191.0116
0.00115
-4.2291
-0.6756
-0.15669909
6
0.01600623
-103922.0365
133358.4406
0.00115
-4.093
-0.7091
-0.16140604
1
0.01515822
-97834.19348
127270.5976
0.00115
-3.9619
-0.7374
-0.16596222
1
0.01427996
-91532.28546
120968.6896
10
0.00115
-3.8292
-0.7637
-0.17036580
6
0.01337411
-85032.50707
114468.9112
11
0.00115
-3.693
-0.7877
-0.17461275
1
0.01244295
-78353.64505
107790.0492
12
0.00115
-3.5573
-0.8097
-0.17870365
6
0.01149259
-71511.68793
100948.092
13
0.00115
-3.4232
-0.8264
-0.18264033
6
0.01049945
-64548.97831
93985.38241
14
15
0.00115
0.00115
-3.3082
-3.1516
-0.8636
-0.8673
-0.18644476
-0.1900691
6
0.00950206
-57299.25621
-50035.23429
86735.66031
79471.63839
180
1
0.00848983
16
0.00115
-3.0188
-0.8802
-0.19354072
1
0.00745908
-42680.8037
72117.2078
17
0.00115
-2.8829
-0.8963
-0.19685605
6
0.00641304
-35210.60855
64647.01265
18
0.00115
-2.7486
-0.9096
-0.20001694
6
0.00535309
-27646.94443
57083.34853
19
0.00115
-2.6141
-0.9217
-0.20302316
1
0.00427922
-19999.45355
49435.85765
20
0.00115
-2.4803
-0.9338
-0.20587550
1
0.00319293
-12268.06718
41704.47128
21
0.00115
-2.3444
-0.9446
-0.20857156
1
0.00209778
-4463.415888
33899.81999
22
0.00115
-2.2101
-0.9523
-0.21111318
6
0.00099942
3389.799098
26046.605
23
0.00115
-2.0731
-
-0.9551
-
-0.21349724
-
11252.02067
18184.38343
0.00423
1.8295
0.97282
0.22124168
24F
-0.00311856
40627.10563
11190.70153
Cell 2 of the root Airfoil:

stringe
r
area
0.00423
X-Xc
Y-Yc
A(X-Xc)
A(Y-Yc)
0.00318672
basic q
q(net)
30F
-1.8295
0.752828
-0.00774444
1
0.00405899
-21559.63799
12716.80061
31
0.00115
-1.7158
0.7585
-0.00971761
6
0.00493782
-27473.49703
6802.94157
32
0.00115
-1.6013
0.7642
-0.01155910
6
0.00582344
-33444.30098
832.137619
33
34
0.00115
0.00115
-1.4865
-1.3737
0.7701
0.775
-0.01326858
-0.01484833
1
0.00671469
-39473.68305
-45553.42813
-5197.24444
-11276.9895
181
1
0.00761111
35
0.00115
-1.2603
0.7795
-0.01629768
6
0.00851237
-51680.38761
-17403.9490
36
0.00115
-1.1506
0.7837
-0.01762087
1
0.00941730
-57851.7927
-23575.3541
37
0.00115
-1.0396
0.7869
-0.01881641
6
0.01032615
-64059.75219
-29783.3135
38
0.00115
-0.9265
0.7903
-0.01988188
1
0.01124431
-70306.07594
-36029.6373
39
0.00115
-0.8124
0.7984
-0.02081614
1
0.01215982
-76628.55047
-42352.1118
40
0.00115
-0.6983
0.7961
-0.02161919
6
0.01307683
-82943.78025
-48667.3416
41
0.00115
-0.5838
0.7974
-0.02229056
6
0.01399465
-89280.67224
-55004.2336
42
0.00115
-0.4686
0.7981
-0.02282945
1
0.01491787
-95634.48384
-61358.0452
43
0.00115
-0.3577
0.8028
-0.02324080
1
0.01584822
-102036.8682
-67760.4296
44
0.00115
-0.2477
0.809
-0.02352566
1
0.01677063
-108499.7653
-74223.3266
45
0.00115
-0.1348
0.8021
-0.02368068
6
0.01769282
-114918.4133
-80641.9747
46
0.00115
-0.0234
0.8019
-0.02370759
1
0.01861569
-121346.3911
-87069.9525
47
0.00115
0.0888
0.8025
-0.02360547
6
0.01953822
-127790.1922
-93513.7536
48
0.00115
0.2033
0.8022
-0.02337167
6
0.02046029
-134242.8255
-99966.3868
49
0.00115
0.3223
0.8018
-0.02300103
6
0.02137983
-140703.9306
-106427.492
50
0.00115
0.4372
0.7996
-0.02249825
6
0.02229914
-147158.6714
-112882.232
51
0.00115
0.5482
0.7994
-0.02186782
6
0.02321696
-153622.7026
-119346.264
52
0.00115
0.6596
0.7981
-0.02110928
-160087.243
-125810.804
182
0.02413201
53
0.00115
0.7733
0.7957
-0.02021998
6
0.02504454
-166543.6974
-132267.258
54
0.00115
0.8885
0.7935
-0.01919821
1
0.02595453
-172993.817
-138717.378
55
0.00115
0.9999
0.7913
-0.01804832
6
0.02686188
-179437.2287
-145160.790
56
0.00115
1.1102
0.789
-0.01677159
6
0.02776601
-185873.0227
-151596.584
57
0.00115
1.2246
0.7862
-0.01536330
6
0.02866600
-192297.5921
-158021.153
58
0.00115
1.3403
0.7826
-0.01382196
6
0.02956208
-198704.6492
-164428.210
59
0.00115
1.4563
0.7792
-0.01214721
6
0.03045402
-205095.8275
-170819.388
60
0.00115
1.5722
0.7756
-0.01033918
6
0.03134079
-211469.5132
-177193.074
61
0.00115
1.6842
0.7711
-0.00840235
1
0.03222226
-217818.1068
-183541.668
62
0.00115
1.7977
0.7665
-0.00633500
6
0.03309868
-224140.9535
-189864.514
63
0.00115
1.9118
0.7621
-0.00413643
1
0.03396865
-230439.7159
-196163.277
64
0.00115
2.028
0.7565
-0.00180423
0.00066194
6
0.03483196
-236704.9778
-202428.539
65
0.00115
2.1445
0.7507
2
0.00325622
1
0.03568825
-242935.1646
-208658.726
66
0.00115
2.2559
0.7446
7
0.00598218
1
0.03653660
-249127.3702
-214850.931
67
0.00115
2.3704
0.7377
7
0.00883936
6
0.03737691
-255275.484
-220999.045
68
0.00115
2.4845
0.7307
2
0.01182384
1
0.03820824
-261378.6646
-227102.226
69
0.00115
2.5952
0.7229
2
0.01494022
6
0.03903026
-267430.1634
-233153.724
70
71
0.00115
0.00115
2.7099
2.8258
0.7148
0.7068
7
0.01818989
6
0.03984308
-273427.9673
-279372.996
-239151.528
-245096.557
183
7
0.02156928
6
0.04064601
72
0.00115
2.9386
0.6982
7
0.02507885
6
0.04143848
-285260.134
-250983.695
73
0.00115
3.0518
0.6891
7
0.02872182
1
0.04221979
-291085.411
-256808.974
74
0.00115
3.1678
0.6794
7
0.03249520
1
0.04298879
-296844.2907
-262567.852
75
0.00115
3.2812
0.6687
7
0.03639738
6
0.04374480
-302528.499
-268252.060
76
0.00115
3.3932
0.6574
7
0.04042951
6
0.04448782
-308133.0873
-273856.647
77
0.00115
3.5062
0.6461
7
0.04458952
1
0.04521669
-313658.1538
-279381.715
78
0.00115
3.6174
0.6338
7
0.04887615
1
0.04593187
-319095.5028
-284819.064
79
0.00115
3.7275
0.6219
2
0.05328916
6
0.04663234
-324448.2341
-290171.795
80
0.00115
3.8374
0.6091
2
0.05782809
1
0.04731751
-329709.1111
-295432.675
81
0.00115
3.9469
0.5958
7
0.06249663
1
0.04798692
-334874.0851
-300597.646
82
0.00115
4.0596
0.5821
7
0.06729570
6
0.04863920
-339940.2626
-305663.824
83
0.00115
4.1731
0.5672
2
0.07222575
6
0.04927446
-344898.0996
-310621.661
84
0.00115
4.287
0.5524
2
0.07728460
6
0.04989167
-349748.4373
-315471.998
85
0.00115
4.399
0.5367
2
0.08247018
1
0.05049128
-354483.8723
-320207.433
86
0.00115
4.5092
0.5214
2
0.08778145
1
0.05107249
-359107.4354
-324830.996
87
0.00115
4.6185
0.5054
7
0.09321060
1
0.05163576
-363613.425
-329336.986
88
0.00115
0.00213
4.721
0.4898
0.476931
7
0.10346521
1
0.05265305
-368004.3815
-333727.942
RF
4.8076
-375973.0195
-341696.580
184
0.00423
1.8295
0.09572077
0.04853507
-0.972828
5
0.09377474
5
0.04740209
-346597.9345
-312321.495
24
0.00115
-1.6922
-0.9852
5
0.09198281
5
0.04625600
-338531.7311
304255.2925
25
0.00115
-1.5582
-0.9966
5
0.04510991
-330387.2649
-296110.826
26
0.00115
-1.4231
-0.9966
0.09034625
5
0.04395715
-322256.0584
-287979.619
27
0.00115
-1.2872
-1.0024
0.08886597
5
0.04280025
-314091.6809
-279815.242
28
0.00115
-1.153
-1.006
0.08754002
0.08636644
-305911.6069
-271635.168
29
0.00115
-1.0205
-1.0101
5
0.08534478
0.04163864
-297711.6603
-263435.221
30
0.00115
-0.8884
-1.0124
5
0.08447883
0.04047438
0.03930678
-289506.2356
-255229.797
31
0.00115
-0.753
-1.0153
5
0.08376698
5
0.03813654
-281290.8454
-247014.406
32
0.00115
-0.619
-1.0176
5
0.08320877
-273070.1635
-238793.724
33
0.00115
-0.4854
-1.0189
5
0.08280282
0.03696481
0.03579192
-264852.1696
-230575.731
34
0.00115
-0.353
-1.0199
5
0.08255212
-256639.1515
-222362.712
35
0.00115
-0.218
-1.0193
5
0.08245598
0.03461973
0.03344937
-248444.1944
-214167.755
36
0.00115
-0.0836
-1.0177
5
0.08251348
5
0.03228028
-240275.2582
-205998.819
37
0.00115
0.05
-1.0166
5
0.03111349
-232128.2551
-197851.816
38
39
0.00115
0.00115
0.1855
0.321
-1.0146
-1.0119
0.08272681
0.08309596
5
0.02994981
0.02879003
-224010.5884
-215927.8713
-189734.149
-181651.432
40
41
0.00115
0.00115
0.4542
0.5927
-1.0085
-1.0043
0.08361829
0.08429989
5
0.02763509
-207885.4912
-199890.3833
-173609.052
-165613.944
185
5
0.08513548
0.02648543
42
0.00115
0.7266
-0.9997
5
0.02534348
-191945.3037
-157668.865
43
0.00115
0.8633
-0.993
0.08612828
5
0.02420935
-184067.3667
-149790.928
44
45
46
47
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
1.0014
1.1362
1.2694
1.404
-0.9862
-0.9785
-0.9694
-0.9588
0.08727989
0.08858652
0.09004633
0.09166093
0.09342997
5
0.02308408
0.02196927
0.02086665
-176257.5115
-168522.6312
-160873.795
-153323.1686
-141981.072
-134246.192
-126597.356
-119046.73
48
0.00115
1.5383
-0.947
5
0.09535438
0.0197776
-145880.3451
-111603.906
49
0.00115
1.6734
-0.9336
0.01870396
0.01764584
-138558.2331
-104281.794
50
0.00115
1.8081
-0.9201
0.0974337
0.09966987
5
0.01660486
-131357.5951
-97081.1565
51
0.00115
1.9445
-0.9052
5
0.01558251
-124289.8244
-90013.3858
52
53
54
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
2.0787
2.2142
2.3486
-0.889
-0.8713
-0.8524
0.10206038
0.10460671
0.1073076
0.11016546
5
0.01458052
0.01360026
0.01264380
-117365.1295
-110595.6662
-103990.949
-83088.6909
-76319.2275
-69714.5103
55
0.00115
2.4851
-0.8317
5
0.11317662
5
0.01171184
-97565.61788
-63289.1792
56
57
0.00115
0.00115
2.6184
2.7537
-0.8104
-0.7885
5
0.11634338
0.11966354
5
0.01080507
-91324.17011
-85271.61323
-57047.7311
-50995.1746
58
0.00115
2.8871
-0.7656
5
0.12313769
0.00992463
0.00907075
-79415.77956
-45139.3409
59
0.00115
3.021
-0.7425
5
0.12676893
5
0.00824482
-73758.32193
-39481.8833
60
61
62
0.00115
0.00115
0.00115
3.1576
3.2895
3.424
-0.7182
-0.6939
-0.6684
5
0.13055186
0.13448946
5
0.00744684
0.00667818
0.00593930
-68309.12789
-63067.73616
-58044.02448
-34032.6899
-28791.2976
-23767.5858
63
64
0.00115
0.00115
3.5574
3.692
-0.6425
-0.6156
0.13858047
0.14282627
5
0.00523136
-53241.09239
-48667.07649
-18964.6579
-14390.6379
186
5
0.00455516
65
0.00115
3.8264
-0.588
0.14722663
0.15177775
5
0.00391001
-44327.57029
-10051.1319
66
67
0.00115
0.00115
3.9575
4.0915
-0.561
-0.5339
5
0.15648298
0.16134207
5
0.00329603
0.00271493
-40217.43864
-36337.76804
-5941.00004
-2061.32937
68
0.00115
4.2253
-0.5053
5
0.00216362
-32700.56705
1575.871549
69
70
0.00115
0.00115
4.3613
4.4962
-0.4794
-0.4503
0.16635757
0.1715282
5
0.00164578
0.00115990
-29284.40085
-26114.82163
4992.037751
8161.616975
71
0.00115
0.00213
4.6294
-0.4225
0.17685201
0.18710662
5
0.00033401
-23181.23809
11095.20051
RF
4.8076
-0.387198
-18297.56612
15978.87248
14.2 DESIGN OF FUSELAGE:

General Procedure:
1. The load distribution on the fuselage is identified and the shear force, Bending moment
diagrams are constructed.
2. Stringer design for the fuselage is carried out and the bending stress acting on each
stringer is evaluated.
3. Shear flow distribution around the fuselage is found out.
4. Bulkhead design for the fuselage is carried out.
14.2.1 Identification of distributed loads on the fuselage:
187
The distributed loads on the fuselage is identified are
Fuselage structural distribution
Passenger weight distribution
Cargo weight distribution
Structural weight Distribution:

Length of the nose section
= 8.5m
Length of the tail section
= 10.26m
Length of the cabin
= 45.202m
8.5m
45.202m
10.26m
From the diagram,

1
1
*8.5*Ws + 45.202* Ws + *10.26*Ws =-368167.24
2
2
Ws = -6745.2134 Nm 1
Load intensity distribution of structural weight of fuselage:
Wxs = 793.5545 x , x varies from 0 to 8.5m
Wxs = 6745.2134 , x varies from 8.5m to 53.702m
188
Wxs = 657.42882 x 42050.4609 , x varies from 53.702m to 63.962m

Passenger Weight Distribution:
8.5m
11.219m
1.5m
14.749m
1.5m
14.749m
1.5m 10.26m
1.5m
14.749m
1.5m 10.26m
From the above figure,

11.219W p + 14.749W p + 14.749W p =-218959.2
W p = -5186.7384 Nm 1
Cargo weight Distribution:
8.5m
11.219m
1.5m
14.749m
From the above figure,

189
11.219W p + 14.749W p + 14.749W p =-49050
Wc =-1204.7094 Nm 1
Identification of point loads: (phase I balance diagram, side view)
Point load
X(m)
Load(N)
Moment(N-m)
Fixed equipments (P1)
26.86
13148.38
353165.4868
Pilots (P2)
3.2
2158.2
6906.24
Nose landing gear(P3)
8.32
14279.53
118805.6896
Reserve fuel (P4)
19.862
185334.87
3682085.048
Horizontal tail(P5)
55.6172
33111.59
1841573.923
Vertical tail(P6)
56.172
17667.83
992437.346
(Lavatory & Galley)1 (P7)
20.4672
3209
65679.2448
(Lavatory & Galley)2 (P8)
37.4662
3209
120229.0358
(Lavatory&Galley) 3 (P9)
53.7152
3209
172372.0768
P2
P3
P4
PA PA
P7
P1
P8
P9
P5
P6
PB PB
Consider the fuselage to be a over-hanging beam with the supports provided by the front and
the rear spar and the reactions provided is PA and PB
To find the Reactions provided by the supports:
Step Involved:
190
Calculate the moment provided by the point loads along the length of the fuselage.
Convert the distributed loads on the fuselage into point loads.
Determine the moment provided by the distributed load by integration
Following the steps above,

PA + PB = -903723.7305 (equilibrium by summation of point loads)
17.25 PA +23.76 PB =-26905689.43 (equilibrium by summation of moments)
Solving the above equations PA = -837269.3586N
PB =1740993.089N
Using the method described in Standard Strength of Materials books the variation of shear force
and the bending moment is calculated and graph is plotted as done for the wing.
191
14.2.2 STRINGER DESIGN:

In the Stringer Design, the following are calculated
Number of stringers
Area of the Stringers
Steps followed in Stringer Design:
1. The maximum bending moment experienced by the fuselage is calculated by allowing a
Factor of Safety of 2
M y = M max * n
Where M max is identified from the bending moment diagram of fuselage
192
2. The material for the Stringer is selected and the Critical Shear stress of the material is
identified.
3. The moment of inertia for the fuselage is given by
I yy =
nAR 2
2
Where n is the number of stringers

A is the area of the stringer, m2
R is the radius of the fuselage, m
4. The bending stress experienced by the stringer in the fuselage is
x =
My *z
I yy
; max =
2M y
nAR
Substituting the known values nA is found.

5. The skin should withstand the buckling stress so using the formula
cr =
2 * E * Kb t 2
( )
12(1 2 ) b
Where Kb =8.5 ( for aircraft applications) and b is the stringer spacing.

6. Number of stringer is calculated as
n=
d
b
where d is the diameter of the fuselage.

7. The area of the Stringer is calculated as
A=
nA
n
193
8. From the book ,Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing,Niu the properties of the section is
known choosing the Area to be closer to the Area calculated in Step 7
M y = 18919332.26 N-m
The material Selected is Al 2024 for which the critical stress cr = 216MPa
nA = 0.0553488m2 ; b = 9.04cm; n = 220, A= 2.5158*10-4 m2(calculated)
Area of the stringer= 2.6*10-4 m2( from Niu)
Calculation of bending Stress in the Stringer:
The bending stress of the Stringer is given by
x =
My *z
I yy
; Z=Rsin
= 0.02893
nAR 2
= 0.2792m2
I yy =
2
Substituting in the bending stress formula,
x = 211.758*10 6 sin
Tabulation for Bending Stress of the Stringers

stringer
1
2
3
4
5
6
angle (rad)
0
0.02893
0.05786
0.08679
0.11572
0.14465
bending stress (Mpa)

0
6.125159803
12.24519354
18.35497944
24.44940431
30.5233678
194
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
0.17358
0.20251
0.23144
0.26037
0.2893
0.31823
0.34716
0.37609
0.40502
0.43395
0.46288
0.49181
0.52074
0.54967
0.5786
0.60753
0.63646
0.66539
0.69432
0.72325
0.75218
0.78111
0.81004
0.83897
0.8679
0.89683
0.92576
0.95469
0.98362
1.01255
1.04148
1.07041
1.09934
1.12827
1.1572
1.18613
1.21506
1.24399
1.27292
1.30185
1.33078
1.35971
1.38864
1.41757
1.4465
36.57178669
42.58959915
48.57176895
54.51328969
60.40918899
66.25453265
72.04442879
77.77403192
83.438547
89.03323349
94.55340927
99.99445457
105.3518159
110.6210096
115.7976262
120.8773332
125.8558797
130.7290991
135.492913
140.1433348
144.6764724
149.0885323
153.375822
157.5347536
161.5618464
165.4537303
169.2071482
172.818959
176.2861398
179.6057892
182.7751289
185.7915065
188.6523978
191.3554084
193.8982762
196.2788732
198.495207
200.5454229
202.427805
204.140778
205.6829084
207.0529054
208.2496227
209.2720587
210.1193578
195
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
1.47543
1.50436
1.53329
1.56222
1.59115
1.62008
1.64901
1.67794
1.70687
1.7358
1.76473
1.79366
1.82259
1.85152
1.88045
1.90938
1.93831
1.96724
1.99617
2.0251
2.05403
2.08296
2.11189
2.14082
2.16975
2.19868
2.22761
2.25654
2.28547
2.3144
2.34333
2.37226
2.40119
2.43012
2.45905
2.48798
2.51691
2.54584
2.57477
2.6037
2.63263
2.66156
2.69049
2.71942
2.74835
210.7908107
211.2858557
211.6040784
211.7452125
211.7091398
211.4958907
211.1056435
210.5387248
209.7956091
208.8769182
207.7834211
206.5160329
205.0758141
203.4639702
201.68185
199.730945
197.6128879
195.3294512
192.8825459
190.2742198
187.5066558
184.5821699
181.5032098
178.272352
174.8923006
171.3658841
167.6960538
163.8858809
159.9385542
155.857377
151.6457649
147.3072425
142.8454407
138.2640934
133.5670348
128.7581957
123.8416006
118.8213642
113.7016878
108.4868559
103.1812329
97.78925883
92.31544629
86.76437619
81.14069416
196
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
2.77728
2.80621
2.83514
2.86407
2.893
2.92193
2.95086
2.97979
3.00872
3.03765
3.06658
3.09551
3.12444
3.15337
3.1823
3.21123
3.24016
3.26909
3.29802
3.32695
3.35588
3.38481
3.41374
3.44267
3.4716
3.50053
3.52946
3.55839
3.58732
3.61625
3.64518
3.67411
3.70304
3.73197
3.7609
3.78983
3.81876
3.84769
3.87662
3.90555
3.93448
3.96341
3.99234
4.02127
4.0502
75.44910658
69.69437665
63.88132044
58.01480281
52.09973338
46.14106238
40.14377654
34.11289493
28.05346468
21.97055688
15.86926221
9.754686763
3.631947755
-2.493830782
-8.617522265
-14.73400186
-20.83815077
-26.92486051
-32.98903719
-39.0256058
-45.0295144
-50.99573841
-56.91928477
-62.79519615
-68.61855508
-74.38448806
-80.08816966
-85.72482656
-91.2897415
-96.77825729
-102.1857807
-107.5077861
-112.7398198
-117.877503
-122.9165361
-127.852702
-132.6818697
-137.3999978
-142.0031376
-146.487437
-150.8491429
-155.0846053
-159.1902794
-163.1627293
-166.9986306
197
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
4.07913
4.10806
4.13699
4.16592
4.19485
4.22378
4.25271
4.28164
4.31057
4.3395
4.36843
4.39736
4.42629
4.45522
4.48415
4.51308
4.54201
4.57094
4.59987
4.6288
4.65773
4.68666
4.71559
4.74452
4.77345
4.80238
4.83131
4.86024
4.88917
4.9181
4.94703
4.97596
5.00489
5.03382
5.06275
5.09168
5.12061
5.14954
5.17847
5.2074
5.23633
5.26526
5.29419
5.32312
5.35205
-170.6947729
-174.2480631
-177.6555274
-180.9143142
-184.0216963
-186.9750731
-189.7719729
-192.4100552
-194.8871121
-197.2010705
-199.3499941
-201.3320843
-203.1456824
-204.7892706
-206.2614735
-207.5610589
-208.6869392
-209.6381723
-210.413962
-211.0136591
-211.4367617
-211.6829157
-211.7519151
-211.6437022
-211.3583676
-210.89615
-210.2574362
-209.4427608
-208.4528056
-207.2883991
-205.9505157
-204.440275
-202.7589411
-200.9079209
-198.8887636
-196.703159
-194.3529361
-191.8400619
-189.1666393
-186.3349057
-183.347231
-180.2061154
-176.9141878
-173.474203
-169.88904
198
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
5.38098
5.40991
5.43884
5.46777
5.4967
5.52563
5.55456
5.58349
5.61242
5.64135
5.67028
5.69921
5.72814
5.75707
5.786
5.81493
5.84386
5.87279
5.90172
5.93065
5.95958
5.98851
6.01744
6.04637
6.0753
6.10423
6.13316
6.16209
6.19102
6.21995
6.24888
6.27781
6.30674
6.33567
-166.1616992
-162.2952999
-158.2930778
-154.1583824
-149.8946739
-145.5055206
-140.9945957
-136.3656743
-131.6226303
-126.7694331
-121.8101442
-116.7489141
-111.5899784
-106.3376546
-100.9963382
-95.5704993
-90.06467876
-84.48348431
-78.83158676
-73.11371612
-67.3346576
-61.49924762
-55.61236973
-49.67895061
-43.70395584
-37.69238582
-31.64927155
-25.57967043
-19.48866203
-13.38134383
-7.262826968
-1.13823194
4.987315659
11.10868944
199
14.2.3
Shear Flow for the Fuselage:
Steps involved:
1. K 1 , K 2 , K 3 are evaluated using the following relations given below
I zy
K 1 = I zz I yy I zy 2
K2=
K3=
I zz
I zz I yy I zy 2
I yy
I zz I yy I zy 2
2. The basic shear flow equation is given by

q = ( K 3V y K 1V z ) Ay + ( K 2V z K 1V y) Az
3. Since the cross section is symmetric,

K1=0; K2=
1
1
; K3=
I yy
I zz
4. Since there is no side force acting on the aircraft, Vy=0
Az =
5. The shear flow is given by q = ( K 2Vz )
Vz Az
I yy
Vz AR sin
I yy
Where Vz is the maximum shear force identified from the shear force diagram
I yy is calculated in the previous section
200
6. A cut is made at the first stringer and the shear flow due to the cut, q o is calculated using
the equation
220
2 As q + 2 R 2qo = 0
i =1
Where As is the area of the sector

7. The tabulation is done for calculating the shear flow around the fuselage
q = 3552.0547 sin ; As=
R 2
=0.1412 m ;qo= -1.5569Nm-1
2
Tabulation for Shear flow:

stringer
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
theta ( rad)
0
0.02893
0.05786
0.08679
0.11572
0.14465
0.17358
0.20251
0.23144
0.26037
0.2893
0.31823
0.34716
0.37609
0.40502
0.43395
0.46288
0.49181
0.52074
0.54967
0.5786
0.60753
basic shear flow

0
102.7466089
205.4072305
307.8959495
410.1269946
512.01481
613.474127
714.4200358
814.7680561
914.434208
1013.335082
1111.38791
1208.510632
1304.621968
1399.641483
1493.489658
1586.087951
1677.358868
1767.226026
1855.614217
1942.449469
2027.659111
net shear flow

0
102.7466089
308.1538393
513.30318
718.0229442
922.1418046
1125.488937
1327.894163
1529.188092
1729.202264
1927.76929
2124.722992
2319.898542
2513.1326
2704.263451
2893.131141
3079.577608
3263.446818
3444.584894
3622.840243
3798.063685
3970.108579
due to cut
-1.5569
101.1797089
306.5869393
511.73628
716.4560442
920.5749046
1123.922037
1326.327263
1527.621192
1727.635364
1926.20239
2123.156092
2318.331642
2511.5657
2702.696551
2891.564241
3078.010708
3261.879918
3443.017994
3621.273343
3796.496785
3968.541679
201
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
0.63646
0.66539
0.69432
0.72325
0.75218
0.78111
0.81004
0.83897
0.8679
0.89683
0.92576
0.95469
0.98362
1.01255
1.04148
1.07041
1.09934
1.12827
1.1572
1.18613
1.21506
1.24399
1.27292
1.30185
1.33078
1.35971
1.38864
1.41757
1.4465
1.47543
1.50436
1.53329
1.56222
1.59115
1.62008
1.64901
1.67794
1.70687
1.7358
1.76473
1.79366
1.82259
1.85152
1.88045
1.90938
2111.171832
2192.917743
2272.82843
2350.837017
2426.878221
2500.888403
2572.805625
2642.569701
2710.122246
2775.406726
2838.368506
2898.954893
2957.115184
3012.800705
3065.964853
3116.563137
3164.553212
3209.894914
3252.550299
3292.483668
3329.661602
3364.052986
3395.629041
3424.363339
3450.231833
3473.212875
3493.287232
3510.438104
3524.651137
3535.914438
3544.218579
3549.556612
3551.924068
3551.318967
3547.741815
3541.195606
3531.685817
3519.220409
3503.809812
3485.466924
3464.207096
3440.04812
3413.010213
3383.116005
3350.390512
4138.830943
4304.089575
4465.746173
4623.665447
4777.715238
4927.766624
5073.694028
5215.375326
5352.691947
5485.528972
5613.775232
5737.323398
5856.070076
5969.915888
6078.765558
6182.527991
6281.116349
6374.448126
6462.445213
6545.033966
6622.145269
6693.714588
6759.682027
6819.992379
6874.595172
6923.444708
6966.500107
7003.725336
7035.089241
7060.565575
7080.133017
7093.775191
7101.48068
7103.243035
7099.060782
7088.937421
7072.881423
7050.906226
7023.030221
6989.276736
6949.67402
6904.255216
6853.058333
6796.126218
6733.506516
4137.264043
4302.522675
4464.179273
4622.098547
4776.148338
4926.199724
5072.127128
5213.808426
5351.125047
5483.962072
5612.208332
5735.756498
5854.503176
5968.348988
6077.198658
6180.961091
6279.549449
6372.881226
6460.878313
6543.467066
6620.578369
6692.147688
6758.115127
6818.425479
6873.028272
6921.877808
6964.933207
7002.158436
7033.522341
7058.998675
7078.566117
7092.208291
7099.91378
7101.676135
7097.493882
7087.370521
7071.314523
7049.339326
7021.463321
6987.709836
6948.10712
6902.688316
6851.491433
6794.559318
6731.939616
202
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
1.93831
1.96724
1.99617
2.0251
2.05403
2.08296
2.11189
2.14082
2.16975
2.19868
2.22761
2.25654
2.28547
2.3144
2.34333
2.37226
2.40119
2.43012
2.45905
2.48798
2.51691
2.54584
2.57477
2.6037
2.63263
2.66156
2.69049
2.71942
2.74835
2.77728
2.80621
2.83514
2.86407
2.893
2.92193
2.95086
2.97979
3.00872
3.03765
3.06658
3.09551
3.12444
3.15337
3.1823
3.21123
3314.861122
3276.55757
3235.511911
3191.758495
3145.33394
3096.277098
3044.629022
2990.432938
2933.734201
2874.580261
2813.020623
2749.106807
2682.8923
2614.432516
2543.78475
2471.008124
2396.163544
2319.313648
2240.522749
2159.856787
2077.38327
1993.171219
1907.29111
1819.814814
1730.81554
1640.36777
1548.547198
1455.430668
1361.096108
1265.622464
1169.089638
1071.578417
973.1704061
873.9479621
773.9941228
673.3925383
572.2274006
470.5833735
368.5455215
266.1992388
163.6301774
60.92417625
-41.83281158
-144.5547901
-247.1557926
6665.251634
6591.418692
6512.069481
6427.270406
6337.092436
6241.611038
6140.90612
6035.06196
5924.167139
5808.314461
5687.600884
5562.12743
5431.999107
5297.324816
5158.217266
5014.792873
4867.171668
4715.477192
4559.836397
4400.379537
4237.240058
4070.554489
3900.462329
3727.105924
3550.630355
3371.183311
3188.914968
3003.977866
2816.526776
2626.718572
2434.712102
2240.668055
2044.748823
1847.118368
1647.942085
1447.386661
1245.619939
1042.810774
839.128895
634.7447603
429.8294162
224.5543537
19.09136467
-186.3876017
-391.7105827
6663.684734
6589.851792
6510.502581
6425.703506
6335.525536
6240.044138
6139.33922
6033.49506
5922.600239
5806.747561
5686.033984
5560.56053
5430.432207
5295.757916
5156.650366
5013.225973
4865.604768
4713.910292
4558.269497
4398.812637
4235.673158
4068.987589
3898.895429
3725.539024
3549.063455
3369.616411
3187.348068
3002.410966
2814.959876
2625.151672
2433.145202
2239.101155
2043.181923
1845.551468
1646.375185
1445.819761
1244.053039
1041.243874
837.561995
633.1778603
428.2625162
222.9874537
17.52446467
-187.9545017
-393.2774827
203
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
3.24016
3.26909
3.29802
3.32695
3.35588
3.38481
3.41374
3.44267
3.4716
3.50053
3.52946
3.55839
3.58732
3.61625
3.64518
3.67411
3.70304
3.73197
3.7609
3.78983
3.81876
3.84769
3.87662
3.90555
3.93448
3.96341
3.99234
4.02127
4.0502
4.07913
4.10806
4.13699
4.16592
4.19485
4.22378
4.25271
4.28164
4.31057
4.3395
4.36843
4.39736
4.42629
4.45522
4.48415
4.51308
-349.5499538
-451.6515814
-553.3752278
-654.635762
-755.3484403
-855.4289776
-954.793618
-1053.359204
-1151.043249
-1247.764001
-1343.440515
-1437.992723
-1531.341494
-1623.408706
-1714.117309
-1803.39139
-1891.156237
-1977.338401
-2061.865757
-2144.667566
-2225.674531
-2304.818859
-2382.034315
-2457.256279
-2530.421798
-2601.469642
-2670.34035
-2736.976287
-2801.321684
-2863.322694
-2922.927427
-2980.086002
-3034.750583
-3086.875422
-3136.416897
-3183.333546
-3227.586107
-3269.137544
-3307.953084
-3344.000243
-3377.248853
-3407.671088
-3435.24149
-3459.936985
-3481.736905
-596.7057465
-801.2015352
-1005.026809
-1208.01099
-1409.984202
-1610.777418
-1810.222596
-2008.152822
-2204.402453
-2398.807249
-2591.204516
-2781.433238
-2969.334217
-3154.7502
-3337.526014
-3517.508698
-3694.547627
-3868.494638
-4039.204159
-4206.533323
-4370.342097
-4530.49339
-4686.853175
-4839.290595
-4987.678078
-5131.89144
-5271.809992
-5407.316637
-5538.297971
-5664.644378
-5786.250121
-5903.013429
-6014.836585
-6121.626005
-6223.292319
-6319.750443
-6410.919653
-6496.723651
-6577.090628
-6651.953327
-6721.249095
-6784.919941
-6842.912579
-6895.178475
-6941.673889
-598.2726465
-802.7684352
-1006.593709
-1209.57789
-1411.551102
-1612.344318
-1811.789496
-2009.719722
-2205.969353
-2400.374149
-2592.771416
-2783.000138
-2970.901117
-3156.3171
-3339.092914
-3519.075598
-3696.114527
-3870.061538
-4040.771059
-4208.100223
-4371.908997
-4532.06029
-4688.420075
-4840.857495
-4989.244978
-5133.45834
-5273.376892
-5408.883537
-5539.864871
-5666.211278
-5787.817021
-5904.580329
-6016.403485
-6123.192905
-6224.859219
-6321.317343
-6412.486553
-6498.290551
-6578.657528
-6653.520227
-6722.815995
-6786.486841
-6844.479479
-6896.745375
-6943.240789
204
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
4.54201
4.57094
4.59987
4.6288
4.65773
4.68666
4.71559
4.74452
4.77345
4.80238
4.83131
4.86024
4.88917
4.9181
4.94703
4.97596
5.00489
5.03382
5.06275
5.09168
5.12061
5.14954
5.17847
5.2074
5.23633
5.26526
5.29419
5.32312
5.35205
5.38098
5.40991
5.43884
5.46777
5.4967
5.52563
5.55456
5.58349
5.61242
5.64135
5.67028
5.69921
5.72814
5.75707
5.786
5.81493
-3500.623006
-3516.579483
-3529.592982
-3539.652612
-3546.749954
-3550.87907
-3552.036502
-3550.221283
-3545.434931
-3537.681453
-3526.967337
-3513.301549
-3496.695527
-3477.163167
-3454.720817
-3429.387257
-3401.183689
-3370.133716
-3336.263323
-3299.600857
-3260.176999
-3218.024744
-3173.179366
-3125.678398
-3075.561591
-3022.870888
-2967.650386
-2909.946296
-2849.806912
-2787.282563
-2722.425575
-2655.290225
-2585.932699
-2514.41104
-2440.785105
-2365.116509
-2287.46858
-2207.906299
-2126.49625
-2043.306566
-1958.406866
-1871.868202
-1783.762996
-1694.164983
-1603.149146
-6982.35991
-7017.202489
-7046.172464
-7069.245593
-7086.402566
-7097.629024
-7102.915571
-7102.257785
-7095.656214
-7083.116384
-7064.64879
-7040.268886
-7009.997076
-6973.858694
-6931.883984
-6884.108073
-6830.570945
-6771.317404
-6706.397039
-6635.864181
-6559.777857
-6478.201743
-6391.20411
-6298.857764
-6201.239989
-6098.432479
-5990.521274
-5877.596682
-5759.753208
-5637.089475
-5509.708138
-5377.7158
-5241.222924
-5100.343739
-4955.196145
-4805.901614
-4652.585089
-4495.374879
-4334.402549
-4169.802817
-4001.713432
-3830.275068
-3655.631198
-3477.927979
-3297.31413
-6983.92681
-7018.769389
-7047.739364
-7070.812493
-7087.969466
-7099.195924
-7104.482471
-7103.824685
-7097.223114
-7084.683284
-7066.21569
-7041.835786
-7011.563976
-6975.425594
-6933.450884
-6885.674973
-6832.137845
-6772.884304
-6707.963939
-6637.431081
-6561.344757
-6479.768643
-6392.77101
-6300.424664
-6202.806889
-6099.999379
-5992.088174
-5879.163582
-5761.320108
-5638.656375
-5511.275038
-5379.2827
-5242.789824
-5101.910639
-4956.763045
-4807.468514
-4654.151989
-4496.941779
-4335.969449
-4171.369717
-4003.280332
-3831.841968
-3657.198098
-3479.494879
-3298.88103
205
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
5.84386
5.87279
5.90172
5.93065
5.95958
5.98851
6.01744
6.04637
6.0753
6.10423
6.13316
6.16209
6.19102
6.21995
6.24888
6.27781
6.30674
6.33567
-1510.791656
-1417.169804
-1322.361942
-1226.447413
-1129.506486
-1031.620291
-932.870747
-833.3404958
-733.1128332
-632.2716383
-530.9013037
-429.0866651
-326.9129295
-224.465605
-121.8304282
-19.09329318
83.65982077
186.3429209
-3113.940802
-2927.96146
-2739.531746
-2548.809355
-2355.953899
-2161.126778
-1964.491038
-1766.211243
-1566.453329
-1365.384471
-1163.172942
-959.9879688
-755.9995946
-551.3785345
-346.2960332
-140.9237214
64.56652758
270.0027417
-3115.507702
-2929.52836
-2741.098646
-2550.376255
-2357.520799
-2162.693678
-1966.057938
-1767.778143
-1568.020229
-1366.951371
-1164.739842
-961.5548688
-757.5664946
-552.9454345
-347.8629332
-142.4906214
62.99962758
268.4358417
q= 338.116639Nm-1
From this summation of shear flow , qo is calculated
14.2.4 Thickness of the Skin of Fuselage:
Steps:
The change of lift produced due to the deflection of aileron is calculated using
1
C
L = ( ) *( L ) * *V 2 * S a
2
a
Where
CL
=

(in radians) ; V is the cruise velocity(m/s); S a = 0.06 Sw
The change in lift is felt at the root attachment point and the torque produced due to
aileron deflection is
T = L * d
From the torque relation, T =2Aq and from which q is calculated

206
The appropriate material for skin is chosen
The stress in the skin is found as =
q
,from which the skin thickness is found.
t
L = 3274095.311N ; T=20725023.32N-m; q=329448.8193Nm-1

For Al2024, the critical shear stress is188MPa
The skin thickness = 0.00176m
14.2.5 Bulkhead Design:
Steps involved:
1. The torque and the radial load(F.O.S of 3 is considered) acting on the fuselage is
identified from the previous sections.
2. The Normal force, Shear force, Bending moment due to the torque and the radial load
acting on the fuselage is found for various angles( all in radians)
T
Q 3
) sin + ( )[ cos + ( ) sin ]
R
2 2
Normal force,
N =(
Shear force,
S=
T
Q
1
(1 + cos ) +
[( ) cos sin ]
2 R
2
2
Bending moment,
B=
T
QR
1
[( ) 2sin ]+
[1+ cos ( )sin ]
2
2
2
3. For various angular position , Normal force, Shear force and the bending moment is
calculated and plotted for the rear spar, front spar and at the aft bulkhead position(i.e
starting of the tail section of fuselage)
4. Maximum values of Normal force, Shear force and Bending moment for each case is
identified.
207
5. The appropriate material for the bulkhead is chosen.

6.
The design condition for bulkhead is
critical
1 ; critical 1
max
max
7. The cross section of the bulk head is chosen and the dimensions of the bulkhead are
assumed.
8. max =
M max N max
2S max b 2
t ( a 2t )2
2
+
; max =
{ [a (a 2t ) ] +
} is evaluated and the
Z
A
Zat 8
8
design condition checked.

9. If it does not satisfy the design conditions, the dimensions of the bulk head is changed
appropriately.
Following the steps above,

For the front spar,
Q= 194782.0844 N = 584346.25 N; T=20725023.32 N-m
Using the equations mentioned above the variation of shear force, normal force and
bending moment for different angular positions (0 to 360 deg).
208
209
From the graphs maximum values for Shear force, Normal force and Bending moment is
found.
Since I section is chosen,
Area, A = 2bt + at 2t 2
Section Modulus, Z =
1
[2bt 3 + 6bt (a t )2 + t (a 2t )3 ]
6a
Dimensions of Bulkhead Chosen:

Location
A(inches)
B(inches)
T(inches)
Rear spar
35
35
2.16
Front spar
40
40
3.33
210
At 57.702 m
34
34
2.615
CHAPTER 15
DIRECT OPERATING COSTS FOR THE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
The costs to be estimated in the direct operating cost are as follows
Flight crew and Cabin crew costs
211
Airframe maintenance labour cost
Airframe maintenance material cost
Engine maintenance labour cost
Engine maintenance materials cost
Landing fee
Navigation fee
Depreciation
Insurance
Before estimating the above mentioned costs, the block time ( Tb ) of the aircraft has to be
calculated. Block Time is defined as the time from which the plane departs the gate of one
airport to the time the plane arrives at a gate of another airport.
15.1 Calculation of Block Time, ( Tb ):
From phase I project,
Time taken to climb = 0.33 hour
Time taken to descent= 0.618 hour
Time taken for Start up, Taxi out, and Take off is around 8 mins (0.13 hour)
Time taken for landing and Taxi to stop is around 5mins (0.083 hour)
Cruise time = distance to be cruised/ cruise velocity = 10 hours
Tb = 10+0.33+0.618+0.13+0.083=11.61hours
Tb =11.61hours
15.2 Estimation of Flight Crew and Cabin Crew costs:
212
Flight crew Cost = Tb * N f c *[C fc + 0.532(
WTO
)]
1000
=$18051.09
Where C fc is $440/hr
Cabin crew Cost = Tb * N cc * Ccc
= $6988.8
Where Ccc is $78/hr
15.3 Estimation of Airframe Maintenance Cost:
Airframe Maintenance Labour Cost= [1.26 + 1.744(
Waf
5
10
) 0.1071(
Waf
105
) 2 ]* Tb
= $1304.3
Where Waf = Wempty Wengine
Airframe Maintenance Materials Cost = [12.39 + 29.8(
Waf
5
10
) + 0.1806(
Waf
105
) 2 ]* Tb
=$1179
Applied maintenance Burden = 2* Airframe Maintenance Labour Cost
= $2609
15.3 Estimation of Engine Maintenance Cost:
Engine Maintenance Labour Cost = [0.645 + (
0.05*Wengine
N e *10
) *(
0.434
+ 0.566)]* Tb * N e * Cme
Tb
= $459
Where Cme is $25/hr
213
Engine Maintenance Labour Cost = [25 + (
0.05*Wengine
N e *10
)*(
0.38
+ 0.62)]* Tb * N e *1.47
Tb
=$830
Applied maintenance Burden = 2* Engine Maintenance Labour Cost
= $918
15.5 Landing Fee:
W
Landing Fee = Cland ( lm )
1000
=$1119 [for Domestic Airports]

=$3178 [for international Airports]
Where Cland =$2.20 [for Domestic Airports]

=$6.25[for international Airports]
Wlm is the landing mass of the Aircraft.
15.6 Navigation Fee:
Navigation Fee = Cnav *500(
WTO
)
1000
= $2346
Where Cnav is $0.20
Trips per Year:
214
Short Range Aircraft = 2100 trips / year

Medium Range Aircraft = 625 trips/year
Long Range Aircraft= 480 trips/year
15.7 Estimation of the Cost of Aircraft:
Total weight of the aircraft = 2447301.014N

Empty weight of the aircraft = 1239059.294n (with the engines)
= 126305.7384kg
So from the above graph using this empty weight estimated the cost of the aircraft = $100m
15.8 Estimation of Engine Cost:
215
Engine Cost= 1548[0.043Wengine + 243.25 M max + 0.969Tturbineinlet] - 2228

=$8.39M
15.9 Depreciation:
Depreciation/year = (1 R) *[(
Caf
Paf
) + S af (
Caf
Paf
)] +
Ce
C
+ Se ( e )
Pe
Pe
= $33.138M
Where R = 0.1
Depreciation/trip = $33.138M/480 = $0.069M
15.10 Insurance:
Annual Insurance = 0.0035* Caf
= $0.35M
Insurance/ trip = $0.00073M
15.11 Interest:
Total investment = cost of Airframe+ cost of Engine+ cost of spares
= $113.35
Where cost of spares =10% of Cost of Airframe + 30% of Cost of Engine
Interest = 5.4% of Total investment
= $6.1212M
Interest/trip = $0.01275M
216

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Aircraft Design

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CHAPTER 1

Graph 1 Vcruise vs. WTO

Graph 2 Vcruise vs. AR

Graph 3 Vcruise vs. Range

Graph 4 Vcruise vs. T/W

Graph 5 Vcruise vs. W/S

Thrust to Weight ratio,T/W

WTO = Wp + Wcrew + Wempty + Wf

Empty Weight Fraction

GA- single engine

GA- twin engine

K us = 1.04 for variable sweep wing

Fig 1 Empty weight fractions trends

Mission Profile for Transport Jet Aircrafts:

Fig 2 mission profile without loiter

Fig 3 mission profile with loiter

= 242 * 1079.1 = 261.142kN

Weight of the crew, Wcrew

Determination of empty weight fraction

= 0.990 [ engine start up ]

= 0.995 [ take off ]

Calculation for climb segment, ( W4 / W3 ):

= 0.02 ( for Jet transport )

= 7.62 ( from cluster diagram )

Assume climb rate to be 1800 ft /min.

Substituting the above values in (3)

=0.991 (climb phase)

Calculation for Cruise segment:

Range covered during cruise

=9620 195.5712 320.47

Substituting the above values in Range formula

Calculation for descent segment

= 0.992 [ shut down]

We/ WTO = 1.02* (WTO)-0.06*0.95 = 0.4618

Wf/ WTO = 0.30136

: axial flow, twin shaft bypass turbofan engine.

: axial,6 low pressure stages, 2 high pressure stages

: 514 kN( at sea level)

Inlet efficiency is less

Accessibility during maintenance is difficult.

Acts as vortex generators

When placed outboard this arrangement provides wing bending relief .

Reduce noise within the cabin.

The placement of pods in front of the wing prevents flutter of wing.

This type of arrangement increases drag.

The engines are prone to foreign object damages.

Aft fuselage engines:

This type of arrangement is preferred for smaller aircrafts to maintain adequate

Drag is less due to the elimination of wing pod interference drag

Greater center of gravity travel range which causes balancing problem.

Vibration and noise reduction are difficult

Wing bending relief is not obtained in this arrangement.

12. High Lift devices

The frontal area is more and thus it produces drag.

The lateral control of this configuration is weaker as it is more dynamically stable.

Landing gear is shorter and thus reduces weight

The wing has less induced drag

The tail is lighter when compared to high wing configuration

The take off run is increased due to less lift produced

This type of aircraft requires long landing length.

This type of configuration has negative effect on dihedral effect.

The wing is costlier to manufacture.

The increase in AR facilitates an increase in the maximum lift to drag ratio.