1- Define Network?

Communication, Resource sharing and Media (When multiple host share their resources with each other OR when multiple devices connect with each other for resource sharing ) 2 Types of communication in IPv4? Unicast, Multicast and Broad cast 3 Types of communication in IPv6 ? Unicast, Multicast and Anycast 4- Types of Resource Sharing? Intranet , Extranet and Internet . 5- What is Collision? When signal hits each other, collision accord. 6- Which Type of Transmission Bus Topology Support? Half Duplex 7- What is the difference between half duplex and full duplex? In half duplex, sender should b one. In full duplex, sender can be multiple. 8- Which way of communication bus topology use? Broadcast 9- If there is only 2 Host in Bus Topology is that possible collision accord? Yes, because end terminal will not absorb signals. Signal will be bounce back and collision will accord. 10- HUB in Star topology or Bus Topology? In star topology, but logically works like a bus topology. 11- What is the difference between bus topology and HUB? Hub is Centralized device ( series ) .Bus topology is Decentralized device (in parallel) 12- Is hub intelligent device? No; because it not use header 12- Which protocol switch use for filling its MAC-Table ? ARP Address Resolution Protocol 13- What is CAM ? Content Address Memory. its another name of MAC address table. 14- Which type for communication switch do? In case of any new event switch do broadcast, after that always do Unicast. 15- If line down and protocol also down; in this case which layer move problem? Physical Layer Layer 1 16 If line up, but protocol down which layer should be troubleshot? Data link problem Layer 2 17-On which base switches take decisions? Mac Address 18- How ARP brings MAC address for switch? Through Broadcast 19- How many collision domains are in switch? Equal number of ports 20- How many broadcast domains are in Switch ? One 1- What is OSI? Open System Interconnection. t was first name of 7 Layer 22- What is the default size of Frame ? 1518 bytes

23- Which layer are called upper layer? a ) Application Layer c ) Session Layer 0 1023 25- Which decision called socket base? IP plus port (IP on layer 3 and port on Layer 4 In Encapsulation, socket base decision on Network Layer -Layer 3) 26- How many types of Data? Voice, video, text 27 What is segmentation and fragmentation? To divide data in pieces is called segmentation and divide segmentation in pieces called Fragmentation. 28- Which layer called error detection layer ? Data link layer 29- What is FCS? Frame Check Sequence CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) algorithm runs in switch that called FCS (Frame Check Sequence) 30- What is Encapsulation and De-encapsulation? To send data called encapsulation and receive data called De-encapsulation. 31- What is BIA ? Burn in Address other name is MAC address 32- What is Size of IPv4 MAC Address? 48 Bits 33- Why MAC address called Physical address? Because its not changeable 34- Who controls MAC address uniqueness and how IEEE (Institute of Electrical Electronics and Engineering) Controls its uniqueness. They divide 48 bits MAC address in two parts. First 24 bits part called OUI (Organizational unique identifier) and other 24 bits are device code. 35- How we can see MAC address from DOS Prompt? ipconfig/all 36- Why IP address called logical address? Private IP called logical address because they are change able. 37- What is the size of IPV4? 32 bits 38-What is Syntax of IPV4 . DOT 39- How many types of IPS? Three Types of IP 1- Public 2- Private 3- Special IP 40- What are the ranges of private IPS? A Class = 10.0.0.0 10.0.0.255 B Class = 172.16.0.0 172.31.0.0 C Class = 192.168.0.0 192.168.0.255 -7 5 b) Presentation Layer 6 24- How many reserve ports ?

41- When we use loop back IP? For Self hardware test 42- When IP confliction accord in subnet which IP assigned automatically and what it called? 169.254.x.x APIPA (Automatic Private Internet Protocol address) 43- What is the minimum and maximum request timer? Minimum = 180 sec Maximum = 300 Sec 44- Which company mange IPs? IANA (Internet Assigned Number of Authority) 45- Which classes are assignable? A, B and C 46- How many potions of IP? Two portions of IP. Network and host 47-Do we subletting of IP? NO, we do subletting of NID 48- What is subnetting ? Subnetting is tool reduce the wastage of IP 49- What is CIDR ? Class Less Inter domain Routing Protocol another name of Supernetting. 50- What is difference between FLSM and VLSM? In FLSM subnet mask of all subnets will b same. But in FLSM it varies. 51- What is the subnetmask of / 27 in network based and host based ? In network based 224 { 128+64+32}and in host based 248 (128+64+64+16+8) 52- What will be the prefix length of 224 in VLSM ? 27 (carry 3 bits from host (128+64+16=224) and add in network ports (24+3=27) ) 53-How many valid IP will b in /21 in route Summarization? 1044 54- In which protocol you manually enable route summarization ? OSPF 55 In which protocol supenetting is enable by default? RIPv2 and EIGRP 56- What is MAC address size of IPv6? 64 bits 57 Default Packet Size of IPv6? 8 Bytes = 16*8 =128 bit 58- How many fillers we can put in one IP of IPv6? ONE (:: called filler) 59- Which mathematically form used inIPv6? Hexadecimal 60- What is quality of IPv6? a) Router processing will rapid because field size wills 8 bytes (but in IPv4 it was 12 byres) b) No Fragmentation c) No Checksum 63 What we called 64 Bit Mac-address in IPV6? EUI= Enhanced universal identifier 16 bits add in IPv6 so its called EUI 64 What is loop back IP in IPV6? ::1 and ping 6

65- Which command we use for ping in IPv6? Ping6 source IP -s Destination IP 66- How many types of router? Two types i) Modular ii) Non-Modular 67- When we use Router? For communication between different networks 68- Which works router Do ? 1- Path selection and 2- Packet Switching {frame relay} 69 What cable called V.35 ? Serial Connectivity cable 70- How many types of Ethernet? 4 types i) Ethernet ii) Fast Ethernet iii) Gigabit iv) 10 Giga. 71 Which cable called roll-over? Console access able 72- Which cable we connect in DB-9 ? Roll over calbe 73- How many ways to access router? 3 ways i) Telnet (IP) ii) AUX (Telephone) iii) Console (cable) 74- What is IOS? Internet Operating system. Its routers operating system. 75 In which IOS version 182 people can access router through telenet ? Onward 12.2 version 76- Which mode called privilege mode? Second mode 77- When we use interface mode? For specific interface commands 78- On Which mode we give debug command? Privilege mode / live view (2
nd

mode)

79- Which command we give on privilege mode for coming back to user execution mode? Disable 80- Which mode we cant skip when we come back from interface mode? 2nd mode we cant skip 81 Interface 0/0 what does it mean? Card number / card interface number 82- When written <CR > what does it mean? Command complete 83- Which command we give if router IOS stucked?

Crl +Shift+F6 and X 84- Which command we give for see routing table? Show ip route 85 What does synchronization mean ? Routers are ready to communication with each other 86- What does routing mean ? For best path selection 87- What is difference between static and dynamic routing? In Static route we add others connected network and in dynamic, we advertise our network 88- Which type of routing you did in CCNA? Traditional Routing 89 How many parts of Ping? Tow parts eco and eco reply 90- When we do default route? When there is multiple destination and single gateway. 91 What is difference between routing and routed protocols? i) Routing use for best path selection ii) Routed protocol keeps source and destination information. 92- What is difference between IGP and EIGRP? IGP = use in Autonomous and EIGP = use with multiple autonomous IGP= Interior gateway routing protocol. EIGRP= Enhanced Interior Gateway routing protocol 93 Why we use debug command? For live view 94 Which command we give for live view of remote site routers ? Terminal monitor 95- Which protocol used before part of CCNA? IGRP Part 9 96- What is protocol? Set of rules 97- What is difference between RIP and RIPv2 Rip 1. 2. 3. Ripv2 1. 2. 3. Multicast Authentication Support VLSM Broadcast No authentication Support FLSM

98- Which protocols are link states? OSPF and IS- IS 99- Which Dynamic Type draw back is, if single link down, it removes its routing table. Distance Vector

100- What is matric? Formula of path selection 101- On which base distance vector choose best path? HOPE count 102-What is the name of distance vector algorithm? Belmanford 103- Why we use filter option? When we specifically block, one router update for other routers 104- What is load balancing? When data divide in different paths 105- How many maximum paths you can give on Latest IOS in RIP? 0 to 15 106- Define Class full Protocol? Which protocols advertise their networks without subnet mask. 107- How many hope count Rip or Rip2 can send updates? 15 hope count 108- What is Trigger RiP and from which IOS version it starts? As link down it removes from its routing table Version = 12.4 109- Which protocols do periodically updates? Distance vector 110- What is the difference between simple authentication and MD5? MD5 encrypted form and simple authentication in clear text form 111- What is name of OSPF Algo? Dijecstra or SPF (shortest part first) 112 What is default size of Hello packets in OSPF? 50 bytes 113- What is default time of hello packets in OSPF? 10 sec 114- How many tables are in OSPF protocol? Three 123Neighbor Topology Routing

115- When OSPF protocol advertise its routing table? When it discover neighbor with the help of hello packets 116- Which table find best path? Routing table 117- Which updates called incremental updates? Change based 118- What are partial updates? Any change in network 119 After how long OSPF exchange its topology table? After 30 min 120 What is refresher? Every 30 min of topology table exchange time called refresher OR Exchange time of topology table in OSPF protocol called refresher 122- What s the formula for metric of OSPF? 10^8

123- On which bas OSPF take decision? LINK COST 124- What is default cost of serial interface in OSPF? 64 126- How many types of OSPF Configuration? There are Two Types A ) SINGLE AREA b) MULTI AREA 127- What is hold down time formula of OSPF? HELLO PACKETS*4=40SECONDS 128 What is the default bandwidth size of T1 Routers? 1544BYTES 129- If bandwidth will increase what will happen? SERIAL COST WILL DECREASE 130- What is the command for change serial cost? IP OSPF COST (which want to set) 131- When DR communicate with BDR which multicast ip it use ? 224.0.0.6 132- What is the draw back of OSPF protocol? i) Single Area ii) High Hardware Requirements iii) Troubleshooting 133- Which protocol comes under Hybrid dynamic type? EIGRP (ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL) 134- Which protocol works only on Cisco routers? EIGRP (ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL) 135- What is the size of Hello Packets in EIGREP protocol? 50 BYTES 136- How much hold down time of EIGREP protocol? 15 SECONDS 137- Formula of Hold down time of EIGRP protocol? HELLO PACKETS*5=15SECONDS 138- After how long EIGRP protocol Advertise its routing table? 5SECONDS 139- Which multicast IP EIGRP protocol use? 224.0.0.10 140- Which protocol called Rapid protocol? EIGRP 141-What is the name of Algorithm of EIGRP protocol? DUAL(DIFFUSING UPDATES ALGORITHM) 142- How many hop counts are by default and how much you can increase in EIGRP protocol? By default 100 counts, and maximum 25 143- How much internal and External AD of EIGRP protocol? Internal =90 and Externa =170 144- What is the name of best path in EIGRP protocol? SUCCESSOR 145- What is the second best path name of EIGRP? FEASIBLE SUCCESSOR

146- After how long keep alive messages exchange in EIGRP? 5 SECONDS 147- Which type of updates EIGRP protocol do? INCREMENTAL UPDATES (CHANGE BASE) 148- What is the draw back of EIGRP protocol? CONFIGURE ONLY ON CISCO ROUTERS 149- What is the matric of EIGRP protocol? i) Bandwidth ii) Load iii) Delay iv) Reliability v) MTU vi) Maximum Transmission Unit 150- In EIGRP metric parameters which 2 Options are enable by default? i) Bandwidth ii) Delay 151- Which protocol can do load balancing on unequal cost also? EIGRP 152- 1350 value in which type of Access-list? STANDARD ACCESS-LIST 153- 1900 value in which type of Access list? STANDARD ACCESS-LIST 154- 2500 value in which type of Access list? EXTENDED ACCESS-LIST 155- What is the difference between named and Extended ACL? In named Access-list we can edit and also give name 156- When we use standard Access-List? When there is no Destination 157- When we use extended Access-List? When there is source and Destination 158- What is the default behavior of Access-List? Deny 159- On which interface we always Apply Access-List? Fast Ethernet 160- Wild card mask always in odd value or even ODD 161- In stead of 0.0.0.0 wild card mask what u can write after IP? Host 162- In which Access- list type you cant do editing? Standard and Extended 163- In port based Access-List which command u give instead of IP? TCP(TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL) 164- What does EQ means? EQUAL TO 165- Which reserve port Number Talent use? 23 166- Which reserve port NO HTTP use? 80

167-How many types of NAT? i) Static ii) NAT iii) Dynamic NAT iv) PAT (Port Address Translation) 168- What is overlaod? Its another name of PAT (Port Address Translation) 170- Which 2 Protocols are in WAN technology? i) HDLC ( High Level Data Link Control ) ii) PPP (Point to Point Protocol) 171- How many types of ends in WAN? i) DTE (Data Terminal Equipment ii) DCE (Data Communication Equipment) (1)DTE (DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT)(2)DCE(DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT)

EIGRP

Q. Does EIGRP require an ip defaultnetwork command to propagate a default route? A. Although EIGRP can propagate a default route using the default network method, it is not required. EIGRP redistributes default routes directly.

Q. Should I always use the eigrp logneighborchanges command when I configure EIGRP? A. Yes, this command makes it easy to determine why an EIGRP neighbor was reset. This reduces troubleshooting time. Q. Does EIGRP support secondary addresses? A. EIGRP does support secondary addresses. Since EIGRP always sources data packets from the primary address, Cisco recommends that you configure all routers on a particular subnet with primary addresses that belong to the same subnet. Routers do not form EIGRP neighbors over secondary networks. Therefore, if all of the primary IP addresses of routers do not agree, problems can arise with neighbor adjacencies. Q. What debugging capabilities does EIGRP have? A. There are protocolindependent and dependent debug commands. There is also a suite of show commands that display neighbor table status, topology table status, and EIGRP traffic statistics. Some of these commands are: show ip eigrp neighbors show ip eigrp interfaces show ip eigrp topology show ip eigrp traffic Q. What does the word serno mean on the end of an EIGRP topology entry when you issue the show ip eigrp topology command? A. For example: show ip eigrp topology P 172.22.71.208/29, 2 successors, FD is 46163456 via 172.30.1.42 (46163456/45651456), Serial0.2, serno 7539273

via 172.30.2.49 (46163456/45651456), Serial2.6, serno 7539266 Serno stands for serial number. When DRDBs are threaded to be sent, they are assigned a serial number. If you display the topology table at the time an entry is threaded, it shows you the serial number associated with the DRDB. Threading is the technique used inside the router to queue items up for transmission to neighbors. The updates are not created until it is time for them to go out the interface. Before that, a linked list of pointers to items to send is created (for example, the thread). These sernos are local to the router and are not passed with the routing update. Q. What percent of bandwidth and processor resources does EIGRP use? A. EIGRP version 1 introduced a feature that prevents any single EIGRP process from using more than fifty percent of the configured bandwidth on any link during periods of network convergence. Each AS or protocol (for instance, IP, IPX, or Appletalk) serviced by EIGRP is a separate process. You can use the ip bandwidthpercent eigrp interface configuration command in order to properly configure the bandwidth percentage on each WAN interface. Refer to the EIGRP White Paper for more information on how this feature works. In addition, the implementation of partial and incremental updates means that EIGRP sends routing information only when a topology change occurs. This feature significantly reduces bandwidth use. The feasible successor feature of EIGRP reduces the amount of processor resources used by an autonomous system (AS). It requires only the routers affected by a topology change to perform route recomputation. The route recomputation only occurs for routes that were affected, which reduces search time in complex data structures. Q. Does EIGRP support aggregation and variable length subnet masks? A. Yes, EIGRP supports aggregation and variable length subnet masks (VLSM). Unlike Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), EIGRP allows summarization and aggregation at any point in the network. EIGRP supports aggregation to any bit. This allows properly designed EIGRP networks to scale exceptionally well without the use of areas. EIGRP also supports automatic summarization of network addresses at major network borders. Q. Does EIGRP support areas? A. No, a single EIGRP process is analogous to an area of a linkstate protocol. However, within the process, information can be filtered and aggregated at any interface boundary. In order to bound the propagation of routing information, you can use summarization to create a hierarchy. Q. Can I configure more than one EIGRP autonomous system on the same router? A. Yes, you can configure more than one EIGRP autonomous system on the same router. This is typically done at a redistribution point where two EIGRP autonomous systems are interconnected. Individual router interfaces should only be included within a single EIGRP autonomous system. Cisco does not recommend running multiple EIGRP autonomous systems on the same set of interfaces on the router. If multiple EIGRP autonomous systems are used with multiple points of mutual redistribution, it can cause discrepancies in the EIGRP topology table if correct filtering is not performed at the redistribution points. If possible, Cisco recommends you configure only one EIGRP autonomous system in any single autonomous system. You can also use another protocol, such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), in order to connect the two EIGRP autonomous systems. Q. If there are two EIGRP processes that run and two equal paths are

learned, one by each EIGRP process, do both routes get installed? A. No, only one route is installed. The router installs the route that was learned through the EIGRP process with the lower Autonomous System (AS) number. In Cisco IOS Software Releases earlier than 12.2(7)T, the router installed the path with the latest timestamp received from either of the EIGRP processes. The change in behavior is tracked by Cisco bug ID CSCdm47037. Q. What does the EIGRP stuck in active message mean? A. When EIGRP returns a stuck in active (SIA) message, it means that it has not received a reply to a query. EIGRP sends a query when a route is lost and another feasible route does not exist in the topology table. The SIA is caused by two sequential events: The route reported by the SIA has gone away. An EIGRP neighbor (or neighbors) have not replied to the query for that route. When the SIA occurs, the router clears the neighbor that did not reply to the query. When this happens, determine which neighbor has been cleared. Keep in mind that this router can be many hops away. Refer to What Does the EIGRP DUAL3SIA Error Message Mean? for more information. Q. What does the neighbor statement in the EIGRP configuration section do? A. The neighbor command is used in EIGRP in order to define a neighboring router with which to exchange routing information. Due to the current behavior of this command, EIGRP exchanges routing information with the neighbors in the form of unicast packets whenever the neighbor command is configured for an interface. EIGRP stops processing all multicast packets that come inbound on that interface. Also, EIGRP stops sending multicast packets on that interface. The ideal behavior of this command is for EIGRP to start sending EIGRP packets as unicast packets to the specified neighbor, but not stop sending and receiving multicast packets on that interface. Since the command does not behave as intended, the neighbor command should be used carefully, understanding the impact of the command on the network. Q. Why does the EIGRP passiveinterface command remove all neighbors for an interface? A. The passiveinterface command disables the transmission and receipt of EIGRP hello packets on an interface. Unlike IGRP or RIP, EIGRP sends hello packets in order to form and sustain neighbor adjacencies. Without a neighbor adjacency, EIGRP cannot exchange routes with a neighbor. Therefore, the passiveinterface command prevents the exchange of routes on the interface. Although EIGRP does not send or receive routing updates on an interface configured with the passiveinterface command, it still includes the address of the interface in routing updates sent out of other nonpassive interfaces. Refer to How Does the Passive Interface Feature Work in EIGRP? for more information. Q. Why are routes received from one neighbor on a pointtomultipoint interface that runs EIGRP not propagated to another neighbor on the same pointtomultipoint interface? A. The split horizon rule prohibits a router from advertising a route through an interface that the router itself uses to reach the destination. In order to disable the split horizon behavior, use the no ip splithorizon eigrp asnumber interface command. Some important points to remember about EIGRP split horizon are: Split horizon behavior is turned on by default. When you change the EIGRP split horizon setting on an interface, it resets all

adjacencies with EIGRP neighbors reachable over that interface. Split horizon should only be disabled on a hub site in a hubandspoke network. Disabling split horizon on the spokes radically increases EIGRP memory consumption on the hub router, as well as the amount of traffic generated on the spoke routers. The EIGRP split horizon behavior is not controlled or influenced by the ip splithorizon command. For more information on split horizon and poison reverse, refer to Split Horizon and Poison Reverse. For more information on commands, refer to EIGRP Commands. Q. When I configure EIGRP, how can I configure a network statement with a mask? A. The optional networkmask argument was first added to the network statement in Cisco IOS Software Release 12.0(4)T. The mask argument can be configured in any format (such as in a network mask or in wild card bits). For example, you can use network 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.252 or network 10.10.10.0 0.0.0.3. Q. I have two routes: 172.16.1.0/24 and 172.16.1.0/28. How can I deny 172.16.1.0/28 while I allow 172.16.1.0/24 in EIGRP? A. In order to do this you need to use a prefixlist as shown here: router eigrp 100 network 172.16.0.0 distributelist prefix test in autosummary no eigrp logneighborchanges ! ip prefixlist test seq 5 permit 172.16.1.0/24 This allows only the 172.16.1.0/24 prefix and therefore denies 172.16.1.0/28. Note: The use of ACL and distributelist under EIGRP does not work in this case. This is because ACLs do not check the mask, they just check the network portion. Since the network portion is the same, when you allow 172.16.1.0/24, you also allow 172.16.1.0/28. Q. I have a router that runs Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) and EIGRP. Who does loadbalancing when there are multiple links to a destination? A. The way in which CEF works is that CEF does the switching of the packet based on the routing table which is populated by the routing protocols such as EIGRP. In short, CEF does the loadbalancing once the routing protocol table is calculated. Refer to How Does Load Balancing Work? for more information on load balancing. Q. How can I use only one path when a router has two equal cost paths? A. Configure the bandwidth value on the interfaces to default, and increase the delay on the backup interface so that the router does not see two equal cost paths. Q. What is the difference in metric calculation between EIGRP and IGRP? A. The EIGRP metric is obtained when you multiply the IGRP metric by 256. The IGRP uses only 24 bits in its update packet for the metric field, but EIGRP uses 32 bits in its update packet for the metric field. For example, the IGRP metric to a destination network is 8586, but the EIGRP metric is 8586 x 256 = 2,198,016. Integer division is used when you divide 10^7 by minimum BW, so the calculation involves integer division, which leads to a variation from manual calculation. Q. What is the EIGRP Stub Routing feature?

A. The Stub routing feature is used to conserve bandwidth by summarizing and filtering routes. Only specified routes are propagated from the remote (Stub) router to the distribution router because of the Stub routing feature. For more information about the stub routing feature, refer to EIGRP Stub Routing. The EIGRP stub feature can be configured on the switch with the eigrp stub command, and it can be removed with the no eigrp stub. When you remove the eigrp stub command from the switch, the switch that runs the IP Base image throws the error: EIGRP is restricted to stub configurations only This issue can be resolved if you upgrade to Advanced Enterprise Images. This error is documented in CSCeh58135. Q. How can I send a default route to the Stub router from the hub? A. Do this under the outbound interface on the hub router with the ip summaryaddress eigrp X 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 command. This command suppresses all the more specific routes and only sends the summary route. In the case of the 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0, it means it suppresses everything, and the only route that is in the outbound update is 0.0.0.0/0. One drawback to this method is that EIGRP installs a 0.0.0.0/0 route to Null0 is the local routing table with an admin distance of 5. Q. How EIGRP behaves over a GRE tunnel compared to a directly connected network? A. EIGRP will use the same administrative distance and metric calculation for the GRE tunnel. The cost calculation is based on bandwidth and delay. The bandwidth and delay of the GRE tunnel will be taken from the tunnel interface configured on the router. The tunnel will also be treated like a directly connected network. If there are two paths to reach a network either through a VLAN interface or tunnel interface, EIGRP prefers the VirtualAccess Interface (VAI) VLAN interface because the VLAN interface has greater bandwidth than the tunnel interface. In order to influence the routing through the tunnel interface, increase the bandwidth parameter of the tunnel interface, or increase the delay parameter of the VLAN interface. Q. What is an offsetlist, and how is it useful? A. The offsetlist is an feature used to modify the composite metrics in EIGRP. The value configured in the offsetlist command is added to the delay value calculated by the router for the route matched by an accesslist. An offsetlist is the preferred method to influence a particular path that is advertised and/or chosen. Q. How can I tag external routes in EIGRP? A. You can tag routes that EIGRP has learned from another routing protocol using a 32 bit tag value. Starting with ddts CSCdw22585, internal routes can also be tagged. However, the tag value cannot exceed 255 due to packet limitations for internal routes. Q. What are the primary functions of the PDM? A. EIGRP supports 3 protocol suites: IP, IPv6, and IPX. Each of them has its own PDM. These are the primary functions of PDM: Maintaining the neighbor and topology tables of EIGRP routers that belong to that protocol suite Building and translating protocol specific packets for DUAL Interfacing DUAL to the protocol specific routing table Computing the metric and passing this information to DUAL; DUAL handles only

the picking of the feasible successors (FSs) Implement filtering and access lists. Perform redistribution functions to/from other routing protocols. Q. What are the various loadbalancing options available in EIGRP? A. The offsetlist can be used to modify the metrics of routes that EIGRP learns through a particular interface, or PBR can be used.

OSFP

Q. Why are loopbacks advertised as /32 host routes in OSPF? A. Loopbacks are considered host routes in OSPF, and they are advertised as /32. For more information, refer to section 9.1 of RFC 2328 . In Cisco IOS Software Releases 11.3T and 12.0, if the ip ospf network pointtopoint command is configured under loopbacks, OSPF advertises the loopback subnet as the actual subnet configured on loopbacks. ISDN dialer interface advertises /32 subnet instead of its configured subnet mask. This is an expected behavior if ip ospf network pointtomultipoint is configured. Q. How do I change the reference bandwidth in OSPF? A. You can change the reference bandwidth in Cisco IOS Software Release 11.2 and later using the ospf autocost referencebandwidth command under router ospf. By default, reference bandwidth is 100 Mbps. Q. How does OSPF calculate its metric or cost? A. OSPF uses a reference bandwidth of 100 Mbps for cost calculation. The formula to calculate the cost is reference bandwidth divided by interface bandwidth. For example, in the case of Ethernet, it is 100 Mbps / 10 Mbps = 10. Note: If ip ospf cost cost is used on the interface, it overrides this formulated cost. Q. Are OSPF routing protocol exchanges authenticated? A. Yes, OSPF can authenticate all packets exchanged between neighbors. Authentication may be through simple passwords or through MD5 cryptographic checksums. To configure simple password authentication for an area, use the command ip ospf authenticationkey to assign a password of up to eight octets to each interface attached to the area. Then, issue the area x authentication command to the OSPF router configuration to enable authentication. (In the command, x is the area number.) Cisco IOS Software Release 12.x also supports the enabling of authentication on a perinterface basis. If you want to enable authentication on some interfaces only, or if you want different authentication methods on different interfaces that belong to the same area, use the ip ospf authentication interface mode command. Q. What is the linkstate retransmit interval, and what is the command to set it? A. OSPF must send acknowledgment of each newly received linkstate advertisement (LSA). It does this by sending LSA packets. LSAs are retransmitted until they are acknowledged. The linkstate retransmit interval defines the time between retransmissions. You can use the command ip ospf retransmitinterval to set the retransmit interval. The default value is 5 seconds. Q. What is the purpose of the variable IPOSPFTransmitDelay? A. This variable adds a specified time to the age field of an update. If the delay is not added

before transmission over a link, the time in which the linkstate advertisement (LSA) propagates over the link is not considered. The default value is 1 second. This parameter has more significance on very lowspeed links. Q. Is it true that only the static option of the virtual link in OSPF allows discontiguous networks, regardless of the mask propagation properties? A. No, virtual links in OSPF maintain connectivity to the backbone from nonbackbone areas, but they are unnecessary for discontiguous addressing. OSPF provides support for discontiguous networks because every area has a collection of networks, and OSPF attaches a mask to each advertisement. Q. Are the multicast IP addresses mapped to MAClevel multicast addresses? A. OSPF sends all advertisements using multicast addressing. Except for Token Ring, the multicast IP addresses are mapped to MAClevel multicast addresses. Cisco maps Token Ring to MAClevel broadcast addresses. Q. Does the Cisco OSPF implementation support IP TOSbased routing? A. Cisco OSPF only supports TOS 0. This means that routers route all packets on the TOS 0 path, eliminating the need to calculate nonzero TOS paths. Q. Does the offsetlist subcommand work for OSPF? A. The offsetlist command does not work for OSPF. It is used for distance vector protocols such as Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), Routing Information Protocol (RIP), and RIP version 2. Q. Can an OSPF default be originated into the system based on external information on a router that does not itself have a default? A. OSPF generates a default only if it is configured using the command defaultinformation originate and if there is a default network in the box from a different process. The default route in OSPF is 0.0.0.0. If you want an OSPFenabled router to generate a default route even if it does not have a default route itself, use the command defaultinformation originate always. Q. Can I use the distributelist in/out command with OSPF to filter routes? A. The distributelist commands are supported in OSPF but work differently than distancevector routing protocols such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). OSPF routes cannot be filtered from entering the OSPF database. The distributelist in command only filters routes from entering the routing table; it does not prevent linkstate packets from being propagated. Therefore, this command does not help conserve router memory, and it does not prohibit a router from propagating filtered routes to other routers. Caution: Use of the distributelist in command in OSPF may lead to routing loops in the network if not implemented carefully. The command distributelist out works only on the routes being redistributed by the Autonomous System Boundary Routers (ASBRs) into OSPF. It can be applied to external type 2 and external type 1 routes, but not to intraarea and interarea routes. Q. How can I give preference to OSPF interarea routes over intraarea routes? A. According to section 11 of RFC 2328 , the order of preference for OSPF routes is: intraarea routes, O

 interarea routes, O IA external routes type 1, O E1 external routes type 2, O E2 This rule of preference cannot be changed. However, it applies only within a single OSPF process. If a router is running more than one OSPF process, route comparison occurs. With route comparison, the metrics and administrative distances (if they have been changed) of the OSPF processes are compared. Route types are disregarded when routes supplied by two different OSPF processes are compared. Q. Do I need to manually set up adjacencies for routers on the Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS) cloud with the OSPF neighbor subcommand? A. In Cisco IOS Software releases earlier than Cisco IOS Software Release 10.0, the neighbor command was required to establish adjacencies over nonbroadcast multiaccess (NBMA) networks (such as Frame Relay, X.25, and SMDS). With Cisco IOS Software Release 10.0 and later, you can use the ip ospf network broadcast command to define the network as a broadcast network, eliminating the need for the neighbor command. If you are not using a fully meshed SMDS cloud, you must use the ip ospf network pointtomultipoint command. Q. When routes are redistributed between OSPF processes, are all shortest path first algorithm (SPF) metrics preserved, or is the default metric value used? A. The SPF metrics are preserved. The redistribution between them is like redistribution between any two IP routing processes. Q. How does Cisco accommodate OSPF routing on partialmesh Frame Relay networks? A. You can configure OSPF to understand whether it should attempt to use multicast facilities on a multiaccess interface. Also, if multicast is available, OSPF uses it for its normal multicasts. Cisco IOS Software Release 10.0 includes a feature called subinterfaces. You can use subinterfaces with Frame Relay to tie together a set of virtual circuits (VCs) to form a virtual interface, which acts as a single IP subnet. All systems within the subnet should be fully meshed. With Cisco IOS Software Releases 10.3, 11.0 and later, the ip ospf pointtomultipoint command is also available. Q. Which addresswildmask pair should I use for assigning an unnumbered interface to an area? A. When an unnumbered interface is configured, it references another interface on the router. When enabling OSPF on the unnumbered interface, use the addresswildmask pair of interfaces to which the unnumbered interface is pointing. Q. Can I have one numbered side and leave the other side unnumbered in OSPF? A. No, OSPF does not work if you have one side numbered and the other side unnumbered. This creates a discrepancy in the OSPF database that prevents routes from being installed in the routing table. Q. Why do I receive the "cannot allocate router id" error message when I configure Router OSPF One? A. OSPF picks up the highest IP address as a router ID. If there are no interfaces in up/up mode with an IP address, it returns this error message. To correct the problem, configure a loopback interface.

Q. Why do I receive the "unknown routing protocol" error message when I configure Router OSPF One? A. Your software may not support OSPF. This error message occurs most frequently with the Cisco 1600 series routers. If you are using a 1600 router, you need a Plus image to run OSPF.

Q. What do the states DR, BDR, and DROTHER mean in show ip ospf interface command output? A. DR means designated router. BDR means backup designated router. DROTHER indicates a router that is neither the DR or the BDR. The DR generates a Network LinkState Advertisement, which lists all the routers on that network. Q. When I issue the show ip ospf neighbor command, why do I only see FULL/DR and FULL/BDR, with all other neighbors showing 2WAY/DROTHER? A. To reduce the amount of flooding on broadcast media, such as Ethernet, FDDI, and Token Ring, the router becomes full with only designated router (DR) and backup designated router (BDR), and it shows 2WAY for all other routers. Q. Why do I not see OSPF neighbors as FULL/DR or FULL/BDR on my serial link? A. This is normal. On pointtopoint and pointtomultipoint networks, there are no designated routers (DRs) or backup designated routers (BDRs). Q. Do I need any special commands to run OSPF over BRI/PRI links? A. In addition to the normal OSPF configuration commands, you should use the dialer map command. When using the dialer map command, use the broadcast keyword to indicate that broadcasts should be forwarded to the protocol address. Q. Do I need any special commands to run OSPF over asynchronous links? A. In addition to the normal OSPF configuration commands, you should use the async default routing command on the asynchronous interface. This command enables the router to pass routing updates to other routers over the asynchronous interface. Also, when using the dialer map command, use the broadcast keyword to indicate that broadcasts should be forwarded to the protocol address. Q. Which Cisco IOS Software release began support for perinterface authentication type in OSPF? A. Perinterface authentication type, as described in RFC 2178 , was added in Cisco IOS Software Release 12.0(8). Q. Can I control the Pbit when importing external routes into a notsostubby area (NSSA)? A. When external routing information is imported into an NSSA in a type 7 linkstate advertisement (LSA), the type 7 LSA has only area flooding scope. To further distribute the external information, type 7 LSAs are translated into type 5 LSAs at the NSSA border. The Pbit in the type 7 LSA Options field indicates whether the type 7 LSA should be translated. Only those LSAs with the Pbit set are translated. When you redistribute information into the NSSA, the Pbit is automatically set. A possible workaround applies when the Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is also an Area Border Router (ABR). The NSSA ASBR can then summarize with the notadvertise keyword, which results in not advertising the translated type 7 LSAs. Q. Why are OSPF show commands responding so slowly?

A. You may experience a slow response when issuing OSPF show commands, but not with other commands. The most common reason for this delay is that you have the ip ospf namelookup configuration command configured on the router. This command causes the router to look up the device Domain Name System (DNS) names for all OSPF show commands, making it easier to identify devices, but resulting in a slowed response time for the commands. If you are experiencing slow response on commands other than just OSPF show commands, you may want to start looking at other possible causes, such as the CPU utilization. Q. What does the clear ip ospf redistribution command do? A. The clear ip ospf redistribution command flushes all the type 5 and type 7 linkstate advertisements (LSAs) and scans the routing table for the redistributed routes. This causes a partial shortest path first algorithm (SPF) in all the routers on the network that receive the flushed/renewed LSAs. When the expected redistributed route is not in OSPF, this command may help to renew the LSA and get the route into OSPF. Q. Does OSPF form adjacencies with neighbors that are not on the same subnet? A. The only time that OSPF forms adjacencies between neighbors that are not on the same subnet is when the neighbors are connected through pointtopoint links. This may be desired when using the ip unnumbered command, but in all other cases, the neighbors must be on the same subnet. Q. How often does OSPF send out linkstate advertisements (LSAs)? A. OSPF sends out its selforiginated LSAs when the LSA age reaches the linkstate refresh time, which is 1800 seconds. Q. How do I stop individual interfaces from developing adjacencies in an OSPF network? A. To stop routers from becoming OSPF neighbors on a particular interface, issue the passiveinterface command at the interface. In Internet service provider (ISP) and large enterprise networks, many of the distribution routers have more than 200 interfaces. Configuring passiveinterface on each of the 200 interfaces can be difficult. The solution in such situations is to configure all the interfaces as passive by default using a single passiveinterface default command. Then, configure individual interfaces where adjacencies are desired using the no passiveinterface command. For more information, refer to Default Passive Interface Feature. There are some known problems with the passiveinterface default command. Workarounds are listed in Cisco bug ID CSCdr09263 ( registered customers only) . Q. When I have two type 5 linkstate advertisements (LSAs) for the same external network in the OSPF database, which path should be installed in the IP routing table? A. When you have two type 5 LSAs for the same external network in the OSPF database, prefer the external LSA that has the shortest path to the Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) and install that into the IP routing table. Use the show ip ospf borderrouters command to check the cost to the ASBR. Q. Why is it that my Cisco 1600 router does not recognize the OSPF protocol? A. Cisco 1600 routers require the Plus feature set image of Cisco IOS Software to run OSPF. Refer to Table 3: Cisco 1600 Series Routers Feature Sets in the Release Notes for Cisco IOS Release 11.2(11) Software Feature Packs for Cisco 1600 Series Routers for more information.

Q. Why is it that my Cisco 800 router does not run OSPF? A. Cisco 800 routers do not support OSPF. However, they do support Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). You can use the Software Advisor ( registered customers only) tool for more information on feature support. Q. Should I use the same process number while configuring OSPF on multiple routers within the same network? A. OSPF, unlike Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), does not check the process number (or autonomous system number) when adjacencies are formed between neighboring routers and routing information is exchanged. The only case in which the OSPF process number is taken into account is when OSPF is used as the routing protocol on a Provider Edge to Customer Edge (PECE) link in a Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) VPN. PE routers mark OSPF routes with the domain attribute derived from the OSPF process number to indicate whether the route originated within the same OSPF domain or from outside it. If the OSPF process numbering is inconsistent on PE routers in the MPLS VPN, the domainid OSPF mode command should be used to mark that the OSPF processes with different numbers belong to the same OSPF domain. This means that, in many practical cases, you can use different autonomous system numbers for the same OSPF domain in your network. However, it is best to use consistent OSPFprocess numbering as much as possible. This consistency simplifies network maintenance and complies with the network designer intention to keep routers in the same OSPF domain. Q. I have a router that runs Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) and OSPF, who does loadbalancing when there are multiple links to a destination? A. CEF works by performing the switching of the packet based on the routing table which is populated by the routing protocols such as OSPF. CEF does the loadbalancing once the routing protocol table has been calculated. For more details on load balancing, refer to How does loadbalancing work? Q. How does OSPF use two Multilink paths to transfer packets? A. OSPF uses the metric aCost, which is related to the bandwidth. If there are equal cost paths (the same bandwidth on both multilinks), OSPF installs both routes in the routing table. The routing table tries to use both links equally, regardless of the interface utilization. If one of the links in the first multilink fails, OSPF does not send all the traffic down the second multilink. If the first multilink peaks 100%, OSPF does not send any traffic down the second multilink because OSPF tries to use both links equally, regardless of the interface utilization. The second is used fully only when the first multilink goes down. Q. How can you detect the topological changes rapidly? A. In order to have a rapid fault detection of topology changes, the hello timer value needs to be set to 1 second. The hold timer value, which is is four times that of the hello timer, also needs to be configured. There is a possibility of more routing traffic if the hello and hold timer values are reduced from their default values. Q. Does the 3825 Series Router support the OSPF Stub feature? A. Yes, the 3800 Series Router that runs Advanced IPServices image supports the OSPF Stub feature. Q. What does the error message %OSPF4FLOOD_WAR: Process processid reoriginates LSA ID ip address type2 advrtr ip address in area area id means? A. The error message is due to the some router that is flushing the network LSA because the

network LSA received by the router whose LSA ID conflicts with the IP address of one of the router's interfaces and flushes the LSA out of the network. For OSPF to function correctly the IP addresses of transit networks must be unique. If it is not unique the conflicting routers reports this error message. In the error message the router with the OSPF router ID reported as advrtr reports this message. Q. Can we have OSPF run over a GRE tunnel? A. Yes, refer to Configuring a GRE Tunnel over IPSec with OSPF

Switch to Switch Connectivity 1. Name the VTP Modes?

ServerIn VTP server mode, you can create, modify, and delete VLANs and specify other configuration parameters, such as VTP version and VTP pruning, for the entire VTP domain. VTP servers advertise their VLAN configuration to other switches in the same VTP domain and synchronize their VLAN configuration with other switches based on advertisements received over trunk links. VTP server is the default mode. ClientVTP clients behave the same way as VTP servers, but you cannot create, change, or delete VLANs on a VTP client. TransparentVTP transparent switches do not participate in VTP. A VTP transparent switch does not advertise its VLAN configuration and does not synchronize its VLAN configuration based on received advertisements, but transparent switches do forward VTP advertisements that they receive out their trunk ports in VTP Version 2. Off (configurable only in CatOS switches)In the three described modes, VTP advertisements are received and transmitted as soon as the switch enters the management domain state. In the VTP off mode, switches behave the same as in VTP transparent mode with the exception that VTP advertisements are not forwarded.

2. How can you configure a switch port to be a trunk? Access_1 (config)#interface gigabitethernet 0/1 Access_1 (config-if)#switchport mode trunk Access_1 (config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q Access_1 (config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan remove 2-1001 Access_1 (config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan add 5,8,10 Access_1 (config-if)#end

3. What command do you use to allow Vlans on a trunk? Access_1 (config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan add 5,8,10

4. How can you assign a vlan to a switch port?

Access_1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1 Access_1(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5

5. Can you explain PortFast on a switch?

The spanning-tree protocol makes each port wait up to 50 seconds before data is allowed to be sent on the port. This Delay in turn can cause problems with some applications/protocols (PXE, Bootworks, etc.). To alleviate the problem, Porfast was implemented on Cisco devices
6. What the steps that PortFast ignore?

PortFast causes a port to enter the forwarding state almost immediately by dramatically decreasing the time of the listening and learning states. Portfast minimizes the time it takes for the server or workstation to come online, thus preventing problems with applications such as DHCP, DNS, Novell IPX, PXE, BootWorks, etc.
HSRP 1. Explain HSRP? Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP) is a Cisco proprietary redundancy protocol for establishing a fault-tolerant default gateway the protocol establishes a framework between network routers in order to achieve default gateway [1] failover if the primary gateway becomes inaccessible, in close association with a rapid-converging routing protocol like EIGRP or OSPF. By multicasting packets, HSRP sends its hello messages to the multicast address 224.0.0.2 (all routers) for version 1, or 224.0.0.102 for version [2] 2, using UDPport 1985, to other HSRP-enabled routers, defining priority between the routers. Th 2. What command do you use to make sure that a wanted device is going to be an active mode?

RTB#configure terminal Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. RTB(config)#interface f0/0 RTB(config-if)#standby 1 ip 192.168.1.4 RTB(config-if)#standby 1 preempt RTB(config-if)#standby 1 priority 105 RTB(config-if)#standby 1 authentication 6cz RTB(config-if)#standby 1 track s1/0

tandby 1 preempt This command lets the router with higher priority to become an active router, should there be situation when the priority of the router is decreased it will become standby router, but when the priority returns to its previous level preemption will occur and router will become the active router again, without that configuration step the active router that priority was decreased and became standby router because of some failure would never become active router again even after its priority was increased. Exception to this is manual restart of the

device which would return router to the previous state. standby 1 priority 105 This command sets the priority of the router to 105 (default is 100) so it is more than default, what follows that router will become active if there is no configuration of this step on other router. standby 1 authentication 6cz This command sets an authentication string "6cz" for group 1 on RTB router. All routers from this group (in this case router RTD) must use the same string to be able to authenticate the source of the HSRP messages that it receives. This command is optional. standby 1 track s1/0 This command forces the router to track state interface s1/0 and decreases the priority of the router by 10 (default value) if it fails. It is possible to change that default value by putting the wanted number at the end of the command. example: standby 1 track s1/0 25 changes the decrement value to 25
3. How can you make all the Vlan uses the HSRP active device without using the switchport trunk allow vlan command? 4. What is the default priority number on HSRP?

The default priority is 100.

Spanning Tree 1. Explain spanning tree?
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a Layer 2 protocol that runs on bridges and switches. The specification for STP is IEEE 802.1D. The main purpose of STP is to ensure that you do not create loops when you have redundant paths in your network. Loops are deadly to a network.

2. How can you configure a switch to be a root-bridge?

spanning-tree vlan 1 root primary

3. What is the default priority on a switch?

The default priority for switches is 32768

4. What command to use to change the priority on a switch?

Switch-15> (enable)set spantree root 1 VLAN 1 bridge priority set to 8192. VLAN 1 bridge max aging time set to 20. VLAN 1 bridge hello time set to 2. VLAN 1 bridge forward delay set to 15.

Switch is now the root switch for active VLAN 1.

Etherchannel Port Channel 1. Explain Etherchannel? EtherChannel is a port link aggregation technology or port-channel architecture used primarily on Cisco switches. It allows grouping of several physical Ethernet links to create one logical Ethernet link for the purpose of providing fault-tolerance and high-speed links between switches, routers and servers. 2. Can I bundle two different type of interface ex. a fastethernet with gigabitethernet? Ethernet links EtherChannel works over links defined by the IEEE 802.3 standard, including all substandards. All links in a single EtherChannel must be the same speed SO NO 3. How can you configure Etherchannel? LAYER 2 Switch# configure terminal Switch(config)# interface range fastethernet0/1 -2 Switch(config-if-range)# port-type nni Switch(config-if-range)# switchport mode access Switch(config-if-range)# switchport access vlan 10 Switch(config-if-range)# channel-group 5 mode desirable non-silent Switch(config-if-range)# end LAYER 3

Switch# configure terminal Switch(config)# interface range gigabitethernet0/1 -2 Switch(config-if-range)# no ip address Switch(config-if-range)# no switchport Switch(config-if-range)# channel-group 5 mode active Switch(config-if-range)# end
4. Is Etherchannel a layer 2 or layer 3 technology? BOTH

Routing Protocols 1. Explain EIGRP? Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol - (EIGRP) is an open routing protocolloosely based on their original IGRP created by Cisco. EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol, with optimizations to minimize both the routing instability incurred after topology changes, as well as the use of bandwidth and processing power in the router. Routers that support EIGRP will automatically redistribute route information to IGRP neighbors by converting the 32 bit EIGRP metric to the 24 bit IGRP metric. Most of the routing optimizations are based on the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) work from SRI, which guarantees loop-free operation and provides a mechanism for fast convergence. 2. Explain BGP?

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the protocol which is used to make core routing decisions on the Internet; it involves a table of IP networks or "prefixes" which designate network reachability among autonomous systems (AS). BGP is a path vector protocol, or a variant of a Distance-vector routing protocol. BGP does not involve traditional Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) metrics, but routing decisions are made based on path, network policies, and/or rule-sets. For this reason, it is more appropriately termed a reachability protocol rather than routing protocol. 3. If you have two ISP provider and you want to have a primary line and backup, how can you control the flow from you side to the provider and coming back from the provider?

Most simplest method is by enabling the Load Balancing feature in Firewall or in Router
4. What is the AD for EIGRP and BGP
Administrative distance is the feature that routers use in order to select the best path when there are two or more different routes to the same destination from two different routing protocols. Administrative distance defines the reliability of a routing protocol. Each routing protocol is prioritized in order of most to least reliable (believable) with the help of an administrative distance value.

5. What command you use to establish neighbor with a BGP peer?

neighbor 131.108.200.1 remote-as 167 neighbor 131.108.234.2 remote-as 109 neighbor 150.136.64.19 remote-as 99

6. What command to use to advertise neighbor on EIGRP?

router eigrp 1
network 192.168.0.0 neighbor 192.168.1.1 Ethernet 0/0 neighbor 192.168.2.2 Ethernet 1/1 Troubleshooting 1. Explain how trace route works?

The traceroute command is used to discover the routes that packets actually take when traveling to their destination. The device (for example, a router or a PC) sends out a sequence of User Datagram Protocol (UDP) datagrams to an invalid port address at the remote host. Three datagrams are sent, each with a Time-To-Live (TTL) field value set to one. The TTL value of 1 causes the datagram to "timeout" as soon as it hits the first router in the path; this router then responds with an ICMP Time Exceeded Message (TEM) indicating that the datagram has expired. Another three UDP messages are now sent, each with the TTL value set to 2, which causes the second router to return ICMP TEMs. This process continues until the packets actually reach the other destination. Since these datagrams are trying to access an invalid port at the destination host, ICMP Port Unreachable Messages are returned, indicating an unreachable port; this event signals the Traceroute program that it is finished.

The purpose behind this is to record the source of each ICMP Time Exceeded Message to provide a trace of the path the packet took to reach the destination

2. What command to use to verify that BGP neighbor has been established? 3. What extra option do you have beside the basics when using ping?