AIR-CONDITIONING

PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESS OF AIR 1. Sensible Heating increasing the temperature of air without changing its moisture content, thus, it is a horizontal line (to the right) on the psychrometric chart. It can be done by passing the air in a coil with circulating steam or hot water.

Illustration: HEATING MEDIUM QSH

1 COLD MOIST td1 tw1 HEATING CHAMBER PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART td2

2 HOT MOIST

h1 tw 1

h2

SH 1 = SH 2 td 1 td 2

Energy balance at the heating chamber: Ein = Eout Q moist air1 + QSH = Q moist air2 (Qda1 + Qv1) + QSH = (Qda2 + Qv2) Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) + QSH = Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) Ma(h1) + Q+SH = Ma(+h2) QSH = Ma(h2-h1) ; KJ/sec OR KW where: QSH heat given off by the heating medium Ma (h2-h1) heat absorbed by the moist air

2.

Sensible Cooling the reverse of sensible heating and it can be done by passing the hot air in a coil with circulating chilled water or refrigerant, but the surface temperature of coil is maintained above the dew point temperature of the entering air to avoid condensation.

Illustration: COOLING MEDIUM Qsc

1 HOT MOIST COOLING CHAMBER PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART h1 h2 tw 1

2 COLD MOIST

tdp 1 td 2 td 1

SH 1 = SH 2

Energy balance at cooling chamber: Ein = Eout Q moist air1 = Qsc + Q moist air2 (Qda1 + Qv1) = Qsc + (Qda2 + Qv2) Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) = Qsc + Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) Ma(h1) = Qsc + Ma(h2) Qsc = Ma(h1-h2) ; KJ/sec or KW where: Qsc heat absorbed by the cooling medium Ma (h1-h2) heat given off by the hot moist or humid air

3.

Humidification the process of adding moisture to the air.

Illustration: QL M H2O

1 MOIST AIR

2 HUMIDIFIED AIR

SPRAY WATER MAKE-UP WATER

PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART h2 h1 RH 1 SH 1 Mass balance at the spray chamber: MASS in = MASS out MOIST AIR1 + M H2O = MOIST AIR2 (Ma1 + Mv1) + M H2O = (Ma2 + Mv2) M H2O = Mv2 Mv1 M H2O = Ma (SH2 SH1) ; Kg of spray water / sec Energy balance at the spray chamber: Ein = Eout QL + Q moist air IN = Q moist air OUT QL + (Qda1 + Qv1) = (Qda2 + Qv2) QL + Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) = Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) QL + Ma(h1) = Ma(h2) QL = Ma(h2-h1) ; KJ/sec or KW

SH 2

4.

Dehumidifying the process of removing moisture from the moist or humid air.

Illustration:

1 MOIST AIR

QL

2 DEHUMIDIFIED AIR

DEHUMIDIFYING APPARATUS

PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

tw 1 h2

h1 RH 1 SH 1

RH 2 td 2 = td 1 Energy Balance at the dehumidifying chamber:

SH 2

Ein = Eout Q moist air IN = QL + Q moist air OUT (Qda1 + Qv1) = QL + (Qda2 + Qv2) Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) = QL + Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) Ma(h1) = QL + Ma(h2) QL = Ma(h1-h2) ; KJ/sec or KW

5.

Cooling and Dehumidifying the process or reducing the temperature and removing moisture content of air. it can be done by passing the air through a cooling coil, where the temperature is maintaining below dew point temperature of entering air.

Illustration: ACU OR AHU 1 HOT MOIST OR HUMID AIR QT 2 COOLED AND DEHUMIDIFIED MOIST AIR

COOLING COILS PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART h1 h2 2 QS QT

tw 1 1 QL SH 1 SH 2

td 2

td 1

Energy balance at the chamber: Ein = Eout Q moist air1 = QT + Q moist air2 (Qda1 + Qv1) = QT + (Qda2 + Qv2) Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) = QT + Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) Ma(h1) = QT + Ma(h2) QT = Ma(h1-h2) ; KJ/sec or KW

6.

Heating and Humidifying the temperature and specific humidity of air increases. it may be obtained by passing the air through a heating coil with humidifier (by spraying water).

Illustration:

1 MOIST AIR SPRAY WATER HEATING COILS

2 HOT HUMIDIFIED AIR

PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

h2 hX h1 QT QS QL SH 2 SH 1

td 1 td 2 Energy balance at the chamber: Ein = Eout QT + Q moist air IN = Q moist air OUT QT + (Qda1 + Qv1) = (Qda2 + Qv2) QT + Ma Cpa td1 + Ma SH1(hv1) = Ma Cpa td2 + Ma SH2(hv2) QT + Ma(h1) = Ma(h2) QT = Ma(h2-h1) ; KJ/sec or KW

7.

Adiabatic Saturation no heat is added or removed externally and recirculated water is sprayed to saturate the air. the wet bulb temperature remains constant.

Illustration: PROPERLY INSULATED 1 HOT MOIST AIR MAKE-UP WATER PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 2 COLD HUMIDIFIED AIR TEMP. OF WATER

h1 = h2

RH2=100% SH 2

SH 1 td 1 The moisture added to the moist air: MASS in = MASS out MOIST AIR1 + M H2O = MOIST AIR2 (Ma1 + Mv1) + M H2O = (Ma2 + Mv2) M H2O = Mv2 Mv1 M H2O = Ma (SH2 SH1) ; Kg of spray water / sec

8.

Chemical Dehumidification the humid air passes through a chemical that has an affinity to absorb moisture. the wet bulb may

increase or decrease and dry bulb temperature increases due to the latent heat given up by the moist air. Illustration:

1 MOIST AIR CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE

2 DEHUMIDIFIED MOIST AIR

PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

h1 1 2 2 SH 2 SH 2 td 1 td 2 SH 1

Moisture removed from the moist air: Mm = Ma (SH 1 - SH 2)

Air Mixing when air from one condition is mixed with air at another condition, it is represented by a straight line on the psychrometric chart. the mixed air lies between the two points.

Illustration: HOT MOIST AIR B

A COLD MOIST AIR M

M MIXED MOIST AIR

PROCESS ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

hM hA tdp M tdp A A

hB tdp B M B SH B SH M SH A

td A

td M

td B

Mixing Equation: 1. Mass Balance MASS in = MASS out MCOLD AIR + MHOT AIR = MMIXED AIR (Ma + Mv)A + (Ma + Mv)B = (Ma + Mv)M (in terms of moist air) MaA + MaB = MaM MA + MB = MM (in terms of dry air)

AND

ALSO, MvA + MvB = MvM MA (SHA) + MB (SHB) = MM (SHM) (in terms of water vapor) 2. Energy Balance Ein = Eout QCOLD AIR + QHOT AIR = QMIXED AIR (Qda + Qv)A + (Qda + Qv)B = (Qda + Qv)M [MACpAtdA + MASHA(hvA)] + [MBCpAtdB + MBSHB(hvB)] = [MMCpAtdM + MMSHM(hvM)] MA (hA) + MB (hB) = MM (hM) (in terms of enthalpy of moist air) AND QdaA + QdaB = QdaM MACpAtdA + MBCpAtdB = MMCpAtdM MA(tdA) + MB(tdB) = MM(tdM) (in terms of dry bulb temp) OR MA(tdpA) + MB(tdpB) = MM(tdpM) (in terms of dew point temp) FROM EQ. C, SUBT EQ. B MA (SHA) + MB (SHB) = (MA + MB) SHM MA (SHA) + MB (SHB) = MA (SHM) + MB (SHM) MB (SHB - SHM) = MA (SHM SHA) HENCE; MA SHB - SHM
-------- =

MB

---------------------

SHM - SHA

FROM EQUATION D MA (hA) + MB (hB) = (MA + MB) (hM) MA (hA) + MB (hB) = MA (hM) + MB (hM) MB (hB hM) = MA (hB hA) HENCE; MA h B - hM
-------- =

THEREFORE:

MB

----------------

h M - hA

MA MB

SHB SHM SHM - SHA

h B hM h M - hA

tdB - tdM tdM tdA

tdpB - tdpM tdpM tdpA

-------- = --------------------- =

--------------- = ----------------- = -----------------------

Air Conditioning is a psychometric process which simultaneously controls the temperature, relative humidity, air motion, air distribution and ventilation within an air condition system. For Comfort Cooling Factors to be considered in Air Conditioning Design: 1. Design room conditions (if not mentioned in the process)

- as per recommend by ASHRAC Handbook of Fundamentals of desirable conditions: dry bulb temperature : 24oC (75 oF) Relative Humidity : 50% From the Psychrometric Chart:

RH=50% INDEX OR REFERENCE POINT td = 24oC Sketch:

Where: QT = total heat load ; KW QT = QS + QL ; KW and QS = sensible heat load ; KW QL = latent heat load ; KW Sensible Heat Factor is the ratio of the room sensible heat load that of the total heat load. RSHF = QS QS -------- = ----------------QT QS + QL

Room Sensible Heat Factor Line (RSHF) - is a straight line on the psychrometric chart connecting the room conditions (point R) and the supply air conditions (point S).

Steps on how to solve and draw the RSHF line: 1. Solve for the RSHF 2. Draw the based line connecting the RSHF and the index (reference) point. 3. Draw parallel line to the base line passing thru state R. 4. The intersection of RSHF line and tdx will define state S. Note: If the number of occupants and type of application is mentioned instead of Qs and QL, use the table found on page of MRH charts and table you can get the QS/person and QL/person. From Sketch: MM = MO + MR MM = MA + MS

IN TERMS OF DRY AIR

A. Space Heat (Temperature) : Sensible Heat Load Qs = Ms (hx hs) Qs = Ms Cpa (tdx tds) + [Ms (SHs)(hvs) Ms (SHx-hvx)] Qs = Ms Cpa (tdb tds) + Ms (SHs) (hvs-hvx) Where: hvs = hg @ tds hvx = hg @ tdx B. Moisture (Humidity) : Latent Heat Load QL QL QL QL = Ms (hr hx) = Ms Cpa (tdr tdx) + [Ms (SHr)(hvr) Ms (SHX)(hvx)] = Ms (SHr)(hvr) Ms (SHx)(hvx) = Ms (SHr)(hvr) Ms (SHs)(hvx) Where: hvr = hg @ tdr hvr = hvx QL = M (SHr SHs) (hg@tdr) PROBLEMS ON AIR CONDITIONING 1. A meeting hall is to be maintained at 25OC db and 18 OC wb. The barometric pressure is 760mm Hg abs. The space has a load of 59 KW; sensible and 59 KW; latent. The temperature of the supply air to be space cannot be lower than 18 OC. a) How many kilograms of air per second must be supplied? b) What is the required wet bulb temperature of the supply air? c) What is the sensible heat factor?

2.The air in the theatre with an audience of 1000 people is kept at a dry bulb temperature 23 OC and at 55% RH. The outside air average 30 OC db and 22 OC wb with supply air at 16 OC. The other heat gains amounts to 79 KW; all sensible heat. All supply air are fresh air with some bypassing the cooling coil. Find: a) the apparatus dew point b) the percent bypass c) the refrigeration load 3.The room to be conditioned has a total heat load of 30KW and a sensible heat ratio of 0.8. It is to be maintained at conditions not to exceed 25 OC db and 52% RH. For proper ventilation, 55% of the supply air is to be freshed while the rest are recirculated air. Outside air is 32 OC db and 22 OC wb. The air is supplied at 18 O C. Find: a) the m3/s of fresh air supplied b) the temperature of conditioned air leaving the apparatus c) the refrigeration load d) the recirculated air with external bypass system 4.A theatre is designed to seat 2000 people. Outside conditions are 32 OC db and 24 OC wb. Inside conditions are 26 OC and 18 OC wb. The heat inflow from other sources (heat leakages, light, electrical power etc.) amounts to 95KW. Rise of temperature from supply fan to the conditional space is 10 OC. the cooling system will use the bypass method. Fresh air will be 15% of the fan capacity. Refrigerant use in the system is R-12 with evaporation temperature at -5 OC and liquefaction at 40 OC. a) Find the apparatus dew point and sketch the process on the psychrometric chart showing all the labelled states. b) What is the fan capacity of the system? c) Find the refrigeration capacity. d) Find the amount of refrigerant to be circulated. e) What is the power requirement, if the overall compressor efficiency is 78%. A newly opened department store has a sensible heat load of 20KW and a latent heat load of 15KW. Indoor conditions of 24 OC db and 50% RH are to be maintained when outside air is 32 OC db and 22 OC wb. An outside air is supplied with reheater to satisfy the space conditions. The conditioned air leaves the fan at 16 OC. the fan energy may be neglected. Find: a) the tons of refrigeration required, b) the supply fan capacity, and c) the heat supply in the reheater 5.

PROBLEMS IN AIR CONDITIONING CALCULATION 1.A laboratory space is to be maintained at 24 OC and 50% RH with a room sensible heat load of 42KW and a latent heat load of 18KW. Because the latent heat load is heavy, the air conditioning system is equipped with heater to reheat the air leaving the cooling coil saturated at 8 OC.

a) b) 2.

what is mass flow rate of supplied air in kg/s? what is the dry bulb temperature of the supply air?

A meeting hall at full occupancy in summer has a room SH of 80KW and LH of 60KW and is to be maintained at 25 OC db and 19 OC wb. The air conditioning system uses all recirculated air and the AHU operates at zero by passed factor so that the air leaves unit saturated at 10 OC and passes through a heater to reheat the air to the supply condition. Determine: a) the mass of supply air in kg/s b) the dry bulb and wet bulb temp. of the supply air 3. An auditorium is to be maintained at a temp. of 26 C db and 50% RH. And is to be supplied at a temp. not lower than 15 OC db. The sensible heat gain is 110KW and the latent heat gain is 37.5KW. take ventilating air as 25% by weight of the air from the room and is at 35 OC db and 60% RH. Determine the refrigeration capacity in tons.
O

4.A certain space is to be air conditioned with supply air entering at 18 OC db. Room SH and LH loads are 633,0000 KJ/hr and 263,750 KJ/hr respectively. Air at conditioned space is to be maintained at 26 OC and 50% RH. The room air is to be recirculated through a cooling coil except that enough room air is to bypass the cooling coil to satisfy the specific humidity requirements at the supply state. With zero requirements for ventilating outside air and assuming that the air which leaves the cooling coil is saturated at the coil surface temp. (ADP). Determine: a) mass flow rate of supplied air in kg/hr b) the percent RH of supplied air c) mass flow rate of air through the cooling coil in kg/hr 5.A space to be air conditioned has a SH load of 36KW and LH load of 10.2KW. The space is to be maintained at 24 OC and 50%RH. Outside air is at 32 OC db and 24 O C wb temp. the supplied air will enter the space at 19 OC. if 45% of the supply air is outside or fresh air and the rest in recirculated air, and the system is equipped with reheater to heat the air from the AHU which operates at zero bypass factor. Find: a) the volume of supply air in cu.m/s b) the apparatus dew point c) the refrigeration load in tons of refrigeration.

PROBLEMS a) b) c) d) e) f) 1. Define the following terms used in air-conditioning: dry-bulb temperature moisture moisture content saturated air saturation temperature dew-point temperature

g) h) i)

relative humidity wet-bulb temperature sensible heat factor a) What is meant by psychometry? b) Sketch a skeleton psychrometric chart showing at least one line for each property usually shown on the chart. Label each line and medicate units. c) For what air-conditions is a psychrometric chart a lid? d) Indicate how a psychrometric chart may be used to determine sensibleheat factor. 2. 3. Sketch a skeleton psychrometric chart and on it, show the following processes: heating cooling adiabatic humidification humidification using steam or hot water chemical dehumidification dehumidification by cooling (ideal process) dehumidification by cooling (actual process) 4. Air at 33 OC has 60% RH. Use the psychrometric chart to determine the following: wet-bulb temperature specific volume specific enthalpy moisture content temperature at which dew will form on cooling a) 26.5 OC b) 0.894 m3/kg c) 83 KJ/kg d) 19.3 g/kg e) 24.2 OC 5. Sketch a skeleton psychrometric chart and show the four regions which result from a) heat and moisture transfer b) change in dry-bulb temperature and moisture content 6. dry the the the 16kg of air at 35 OC dry bulb and 25 OC wet bulb are air-conditioned to 20 OC bulb and 14 OC wet bulb. Determine: final relative humidity moisture removed heat flow a) 51% b) 0.134 kg c) 592 KJ 7. A closed room of dimensions 5m x 3m x 2.5m contains air at 31 OC and 50% relative humidity. The room is gradually cooled until moisture condenses on the walls. Determine: a) the mass of air b) the final temperature c) the heat flow a) 42.5 kg b) 19.5 OC c) 510 KJ

a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

a) b) c) d) e)

a) b) c)

8. Air with dry-bulb temperature of 25 OC and wet bulb temperature of 15 OC flows in a round duct of diameter 800mm with a velocity of 7 m/s. Determine the following: a) relative humidity b) moisture content c) specific enthalpy d) specific volume e) mass flow rate (kg/min) f) mass flow rate of dry air (kg/min) g) dew point a) 33% b) 6.5 g/kg c) 42 KJ/kg d) 0.853 m3/kg e) 249.1 kg/mm f) 247.5 kg/min g) 7.6 OC 9. If the air in Problem 8 is a) heated to 35 OC b) cooled to 15 OC Determine the heating or cooling load and the final relative humidity in each case a) 41.25 KW; 18% b) 43.3 KW; 61% 10. Air initially at 30 OC and 40% RH enters an air-conditioner at a rate of 2m3/s. After conditioning, the air is at 20 OC and the same RH. Determine: a) the mass flow rate of air into the conditioner b) the heat transfer rate c) the moisture transfer rate State whether the heat ad moisture transfer into or out of the air. a) 2.3 kg/s b) 51.5 KW out c) 0.011 kg/s out 11. Air has a dry bulb temperature 30 OC and wet bulb temperature 25 OC. Determine the following: a) moisture content b) relative humidity c) specific enthalpy d) specific volume a) 13 g/kg b) 67% c) 76 KJ/kg d) 0.833 m3/kg 12. The air given in Problem 11 is passed through an adiabatic water spray and leaves in the saturated condition. Determine, for the air leaving the spray. a) the moisture content b) the temperature c) the specific volume a) 20.1 g/kg b) 25 OC c) 0.871 m3/kg

13. a) b)

The water spray given in Problem 12 is located in a square duct of side 500mm. The air velocity into the spray is 8 m/s. Determine the following: volume flow rate into spray mass flow rate into spray

c) d) e)

mass flow rate out of spray velocity out of spray make-up water required per hour a) 2 m3/s b) 2.305 kg/s c) 2.31 kg/s d) 7.89 m/s e) 17.1 kg/h 14.
O

A storeroom of dimensions 10m x 3m x 3m contains air initially at 35 C and 40%RH. Heat transfer out of the walls, ceiling and floor of the room at a rate of 2 W/ m3. Determine: a) the temperature and relative humidity after 2h b) how long it will take before moisture starts to condense on the walls of the room? a) 21.2 OC b) 2.26h Air at 30 OC and 30% RH enters an adiabatic evaporative cooler at a rate of 50 m/min and leaves with a RH of 75%. Determine the following: a) temperature of the air leaving the cooler b) minimum temperature attainable c) size of the water tank required so that the cooler will operate for 4h before needing refilling d) volume flow rate (m3/min) leaving the cooler e) mass flow rate (kg/min) leaving the cooler a) 21 OC b) 18 OC c) 52.5 L d) 48.8 m3/min e) 58.2 kg/min 15. 1000 m3 of air at 40 OC db and 29 OC wb are cooled to 10 OC and saturated before being reheated to 30 OC. If this process is carried out at 5 min. determine the following: cooling load heating load moisture removed final volume a) 234 KW b) 73 KW c) 14.5 kg d) 947 m3 17. Air with dry bulb temperature 35 OC and wet bulb temperature 22 O C flows at a rate of 1.5 kg/s through a chemical dehumidifier in which the enthalpy of reaction is 4 KJ/kg. The air leaves with a RH of 20%. Determine the following: initial relative humidity final temperature moisture removed per hour heat input to enable continuous rotation of the desiccant a) 77% b) 41.7 OC c) 28.1 kg/h d) 19.5 KW 16. a) b) c) d)

a) b) c) d)

18.

Air at 35 OC and 50% RH is passed over a cooling coil that has an apparatus dew point (surface temperature) of 8 OC. The air leaves the coil at 13 OC and enters a rectangular duet (600mm x 400mm) with a velocity of 5 m/s. Determine the following:

a) b) c) d) 19.

relative humidity of the air leaving the coil moisture removed by the coil per hour cooling load (KW) sensible heat factor a) 94% b) 47.8 kg/h c) 66.4 KW d) 0.48 If the air in Problem 18 is reheated in the exit duct to a temperature of 28 OC, determine: a) the final relative humidity b) the heating load c) the final velocity a) 37% b) 21.9 KW c) 5.26 m/s

a) b) c) d)

20. Air at 20 OC db and 10 OC wb flows at a rate of 5 m3/s over a hot water tank. Heat transfers to the air at a rate of 72 KW and to the water at a rate of 52 L/h. Determine the following: initial relative humidity final moisture content final specific enthalpy final relative humidity a) 25% b) 6 g/kg c) 41 KJ/kg d) 30%

21. A room (10m x 8m x 3m) is maintained at 22 OC and 50% RH and has a total heating load of 12 KW. The room is to be provided with eight air changes per hour when ambient conditions are 32 OC and 60% RH. Determine: a) the cooling load on the air-conditioning system b) the moisture removed per hour c) a suitable size of the square make-up air duct so that the velocity in the duct does not exceed 6 m/s. a) 34 KW b) 22.5 kg/h c) 305 mm 22. Outside air enters an air-conditioning duct in which the cooling coil is fitted with face and bypass dampers set so that one quarter of the air bypasses the coil. The air passing through the coil is cooled to 15 OC with 70% RH before mixing with the bypassed air. If ambient conditions are 30 OC and 50% RH, determine the temperature, relative humidity and specific enthalpy of the mixed airstream. 18.8 OC 66% 42 KJ/kg

23. Air at 15 OC and 20% RH is passed through a humidifier where saturated steam at atmospheric pressure is mixed with the airsteam. The air flow rate is 1.8 kg/s and the steam flow rate is 0.75 kg/min. Determine the following for the air leaving the humidifier:

a) b) c) d)

moisture content specific enthalpy dry-bulb temperature relative humidity a) 9 g/kg b) 39.1 KJ/kg c) 16 OC d) 80%

24. In a cooling tower, air at 20 OC and 50% RH enters the tower at a rate of 20 m3/s, and leaves at 28 OC and saturated. The water entering the tower is cooled by 10 OC. Determine: a) the mass flow rate of water b) the mass flow rate of make-up water a) 28.8 kg/s b) 0.4 kg/s 25. Repeat Problem 24 if the air leaving the tower has relative humidity 85%, all other data being the same. a) 23.3 kg/s b) 0.31 kg/s 26. a) Draw a neat sketch of an evaporative cooling tower b) Explain what is meant by supply air, room air, exhaust air and return air with the aid of a line diagram showing air circulation in a typical airconditioning system. c) Using neat sketch, explain how the operation of a face and bypass damper affects the flow of air. 27. Draw a neat sketch of a complete air-conditioning system. Show and label all major components. In an air-conditioning system, supply air is 35 OC db and 28 OC wb. Return air is at 24 OC and 50% RH. The dampers are set so that the supply air flow rate is 2 m3/s and the return air flow rate is 3 m3/s. Determine the following: mass flow rate of supply air mass flow rate of return air relative humidity of supply air moisture content of mixed air relative humidity of mixed air dry bulb temperature of mixed air a) 2.21 kg/s b) 3.51 kg/s c) 59% d) 14 g/kg e) 57% f) 28.4 OC The mixed airstream given in Problem 28 is conditioned to 22 OC and 40% RH. Determine the net load on the air-conditioning plant. 143 KW

28.

a) b) c) d) e) f)

29.